How did the universe start?

Big Bang Theory

The most accepted theory about the origin of the universe is the Big Bang Theory. Georges Lemaître, a Belgian priest, is
considered as the first proponent of the Big Bang Theory. The theory was supported by other scientists such as Edwin
Hubble, Arno Penzias, and Robert Wilson who presented pieces of evidence to support it.

The Big Bang Theory states that the universe started as a “singularity”—an area predicted to be in the core of a black
hole with a very high temperature and density, which compressed matter with its intense gravitational pressure.

Singularity
The presence of the singularity is still a mystery to many scientists, but they stated that this singularity constantly expands
and cools. The rate of expansion is almost equal to the rate of cooling; at this moment, there is a build up of intense heat
which leads to the increase in the expansion of the singularity.

The intense heat also leads to the creation of matter and antimatter that are being destroyed every time they collide with
each other. During this moment, the number of matter dominates over the number of antimatter. This started the
dominance of matter, or atomic particles, in the early universe. These particles undergo nucleosynthesis wherein they
combine to form another atomic particle.

Nucleosynthesis
Nucleosynthesis leads to the formation of chemicals such as hydrogen and helium. These chemicals then lead to the
formation of the stars and the galaxies. The presence of the stars leads to the formation of larger matter such as planets,
comets, and other celestial bodies. Ever since the Big Bang happened, the universe continuously expands, and the
occurrence of the cosmic background radiation was suggested to be an aftermath of the explosion that happened 20
billion years ago.

Steady State Theory

The Steady State Theory proposed by Hermann Bondi, Thomas Gold, and Fred Hoyle, suggests that the universe has
always been there and will always be present. It also conveys that the universe always looks the same in any time or
space but continuously expands while simultaneously creating matter, maintaining the density of the universe; hence, the
name Steady State.

The Steady State Theory is so simple that it was widely accepted even before the proposal of the Big Bang Theory. The
discovery of the cosmic background radiation significantly supported the explanations given by the Big Bang Theory,
which led many scientists to reject the Steady State Theory. This theory first explained that the cosmic background
radiation is a result of a supernova. But after a thorough research, it was proven that it is equal in any direction of the
universe and could not only be a result of many supernovae.

Oscillating Universe Theory

The Oscillating Universe Theory, also referred to as the Pulsating Theory, discusses that the universe is expanding
and will contract once all the energy after the Big Bang is used up. This theory, proposed by Richard Tolman, can be
described as the combination of the Big Bang and the Big Crunch.

The Big Crunch occurs when the universe expands and eventually reverses, then collapses causing a singularity or the
formation of another Big Bang. The Oscillating Universe Theory suggests that once the universe reverses and attains the
point of singularity, another universe will be born. This is referred to as the Big Bounce. Tolman theorized that the
universe may be first in the cycle and could be a result of a previous Big Bounce event.

Just like in the Steady State Theory, scientists discovered many loopholes in the Oscillating Universe Theory because it
was said that for the universe to collapse, energy must be present. This theory suggests that the universe will collapse on
its own after it reaches its full expansion, which violates some laws of physics.

What do you think?

 Big Bang Theory states that the universe started as a singularity that exploded. This explosion resulted to the
formation of all the matter in universe.
 Steady State Theory discusses that the universe has always been there and will always be present.
 Oscillating Universe Theory discusses that the universe is expanding and will contract once all the energy after
the Big Bang is used up. The collapsing of the universe will then lead to the formation of a new universe.

The solar system is composed of the Sun, the planets and their satellites, the comets, and the asteroids. It is believed
that the solar system has been formed around 4.6 billion years ago, and the evidence suggests that the members of the
solar system have a fairly uniform age.
Nebular Theory
The nebular theory explains that the solar system originated from a nebula – a gas cloud made up of hydrogen particles.
Before the nebula is stable, it is believed that a nearby supernova resulted in the disruption of a nebula. This disruption
created areas of high density, and as these areas were formed, gravity acted, pulling other materials to it. The denser the
nebula became, the more heat it produced that resulted in the formation of the Sun.

At first, the Sun looked like a disc (imagine a CD), and as it rotates, most of its mass fused in the center. As the Sun
forms, the remaining particles that were not sucked up by the Sun formed as rings. These rings of particles rotated and
combined to form planets. As it forms, the denser materials, such as iron and nickel, sank and the less dense materials,
such as gases, floated to the atmosphere of the formed planets.

Terrestrial and Jovian Planets

Terrestrial planets, including Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars, were formed because only the materials with higher
densities and melting points were able to form near the very high temperature of the Sun. On the other hand, the Jovian
planets composed of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune, are huge planets made up of gases without land surfaces.
These planets were formed farther from the Sun because the temperature away from the Sun was cool enough for gases
to condense, forming these less dense planets.

The origins of the Nebula Theory can be credited to Emmanuel Swedenborg, Immanuel Kant, and Pierre – Simon
Laplace.

Encounter Theory
The Encounter Theory proposed by Georges Leclerc and Comte de Buffon explains that the solar system formed as a
result of a near collision between a passing star and the Sun. As the star passes near the Sun, the materials of both the
Sun and the star were drawn out. The interaction from the gravity of the passing star and the Sun led to the formation of
the planets in the solar system.

It is believed that the materials from the Sun are denser. This explains the positions of the terrestrial planets near the Sun.
In contrast, the materials from the passing star are less dense; thus, explaining the positions of the Jovian planets at a
distance from the Sun.

Protoplanet Theory
The Protoplanet Theory is a modified version of the nebular hypothesis. Just like the nebular theory, protoplanetary
theorists Carl von Weizsäcker and Gerard Kuiper believed that the solar system started from a nebula.

An unidentified instability resulted in the pulling of dust particles toward each other. This led to the formation of the
“planetesimals” – objects made up of dust and rock particles, which is believed to be the origin of planets. Planetesimals
combined with other planetesimals and formed protoplanets – larger planetesimals. As the protoplanets formed, like the
Sun, they became larger as other materials condensed with them until the fusion of hydrogen and helium happened. This
fusion led to the production of the heat of the Sun and resulted to the blasting off of the protoplanets made up of gases.
The smaller protoplanets were attracted by the gravity of the larger protoplanets and made them larger until they became
the planets as we know it.

Key Points
 The Nebular Theory explained that the Solar System originated from a nebula that was disrupted by a nearby
supernova.
 The Encounter Theory suggests that the Solar System formed as a result of a near collision between a passing
star and the Sun.
 The Protoplanet Theory is a modified version of the nebular hypothesis stating that the Solar System started
from a nebula that was disrupted which led to the formation of protoplanets.

Earth is considered as a home of simple single-celled organisms up to the most complex life forms including humans. It is
undeniable that the planet we live in is a rare planet as it is the only planet in our solar system that permits life. The
different characteristics of Earth are responsible for the proliferation of life.

Earth’s Atmosphere
The atmosphere consists of 78.1% nitrogen, 20.9% oxygen, 0.9% argon, 350 ppm carbon dioxide, and other components.
The table below shows the major components in the atmosphere and their relative concentrations

The presence of oxygen and carbon dioxide permits life on Earth. Carbon dioxide is used by photosynthetic organisms,
such as plants and algae, to convert the energy from the sun to usable energy through the process of photosynthesis. The
oxygen makes it livable for living organisms including humans for respiration and for our cells to function.
Earth’s atmosphere also protects us from the sun’s radiation. Thirty percent of the radiation is reflected away by the
atmosphere, clouds, and the earth's surface. Another 25% is absorbed by the atmosphere and clouds, and the remaining
45% is absorbed by the earth’s surface. Ozone or O3 is composed of three oxygen atoms. In the stratosphere, O3 is
abundant in the form of the ozone layer. This layer absorbs the ultraviolet wavelengths, and the absorption of this
radiation heats up the air.

Soil and Vegetation

The soil is a mixture of minerals, water, air, organic matter, and organisms. It is a living medium—a medium for growth of
all kinds of vegetation. The soil promotes growth for plants by providing nutrients, water, and as a substrate for anchorage
of roots. In return, vegetation produces trees and forests cover, ensures the water and nutrient cycle, and prevents soil
and wind erosion. This mutual relationship of the soil and vegetation makes our planet livable.

Earth’s Hydrosphere
The hydrosphere contains all the water on our planet including ice and vapor. Nearly three-quarters of the earth’s surface
is the sea and the ocean. The ocean houses many species of marine life and diverse mineral resources. Other forms of
water include river, streams, and lakes. Other than being a water reservoir, these forms of water are all sources of fish
and shellfish that we consume. They also serve as thermostat and heat reservoir, especially the ocean. They also serve
as ways for transportation.

What do you think?

Are the characteristics of the earth interrelated with one another? If yes, how do they affect each other?

 The atmosphere consists of 78.1% nitrogen, 20.9% oxygen, 0.9% argon, 350 ppm carbon dioxide, and other
components.
 The presence of oxygen and carbon dioxide makes Earth habitable.
 Earth’s atmosphere also protects us from the sun’s radiation.
 The soil is a living medium—a medium for growth of all kinds of vegetation.
 The hydrosphere serves as a water reservoir, a source of fish and shellfish that we consume, a thermostat and
heat reservoir, and a way for transportation.

The four subsystems of the Earth are the atmosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere.

What are the characteristics of these four subsystems?

he Earth is comprised of four major subsystems. These subsystems are also called the “spheres of the Earth.” They are
atmosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere.

Atmosphere
The word atmosphere comes from the Greek roots atmos which means gas, and sphaira which means globe or ball.
The atmosphere makes up of all the gases on Earth. It extends outward about 10 000 km from the surface of the Earth. It
is composed of 78.1% nitrogen, 20.9% oxygen, 0.9% argon, 350 ppm carbon dioxide, and other components.

The atmosphere has different layers – troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere.

 The troposphere extends to about 14.5 km above the Earth's surface. It is the lowest layer where the weather
forms.
 The stratosphere is found 14.5 to 50 km above the Earth's surface. The ozone layer that protects the Earth from
the Sun's harmful UV radiation is found in this layer.
 The mesosphere extends from 50 to 85 km above the Earth's surface. It protects the Earth from the impact of
space debris.
 The thermosphere is found 85 to 600 km above the Earth's surface. It has charged particles that are affected by
the Earth's magnetic field. The particles create the Auroras or Northern and Southern lights.
 The exosphere is the farthest layer. It extends to about 10 000 km above the Earth's surface.

Geosphere
Geo is a Greek root which means ground. Geosphere includes all the soil, rocks, and minerals present in the crust to the
core of the Earth. It is divided into three layers namely crust, mantle, and core.

The crust is the outermost layer of the geosphere. It is made mostly of silicate materials. There are two different types of
crust, the oceanic and continental crusts. The thin oceanic crust that lies beneath the oceanic floors is about 5 to 10 km
thick. On the other hand, the thicker continental crust that makes up the continents is about 15 to 70 km thick.
The mantle, which lies just below the crust, is made mostly of silicate rocks rich in magnesium and iron. It is about 2900
km thick. It has increasing temperatures at increasing depths. For instance, the layer with the lowest temperature is the
one right beneath the crust. This layer, which is soft enough to flow, causes the plates of the crust to move. On the other
hand, the layer with the highest temperature is found in contact with the heat-producing core.

The core, which has a radius of 3400 km, is the innermost layer of the Earth. It is made up of iron and nickel. It is the
source of internal heat because it contains radioactive materials that release energy as they decay into more stable
substances.

Hydrosphere
Hydro is a Greek root which means water. Hydrosphere is composed of all the water on Earth in any form: water vapor,
liquid water, and ice. It is comprised of 97.5% saltwater and 2.5% freshwater. It includes all bodies of water such as oceans,
lakes, rivers, and marshes. Clouds and rain are also part of the hydrosphere.

The water on Earth is constantly moving. It moves through the oceans in currents. Warm waters in the tropics move
toward the poles while cold water from the polar regions move toward the tropics. Water also flows into streams and
rivers and through the rocks underground. It can also move from the Earth’s surface to the air by evaporation and then fall
back to Earth as precipitation. It even moves into and out of the bodies of organisms.

Biosphere
Bio is a Greek root that means life. The biosphere is comprised of all living things. It includes all microbes, plants, and
animals. It extends to the upper areas of the atmosphere where insects and birds can be found. It also reaches the deep
parts of the oceans where marine organisms can still survive.

Organisms interact with the other spheres to survive. Many organisms need oxygen and carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere to carry out life processes. Water, which comprises the hydrosphere, is also important to organisms. Finally,
the rocks, soil, and minerals constitute the geosphere also support life.

Learn about it!

How the Earth’s Subsystems Interact

Matter and energy move and cycle between the four different subsystems. These cycles make life on Earth possible. An
example of these cycles is the water cycle. Water moves between the different spheres. It absorbs, releases, and transports
energy around the world in its different forms.
What will happen if matter or energy does not change from one form to another?

For example, what if water vapor does not fall back to the Earth as rain? Then the bodies of water will be drained, and no
life on Earth will exist.

Tips
Some of the components in the subsystems overlap. The most common example is the soil which can be considered as a
part of hydrosphere, geosphere, and even biosphere. Since the soil is a complex material made up of air, soil particles,
water, and organisms, it underscores that a clear division among subsystems cannot be drawn.

 The four subsystems of Earth are the atmosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere.
 Atmosphere makes up of all the gases in our planet.
 Geosphere includes all the soil, rocks, and minerals present in the crust to the core of the Earth.
 Hydrosphere is composed of all the water on Earth in any form: water vapor, liquid water, and ice.
 Biosphere is comprised of all living things and the areas where they are found. It includes all microbes, plants, and
animals.
 Matter and energy move and cycle between the four different subsystems to make life on Earth possible.
 At the end of this lesson, you should be able to identify common rock-forming minerals using their physical and
chemical properties.
 What are the different physical and chemical properties of minerals?

Learn about it!

A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic, solid material that has a fixed structure and a definite chemical composition.

Identification of Minerals
There are several laboratory and field techniques used to distinguish minerals based on physical and chemical properties.
Some minerals can be identified with the use of high-powered instruments while some can be assessed through their
physical properties.

Physical Properties of Minerals

Physical properties are useful when working in the field, where there is usually no access to complex analytical techniques.
Although a particular mineral has different forms, the fundamental physical properties are still the same. Useful physical
properties to identify a mineral include color, streak, luster, specific gravity, hardness, cleavage, tenacity, and crystal habit.

 The color of a mineral depends on the elements which constitute the crystal lattice – the arrangement of atoms, or
groups of atoms, in a specific pattern and with high symmetry. The reflection of certain wavelengths of light by the
crystal lattice results in the color perceived by the observer.
 Streak is the color of the mineral in its powdered form.
 Luster is the relative differences in the opacity and transparency of a mineral as light is reflected on its surface.
This describes the 'sparkles' of the mineral surfaces.
 Specific gravity is the ratio of the weight of the mineral to the weight of the water with an equal volume.
 Hardness is the measure of the resistance of a surface to abrasions or scratches. It is generally measured
using Mohs Scale of Hardness.
 Cleavage is the tendency of the mineral to be split or broken along flat surfaces.
 Fracture refers to the texture or shape of the mineral’s surface when the mineral breaks into forms other than flat
surfaces.
 Tenacity refers to the behavior of the mineral under deformation or stress such as cutting, crushing, bending, or
hitting.
 Crystal habit refers to the growth crystal pattern of a mineral as single or aggregated.

Mohs Scale of Hardness.

Chemical Properties of Minerals
All minerals have a certain arrangement of elements in their crystal structure. They can be represented by a chemical
formula, which presents the proportions of atoms that constitute them. For example, the mineral quartz has a chemical
formula SiO2. Its crystal structure is a continuous framework of silicon-oxygen tetrahedra.

The chemical properties of minerals depend on their chemical formula and crystal structure. Solubility and melting point
are chemical properties commonly used to describe a mineral.

 Solubility refers the ability of a substance to dissolve in a solvent at a specified temperature. For example, biotite,
a mineral commonly found in igneous rocks, is soluble in both acid and base solutions. The dissolution releases
the loosely-bound potassium ions in the mineral.
 Melting point refers to the temperature at which solid turns into liquid. Minerals composed of atoms that are
tightly bonded within the crystal structure have high melting points. For example, quartz melts above 1670°C.

In the laboratory, the composition and crystal structure of minerals can be analyzed through chemical and instrumental
analysis. Crystallographic techniques such as X-ray diffraction are performed to determine the crystal structure of the
mineral.

Common Rock-Forming Minerals

The most common rock-forming minerals are quartz, feldspar, mica, pyroxene, amphibole, and olivine. All of the following
silicate minerals, except for quartz, are mineral groups.

Quartz
Quartz has a chemical composition of SiO2. It is a glassy-looking hard substance with white streaks. Despite its hardness,
with a Mohs hardness of 7, it is quite brittle. Pure quartz is clear and transparent. Colored varieties of quartz are due to
elemental impurities built into its lattice. The grains of quartz, in general, are irregular in shape.

Feldspar
Feldspar has a chemical composition of XAl(1−2)Si(3−2)O8, where X is K, Ca, or Na. It is quite hard with a Mohs hardness
of 6. It is a light-colored material, usually white, but they can have lighter shades of red or green. It has a glassy luster. In
rocks, feldspar forms rectangular crystals that break along flat faces.

Mica
Mica is any group of hydrous potassium aluminum silicate minerals. The most common examples are clear muscovite and
black biotite. Mica is soft, with Mohs hardness ranging from 2 to 2.5. It is easily identified by its perfect cleavage, reducing
it to thin smooth flakes. Its shine is responsible for the flashes of light in rocks such as granite and slate.

Pyroxene
Pyroxene minerals have a general composition of XY(Al,Si)2O6 where X is CaorMg and Y is either Mg,Fe,Al. Augite is the
most common of this group. It has a glassy luster with streaks of white, light green, or light brown. It is generally black in
color and has stubby prismatic crystals. Its key feature is its two cleavages at around 90°.
Amphibole
Amphibole has a dark color with a Mohs hardness ranging from 5 to 6. Hornblende is the most common amphibole. It
has a glassy luster and an opaque characteristic. Its crystals are very long and very thin.

Olivine
Olivine is a silicate mineral with a general chemical composition of (Mg,Fe)2 SiO4, but calcium, manganese, and nickel can
be substituted for magnesium and iron. It is known for its distinct olive-green color and commonly used in the gemstone
industry as peridot. It is a glassy looking and transparent substance that is almost as hard as quartz. Its crystals have a
granular shape.

What do you think?

Is there a possibility for the physical characteristics of rock minerals to change over time? Explain your answer.

Key Points

 A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic, solid material that has a fixed structure and a definite chemical
composition.
 Minerals can be distinguished based on physical and chemical properties.
 Useful physical properties to identify a mineral include color, streak, luster, specific gravity, hardness, cleavage,
tenacity, and crystal habit.
 The chemical properties of minerals depend on their chemical formula and crystal structure. Solubility and melting
point are chemical properties commonly used to describe a mineral.
 The most common rock-forming minerals are quartz, feldspar, mica, pyroxene, amphibole, and olivine.