Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 25 (2013) 318–334

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

A literature survey on load–frequency control for conventional

and distribution generation power systems
Shashi Kant Pandey, Soumya R. Mohanty, Nand Kishor n
Department of Electrical Engineering, Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology, Allahabad-211004, India

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In this paper an extensive literature review on load–frequency control (LFC) problem in power system
Received 16 August 2012 has been highlighted. The various configuration of power system models and control techniques/
Received in revised form strategies that concerns to LFC issues have been addressed in conventional as well as distribution
8 April 2013
generation-based power systems. Further, investigations on LFC challenges incorporating storage devices
Accepted 20 April 2013
Available online 29 May 2013
BESS/SMES, FACTS devices, wind–diesel and PV systems etc have been discussed too.
& 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Distribution generation
Deregulated power systems
Load–frequency control
Optimal control
Artificial intelligent techniques

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
2. Type of power system models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
2.1. Conventional power systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
2.1.1. Single area thermal power systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
2.1.2. Single area hydro power systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
2.1.3. Two area power systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
2.1.4. Three area power systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
2.1.5. Four area power systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
2.1.6. Power system with HVDC-link . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
2.1.7. Deregulated power systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
2.2. Distributed generation power systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
3. Control techniques for conventional power systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
3.1. Classical control approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
3.2. Optimal control approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
3.3. Sub-optimal control approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
3.4. Adaptive and self-tuning approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
4. Control strategies for conventional power systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
4.1. Centralized control approaches. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
4.2. Decentralized control approaches. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
4.3. Two-level and multi-level control strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
5. Soft computing techniques in LFC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
5.1. Artificial neural network (ANN) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
5.2. Fuzzy logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
5.3. Genetic algorithms (GAs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324

n
Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 532 2271411.
E-mail addresses: nand_research@yahoo.co.in, nand_scorpio@yahoo.co.in (N. Kishor).

1364-0321/$ - see front matter & 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2013.04.029
 S.K. Pandey et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 25 (2013) 318–334 319

5.4. Particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325

5.5. Tabu search algorithms (TSA) and bacterial foraging optimization algorithm (BFOA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
6. Other controllers for LFC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
6.1. Variable structure controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
6.2. Robust controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
7. Use of SMES, BESS and facts devices in conventional power systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
7.1. SMES and BESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
7.2. Flexible AC transmission systems (FACTS) devices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
8. LFC in distributed generation power systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
8.1. PV, wind farms, diesel engine and energy storage system based hybrid DG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
8.2. Other DG systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
9. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329

1. Introduction techniques. In this context, the application of genetic algorithm

Load–frequency control (LFC) is of importance in electric power
system design and operation. The objective of the LFC in an
interconnected power system is to maintain the frequency of each
area within limits and to keep tie-line power flows within some
pre-specified tolerances by adjusting the MW outputs of the
generators so as to accommodate fluctuating load demands. A
well designed and operated power system must cope with
changes in the load and with system disturbances, and it should
provide acceptable high level of power quality while maintaining
both voltage and frequency within tolerance limits.
Subjected to any disturbance, the nominal operating point of a
power system changes from its pre-specified value. As a result the
deviation occurs about the operating point such as nominal
system frequency, scheduled power exchange to the other areas
which is undesirable.
The LFC issues have been tackled with by the various research-
ers in different time through AGC regulator, excitation controller
design and control performance with respect to parameter varia-
tion/uncertainties and different load characteristics. As the con-
figuration of the modern power system is complex, the oscillation
incurred subjected to any disturbance may spread to wide areas
leading to system black out. In this context, advance control
methodology such as optimal control, variable structure control,
adaptive control, self-tuning control, robust and intelligent control
were applied in LFC problem.
The further research in this area has been carried out by use of
various soft computing techniques such as artificial neural net-
work (ANN), fuzzy logic and fusion of these such as neuro-fuzzy,
neuro-genetic etc. to tackle the difficulties in the design due to
non-linearity in various segregated components of the controller.
The controller parameters plays a vital role for its performance,
thus it should be tuned properly with suitable optimization
(GA), particle swarm optimization (PSO), simulated annealing (SA)
etc. is exploited to address the optimization objective. Due to non-
linearity in the power system components and also the uncer-
tainty in the system parameters, the performance differs from
actual models, so robust control design is indispensible to achieve
acceptable deviation in frequency about the nominal operating
point. Various robust control techniques such as Riccati equation,
H∞, m-synthesis, robust pole assignment, loop shaping, linear
matrix inequality (LMI) has been adopted to tackle the LFC
problems.
Now, there is rapid momentum in the progress of the research
to tackle the LFC in the deregulated environment, LFC with
communication delay, and LFC with new energy systems, FACTS
devices, and HVDC links as well.
This survey paper comprehensively highlights the LFC pro-
blems in conventional and distribution generation based power
system. A comprehensive review on conventional power system as
single area, multi-area with interconnection, the power system
with HVDC links and control problem in the deregulation envir-
onment is presented. Further LFC issues in renewable energy
systems and its integration with the grid is also discussed. In
addition to this, the recent trends in LFC such as communication
delays, wide area monitoring, phase measurement unit and
penetration of different renewable energy sources impact on the
LFC is also discussed. The layout for survey carried out on LFC is
shown in Fig. 1.
2. Type of power system models
The conventional power system that has been in use since
centuries from the generation and transmission level to the
distribution was mainly dominated by hydro, thermal and nuclear

Survey on LFC

Control techniques for LFC by soft computing LFC incorporating BES,

conventional power SMES, PV and FACT LFC in distribution
approaches: ANN, FL generation power systems
systems devices
Type of power system Control strategies for Other controllers for LFC Optimization techniques in
models conventional power LFC: GA, PSO,and Tabu
systems Search

Conventional power Distribution generation

systems power systems

Fig. 1. Illustration of survey on LFC.

320 S.K. Pandey et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 25 (2013) 318–334
power generation which is integral component of the conventional
power system. But in the twenty first century due to depletion of
fossil fuel and threats to the environment pollution, the non-
conventional energy sources plays a vital role, in form of distribu-
tion generation (DG) based power system. Thus the LFC problem
which is an important issue has to be the addressed in the
conventional as well as DG.
2.1. Conventional power systems
Any power system that has the fundamental control problem of
matching real power generation to load including losses is called
load–frequency control. Most of the works reported so far has been
carried out by considering various linearized model of thermal/
hydro of single area or multi-area power systems. The frequency is
dependent upon the active power which comes from the load
generation mismatch. Thus primary control loop comprises of
speed governing load followed by the secondary control with
droop control mechanism. Thus at the control centre, supplemen-
tary control is also provided at the secondary control level. The
primary control comprises of governor and turbine which consti-
tutes the mechanical system with sluggish response. The second-
ary control plays a vital role which comprises of droop control
mechanism, integral square error etc. in addition to that the
supplementary control and auxiliary control such as power system
stabilizer (PSS).
Decades back, the power system structure remained simple
and limited. The primary source of generation to meet the demand
in the region was from hydro, thermal or both. However, increase
of electricity demand had lead to restructure it. Thus the incor-
poration of flexible transmission system and other auxiliary
devices came into existence. Again in the market driving power
system, the independent player came into the role with the
concept of deregulation. Thus in this context the LFC problem in
the conventional power system is a challenging task, which has
been the focus of several researchers since early eighties of last
century.
Our survey paper is comprises of different sections. Sections
2.1.1 to 2.1.7 discusses the several structure of the conventional
power system such as single area and multi-area, the structure
with HVDC link. And the deregulation environment is discussed
separately for easier understanding in the LFC issues.
2.1.1. Single area thermal power systems
The LFC problem for single area thermal power systems is
presented in [1–6]. The LFC of single-area thermal power system
including generation rate constraint (GRC) is presented in [2,4].
The LFC scheme of one-area thermal system with single time delay
is presented in [5]. The LFC with multi-source (thermal–hydro–
gas) as single area is proposed in [6].
2.1.2. Single area hydro power systems
The LFC problem for single area hydro power system is
presented in [7–9]. The transient speed response of a single,
isolated, governed hydro-generator operating at, or near, full load
is discussed in [7]. The automatic generation control of hydro-
plant is presented in [8]. The LFC of an isolated small-hydro power
system with reduced dump load is described in [9].
2.1.3. Two area power systems
The LFC problem for two area power systems is presented in
[10–47]. Due to non-linearities in the connected load and governor
dead bands, the actual system response characteristic is non-
linear. Therefore, a linear tie-line bias characteristic does not
match the actual system response characteristic. This mismatch
causes unnecessary fuel consumption and increased wear and tear
on generators. Doraiswami [17] presented LFC for a two-area
interconnected system taking into account the nonlinearity and
stochastic nature of the load and using an optimal linear strategy
aided by stability analysis. Nanda and Kaul [15] investigated the
stability and optimum settings of conventional automatic genera-
tion controllers for an interconnected power system having reheat
steam plants. Oni et al. [22] investigated the nonlinear tie line bias
control in interconnected power systems. This study was per-
formed by utilizing the UMC hybrid simulator to simulate a typical
power system including governor dead band, frequency, and
voltage sensitivity of loads. The discrete-type load–frequency
regulator of a two-area reheat-type thermal system with GRC is
presented in [23]. The effect of reheat and governor dead-band
nonlinearity on LFC is considered in [24]. In [25], a combination of
thermal-hydro power system is considered. The application of
magnetic energy storage unit as load–frequency stabilizer in two-
area thermal power system is presented in [29]. It has been shown
that small sized superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES)
units with suitable control can effectively reduce the frequency
and tie-line power oscillations following sudden small load
perturbations. The effect of SMES and batteries in two-area
thermal power system considering dead-band and GRC is pre-
sented in [32] and [33], respectively. The proposed adaptive
control scheme is very effective in damping out oscillations caused
by load disturbances and its performance is quite insensitive to
controller gain parameter changes of SMES [33]. The influence of
SMES coordinated with solid-state phase shifter on LFC is dis-
cussed in [35]. Again in [38], the discrete-mode automatic gen-
eration control (AGC) of a two-area reheat thermal system with
new area control error (ACE) is considered. The LFC of two-area
reheat thermal power system with dead zone and GRC incorpo-
rated with SMES in both areas are proposed in [39]. The
interconnected two-area reheat thermal power system with
GRC and boiler dynamics including SMES units for LFC is con-
sidered in [40].
The LFC of two-area hydro–hydro power system with propor-
tional–integral–derivative (PID) controller based on maximum
peak resonance specification that is graphically supported by the
Nichols chart is discussed in [41]. The automatic generation of
three types of interconnected two-area multi-unit all-hydro power
system, all-thermal and thermal-hydro mixed have been investi-
gated in [42]. The reheat thermal power system with governor
dead zone is discussed in [43], while reheat thermal power system
with GRC is presented in [44]. The LFC of two-area thermal–
thermal power system with time delay is considered in [45]. The
two-area interconnected thermal reheat power system with inter-
line power flow controller (IPFC) and redox flow batteries (RFB)
units for LFC is proposed in [46]. The two-area power system
consisting of identical reheat turbines interconnected via AC link
and AC/DC links are presented for LFC in [47].
2.1.4. Three area power systems
The LFC challenges in three area power systems are presented in
[48–62]. The three area interconnected [48] consists one steam plus
one hydro unit, which forms area 1, while one steam plus one hydro
unit of area 2 and area 3 with one steam. The thermal power system
interconnected as three areas is presented in [49,51,54,55]. The three
interconnected areas that consists two thermal and one hydro unit in
each area is considered in [50]. Three thermal generating units in
each area of three-area interconnected power system are considered
in [52,56]. Two different interconnections (a) radial type and (b) ring
type with thermal unit in three area power systems have been
considered in [53]. The LFC problem for three-area thermal power
system with communication delays is discussed in [57]. In order to
 S.K. Pandey et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 25 (2013) 318–334
consider AGC, the area-1is modeled by two generators while the
other two areas have single generator equivalents of four and three
generators in area-2 and area-3, respectively. The LFC for three area
power system with time delays has been also discussed in [58,59].
The load frequency controller for a three area thermal power system
is proposed in [60,61]. The LFC for three-area power system with
different turbine units, such as non-reheat, reheat and hydraulic is
considered in [62].
2.1.5. Four area power systems
The LFC problem for four area power systems is presented in
[63–71]. Two types of interconnected longitudinal 4-area systems
are considered in [63]. In the first model, all the areas consist of
non-reheated system plant while in second type of model, each
area has the different types of plants, i.e. steam with GRC and
hydro plants without GRC. The different kinds of generating units
(non-reheat, reheat and hydro-turbine type), linked together in an
interconnection and also considering GRC and governor dead-
band non-linearities is presented in [64]. Studies on a 4-area
power system including GRC and governor dead-band is presented
in [65]. The combination of ring and longitudinal manner con-
nected thermal units as four areas is considered in [66], while
three thermal and one hydro unit is proposed in [67,68]. The LFC
problem for four-area power system with different turbine units,
such as non-reheat in area 1 and area 2 while hydro unit in area
3 and area 4 has been considered in [69]. The reheat thermal units
for area 1, 2 and 3 while hydro unit in area 4 for LFC has been
considered in [70]. The four identical thermal units for four area
interconnected power systems for LFC problem is considered in
[71].
2.1.6. Power system with HVDC-link
The HVDC transmission has emerged as an alternate link in the
power system scenario, due to its numerous technical
and economical advantages, for the need of power transfer over
large distances [72–76]. The two and three plants with AC and DC
tie-lines between plants are considered in [72]. A 3-level
optimal controller for LFC in the power system which is composed
of several subsystems interconnected by asynchronous
tie-lines is presented in [74]. The two area power systems inter-
connected via parallel AC/DC transmission links are considered in
[75,76].
2.1.7. Deregulated power systems
In the electricity market driven, power system deregulation
plays a vital role. The deregulated power system consists of
GENCOs, TRANSCOs, and DISCOs with an open assess policy. In
the newly emerged structure, the GENCOs may or may not
participate in the LFC task. As a matter fact, independent system
operator leads to make the LFC scheme more reliable. The power
system models based on deregulated scenarios has been proposed
in [77–87]. Most of the study considers the control problem issue
associated with thermal power plants. The LFC study in deregu-
lated structure of three-area power system is presented in
[83,84,88]. The AGC in deregulated environment for four area
interconnected power system is given in [89,90].
2.2. Distributed generation power systems
As discussed in the previous section, the DG system is considered
economical for electrical power supply to remote and isolated areas
where the electric power is not easily available from the grid. The
power system model for LFC has been also proposed incorporating
wind turbine generator (WTG), photovoltaic (PV), and FACTS devices.
Jovanovic et al. [91] investigated a knowledge-based feedback
321
controller designed to enhance the quality of control of generator
speed and power system frequency. In [92], an identification proce-
dure for hydro-generator plant using an adaptive technique is
presented. The LFC problem in DG systems is presented in [93–
100]. The frequency support from doubly fed induction generator
driven by wind turbine is presented in [101–111]. The frequency
control for HVDC link connected wind farms are presented in [112–
116]. The frequency control of standalone wind energy conversion
system (WECS) using permanent magnet synchronous generator is
presented in [117]. Next wind-hydro hybrid system using induction
generators and battery storage is proposed in [118,97]. The inter-
connection of energy resources like PV, fuel cell and wind system are
important due to intermittent environmental characteristics [119–
121,98] to supply reliable power. A control scheme without using
communication signals to improve the transient response of parallel-
connected inverters is suggested in [119]. The dynamic and transient
analysis of power distribution systems using fuel cell is presented in
[122,123]. To enhance the performance of a grid-connected PV-fuel
cell (FC) hybrid system is presented in [124]. The power fluctuation
compensation in hybrid power generation system that consists of
offshore-wind turbine and tidal turbine is proposed in [125]. The LFC
in wind–diesel hybrid system is discussed in [126,127,100]. Akie et al.
[128] presented a frequency control problem in isolated power
system by considering wind farm and battery through load estima-
tion. Senjyu et al. [121] proposed a new stand-alone hybrid power
system consisting of WTGs, diesel engine generators (DEGs), FC, and
aqua electrolyzers (AE). The effect of these systems on the LFC is
considered and these ensure supply of high-quality power. The effect
on grid frequency control by electric water heaters as controllable
loads is presented in [129].
An assessment of the impact of wind generation on system
frequency control is discussed in [130]. The PV-diesel hybrid
power system is proposed in [131–133], while wind–diesel for
LFC in a small power system is presented in [134]. The time-
domain simulation for small-signal analysis of a hybrid power
generation/energy storage system is presented in [135]. The
system consists of three WTGs, DEG, FC and PV, along with battery
and flywheel as energy storage units. In [136], autonomous hybrid
generation systems consisting of WTGs, solar thermal power
system (STPS), PV, DEGs, FCs, battery, flywheel, ultracapacitors
(UCs) and AE have been considered. The LFC by considering
control of FC and double-layer capacitor in an autonomous hybrid
renewable energy power generation is presented in [137]. The LFC
of wind energy with storage system is proposed in [138]. The
impact of doubly fed induction generator (DIFG) type wind
turbines (WTs) on LFC in multi-area interconnected thermal
power system is proposed in [139], while on single thermal unit
is given in [131]. The authors [140] propose the integration of
steady-state models of several types of wind generators into a
power flow algorithm with automatic LFC. The DFIG based wind
farm for LFC in two-area interconnected power system consisting
of multi-unit reheat type thermal and hydropower system with
coordinated control of TCPS and SMES is proposed in [141], while
in [142], identical thermal interconnected two-area power system
is considered.
The supplementary LFC method by use of a number of both
electric vehicle (EV) and heat pump water heater as controllable
loads is proposed in [143], for the power system model with large
integration of wind and PV generation. A two-bus power system
consisting of varying load, a diesel-synchronous generator and
WTG topologies with either a DFIG or a permanent magnet
synchronous generator (PMSG) are considered in [144]. The
wind-hydro autonomous microgrid for LFC is proposed in [145].
The authors [146] proposed a method for tracking a secondary LFC
signal with groups of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs),
controllable thermal household appliances under a duty-cycle
322 S.K. Pandey et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 25 (2013) 318–334
coordination scheme, and a decentralized combined-heat-and-
power generation unit.
The above paragraphs suggests a wide spread application of DG
systems for the LFC issues. However, the increased penetration
level of DG also affects the LFC problem tremendously. The impact
of penetration of WTGs on LFC for three-area interconnected
power system is discussed in [147]. The AGC structure for smart
power grids is presented in [148], which consists of the constant
pressure steam, hydro and variable pressure steam units. The
authors [149], proposed an autonomous distributed vehicle-to-
grid (V2G) control schemes, while in [150] aggregated electric
vehicle (EV)-based battery storage representing a V2G system is
modeled for the use in long-term dynamic power system.
3. Control techniques for conventional power systems
3.1. Classical control approaches
Conventionally, for issues related to automatic generation
control (AGC), the frequency deviation is minimized by the
flywheel type of governor of synchronous machine. However, the
significant control is not achieved for the LFC objective. In this
context, the supplementary control is introduced to the governor
via signal directly proportional to the frequency deviation plus its
integral action. The initial stage of research work carried out by
Cohn et al. is reported in [151–155]. Quazza [156] proposed the
approach with non-interaction between frequency and tie-line
power control and each control area responsible for its own load
variations. Aggarwal and Bergseth [157] investigated study on
large signal dynamics of systems. The technique based on coordi-
nated system-wide correction of time error and inadvertent
interchange is incorporated for AGC study by Cohn [158]. A
number of classical control techniques namely, Nyquist, Bode
reveal that closed loop transient response will result into relatively
large overshoots and transient frequency deviation [159–161].
3.2. Optimal control approaches
The LFC regulator design techniques using modern optimal
control theory enable the power engineers to design an optimal
control system with respect to given performance criterion. The
optimal control theory has made a new direction to solve the large
multivariable control problems in a simplified form. The control
scheme considers the state variable representation of the model
and an objective function to be minimized. Fosha and Elgerd [162],
used a state variable model and regulator problem of optimal
control theory to develop new feedback control law for two-area
interconnected non-reheat type thermal power system. Milon
Calovic [48] presented linear regulator design for the load fre-
quency control based on optimal linear regulator theory. In [163],
the author has investigated the effect of plant response time on
the closed loops poles, designed using linear optimal control
theory. In [12], a more realistic model of the LFC system is
developed and studied, by including the voltage-regulator excita-
tion system and optimal responses are computed under various
load conditions. Kwatny et al. [164] presented a review of recent
efforts in applying optimal linear regulator theory with intent to
clarify the objectives of LFC, particularly as regard to the applica-
tion of modern control theory. In [25], Hsu and Chan presented a
systematic approach to design an optimal variable-structure con-
troller (VSC) for the LFC in the interconnected power system.
The feasibility of an optimal AGC scheme requires the avail-
ability of all state variables for feedback. However, these efforts
seem unrealistic, since it is difficult to achieve this. Then, the
problem is to reconstruct the unavailable states from the available
outputs and controls by an observer design. Considering state
reconstruction, many significant contributions have been made
[165–170]. Bohn and Miniesy [165] have studied the optimum LFC
of a two-area interconnected power system by making the use of
(i) differential approximation and (ii) a Luenberger observer and
by introducing an adaptive observer for identification of unmea-
sured states and unknown deterministic demands, respectively.
Exploiting the fact that the nonlinearity of the power system
model, namely, the tie-line power flow, is measurable, the obser-
ver has been designed to give zero asymptotic error, even for the
nonlinear model. AGC schemes based on an optimal observer,
which is a state estimator with decaying error at a desired speed,
using a nonlinear transformation [166] and reduced-order models
with a local observer [167] have been discussed. In [17], an
observer for nonlinear system is presented. A simplified generat-
ing unit model oriented towards LFC and the method for its
transfer function identification based on a two-stage procedure
indirectly reducing both noise effects and transfer function order is
presented in [170].
3.3. Sub-optimal control approaches
The computational complexity of a multi-area system leads to
solve the optimal control problem in a modified form. Therefore,
suboptimal control strategy is explored for the LFC problem.
In order to remove the practical limitations in the implementation
of regulators based on full order state feedback, suboptimal
AGC regulator designs were considered [171–173]. Moorthi and
Aggarwal [171] presented suboptimal and near-optimal control
using modern control theory. The AGC schemes based on an
optimal observer, which is a state estimator with decaying error
at a desired speed, using a nonlinear transformation [174] and
reduced-order models with a local observer [175] is discussed.
Hain et al. [176] reported a simplified generating unit model
oriented towards LFC and the method for its transfer function
identification based on a two-stage procedure indirectly reducing
both noise effects and transfer function order. The sub-optimal
AGC regulator design of a two-area interconnected reheat thermal
power system using output vector feedback control strategy is
presented in [47]. The design method employing modal and
singular perturbation techniques to affect decoupling of the
interconnection into its subsystem components is considered in
[177]. In the method, after achieving the decoupling, local con-
trollers for each subsystem are designed individually to place the
closed-loop poles of each subsystem in some pre-specified loca-
tions in the complex plane, and then, the resulting controllers are
used to generate local control inputs, using local information only.
The AGC regulator design using Lyapunov's second method and
utilizing minimum settling time theory is proposed in [178]. The
importance of the dominant time constant of the closed-loop
systems in designing the regulators has been emphasized. The
author has reported a bang–bang AGC policy based on this
method.
3.4. Adaptive and self-tuning approaches
As the operating point of the system gets changed, the
controller performance in the system may not be optimal. As a
matter of fact to keep the system performance near the optimal
value, it is desirable to track the operating point of the system and
accordingly update its parameter to achieve a better control
scheme. The self-tuning control (STC) approach also includes an
integral part of the adaptive control scheme. The self-tuning
regulator strategy implemented for adaptive LFC seems a viable
solution. A number of research works has been reported on
adaptive [179–184] and STC [185–189] schemes for LFC in the
 S.K. Pandey et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 25 (2013) 318–334
power system. Ross [179] described control criteria in LFC and the
related practical difficulties encountered to achieve this criterion.
Pan and Liaw [182] presented an adaptive controller for LFC using
a PI adaptation to satisfy the hyper-stability condition to take care
of the system parameter changes. The effectiveness of proposed
controller for considering the generation rate limit was also
confirmed. In [31], a new method to design a multivariable self-
tuning regulator with the inclusion of interaction of voltage on
load demand is presented. Similarly in [32], self-tuning type of
adaptive controllers for main AGC loop and SMES, which is
incorporated as a stabilizer to improve AGC performance is
discussed. A multi-area adaptive LFC developed for a comprehen-
sive AGC simulator is presented in [183] and a reduced-order
adaptive LFC for interconnected hydrothermal power system is
suggested in [184]. Wang et al. [4], proposed a combination of
robust control, the Riccati equation and adaptive control to design
a new robust adaptive load-frequency controller for power sys-
tems with parameter uncertainties. A multilevel adaptive algo-
rithm based on a relatively fast implicit self-tuning regulator for
multi-area power systems is investigated in [190]. Jovanovic et al.
[91] presented an application of knowledge-based adaptive tur-
bine governor control. In [191], a self-tuning steam turbine control
scheme designed to improve the quality of control of power
system frequency is discussed.
4. Control strategies for conventional power systems
4.1. Centralized control approaches
The implementation of global controller requires information
about all the states of the power system. In the beginning, the LFC
problem was based on centralized control strategy [156,159,162,173].
On the basis of classes of disturbances the control strategy has been
proposed in [156]. Elgerd and Fosha [159] suggested a feedback and
loop gain to eliminate the disturbance, and new feedback control law
is developed by using a state variable model and the state regulator
problem of optimal control theory [162].
4.2. Decentralized control approaches
Contrary to the centralized control for a large scale power
system, decentralized control is preferable, because it reduces the
computational burden with pass of the communication between
different systems and make the control more feasible and simple.
Many research papers using this approach for continuous and
discrete time system models are published [192–199]. In order to
overcome the problem arising out of the centralized control, the
decentralized control approach has been addressed. The basic
objective of later technique is to make the composite system
divided into subsystem, each of which control separately. The
design of decentralized LFC is presented in [14,16,26,30,50,
51,63,66,83,200–203]. In [204], the design of decentralized load
frequency regulators presented for two-area thermal power sys-
tems, starting with stochastic state and output models, is pre-
sented by making use of modeling–error-compensation technique
along with bias-estimation procedure. Shirai [16], reported the
decentralized LFC for two-area thermal power system through a
governor and voltage controls by a new approach based on Siljak's
theory. Edward et al. [50] presented the decentralized load
frequency control of a three area power system consisting of nine
synchronous machines described by a 119th order model. Hiyama
[63], proposed a design of decentralized regulator for an inter-
connected longitudinal 4-area system. Similarly, the analysis and
solution of the LFC problem wherein the feedback control law
constrained to two different structures; decentralized and/or
323
output feedback algorithm used to solve a non-classical linear–
quadratic problem based on property of the associated Riccati
equation is presented in [200].
Feliachi [26] presented a novel methodology for the design of
optimal decentralized LFC for multi-area interconnected power
systems. Aldeen and Marsh [30] reported a simple and computa-
tionally efficient decentralized control design based on reduced-
order observer and a proportional-plus-integral controller in each
area of two-area interconnected power system. This ensured zero
static change in area-frequency and tie-line power.
A local load–frequency controller uses only its area's state
measurements. It does not use any feedback from other areas.
The overall N-area power-system stability becomes a concern to
control engineers when all the local load–frequency controllers
work together. In addition, system parametric uncertainties exist
in the real power plant. The controllers which are designed based
on a fixed plant model may not work when some system
parameters have varied. A robust decentralized control approach
is used in [51], based on the Riccati-equation for multi-area power
systems with parametric uncertainties.
Several authors applied the concept of variable-structure systems
to design the load-frequency controllers. Yang et al. [66] proposed
decentralized load-frequency controller based on structured singular
values. The LFC problem for deregulation environment based on
H2/H∞ [83] and LMI [85] technique is presented in multi-area (3-area)
interconnected power system. Taher and Hematti [201] have discussed
use of multivariable QFT method in deregulated environment for
2-area power system with a wide range of parametric uncertainties.
The design of multi-objective evolutionary algorithm (MOEA) based
decentralized load frequency controllers with AC–DC parallel tie-line
for (two-area) interconnected power systems is presented in [202].
Additionally, GA-based decentralized controller in two-area power
systems with redox flow battery considering TCPS reported in [203].
The design of load–frequency controller based on singular structure
variable is presented in [205]. The authors [206] adopted two-degree-
of-freedom (TDF) internal model control (IMC) method to tune
decentralized PID-type controller for LFC in four area power systems
with deregulated environments. The TDF-IMC-PID method has been
studied in [207,68] for LFC in conventional situation and the perfor-
mance of the control system is only related to two tuning parameters.
The design of decentralized load frequency controller for three-area
interconnected power systems is described in [60]. In the design of
proposed controller, each local area network is overlapped with states
representing the interconnections with the other local area networks
in the global system. Then, a decentralized control scheme is devel-
oped as function of local area state variables and those resulting from
the overlapped states which represent an approximation of the
interconnection variables.
4.3. Two-level and multi-level control strategies
In decentralized control, the feedback gains associated with
some states of the neighboring area is not taken into consideration
in order to reduce the cost of communication. The strong interac-
tion between the areas makes the overall system unstable. To
overcome these limitations, two-level or multi-level control
scheme is addressed. Premakumaran et al. [20], proposed a
perturbation approach to develop a two-level control strategy to
optimize the performance of a two-area LFC system. Next, Bengia-
min et al. [49] proposed a design by use of modern optimal control
and multilevel system techniques. A 3-level optimal controller for
power systems interconnected by asynchronous tie-lines is dis-
cussed in [74]. Premakumaran et al. [208], proposed some aspects
of multilevel LFC of a two-area power system. Further, the study
incorporates the effects of governor controls and an excitation
system. Miniesy and Bohn [209], suggested a two-level suboptimal
324 S.K. Pandey et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 25 (2013) 318–334
controller. However, this approach does not ensure zero steady
state error, and hence, a multilevel finite time optimal controller
design that ensure zero steady-state error has been reported in
[210]. Rubaai et al. [190] proposed a multilevel adaptive LFC based
on the self-tuning regulator (STR). A global controller, capable to
exploit the possible beneficial aspects of interconnections, has been
applied in the LFC study [211], and favorable results are reported. In
[180,181] control strategy based on singular perturbation approach
is presented. In the study, the system is decomposed into slow and
fast subsystems and controllers are designed for each subsystem,
with these two combined to yield a composite controller. A
hierarchical optimal robust LFC for reheat thermal units in area-
one, two and three, with hydro unit in area-four is presented in
[70]. In this study, the multi-area power system is decomposed into
several sub-systems or areas and then two-level control strategy is
used to obtain the overall optimal solution.
5. Soft computing techniques in LFC
With increased size and changes in structure of the power system
due to integration of renewable energy sources, the traditional LFC
may not be feasible. In the robust control scheme, the structural
complexity and reshaping of the plant may be required. To circum-
vent this problem, the intelligent control scheme with use of soft
computing techniques such as artificial neural network (ANN), fuzzy
logic, genetic algorithm (GA), particle swarm optimization (PSO)
algorithms, etc. has been explored. In this context to address the
non-linearities, system uncertainties, the intelligent LFC scheme may
be the suitable alternative, than the traditional controls. Over the
years, number of soft computing techniques has been applied in LFC
problem for better control objective.
5.1. Artificial neural network (ANN)
The ANN is a black box which correlates the non-linear
relationship between output and input without information of
system structure. The ANN has been applied to achieve better
control strategies especially in a non-linear complex power
system. Beaufays et al. [212] discussed the application of layered
neural networks in nonlinear power systems, while Birch et al.
[213] investigated the use of neural networks to act as the control
intelligence in conjunction with a standard adaptive LFC scheme.
Chaturvedi et al. [214] have developed an automatic load fre-
quency controller using ANN to regulate the power output and
system frequency by controlling the speed of the generator
through water or steam flow control. Demiroren et al. [215]
designed the controller, taking into account the governor dead-
band effect and reheat effect in two area interconnected power
system. Ahamed et al. [216] have viewed AGC problem as a
stochastic multistage decision-making problem or a Markov Chain
control problem and have presented algorithm for design of AGC
based on a reinforcement learning approach. Talaq et al. [217]
proposed an adaptive controller which requires less training
patters as compared with a neural network based adaptive scheme
and performance is observed better than fixed gain controller.
5.2. Fuzzy logic
Fuzzy logic has been widely used in the control related problems
in power system. Contrary to the traditional control which is mostly
based on linearized mathematical model, the fuzzy logic control
approach solves the problem based on experience and knowledge
about the system. Indulkar et al. [218] initially designed a controller
using fuzzy logic for AGC and responses were compared with
classical integral controller. The LFC problem using fuzzy gain
scheduling of PI controllers in a four area interconnected power
system with dead-bands and GRC is addressed in [219]. Denna et al.
[220] have proposed used of tabu search algorithm for the automatic
definition of the fuzzy rules. Ghoshal [221] presented a self-adjusting,
fast acting fuzzy gain scheduling scheme for conventional integral
gain AGCs in a radial and ring connected three equal power system
areas. The study on two area interconnected thermal power system
with fuzzy controller is presented in [222,223]. Chia and Chun [224]
proposed a GA based fuzzy gain scheduling for two-area thermal
power system with consideration of governor dead-band and GRC. In
[54], the optimal integral and PID gains have been determined by GA.
An on-line fuzzy logic controller realization with GA in a 4-area
power system including GRC and saturation as nonlinearities for AGC
is presented in [67]. Juang and Lu [55] proposed fuzzy-PI controller to
decide adaptively the proper proportional and integral gains accord-
ing to the ACE and their changes. Saravuth et al. [225] focused their
study on multiple tabu search algorithm for fuzzy based PI load
frequency controller. A multi-stage fuzzy PID controller in a restruc-
tured power system is described in [84]. Sinha et al. [226] proposed
GA and PSO tuned fuzzy controller for AGC in three area power
system. The fuzzy logic controlled SMES as frequency stabilizer for
interconnected two-area thermal power system is proposed in [39].
The generation of optimal fuzzy rule based on fuzzy C-means
clustering for decentralized LFC in two-area reheat thermal power
system with GRC is proposed in [44]. The Type-2 fuzzy approach is
proposed for LFC of two-area interconnected power system including
SMES and considering GRC and boiler dynamics in [40].
Nowadays the complexity issues in power system are being
solved with the use of GAs, PSOs, bacterial foraging optimization
algorithm (BFA). These are some of the heuristic techniques having
immense capability of determining global optimum being dis-
cussed in subsequent subsections.
5.3. Genetic algorithms (GAs)
The GA is a global search optimization technique based on
operation of natural genetics and Darwinian survival-of-the-fittest
with a randomly structured information exchange. The GAs have
been widely applied to solve complex nonlinear optimization
problems in a number of engineering fields in general and in the
area of AGC of power systems in particular [52,92,227–233]. The
use of basic genetic algorithm on a digital computer to identify a
hydro-generator plant is discussed in [92]. Dangprasert et al. [234]
proposed GA based intelligent controller for LFC problem. The GA
based fuzzy gain scheduling approach for power system LFC is
discussed in [224,235]. Magid and Dawoud [228] proposed their
study on optimal adjustment of the classical AGC parameters using
GA. The use of controllers to regulate the power output and system
frequency by controlling the speed of the generator with the help
of fuel rack position control is presented in [227]. The authors in
[236] proposed GA for parameter optimization of PID sliding mode
LFC for AGC in multi-area power systems with nonlinear element.
Rerkpreedapong et al. [52] obtained a higher order robust dynamic
performance with LFC design based on GA and LMIs. Next, Ghoshal
[233] proposed GA/GA-SA-based fuzzy AGC scheme in a multi-area
thermal plant. The hybrid GA-SA technique yields more optimal
gain values than GA. Du and Li [67] proposed on-line fuzzy logic
controller realization by GA in AGC problem. In [55], the LFC by
fuzzy-PI controller is proposed. The optimization of control para-
meters for robust decentralized frequency stabilizer by using
micro GA is presented in [237]. A new design of multi-objective
evolutionary algorithm based decentralized load–frequency con-
trollers for interconnected power system with AC-DC parallel tie-
lines is proposed in [202]. Comparison of artificial intelligence
methods for LFC study is discussed in detailed in [238]. In [56], the
authors have discussed the design of load frequency controller in
 S.K. Pandey et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 25 (2013) 318–334
multi-area power system by use of multi-agent reinforcement
learning approach. The LFC problem for four-area power system
with discrete-sliding mode control using GA for proper tuning of
the gains is discussed in [69]. The multi-objective optimization
based GA used to optimize the gains of PI/PID-controllers for LFC
of three-area thermal power systems is presented in [61].
5.4. Particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithms
The PSO conducts searches using a population of particles
which correspond to individuals in the GA. The PSO is a population
based stochastic optimization technique, inspired by social beha-
vior of bird flocking or fish schooling. To ease the design effort and
thereby improve the performance of the controller, the design of
fuzzy PI controller by hybridizing GA and PSO is presented in [55].
With the use of control scheme based on adaptive neuro-fuzzy
inference and PSO with gains being updated in real time, a better
dynamic and steady state response is obtained in [86]. Similarly
the design of multi-objective PID controller for LFC based on
adaptive weighted particle swarm optimization in two-area power
system is described in [239,240]. Since PSO is less susceptible to
local optima unlike GA, SA, the heuristic evolutionary search
technique based hybrid particle swarm optimization has been
adopted for determination of optimal PID gains for LFC in four-area
power systems having deregulation environments [89].
5.5. Tabu search algorithms (TSA) and bacterial foraging
optimization algorithm (BFOA)
The TSA is an iterative search that starts from some initial
feasible solution and attempts to determine a better solution in
the manner of a hill-climbing algorithm. The TSA has a flexible
memory which maintains the information about the past step of
search and uses it to create and exploit the better solutions.
Maurizio et al. [220] presented an approach for the automatic
definition of fuzzy rules in fuzzy controller based on TSA and the
authors describe improvement in learning of fuzzy rule by using
heuristic symbolic meta rules. Saravuth et al. [225] presented a
new optimization technique of a fuzzy logic based PI-LFC by the
multiple tabu search algorithm.
Another known optimization techniques; the BFOA is moti-
vated by the natural selection which tends to eliminate the
animals with poor foraging strategies and favor those having
successful foraging strategy. The foraging strategy is governed by
four processes namely chemotaxis, swarming, reproduction, elim-
ination and dispersal. The fractional-order-PID controller tuned by
bacterial foraging technique is used for LFC in three-area power
systems with deregulated environment in [88], including other
parameters such as order of integrator and differentiator of PID
controller also tuned by BF approach. The investigation on effect of
redox flow batteries that coordinate with intertie power flow
controller for LFC in two-area interconnected system is presented
in [46], having gain of integral controller tuned by BFA.
6. Other controllers for LFC
6.1. Variable structure controller
The variable structure controllers change the system structure
in accordance to some law of structure change, in order to improve
the dynamic performance and thereby make the controller insen-
sitive to the plant parameter changes. Hsu and Chan [25] proposed
the LFC problem for interconnected two-area hydro-thermal
power systems using the theory of variable-structure systems
and linear optimal control theory. A discreet version of a variable
325
structure controller for two area thermal and multi-area inter-
connected power system with consideration of nonlinearities,
such as GRC and governor dead band is presented in [64]. Malik
et al. [65] presented a study based on the concepts of discontin-
uous control, dual-mode control and variable structure systems for
four-area interconnected power systems including nonlinearities.
Similarly, Yang et al. [66] proposed a decentralized controller
based on the structured singular values.
6.2. Robust controller
The conventional LFC is mostly simple classical tuned controller,
having parameter adjustments heuristically. Thus, it is incapable of
providing good dynamical performance over a wide range of
operating conditions and various load scenarios. Thus, novel model-
ing approach is strongly required to obtain a new trade off between a
market outcome and market dynamic (robustness). The robust
controller based on Riccati-equation approach is presented in
[3,12,51,200,241,242]. Goshaidas et al. [242] have presented a robust
controller based on the Riccati-equation in single area thermal power
system. Lim et al. [51] proposed a decentralized load frequency
controller based on the Riccati-equation approach in three area
power systems with parametric uncertainties. Robust controller for
LFC in a deregulated two area thermal power systems by using a
m-synthesis approach is given in [243]. Similarly the controller based
on H∞ control design using LMI technique in order to obtain
robustness against uncertainties is presented in [52]. A decentralized
H∞ damping control design based on the mixed-sensitivity formula-
tion in the LMI framework is reported in [244].
A new decentralized robust control strategy based on the mixed
H2/H∞ control technique for LFC problem in a deregulated three area
power systems is proposed in [83,85]. Ngamroo et al. [237] proposed
robust decentralized frequency stabilizer design of static synchronous
series compensators by taking system uncertainties into consideration
for three area interconnected power system. The design of robust PI
controller for LFC in three area interconnected power system based on
H∞ static output feedback control technique is solved by using a
developed iterative LMI is addressed in [245]. Robust analysis and
design of load frequency controller is described in [246].
The LMI approach based LFC including communication delays is
proposed in [57], while a robust decentralized PI controller design
based on the mixed H2/H∞ control technique using LMI approach
for three-area interconnected power systems with communication
delays is proposed in [58]. The robust decentralized LFC for four-
area interconnected power systems is proposed in [71], in which a
detailed structured singular value method is proposed for local-
area robustness analysis, and an eigenvalue method is derived for
tie-line robustness analysis. The design of decentralized robust
controller based on the concept of active disturbance rejection
control is proposed in [62]. The authors [5] investigate the delay-
dependent stability of the LFC scheme by using Lyaponuv-theory
based delay-dependent criterion and LMI techniques for one-area
and multi-area LFC schemes installed with PI-controllers. The
delay-dependent/independent design of H∞ controller for LFC of
two-area interconnected power system is presented in [45].
7. Use of SMES, BESS and facts devices in conventional power
systems
7.1. SMES and BESS
In order to reduce the system frequency deviation to a mini-
mum value, the storage system such as SMES or battery energy
storage system (BESS) can be incorporated. The use of BESS to
improve the LFC dynamics of West Berlin Electric Supply System
326 S.K. Pandey et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 25 (2013) 318–334
has been presented in [247]. Aditya and Das [248] have revealed
that use of BESS is helpful in meeting sudden requirements of real
power and is effective in reducing the peak deviations of fre-
quency and tie-line power. Thus it reduces the steady-state values
of time error and inadvertent interchange accumulations. Banerjee
et al. [29] presented the effectiveness of small sized magnetic
energy storage units (both superconducting and normal loss
types) to improve the load-frequency dynamics of two-area
thermal power system. Chun et al. [249] studied the effect of
governor dead-band and GRC, along with the effect of BESS on LFC.
Tetsuo [250] presented the rechargeable batteries such as redox
flow, which are not aged by frequent charging and discharging. It
is said to have a quick response equivalent to SMES and out-
standing overload capability. Fuzzy gain scheduled SMES unit for
improvement of LFC in two-area thermal power system is pre-
sented in [251]. Tripathi and Juengst [252] have presented feasi-
bility of using an IGBT convertor instead of thyristor convertor as a
power conditioning system with the SEMS. An improved system
transient response with SMES has been achieved. Some more
applications of SMES for improving the LFC are also mentioned in
[253–257].
7.2. Flexible AC transmission systems (FACTS) devices
In last one or two decade, the use of FACTS devices has become
a common practice in order to make full utilization of existing
transmission capacities instead of adding new lines. El-Emary and
El-Shibina [258] have presented a new technique of AGC regulator
design based on static var compensators (SVC). The thyristor
controlled phase shifter (TCPS) is expected to be an effective
apparatus for the tie-line power flow control in an interconnected
power system. It injects a variable series voltage to affect the
power flow by modifying the phase angle. The design of decen-
tralized controller based on GA with and without redox flow
batteries including TCPS is presented in [203]. The used of TCPS to
provide an active control facility of LFC problem in the deregulated
three-area power system is presented in [259]. In [237] a robust
decentralized frequency stabilizer design through static synchro-
nous compensators by taking system uncertainties in considera-
tion is proposed.
The LFC of interconnected two-area system with one area as
multi-unit of all-hydro power system and second area as all-
thermal/thermal-hydro mixed have been investigated in [260].
The authors present a coordinated control between TCPS and SMES,
with the gains of the integral controller in AGC loop and parameters
of TCPS/SMES being optimized by craziness-based PSO.
8. LFC in distributed generation power systems
The above sections presented LFC issues in conventional power
systems. However, with rapid decline of the fossil fuel and
advancement in green energy, the DG such as wind, solar comes
into play to meet the scarcity of load demand. Hence the LFC
problem associated with DG is discussed in the subsequent
section.
8.1. PV, wind farms, diesel engine and energy storage system based
hybrid DG
The PV power generating systems are expected to play a key
role in meeting future demands for electricity. The relatively high
cost of PV generated electricity makes it attractive only for remote
stand-alone loads or small applications. In isolated operation of
wind–diesel–photovoltaic hybrid power system, the intermittency
in wind speed, and solar radiation causes a large fluctuation in
system power and frequency. The influence of PV power genera-
tion on LFC is presented in [261]. Besides BESS, SMES units, a
favorable effect of integrating a FC into the power system has also
been evident [262]. The authors [133] presented a coordinated
control approach for output power fluctuation leveling of PV
systems using fuzzy logic concept with consideration of power
system condition and insolation condition. A coordinated control
approach based on the minimal-order observer for the LFC
problem is presented in [132]. The LFC problem of isolated
utility-connected large PV-diesel hybrid power system based on
simple fuzzy logic approach is also proposed in [263].
The LFC problem becomes complex by integration of wind farm
grid because of the fluctuating output power due to intermittent
nature of wind speed. Thus in such cases, the LFC needs to be
addressed differently. The studies related to LFC incorporating the
dynamics of wind farms are presented in [264–267]. In [264], the
authors have presented modification in unit commitment, eco-
nomic dispatch, regulation and frequency controls, when the level
of wind generation capacity is significant. Curtice et al. [265]
presented a study to analyze the effects of small wind turbines
output on the LFC. The effect of large number small wind turbines
on LFC is presented in [94]. The LFC of WT based power system is
discussed in [268]. In [269], a wind-turbine driven self-excited
induction generator is considered as variable speed, constant
voltage, and constant frequency supply with isolated resistive load
connected. The simplified model is used to develop a control
strategy that aims to maintain the generator terminal voltage and
frequency constant in case of variations in the load and/or wind
speed. The wind farms with HVDC with participation in LFC or
active power sharing during system load or generation change is
discussed in [116].
In [128], frequency control method is presented by the WF and
the BESS using load estimation, in which the frequency deviation
in low and high frequency domain are reduced by the WF using
pitch angle control and charge/discharge, respectively. The fre-
quency control with controlling speed of wind turbine is pre-
sented in [270–285]. The frequency support from DFIG wind
turbines are presented in [101–109,111]. The wind–diesel hybrid
system is an economically viable action for large as well as small
communities. Bhatti et al. [100] designed a load frequency con-
troller for isolated wind–diesel hybrid power systems, and eval-
uated its effect on the transient performance of the system.
Milanovic and Soultanis [286] analyzed the operation of autono-
mous wind–diesel system with the load control. The study is
carried out using the PSCAD/EMTDC computer simulation package.
Next, the authors in [121] analyzed the effect of stand-alone
hybrid power system consisting WTGs, DEG, FC, and AE on
frequency variation. Goya et al. [126] presented H∞ control theory
based on droop characteristics for the frequency control by using
parallel operated battery in isolated island. The PSO based design
of the robust fuzzy logic-based-PID controller for LFC in isolated
wind–diesel hybrid power system is proposed in [100]. The design
of robust frequency controller of SMES in a hybrid wind–diesel
power system by using loop shaping control technique and tuning
of controller parameters using GA is discussed in [127].
The time-domain simulation for small-signal analysis of a
hybrid power generation/energy storage system is presented in
[135]. The authors concluded that the power generation from the
WTG, PV, DEG, and FC with energy stored or released from the
FESS/BESS can effectively meet the variations in load power
demand. Also, the system frequency deviation can be properly
controlled within a very small range. The impact of wind power
generation on system frequency control is discussed in [130].
The LFC by coordination control of WTG and the double layer
capacitor in an autonomous hybrid renewable energy power
generation is presented in [137]. In the proposed method, the
 S.K. Pandey et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 25 (2013) 318–334
load variation is reduced in low and high frequency domain by FC
and capacitor, respectively. The GA based PID controller for LFC of
autonomous hybrid generation systems consisting different
renewable energy generation/storage systems such as three WTGs,
a DEG, FCs and a PV, a BESS, and an FESS is proposed in [40]. The
frequency control of wind energy storage system (BESS taken as
energy storage system) based on model predictive control
approach, having tested on real measurement from a power grid
is discussed in [138].
The authors [263] presented a stable active power control of
DFIG with wind power variations. Depending upon the rotor speed
condition, the DFIG can be controlled to trace operator's active
power command. The moving-average with K deviation method is
also introduced to preserve a certain amount of wind power
reserve for wind power frequency regulation in the study. The
LFC of two/three-area interconnected power system in the DFIG
based wind turbine using the model predictive control (MPC)
technique is proposed in [139]. The robust performance is demon-
strated against uncertainties due to governors and turbines para-
meters variation and load disturbances. The LFC of variable speed,
variable pitch wind generators are discussed in [144], in which
two control strategies are used. The first one is based on over-
speeding, de-loading for wind speed control to avoid over loading
of the converter of DFIG, and second one uses pitch-controlled de-
loading fast LFC action. The dynamic participation of DFIG based
wind farm for LFC with coordinated control of TCPS and SMES is
proposed in [141], while in [142], the identical thermal intercon-
nected two-area power system with DFIG based WTs is considered
for LFC including frequency linked pricing. The LFC for three-area
interconnected power system with high penetration of WTs, using
fuzzy logic approach is proposed in [147]. The authors [134]
presented an integrated control approach for WF to control the
frequency deviations of wind–diesel power system. In study, the
frequency control is achieved by load estimation and short-term
ahead wind speed prediction. The minimal-order observer as
disturbance observer is used for load estimation, while the least-
squares method is used for the prediction of short-term ahead
wind speed. The predicted wind speed adjusts the output power
command of the WF as a multiplying factor with fuzzy logic
concept. The authors [140] proposed mathematical modeling of
several types of wind generators taking into account their depen-
dence with respect to system frequency variations. These models
are then implemented in a Newton-based power flow algorithm
with frequency control devices to estimate their electrical
response after the action of the primary frequency regulation.
8.2. Other DG systems
Wayne et al. [287] presented transient stability analysis for
Sohio Prudhoe Bay emergency power system. A small-isolated
power system of such type is susceptible to stability problems.
These power systems, having two or more generator sets operat-
ing in parallel with remarkably different mechanical and control
characteristics, require transient stability analysis. These are
defined having unit ratings less than 100 kW. They are often
situated in remote communities or area. Douglas [288] described
the original research and development of microprocessor based
electronic load governor that incorporates three-phase balancing.
The combined study and testing of transient behavior of the
governor indicated the need for an improved control algorithm.
Doolla and Bhatti [97] presented a novel technique for LFC in an
isolated small-hydro plant. In general, the frequency is controlled
by using a dummy load, whose rating is equal to the rated output
power of the plant. The scheme proposed reduces the size of the
dummy load by controlling input power of the hydro power plant
using on/off control strategy. Kourosh et al. [98] discussed study of a
327
distribution system that has enough generation to track its load
without the help of a substation. Specifically, it addresses the
presence of solid-oxide fuel cells in the DG mix. Two control loops
are proposed (i) to guarantee that the fuel cell is protected by
maintaining its cell utilization within its admissible range and (ii) to
track load changes and regulate the frequency. A distribution area
error is introduced to formulate the frequency-control problem.
In [289], the authors presented a method for cooperative
control of DC power feeding system with power producer and
supplier owned dispersed generators under the balancing rule. In
this work, FC, PV and ultracapacitor as dispersed generators are
introduced. Prakash et al. [112] proposed small-signal analysis of
isolated as well as interconnected autonomous hybrid DG system
for sudden variation in load demand, wind speed and solar
radiation. The hybrid systems compromise of different renewable
energy resources such as wind, PV, FC and DEG along with the
energy storage like battery and flywheel units. Further, in the
study, ultra-capacitors as an alternative energy storage element
and interconnection of hybrid system through tie-line are incor-
porated into the system for improved performance. Katiraei et al.
[99] addressed real and reactive power management strategies of
electronically interfaced DG units in the context of a multiple-DG
micro-grid system. Prakash et al. [290] presented LFC of isolated
autonomous hybrid system consisting of different renewable
energy resources. The GA based load–frequency PI controller
of an autonomous hybrid generation system is presented in
[291,292].
The supplementary LFC method by use of a number of both
electric vehicle and heat pump water heater as controllable loads
is proposed in [143]. The aggregate LFC of a wind-hydro autono-
mous micro-grid system is described in [145]. The LFC by PHEVs,
controllable loads, and a cogeneration unit is discussed in [146].
The authors [148] address the current AGC structure and its
drawbacks, and new AGC with cyber architecture to accommodate
intermittency of high penetration, non-dispatchable distributed
energy resources for smart power grids. The autonomous distrib-
uted vehicle to grid control scheme providing a distributed
spinning reserve for the unexpected intermittency of the renew-
able energy sources is proposed in [149]. The study presents a
droop control based on the frequency deviation at plug-in term-
inal. The aggregated electric vehicle-based battery storage repre-
senting vehicle to grid system, modeled for use in long-term
dynamic power system is proposed in [150].
9. Conclusion
The techniques and strategies of LFC for conventional and DG
systems attracted much discussion in the recent past. An effort has
been made to present critical and comprehensive revive on this
subject. Emphasis has been given how to tackle the LFC issues in
DG system. A detail survey has been done and presented. Light has
been thrown on categorizing various power system structure/
layout reported in the literature that focusses on LFC control
techniques adopted and their shortcomings. It has been observed
in this literature survey that most of the researchers have done
work on LFC problems confined to conventional power system.
Some of the statistical attributes in time domain are given in the
Appendix. Further, it can be said that there exists a lot of research
opportunities in DG systems on issues related to LFC. This survey
paper will serve as a valuable reference for researchers to work on
LFC problem in DG system.
Appendix
Please see Table A1.
Table A1

328
Short summary of time domain performance.

Comparative results of Ref. [39,42] and [40].

Ref. no. Configuration of system Control approach Operating conditions Undershoot [pu] Settling time (s)

Δf1 Δf2 ΔPtie Δf1 Δf2 ΔPtie

[39] Two-area reheat thermal power system Fuzzy logic controlled SMES stabilizer Without GDZ but with PI SMES −0.029 −0.019 −0.08 4.5 4.5 5
with governor dead zone(GDZ), GRC, and and conventional PI SMES stabilizer SMES ΔPd1 ¼ 0.02 pu FL SMES −0.02 −0.014 −0.005 4.5 4.5 5
coordination of SMES Without GDZ but with PI SMES −0.019 −0.025 +0.008 (Overshoot) 5.5 5 5
SMES ΔPd2 ¼ 0.02 pu FL SMES −0.012 −0.02 +0.005 (Overshoot) 5 4.8 4.8
[42] Two-area with multi-units of three type Integral Controller and its gain and Hydro-Hydro −0.49 −0.39 −0.121 50 70 45
of systems with TCPS and SMES parameters of TCPS and SMES ΔPd1 ¼ ΔPd2 ¼ 0.02 pu
is optimized by CPSO Thermal–thermal −0.18 −0.22 ——————— 15 20 —————
ΔPd1 ¼ ΔPd2 ¼ 0.02 pu

S.K. Pandey et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 25 (2013) 318–334
Thermal–hydro −0.19 −0.55 ——————— 50 50 —————
ΔPd1 ¼ ΔPd2 ¼ 0.02 pu
[40] Two-area reheat thermal power system Type-2 fuzzy logic controller ΔPd1 ¼ 0.01 pu −0.015 −0.012 −0.003 12 12 15
with boiler dynamic effect and SMES ΔPd2 ¼ 0.01 pu −0.013 −0.013 +0.0005(Overshoot) 10 11 15
ΔPd1 ¼ ΔPd2 ¼ 0.01 pu −0.013 −0.017 −0.0001 13 10 20
Comparative results of Ref. [52] and [61].

Ref. no. Configuration of system Controller design Control structure Operating conditions │ACE1│ Avg [pu] │ACE2│ Avg [pu] │ACE3│ Avg [pu]

[52] Interconnected three-area thermal power systems GALMI based PI PI ΔPd1 ¼ 100 MW, ΔPd2 ¼80 MW ΔPd3 ¼ 50 MW 0.0122 0.0096 0.0056
H∞ 9th order ΔPd1 ¼ 100 MW, ΔPd2 ¼80 MW ΔPd3 ¼ 50 MW 0.0104 0.0102 0.0103
[61] GA based PI PI ΔPd1 ¼ 100 MW, ΔPd2 ¼80 MW ΔPd3 ¼ 50 MW 0.0104 0.0071 0.0063
ΔPd1 ¼ 100 MW, ΔPd2 ¼80 MW ΔPd3 ¼ 50 MW 0.0103 0.0087 0.0114
Results of Ref. [57,58] and [5].

Ref. no. Configuration of system Controller design Operating conditions Undershoot [pu]

Δf1 Δf2 Δf3

[57] Interconnected three-area thermal power LMI based LFC Conventional AGC 0.001 0.001 0.005
systems with time delays AGC with full state LMI control 0.001 0.0012 0.004
AGC with LMI decentralized control 0.007 0.0098 0.0035
LMI controller with ACE delays and telemetry delays 0.007 0.0013 0.004
to the control areas of 4 s, 2 s and 4 s, respectively
[58] Multi-area connected systems Iterative LMI via H2/H∞ based PI controller 5 s delay with 0.1 pu step load increase 0.004
(four generating units as one control area) 8 s delay with 0.1 pu step load increase 0.005
6 s delay with a sequence of step load changes The frequency deviation and ACE of the control area are properly maintained
within a narrow band with smooth control efforts.
[5] Interconnected three-area thermal power LMI based PI controller Integral controller (KI ¼0.05) Delay margin is within the range of [3.1 s, 3.4 s] for Stability region.
systems with time delays PI controller (KP ¼ 0.2, KI ¼ 0.05)
Results of Ref. [139,141] and [147].

Ref. Configuration of system Control approach Operating conditions Undershoot [pu] Settling time (s)
no.
Δf1 Δf2 ΔPtie Δf1 Δf2 ΔPtie

[139] Two-area and three-area Model predictive control Conventional integrator With MPC and WT 0.04 0.03 0.01 12 12 15
thermal power system with (MPC) technique K(s) ¼ −0.3/s, ΔPL ¼ 0.02 pu, (two-area system)
wind turbines (WTs) With MPC and without WT 0.045 0.03 0.01 15 15 20
(two-area system)
Governor and turbine time With MPC and WT two-area system 0.03 0.02 0.01 7 7 8
constants are increased to 0.02 0.01 +0.005 8 8 10
 S.K. Pandey et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 25 (2013) 318–334 329

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