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ABSTRACT: This paper reviews the most common non-destructive testing (NDT) methods of concrete struc-
tures as utilized by the structural engineering industry. The fundamentals of NDT methods are explored in re-
gards to their potential, limitations, inspection techniques and interpretations. The factors that influence the
success of NDT methods are discussed and ways to mediate their influence are recommended. Reference is
made to standard guidelines for the application and interpretation of the discussed NDT methods. NDT of
concrete was found to be gaining increasing acceptance as a means of evaluating the strength, uniformity, du-
rability and other properties of existing concrete structures. Perceptions of NDT inadequacy were attributable
to lack of understanding construction materials and NDT methods themselves. The intent of this paper is to
address these concerns by identifying and describing the most common successful methods of NDT as ap-
plied to concrete structures.
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Special Issue: Electronic Journal of Structural Engineering 14(1) 2015
Understanding the physical nature of the interac- lated to compressive and flexural strength (Akashi &
tion of the probing field with the test material Amasaki, 1984).
Understanding the potential limitations of availa- Operation of the Standard Rebound Hammer re-
ble NDT technology; quires less mechanical skills as compared to other
Considering economic, environmental, regulatory methods of NDT. A visual examination of the con-
and other factors. crete surface should be conducted prior to the test in
order to identify a smooth surface suitable for test-
There is a wide range of NDT methods which are ing. The test can be conducted in any directional an-
used by the civil and structural engineering industry. gle where calibration charts are used to mitigate the
While there appears to be ample technical literature different effects of gravity (Fig. 1). The hammer is
regarding NDT of concrete, there is a lack of collab- pressed against the concrete surface until a spring
oration between civil engineers, NDT researchers loaded mass is released causing the plunger to im-
and specialists. The intent of this paper is to bridge pact against the surface and rebound a distanced
the gap by identifying and describing the most measured by a slide indicator (Fig. 2). The meas-
common methods of NDT as applied to concrete ured distance is referred to as the rebound number.
structures.
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Special Issue: Electronic Journal of Structural Engineering 14(1) 2015
prepared and tested by both Standard Rebound ASTM C 803-02: Standard Test Method for Pen-
Hammer and compression-testing machine. The re- etration Resistance of Hardened Concrete;
sults of the two tests are then integrated into a sim- BS 1881-207 Testing Concrete - Recommenda-
ple regression analysis model which yields an em- tions for the assessments of concrete strength by
pirical correlation by means of ordinary least near-to-surface tests.
squares. The following publications present standard The penetration of the Windsor probe creates dy-
guidelines for the application and interpretation that namic stresses that lead to the crushing and fractur-
govern the standard rebound test: ing of the near-surface concrete (Fig. 4). A cone-
ASTM C 805: Standard Test Method for Re- shaped zone develops upon penetration, which en-
bound Number of Hardened Concrete; compasses fracturing and is resisted by the compres-
BS EN 12504-2:2012: Testing Concrete in Struc- sion of the adjacent concrete. The resistance is em-
tures - Non-destructive Testing - Determination pirically correlated to probe penetration depth;
of Rebound Number. however, empirical relationships provided by manu-
facturers often yield unsatisfactory results. There-
The Standard Rebound Hammer provides a sim- fore, test-specific correlation procedures should be
ple, easy and inexpensive method to estimate con- conducted utilizing penetration methods and com-
crete strength properties. However, the results of the pression-testing machine in order to achieve more
test on concrete are affected by various factors such accurate correlation charts.
as smoothness of the surface, geometric properties
of the test specimen, age of the test specimen, sur-
face and internal moisture conditions of the con-
crete, type of coarse aggregate, type of cement, type
of mold and carbonation of the concrete surface
(Malhotra, 2004). Strength estimation from rebound
readings of specimens similar to correlation curve
specimens are achieved within an accuracy of 15%
to 20% (Concrete Institute of Australia, 2008). It is
therefore recommended that the standard rebound
hammer test be used as a method of testing variabil-
ity of strength properties between concrete samples
rather than as a substitute for standard compression
testing.
2.2 Penetration resistance method Figure 3. Components of the Windsor Probe System (As
adapted from http://www.ntu.edu.sg/)
Penetration resistance methods are invasive NDT
procedures that explore the strength properties of
concrete using previously established correlations.
These methods involve driving probes into concrete
samples using a uniform force. Measuring the
probe's depth of penetration provides an indication
of concrete compressive strength by referring to cor-
relations. Due to the insignificant effect of the pene-
tration resistance methods on the structural integrity
of the probed sample, the tests are considered to be
non-destructive despite the disturbance of the con-
crete during penetration.
The most commonly used penetration resistance
method is the Windsor probe system. The system
consists of a powder-actuated gun, which drives
hardened allow-steel probes into concrete samples
while measuring penetration distance via a depth
gauge (Fig. 3). The following publications present
standard guidelines for the application and interpre-
Figure 4. Schematic diagram of typical concrete failure mecha-
tation that govern penetration testing: nism during probe penetration (Malhotra & Carette, 2004)
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Special Issue: Electronic Journal of Structural Engineering 14(1) 2015
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Special Issue: Electronic Journal of Structural Engineering 14(1) 2015
disc area and is used to determine the compressive The results for tensile strength are often within
strength of concrete by using previously established 20% of the true tensile strength (Concrete Institute
empirical correlations. The following publications of Australia, 2008). The factors that most contribute
present standard guidelines for pull-off resistance to the variability of results are the size and type of
testing: coarse aggregates (Henderson, Basheer, & Long,
ASTM D 4541-109e1: Standard Test Method for 2004). It is recommended to develop correlation
Pull-Off Strength of Coatings Using Portable Ad- charts using samples that match testing conditions
hesion Testers; and to conduct the test several times using different
BS 1881-207: Testing Concrete - Recommenda- sized disks in order to increase confidence by re-
tions for the assessments of concrete strength by peatability.
near-to-surface tests.
(1)
(2)
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Special Issue: Electronic Journal of Structural Engineering 14(1) 2015
2.8 Ultrasonic pulse velocity method Figure 10. Ultrasonic pulse velocity test apparatus
(Adapted from http://www.controls-group.com)
Ultrasonic pulse velocity methods involve propagat-
ing ultrasonic waves in solids while measuring the The factors contributing to the variability of ul-
time taken for the waves to propagate between a trasonic pulse velocity methods as applied to con-
sending and receiving point. The features of ultra- crete are aggregate properties, cement type, water-
sonic wave propagation can be used to characterize a cement ratio, admixtures and age of concrete (Naik,
material's composition, structure, elastic properties, Malhotra, & Popovics, 2004). Additionally, embed-
density and geometry using previously established ded reinforcement in the pulse path may have a sig-
correlations, known patterns and mathematical rela- nificant effect on the measurements of pulse velocity
tionships. This non-invasive technique is also used (Concrete Institute of Australia, 2008). By taking
to detect and describe flaws in material as well as these factors into account during analysis, ultrasonic
their severity of damage by observing the scattering pulse velocity methods are excellent means for in-
of ultrasonic waves. vestigating the uniformity and durability of concrete
The basic technique of ultrasonic pulse velocity in a simple and inexpensive manner.
methods involve the transformation of a voltage
pulse to an ultrasonic pulse and back by a transmit-
ting and receiving transducer respectively. The 2.9 Impact-echo method
transmitting transducer is placed onto the concrete
surface and is allowed to transmit an ultrasonic pulse The impact-echo system is a recent development of
through the specimen medium. The ultrasonic pulse ultrasonic methods which involves the measuring of
travels through the concrete specimen and is detect- concrete thickness and integrity using one surface.
ed by a receiving transducer at the opposite end The test is also applied to determine the location of
which transforms the ultrasonic pulse to a voltage cracking, voids and delamination. It is based on
pulse (Fig. 10). Knowing the distance between the monitoring the surface motion of concrete resulting
two points, the velocity of the wave pulse can be de- from a short-duration mechanical impact. Specifical-
termined. The velocity of the ultrasonic pulse pro- ly, the test measures the amplitude of reflected shock
vides a detailed account of the specimen under in- waves to detect flaws in concrete.
vestigation. The following publications present The impact-echo system uses an electro-
standard guidelines for ultrasonic pulse velocity test- mechanical transducer to generate a short pulse of
ing: ultrasonic stress waves that propagates into concrete
ASTM C 597: Standard Test Method for Pulse plate-like structures. The different materials of dif-
Velocity Through Concrete; ferent densities and elastic properties will reflect the
BS EN 12504-4:2004 Testing Concrete. Determi- stress pulse at their boundaries. The reflected pulse
nation of Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity. travels back to the transducer, which also acts as a
receiver. An oscilloscope displays the received sig-
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Special Issue: Electronic Journal of Structural Engineering 14(1) 2015
4 CONCLUSION
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Special Issue: Electronic Journal of Structural Engineering 14(1) 2015
fluence were recommended. It was found that the Kolek, J. (1969). Non-destructive testing of
majority of NDT methods rely on comparing tested concrete by hardness methods. London: Institute
parameters with established correlations. Empirical of Civil Engineers.
relationships provided by manufacturers were found Malhotra, V. (2004). Surface Hardness Methods.
to often provide unsatisfactory results. Where appli- In V. Malhotra, & N. Carino, Handbook on
cable, it is recommended to conduct test-specific Nondestructive Testing of Concrete (pp. 1-9).
correlation procedures for the NDT of concrete. New York: CRC Press.
Malhotra, V., & Carette, G. (2004). Penetration
Resistance Methods. In V. Maholtra, & N.
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