COMPACTION & CONSOLIDATION

1. COMPACTION : It is densification process by mechanical means and is accompanied by explusion

of air voids only (Reduction in air voids). It is a quick process.
2. CONSOLIDATION : Expulsion of water voids from the soil mass accompanied by decrease in
volume of soil mass under sustained static load. It is a slow process.
3. The decrease in the volume of soil mass under stress is known as compression.
4. The property of soil mass pertaining to its susceptibility to decrease in volume under pressure is
known as COMPRESSIBILITY .
5. According to Karl Terzaghi : Every process involving a decrease in water content of a saturated
soil without replacement of water by air is referred as consolidation.
6. It has observed that there is a measurable time lag between the applied stress and resulting strains
especially in Saturated fine grained soils (Clays).
7. In a saturated fine grained soil mass consolidation is governed by the Eqn relating to Total stress
(σ), Excess pore water pressure ( ü ) and effective stress ( σ/ )
σ = ( σ/ + ü )

u à Excess hydrostratic pressure or Excess pore water pressure or Hydrodynamic pressure.

8. Compressibility of clays may also be caused by :
a) Expulsion of double layer water from between the grains.
b) Slipping the particles to new positions of greater density.
c) Bending of particles as elastic sheets.
9. Types of compressions :
a) Initial compression or immediate compression.
b) Primary consolidation or Primary compression or Primary time effect.
c) Secondary Consolidation or Secondary Compression or Secondary time effect
10. INITIAL OR IMMEDIATE COMPRESSION : The name implies compression of soil mass
takes place as soon as the total load is applied. It occurs largely because of the compression and
solution of air or gases in the soil voids.
This immediate settlement takes place under undrained conditions and is calculated by assuming
the soil mass to behave as an elastic sheet (occurs within 0-7 days) after the application of load.
11. PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION : The process involving a gradual compression occurring
simultaneously with a flow of water out of the mass and accompanied by a transfer of stress
from pore water to the mineral skeleton, is called ‘Primary consolidation’.
If the rate of compression is controlled solely by the resistance to the flow of water under the
induced hydraulic gradients. This process is referred to as primary consolidation.
12. SECONDARY CONSOLIDATION (SECULAR TIME EFFECT) : In this case compression
of soil mass takes place at a ‘Constant effective stress’. i.e. even after the excess pore water
pressure is dissipated to zero but the clay mass continues to decrease in volume - a phenomenon
often referred to as secondary compression.
This appears to be the result of a plastic readjustment of the soil particles and partial eacape of
the absorbed water to the continued stress and the result of progressive fracture of some of the
particles.
 NB : In many soil deposits, the volume changes that occur after excess pore pressures have been
dissipated to are too small to be of parctical interest or importance.
13. Secondary consolidation is very high in Highly organic soils, Highly micaceous soils (Ex.: Peats,
Mucks).
14. A curve showing the distribution excess hydrostratic pressure (excess pore pr.) variation with
depth is called as an ‘Isochrone’.
15. Based on stress history soil deposits are classed as :
a) Preconsolidated or Over consolidated or Heavily Precompressed
b) Normally consolidated c) Under consolidated
16. A clay layer is said to be ‘over consolidated’ if the clay layer was subjected at one time in its
history to a greater effective over burden pressure ( P/C ) then the present pressure ( P/O ).
P/C
Over consolidation ratio’ (OCR) =
P/O
for Nomally consolidated clays OCR = 1.0
a) Due to over burden pressure (in the Geological past) that was subsequently eroded away.
b) Dessication due to exposure of surface, often accompanied by alteration of the clay minerals.
c) Tectonic forces due to movements in the earth’s crust.
d) Temporary over loading, such may arise from an overriding of a continental ice sheet.
e) Sustained seepage forces.
17. A clay layer is said to be ‘Normally consolidated’ if the present effective over burden pressure is
the maximum pressure to which the layer has ever been subjected at any time in its history. The
deposit is completely consolidated by the existing over burden.
18. A clay layer is said to be ‘under consolidated’ if the soil mass is not fully consolidated under the
existing over burden pressure. (Ex : recently made fills etc.) consolidation is under progress.
19. Consolidation may be due to one or more of the following factors :
a) Due to external static load from structures.
b) Due to self weight of the soil such as the recently placed fills .
c) Due to lowering of the ground water table.
d) Due to dessication (Exposure of surface)

20. The slope of ‘Isochrones’ at any point at a given time indicates the rate of change of u with
depth.
21. For one dimensional consolidation i.e. soil mass is laterally confined or restrained and is related
by the expression.
∆V ∆H ∆e (i.e. change in volume is proportional to the
Vo = Ho = (1+eo ) à is valid à change in thickness under confined conditions)

22. a) Voids ratio Vs Effective pressure

Plotted from Laboratory
b) Voids ratio Vs log10 (Effective Pressure)
à Consolidation test data
(Curve obtained is known as virgin compression curve)
(Oedometer test data)

23. Coefficient of compressibility av = ( - ) ∆e = ( - ) de ( units : cm2 / kg)

∆σ/ dσ/
24. Coefficent of volume decrease
or mv = ( - ) ∆V x 1
à
Coefficient of volume change (mv) VO ∆σ/
or
Coefficient of volume compressibility

25. Compression index (C/c ) (obtained from e Vs log10 σ/ ) (Dimensionless)

(Slope of virgin compression curve)

C/C = ( - ) de = (-) ∆e à from plot

d log10 σ/ / /
log10 ( σ O + ∆ σ )
σ/ O

(I) From empirical relationships : (A.W. SKEMPTON)

(a) Cc = 0.009 (wLL - 10) à for undisturbed soils
(b) Cc = 0.007 (wLL - 10) à for remoulded soils
(c) Cc = 0.30 (eo - 0.27) à for preconsolidated soils IS 8009 (part . I ) - 1976

0.435 C/C
26. aV =
σ/

Where σ/ is average pressure for the increment.

C/C = compression index.
aV = coefficient of compressibility

27. KARL TERZAGHI’S theory is valid for : ‘PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION ONLY’ (one
dimensional)

28. Assumptions made by ‘Karl Terzaghi’ to arrive at a partial differential eqn. defining the process
of one dimensional primary consolidation are as follows :

a) Soil mass is homogenous and fully saturated

b) Load increment is applied instantaneously
c) Darcy’s law for flow through saturated porous medium is perfectly valid
d) Soil solid grains and water are incompressible
e) Compression of the soil mass and drainage (flow) of water are one-dimensional i.e. soil
mass is laterally confined or restrained.
f) The coefficient of permeability (k) and compressibility ( aV ) of the soil mass are constant
for the applied pressure increment.
g) The deformations are small compared to the initial height.
h) Secondary consolidation is disregarded (neglected)
i) Time lag for consolidation is entirely due to low permeability of soil mass.
 Differential eqn. for the Rate of one-dimensional primary consolidation according to KARL
TERZAHI is given by ϑ ϑ2
ü ü
ϑ = CV ϑ 2
t Z
ϑ ϑ
ü/ t à is the ratio of primary consolidation (rate of excess pore water pressure dissipation)

Z à Clay stratum thickness

CV à Coeffieient of consolidation
K K(1+ eO )
CV = m γ = aV γ w
V w

Coefficient of consolidation depends on both k and mv (or k and av) the resulting factor or
combined factor is referred as coefficient of consolidation. (units : cm2 / sec)

29. Final consolidation settlement ( ef ) is given by

ρ f = ( - ) mV HO ∆ σ/

( - ) CC ( σ/O + ∆σ/ )
ρf = HO log10
(1+eO ) σ/ O

30. Solution of the partial differential equation is given by the relationship. ü % ge à f ( TV )

Where is ü is degree of consolidation or percent consolidation. Tv is theoretical time factor

(Dimensionless quantity).

31. Degree of consolidation or percent consolidation : (IS : code 8009) The ratio, expressed as a
percentage to the amount of consolidation at the given time, within a soil mass to the total
amount of consolidation obtainable under a given stress condition.
ü % = ρ / ρ f x 100

ρ à consolidation settlement at any instant of time

ρfà final consolidation settlement

32. When ü <

_ 53% When ü > 53%
TV = π / 4 ( ü / 100 ) 2
TV = {1.781 - 0.933 log10 (100 - ü ) }

33. Drainage path : (d) It is the maximum distance travelled by the water particle to reach the
drainage boundary (face).

a) When double drainage is available d = H/2 Where H is clay layer thickness.

for the clay strata (H)

b) When single drainage is available d = H Where H is clay layer thickness

for the clay strata (H)
34. Time period required to attain a certain degree of consolidation is proportional to square of the
drainage path and inversely proportional to coefficient of consolidation.
2
tα d
2
or t = TV x d
CV CV
35. Type of consolidometers (Odemeters) :

a) Fixed ring consolidometers b) Floating ring consolidometers.

36. Measurement of coeffieient of permeability is possible with FIXED RING CONSOLIDOMETER

only.

37. Methods to estimate coefficient of volume decrease on Coefficient of volume change ( mV)

a) Heights of solids method (suitable for saturated and partially saturated soils).
HS = Wd / GA : e = (H - HS) / HS : H = (HO + Σ∆H ) = (H 1 + ∆H) :
b) Change in voids ratio method (suitable for saturated soils only).
ef = wfG ; Q ( Sr = 1.0 ) ∆e = (( 1 + ef ) ∆H / Hf )
38. Types of methods to determine (CV) coefficient of consolidation from laboratory fitting method.

a) Casagrande’s Logarithm of time fitting method

CV = 0.197 d2 / t50
b) Taylor’s square root of time fitting method
CV = 0.848 d2 / t90
Differences between compaction and consolidation :

S.No. Compaction Consolidation (Primary)

1. Expulsion of pore Air 1. Expulsion of pore water
2. Soil involved is partially saturated 2. Fully satruated soil
3. Applies to cohesive as well as 3. Applied to cohesive soils only
cohesionless soils
4. Brought about by artificial or human 4. Brought about by application of sustained
agency load or by Natural agencies
5. Dynamic loading is commonly applied 5. Static loading is commonly applied
6. Improves bearing power and reduces 6. Improves bearing power and reduces
settlements settlements
7. Relatively quick process 7. Relatively slow process
8. Relatively complex phenomenon involving 8. Relatively simple phenomenon
expulsion, compression and dissolution
of pore air-in water (lock-in of stressess)
9. Useful primarily in embankments and 9. Useful as a means of improving the
earth dams properties of foundation soil.