METHODS AND TECHNIQUES OF EXTENSION

Definition of Methods and Techniques

Mass media, group and individual or face-to-face are the three main groups of extension
methods.

1. Mass media such as print and electronic media help extension agents to reach
large numbers of farmers simultaneously. However, there is little opportunity for
these farmers to interact among themselves or to provide feedback to the extension
agents. Mass media offer the least expensive media to carry messages to large
number of people. It can accelerate existing change process, but seldom bring
about changes in behavior by themselves. This is because sender and receiver tend
to employ several selective processes when using mass media, which often result in
the receiver distorting the sender’s message.
2. Group methods such as formal lecture, demonstrations and meetings reach
fewer farmers but offer more opportunities for interaction and feedback. This method
reaches one select part of the target group because only those who are interested or
members of farmers’ group come to the meetings. Formal lectures normally provide
fewer opportunities for interaction than group discussions, although informal talks
usually involve adequate interaction and feedback opportunities.
3. Individual extension consists mainly of a dialogue between extension agent and
farmer.

Factors to Consider in the Choice of Extension Teaching

With changing educational goals, the choice of extension teaching becomes important.
How is an extension worker to decide what extension method he is to use?

The following factors help to determine this:

1. Rural people are not all alike
a. People differ in nationality, culture background, schooling, occupation,
religion, income, organization membership, size family, attachment to local
community, size of farms they operate and type of agriculture.
b. These affect their attitudes, habits and actions and responses.
2. People do not live alone
a. People satisfy desire for group association in a number of ways.
b. People associate with their own kind and just naturally form groups.
c. Extension can serve people along group organizational lines.
3. Tremendous power in group.
a. People are likely to act when in a group.
4. Local community is the main group.
a. Most human relations are carried on within a fairly small area, in nearby
places, i.e. churches, schools, community centers, etc.
b. A local unit of extension organizations is necessary to reach a majority of
people.
c. Extension teaching must be based on group life below the province level,
(generally at the barrio level).
5. People want security, recognition and response.
a. Psychological security is needed in addition to economic security.
b. Extension teaching must be based on group below the provincial level.
 6. People have objectives, hopes, standards and values
a. Social objectives are necessary together with economic objectives.
b. People differ in their goals and standards, depending upon age levels,
nationality, education and religious values, etc.
7. Goals and standards are determined by family and community
a. Objectives of farmers and housewives are mostly geared to needs of family.
b. Motivation should be made on the basis of family-community circumstances.
8. Principles of involvement
a. Effective teaching and responses are attained when people are concerned
and involved in the planning process.
9. People like to do things for themselves, and they do not like to overtaken.
a. People respond better when the approach is made on self-analysis basis;
made to feel that the program is theirs and not that of the extension worker.
10. People learn from others, but not just from anybody.
a. The power of influence of the informal leaders is great and should be used.
b. Leaders must be accepted leaders with large following.
c. Extension workers must learn to identify these leaders.

Ways of Reaching your Extension Audience

1. Through the Family Case Method (also known as Farm or Home Visit)

Extension information is provided on a family or individual case basis. This is the

simplest way of doing extension work, for no major organizations are involved.

Advantage: Program can be adjusted to fit the individual case. Personal attention can
be given to the individual’s educational problem.
Disadvantage: Requires too much time, no opportunities for group participation,
leadership development, group learning and group action.

2. Through the Key Family Case Method

Individual casework is purposely done with families who have influence over
others. It is simple form of teaching people.

Advantage: Serves more families with less time than family case.
Disadvantage: Requires skill and time to locate and develop key families.

3. Through the Project Leader Idea

Certain persons are selected as project leaders or teaching leaders, who serves
as local point of contact. Project leader is trained in a subject, then in turn trains others.

Advantage: Helps to multiply the hands of the extension agent, and at the same time
promote leadership development.
Disadvantage: Program limited to specialties in subject matter; other areas of problems
of subject matter may be neglected.

4. Through the Country Planning or Advisory Council

 Provides a way of finding felt needs and interests of the people and discovering
real problems. This leads towards good program development and also contributes
towards leadership development.

Advantage: Involvement of people. Development of leaders.

Disadvantage: As the leaders are hand picked and not democratically selected, they
may not truly represent the people and council may be misused.

5. Through the Inside-Extension Club

This is common in home demonstration or home economics work where groups

are organized by extension and meet regularly for extension lessons.

Advantage: Groups help to keep extension more clearly before the people, promote
unity of feeling and purpose, develop personality and leadership, provide
social function for members, and can multiply the hand of the agent.
Disadvantage: Members of such a group easily becomes close friends and use the club
as their social outlet exclusively. It then may become limited to a certain
group of people in the community and the educational purpose may
become lost.

6. Through Direct-Purpose-Sponsor Organization

Similar to #5, except that the local club is organized by some allied sponsoring
organization, such as Farm Bureau, Home Bureau, etc., rather than organized by
extension.

Advantage: Extension has the advantage of a ready-made organization without the

trouble of doing the organizing.
Disadvantage: The sponsoring organization may have goals or objectives which differ
from those of extension.

7. Through Miscellaneous-Regular Local Organizations

Well suited to communities where people belong to one or more well-organized

groups, such as PTA, church and others.

Advantage: Same advantages as found in #6.

Disadvantage: Same disadvantages as #6. Also many people may not belong to such
organizations.

8. Through Farmer’s Commodity Organization

Common in areas where agriculture is highly specialized. Provides an excellent

means of reaching people in the community.

Advantage: Working with organizations which belong to the people, and with farmers
which all have common commodity problems.
Disadvantage: Agents often have to serve as officers in the organization, and many
farmers may not belong to the organization.
9. Through a Whole Community Organization

Whole community functions as one large group representing the people. Various
functional committees are set up to handle different phases, including farming,
homemaking, etc.

Advantage: Same as #5 provisions for unity in the community. Makes it easy to reach
many people and puts community influence back of recommended
practices. Develops interest and leadership and provides means of
achieving farm, home and community development programs.
Disadvantage: May not work where the community already has several strong
organizations.

SUMMARY

The education of adults is not a simple process. Extension workers, if they are to be
successful in their career, must learn as much as they can about how different
individuals react to learning experiences. It is important to know that each person is
different and will be bringing his differences with him when he is learning.

1. Begin where people are, with what they are ready to learn. Deal with
something with which they are familiar but add something new to stimulate their
curiosity and interest in unrecognized need.
2. Take people one step at a time.
3. Remember that size and difficulty of the steps should be such that the
people (learner) can handle them.
4. Build each step or preceding step. Relate later learning experiences to
earlier learning experiences.
5. Adjust steps that are taken not only to the audience, but to individuals in
the audience. Consider their readiness to learn, their familiarity with that to be
learned, and their speed of learning.
6. Integrate with life situations to show meaning, application and variety of
situations in which the learning applies.
7. Use flexible steps. Discern the time when the audience is ready for
certain learning experiences.
8. Put yourself in the other person’s shoes; think the way the audience does.
9. Be less positive and more tolerant of one’s judgments and mistakes
because of the frailties and inaccuracy of powers of perception.
10. Remember that meanings are in people, not in words.
11. Remember that what the receiver thinks the sender said is more
important than what the sender said. The action the receiver takes depends more on
what the receiver thinks the sender said than on what the sender said.
12. Don’t let what you have learned in the past interfere with what you can
learn in the future.

Formulation of Objectives

An objective is defined as a direction of movement. It serves as the basis for

undertaking all the various extension or program activities. Objectives are of three
levels: fundamental, general and working or operational. The fundamental objectives
are expressed in legislation and in charters of organizations.

Example: “To make the small farmers more independent, self-reliant and responsible
citizens, and source of genuine strength in our democratic society (RA 3844
Agriculture Land Reform Code, Philippines).

The general objectives are more definite social statements expressing the general
purposes of the extension organization. These generally mentioned when extension
staff and leaders explain what their organization does.

Example: “To increase the net income of farmers through more efficient production and
marketing and the better use of credit.”

The working objectives are specific and clear-cut. They are known as operational
objectives. Derived from actual problems through full discussions with rural people and
planners together, they have the following characteristics: simple of specific (S),
measurable (M), attainable (A), realistic (R), time-bound (T).

Examples:
1. To increase the yield of rice by at least 20 percent after two cropping
seasons.
2. To organize a viable farmer organization at the end of the program
duration.

Objectives, specifically working objectives should be expressed in behavioral terms and

are classified into two domains. The three domains of behavioral objectives are
cognitive, affective and psychomotor.

A. Cognitive Domain
1. Knowledge. Remembering of previously learned terms, facts, symbols, principles.
define identifies labels matches
lists names states outlines
recalls recognizes selects
2. Comprehension: grasps meaning of material
converts depends distinguishes reorders
extends estimates infers differentiates
predicts translates summarizes explains
3. Application: uses learned materials in new and concrete situations
demonstrates predicts organizes prepares
manipulates relates classifies produces
computes modifies operates solves
4. Analysis. Breaks down materials into its components/parts so that its organizational
structure can be understood.
breaks down separates differentiates categorizes
selects points out subdivides outlines
5. Synthesis. Put parts together to form new whole patterns.
combines produces revises devices
designs compiles proposes generates
6. Evaluation. Judges the value of material (poem, novel, research, report, etc.)
appraises concluded criticizes relates
 supports justifies interprets summarizes

B. Affective Domain
1. Receiving. Willingness to attend to a particular stimuli or phenomenon.
asks selects chooses uses
holds points to
2. Responding. Active participation on the part of the students.
answers assists greets helps
performs presents selects
3. Valuing. Concerned with worth or value the individual attaches to a
particular object, phenomenon or behavior.
differentiates initiates justifies proposes
shares works
4. Organization. Concerned with bringing together different values, resolving
conflicts between them, and beginning the building of an internally consistent value
system.
adheres alters arranges combines
completes defends integrates modifies
organizes synthesizes

C. Psychomotor Domain
assembles builds calibrates changes
composes hammers heats hooks
corrects creates constructs designs
cleans identifies fixes

Designing the Strategy

As soon as the objectives have been set, the next task is to determine and design the
strategy or appropriate approaches to be used. A strategy is a combination of means to
achieve the program or course objectives.

The strategy may mean include the following:

1. Selecting the approaches for change. There are various approaches that may be
used for affecting change. Some of these approaches are the following:
a. Institutional approach. The clientele are trained and organized into associations
or cooperatives. The association serves as the channel for all the essential and
economic services and other related activities provided by either public or private
sources.
b. Commodity approach. This approach uses the different types of commodities
(crops, livestock, multiple cropping, irrigation, crop protection, nutrition, family
planning, etc.)
c. Integrated program approach. In this approach, all the concerns of the
community are considered in the development program. The concept of this
approach is that community needs and problems are interrelated and therefore
should be worked out together or simultaneously for a more effective rural
development program.
2. Determining alternative solutions to problems. Solutions to problems and needs
are based on available information and technology. There is, however, a need to find
out and select the most appropriate information or technology to adapt it to the
community situation and available resources in the area.
3. Choosing appropriate extension and communication techniques. A number of
extension teaching methods may be used to disseminate information or transfer
technology. These depend on the kind of intended changes or outcomes. Extension
teaching methods may be in the form of individual contacts (farm or home visits),
group contacts (farmer classes, etc.) and mass media (radio, etc.). The selection
use of the method, however, depends on the problem, situation, logistics and other
support services.
4. Preparing the budget. An adequate budgetary estimate is necessary for reaching
the development targets. The allocation for each of the items in the budget should
be based on the organizational structure and personnel requirements, the
operational activities, equipment, if any, and other cost necessary for the
implementation of the project. Usually, the budget is indicated by years or terms
specifying the general items of expenditures. Funding may be tapped from one or
more sources. It may be appropriated from public government funds or contributions
from the private sector.

Sample of items that may be included in the budget

Year 1 Year 2 Year 3

I. Personal services
1. Salaries and wages _______ _______ _______
2. Honoraria for experts _______ _______ _______
3. Lump sum for other services _______ _______ _______
Sub-total _______ _______ _______

II. Maintenance and Operations

1. Supplies and materials _______ _______ _______
2. Travel and per diem _______ _______ _______
3. Training _______ _______ _______
4. Evaluation _______ _______ _______
Sub-total

III. Equipment _______ _______ _______

IV. Sundry/Miscellaneous _______ _______ _______

V. Contingency _______ _______ _______

Grand Total _______ _______ _______

5. Enlisting the support and active participation of residents in the community. A

significant part of the project is the participation or involvement of the people for
whom the development activities are intended. To get their participation or
involvement, the community people or target clientele should understand the project
very well – its purposes, activities, why such activities are to be done, and benefits –
and know their part or responsibilities in the project. What kind of support is
expected of them? What important roles will they play in the project? The community
residents should be involved from the very initial stages up to the time of completion
of the project.
6. Establishing linkages with other institutions. Does the project/program need
some form of assistance? Where should such assistance come from? Which
 agencies or institutions could possibly provide the assistance? Should the
assistance/involvement be in the form of expert services, funding, logistic support, or
other forms of services? All of these should be clearly indicated and understood by
all concerned. Those who will be involved should be committed to the project. A
memorandum of understanding or agreement among the parties concerned may be
necessary.

Planning the Program of Activities

This includes the plan and calendar of work of the project. In short, it is scheduling of
the various project activities. A plan of work is an outline of activities so arranged as to
enable effective execution of the entire program or course. It answers the questions
how, when, where and by whom the work is done. A calendar of work is a plan of work
arranged chronologically. The framework of such a calendar of work may be made out
for a month, six months, or even a year or more. The project activities may be also
divided into stages or phases.

The simplest way of preparing the plan of work may be in a tabular form that indicates
the problems, objectives, strategies or techniques, materials and logistics, persons or
agencies involved, and the time period of the activity. The tabulation is in summary form,
hence it is very convenient to use.

Extension teaching methods according to number of clientele to be served

Mass methods

Mass media

Mass refers to the “masa”, the common tao, or the bakya or crowd – the lowest class in
the society which the majority of the Filipinos composed of. This derogatory connotation
of the definition of the mass is peculiar among Third World Countries like the Philippines
and some countries of South America. However, in the western definition, it simply
means “the general public”.

Medium means form of device or equipment which is normally used to transmit

information between persons (Rossi and Biddle, 1996). It emphasizes to which the
object is being used that makes it a medium.

A mass medium like radio is a tool for mass communication.

Example: Radio is merely an object. When it is used on air or disseminate information

to a large group of people, it becomes a medium.
Importance of media in extension teaching/development communication works

Media are important in extension teaching/development communication work because

according to Cadiz, they possess certain properties which can enhance better than when
learning is shaped by face-to-fact communication alone. In technology transfer, an
important role of media is to make information available in many rural areas so that
farmers can use such information when needed even if extension workers/development
communicators are unable to visit them.
Properties of Media (Gerlach and Ely, 1980)

Fixative property
The media capture, preserve and reconstitute an object or event, making it available to
the learner anytime and any place.
Example:
Agricultural extension worker videotapes a TV show farm program relevant in the
situation of his client. He can use the videotape to reinforce his farmers’ classes.

Manipulative property

The media can transform the presentation of an object or even offer many ways to save
time, permit closer look, review an event that happened, or simplify complex details.
Example:
A slide set or video program of any technology can present the process in less than 10
minutes even if the procedure actually takes longer.

Distributive property

Media can present an identical experience simultaneously to a large number of people,

making up for the unavailability of workers/development communicators.
Example:
A television farm program informs not only rice farmers in Laguna but also those in
nearby provinces up to Central Luzon about the advantages of using a quick multiplying
tiny floating fern as green manure.

Radio as a mass medium

Radio is available in almost all countries, reaching mass audiences cheaply and rapidly
(Barghouti, 1973). Since radio is a tool for reaching out mass audiences,
workers/development communicators who will use radio as medium of disseminating
breakthroughs in agriculture and natural resources must be aware of the medium’s
advantages and disadvantages/limitations. He/she must always remember that radio
makes use of the sound only, hence the message can reach the audience’s nervous
system only through the use of the sense of hearing. It is proven that sounds have
lesser impact to the memory compared to the visual impressions.

Advantages
 Radio can reach a large number of people at one time.
 It can transmit messages immediately.
 It transcends illiteracy and inadequate schooling.
 It is more intimate and personalized than the print medium.
 It has emotional impact.
 It is a companion medium.
 It is relatively inexpensive.
 It has high credibility among people.

Disadvantages/limitations
  Radio lacks personal contact compared to face-to-face and group
communication.
 It does not allow immediate feedback.
 It is inexorable.
 Radio, being a companion medium can be a limitation, too.

Television as a mass medium

Television is an electronic system of transmitting images of fix or moving object together

with sounds (Webster, p.1213).

The beauty of television lies in its ability to communicate or explain complicated

messages because of its combination of sound and picture (Barghouti, 1975).

Advantages
 Closest to face-to-face communication
 Successful in reaching out to both literate and illiterate audiences
 Enhances understanding and retention

Disadvantages
 Accessibility and availability
 Education/extension programs face severe competition from
entertainment programs
 Preparation of development communication programs for TV require
much planning, preparation, technical, creative and communication skills than for
other media
 Cost money to produce and air TV programs

With these disadvantages, extension worker/development communicator should explore

local television alternative such as community cable stations.

Print

The utilization of print materials is disseminating breakthrough/development in

agriculture and natural resources takes serious consideration by the extension worker or
development communicator. He/she should think of the following:
 The kind of audience
 The size of audience
 The cost of production

Some kinds of print materials

Leaflet refers to a small, folded publications used to provide reference on short and
single subject matter.
 Contains brief information on a specific recommended practice.
 It may also treat a specific information that is not necessarily a step-by-step
procedural instruction to follow, but is also needed by the farmer.
 It has a size of 8 ½ x 13” (when unfolded)
 Has a maximum of two colors
  Has 4-6 pages (when folded). There are also leaflets folded only into two.

Pamphlet is an introductory print material in the popular format.

 More than 4 pages containing essential information on a technology package
addressed to the community producer/farmer.
 Utilizes information on technologies proven to be viable in the locale where it is to
be disseminated
 Essentially this is in the popular layman’s term and in the audience’s dialect

Poster refers to a single sheet visuals printed on thick papers or boards containing
limited textual information and frequently dominantly with pictorial presentation.
 Popularly used in advertising and in campaigns. Lend well to making
announcements or creating awareness about innovations for varied audiences.
 Posters are placed in public places to promote awareness and direct the
audience toward a source of more detailed information.
 Sizes range from 11”x14”x28”. A 14”x22” poster is considered by most graphic
designers as an ideal size in terms of economy in reproduction. However, any
one is not limited to these sizes.

Uses of posters
 Persuade, suggest and command
 Alert, warn, draw attention to something
 Dissuade or forbid
 Instruct and inform
 Advertise or sell products, ideas and services

Basic classification of posters

 Stop and study poster
 Single-glance poster

Types of posters
 Word or textual poster
 Picture-photo poster
 Picture-text poster
 Symbolic poster

Poster categories
 Commercial poster – introduces and promotes products and services
 Art poster – introduces art exhibits in galleries or museums
 Theatrical poster – introduces plays, shows, concerts, films and the like
 Political/social poster – introduces social/political ideas or issues
 Propaganda poster – intentional control of messages to achieve a political
objective

Newspaper refers to a paper that is printed and distributed usually daily or weekly and
that contains news, articles of opinion, features and advertising (Webster, p.796).
 Influential in creating awareness and mobilizing public opinion
 Presents technical data in clearly designed text and provide detailed information
 Capable of presenting important topics in a series of articles
  Like other print media, articles can be shared or kept as reference materials
 Audience is limited to those who can read
 Current prices make a newspaper relatively expensive
 Represents one-way communication, thus feedback is difficult to monitor
 With high production cost, they are difficult for small communities or
organizations to publish

Wall newspaper publishes articles about research results and usually tacked on bulletin
boards and walls.
 Can serve as a means of keeping researchers and extensionists in continuous
and active contact
 Easy reading at a distance because it occupies a large spread and using larger
text
 A handful of readers may be reading the medium simultaneously, and such a
gathering may spawn discussion of the wall newspaper contents.

Fact sheet is a loose sheet of paper containing information about a person, thing or
innovation.
 Useful in keeping extension workers, educated farmers and researchers updated
about agricultural technologies
 Contents may be updated, depending on developments in research and in the
field, by issuing an additional page if needed
 Can be produced cheaply through mimeographing printing

Exhibits

A medium to show or display outwardly especially by visible signs or actions to show

publicly especially for purposes of competition of demonstrations (Webster, p.435).
 Useful in featuring an innovation and its various elements
 Suitable for the presentation, discussion and sharing modes of learning with
various audiences
 Intended to create awareness and understanding or elicit favorable sentiment
and action
 Costly to produce and require time and team effort
 May be produced for specific occasions or for long-term display
 Storing and filing their parts may be cumbersome.

Educational campaign

Campaign refers to a connected series of operations designed to bring about a particular

result (/Webster, p160). A connected series of operations to bring about some desired
results (Klepper, p31).
 Adhering the view that learning and communication are processes and systems
 Uses well-planned and systematic communication, procedural, step by step and
organized way by which the learning system design is designed to effectively use
communication to solve the learning problem
 Uses most effective combination of human and non-human resources
 Applies theories and principles of human learning such as using puppetry shows
as a medium to instruct kids.
Projected visuals

Overhead transparencies

Trasparency refers to a large format 8”x10” film used with the overhead projector.
Transparencies are composed of photographic type sheet film, clean plastic acetate or
any of a number of other transparent materials capable of being imprinted with an image
by means of chemical or heat processes.

Advantages
 Projects clear and enlarged images in normal room lighting condition
 Projector is used in front of the room with the lecturer facing the audience,
allowing direct eye contact with viewers
 Overhead projectors are lightweight, easily portable and simple to operate
 Projected materials can be manipulated by the lecturer
 Variety of materials can be projected, including cutout silhouettes, small opaque
objects and other types of transparencies
 OHP allows the lecturer to pace his presentation
 A range of presentation techniques is possible where the information is
progressively revealed in a step-by-step procedure through revelation by
masking and overlays

Limitations
 Effectiveness of overhead projection presentation is heavily dependent on the
lecturer
 OHP cannot be programmed to show visual sequences by itself nor an audio or
tape accompaniment provided
 Overhead system cannot be used for independent study since it is designed for
large group presentation
 Printed materials and non-transparent items like magazines, illustrations cannot
be projected immediately. To use these materials for overhead system, they
have to be made transparencies by means of some sort of “production process.”
 OHP can be used only on indoor settings (i.e. classroom auditorium, etc.) and
requires electricity for the operation.

Slides

Slides refer to a small format photographic transparency individually mounted for one at
a time projection. Usually, sides use a 35mm film format mounted on a 2x2 inch
(50x50mm) slide mounts.

Advantages
 Slides focus attention on an image, large or small
 Slides are flexible – they can be arranged and re-arranged or added to and
removed into infinite variety of sequence
 Slides can be used for large group presentation and be integrated into
independent study or individualized instruction program
 Suitable for presentations with varied audiences, more particularly those with low
literacy
  Lend well to teaching cognitive tasks, simplifying complex instructions or
explanations through the use of non-verbal symbols such as colored images.

Limitations
 Since slides come as individual frames, they can easily become disorganized,
out of sequence and projected upside down, sideways or backwards
 Requires suitable electric power to operate projection equipment
 Needs cameras, projection equipment and some production skills
 Specific only for slide projector

Group Methods of Extension

Lecture

The resource speaker or facilitator delivers a prepared talk and may distribute handouts
and use audio-visual aids. This method is used to describe and explain a subject
matter, present new information and explain procedure.

Advantages
 Many topics can be covered in a short period
 The facilitator is in complete control
 Can accommodate almost an unlimited size of audience
 It is economical

Disadvantages
 The communication is primarily one-way
 The retention rate is low
 Lack of involvement of participants
 It can be boring

Method Demonstration

It is a short-time demonstration given by an extension worker or trained leader for the

purpose of teaching skills to a group or to show a better way to carry out a practice. It is
not concerned with proving the worth of a practice but with how-to-do something which
may be the adjustment of a plow, artificial insemination, caponizing a cockerel and
making a basket.

Advantages
 Effective in teaching skills
 Motivate or stimulate action
 Build confidence in local people
 Help extension worker become acquainted with local people
 People accept ideas easily
 Bring about changes in practices at low cost.

Leader training meetings

The man who uses local leaders is able to multiply by the number of leaders he trains
and uses. Naturally local leaders have to be trained. This is not a formal process but
one accomplished through conferences, workshops, on-the-job instruction and other
ways. There is usually no diploma to say when a leader is trained, it is a more or less
continual process.

General meetings

It includes all kinds of meetings by extension worker other than method demo leader
training meetings, tours or field days. General meetings include all types of discussions
such as discussions following a lecture, film, forum, symposium, panel discussion, group
interview and debate discussion.

Tour and Field trips

A tour might also be called a mobile meeting which moves from place to place. Tours
are effective way of getting adoption of improved practices. Farmers form their own
conclusions, exchange ideas and decide what they wish to make use on their own farm.

Advantages
 Effective way to imparting knowledge
 Makes for easy learning
 May lead to other places of interest for future study
 Stimulates fellowship among members of the group
 Members learn to study or work as a team
 Increases acquaintances especially with people who are outside members of the
group
 Creates publicity, bolsters social standing or person visited as well as cooperative
tendencies

Limitations
 Not applicable in some subject matter
 Expensive (time, money and effort) if place to be visited is far
 Requires a lot of preparation
 Involves other people

Short courses

Courses may run for duration of 1-6 weeks depending on the subject matter. Here,
enrolment is required and regular attendance assumed. It is more or less informal but
series of well-planned and organized lessons are given in a logical sequence. The
course is usually shorter than what would be given in the regular school system. It
requires more time and concentration to develop a skill or technique than can be
accomplished in a meeting or conference.

When the schools are conducted, it is usually on the regional area basis and specialists
are brought in to do the teaching. However, it can be done by the extension worker, if he
feels the need is great enough and if he is qualified.
Field Days

These are usually opportunities to hold method or result demonstrations on a slightly

larger scale, and are usually run in a more informal and less highly structured manner.
The purpose is often to introduce a new idea and a new crop, and to stimulate the
interest of as many farmers as possible. Experimental stations or other government
centers may be used for field days, but it is more usual and profitable for them to be held
on the land of a local farmer. There is a greater chance of making an impact if the field
day is held on a farmer’s land, and if the farmer plays a part in running it and explaining
the purpose.

Panel Discussion

This is used when presenting divergent ideas, opinions and experiences of “recognized”
authorities and to generate interaction between trainees and “experts”. The experts
present their ideas, experiences, beliefs or understanding on a subject matter and after
which an open forum follows.

Advantages
 Exposure to differing or varied ideas on subject matter at hand
 Encourages sharing and participation of audience
 Speakers become extra careful, since other “experts” are listening
 If properly handled by the moderator, it can result to a lively and fruitful
interchange of ideas

Disadvantages
 Limited time for speaker to expound
 Limited time for audience participation
 Conflicting ideas may leave audience confused
 Sometimes difficult to gather at one time the appropriate panelists

Symposium

Like the panel discussion, the symposium is also used to give an audience pertinent
information about the topic or to consider the relative merits of various solutions to a
controversial problem. The symposium, however is more formal than the panel.
Persons with special competence deliver uninterrupted speeches on different aspects of
a problem and these are followed by a forum period. The symposium is essentially a
public speaking program while the panel discussion is essentially conversational.

Individual Methods of Extension

Farm and home visit

It serves a variety of purposes:

1) may be in the nature of a service call made on request to give
advice or assistance on a wide range of farm and home problems
2) may be for the purpose of securing a cooperator or
demonstrator, arranging a meeting, or discussing a local activity
 3) it may be in the interest of good public relations with officers of
local organizations, elected officials or other key individuals
4) broadly speaking, the farm and home visit is made for the
purpose of giving information or obtaining information

Office calls

The farmer is usually seeking information. The initiative is from the caller, not the
extension officer. The duty of the extension officer then becomes one of supplying
information or rendering that particular kind of service which is demanded.

Telephone calls

It will probably be a long time before most farmers in developing countries have
telephones. These should be made use of whenever it is necessary to get in touch with
the regional or national office quickly. As the number of phones in the country increases,
their value as an extension method becomes greater.

Personal letters

These letters are of value for a) giving/getting information, b) enlisting cooperation, c)

giving recognition for good work and enhance for cooperation and d) giving instruction,
for example on how to manage a result demonstration and resolving misunderstanding.

Result demonstration

It is a method of teaching which establishes proof that an improved practice advocated

by the extension worker is applicable locally. The person who agrees to use the new
practice introduced by the extension worker in the village is called a cooperator.

Advantages
 Furnishes local proof of the desirability of the recommended practice
 Appeals to the eye and is effective in convincing those who question the practice
 A good way to introduce a new project
 Furnishes cost information
 Aids in developing local leaders

Limitations
 May be hard to find a responsible cooperator
 May arouse jealousy among families because of number of visits of extension
workers made to cooperators
 May be affected by many uncontrollable factors like weather
 May lessen effectiveness of extension worker if demonstration is not successful
 Is not adaptable to many kinds of subject matter