INTRODUCTION: Soil is formed in layers due to the physical, chemical, and biological processes that include

transformation of soil materials. Soil mechanics is basically the study of soil and its properties in regard to
construction purposes.

What is Soil Mechanics?

Soil mechanics is a discipline of civil engineering that predicts the soil performance characteristics utilizing the
engineering techniques of dynamics, fluid mechanics, and other technologies. Soil mechanics includes the study of
soil composition, strength, consolidation, and the use of hydraulic principles to deal with issues concerning sediments
and other deposits. Soil mechanics is one of the major sciences for resolving problems related to geology and
geophysical engineering. Soil mechanics studies are very important for civil engineers because based on the findings
of soil mechanics studies, engineering structures are constructed. The type of construction, type of equipment to be
used, type of foundation, support material, and many other aspects of construction works are largely affected by the
soil mechanics studies. Basically we study about soil formation modes, physical and chemical properties of soil,
dynamic loading of soils, permeability, consolidation, etc. In the subsequent sections of this article, we will discuss in
detail about major aspects of soil mechanics studies.

Formation of Soils
Soil is a combination of minerals and organic elements that are in solid, gaseous, and aqueous form. Soil consists of
particle layers that are different from the original materials in their physical, mineralogical, and chemical properties
because of the interactions between the atmosphere and hydrosphere and other reasons. The particles of the soil are
created from broken rocks that have been changed due to the chemical and environmental effects, including weather
and erosion. Particles of soil are filled loosely, creating a soil formation that consists of pore spaces. Studying soil
formation modes is important because it helps in determining properties of soil. Cohesiveness, adhesiveness, acidity
of soil, and other related factors can easily be determined by knowing about the type of soil w have to deal with. We
cannot draw any concrete conclusions merely by conducting soil studies but we surely can narrow our research
parameters by studying the basic characteristics of soil like color, texture, and nature of soil.

Basic Characteristics of Soils

Soil consists of different phases of solid, liquid, and gas and its characteristics depend on the interacting behavior of
these phases, and on the stress applied. The solid phase includes clay, non-clay minerals, and organic matter. These
elements are categorized by their size as clay, sand, and gravel. The liquid phase is composed of water that contains
organic compounds available from chemical spills, wastes, and ground water, while the gas phase is normally air.
The size, form, chemical properties, compressibility, and load carrying capability of the soil particles are determined
by soil mineralogy, which is a science related with the chemistry, structure, and physical properties of minerals. The
structure of a soil depends upon the arrangement of particles, particle groups, pore spaces, and the composition.
These basic characteristics determine the type of structure to be built and what external support measures, if any,
has to be taken to make the structure last long and bear the effects of earthquake, water seepage, and other external
factors.

SOIL: Is that upper part of the earth’s surface which is essential for the growth of
plant, It is a natural material on which man, animals and plants depend for food.

FACTORS OF SOIL FORMATION

There are five major features or factors that influence the formation of soil. These
are: Nature of parent material, Topography of the area, climate, living organism
and time.
Parent material: Constitute the major materials from which soil is formed and has
a great influence on the type of soil that is formed. The chemical and mineral
composition of the parent materials is the aspect which controls the nature of soil
formed.

Parent materials are important in the following ways:

1. They determine the properties of the soil e.g. coarse, grain soils are formed
from granite or gneiss.
2. Rocks containing calcite, field spar will produce deep heavy soils like
clayey soils.
3. Shale and limestone parent material yield soils that are fine – textured,
poorly drained and with high mineral content.
4. Most rocks do not have nitrogen, hence soils lack nitrogen and therefore it
is fixed into the soil through the nitrogen cycle.
5. Quartz, hornblende and mica will form poor soils like sandy soils

Topography: Topography refers to the surface features of the earth crust such as
valleys or flat land, hills it also means the shape of the land in relation of the
underlying rocks of the earth surface. These effects may include the following:

I. The shape of the land influences the movement and amount of water in the
soil.
II. Hilly and sloppy surface support erosion and encourage soil formation.
III. Flatland exposes the whole surface to equal environmental factors and
therefore delays soil formation.
IV. Temperature and pressure are also influenced by the topography e.g they
are low in a hill and high in the valley.
Climate: This appears to be the most influential of all the factors responsible for
the mature of weathering that occurs in rock. The following are element of climatic
factors: Temperature, rainfall, wind, sunshine, pressure and relative humidity. Joy
not completed, please complete it.

Living Organism: This refers to the activities of plants, micro organisms like
bacteria, fungi, protozoa and macro organism like termites, earthworm, rodents
and man. The activities of living organisms help to speed up the process of soil
formation in the following ways.

1. Soil organisms like termite, earthworm, rodents eat deep into the soil and
mix the mineral and organic matter together resulting in the formation of
soil.
 2. Soil micro-organisms like fungi, bacteria, protozoa and the decomposition
of organic materials.
3. The activities of man during farming operations help to break rocks into
tiny particles to form soil.
4. Plants and animals living in the soil help to break down soil parent
materials.
5. The roots of plants grow into openings in the rocks, physically forcing the
rocks apart into tiny particles.

Time: This plays important role in soil formation. The time taken for the rock to
disintegrate into soil particles may be short or long, therefore it is important in the
following ways:

1. Determine the age of the soil, if it is a young or an old soil

2. It can also change young soils which have not reached equilibrium to old
soil
3. It takes a long time for small piece of rock to disintegrate into grains of
soil.
4. IT takes time for plants to decay and become part of the soil.
5. Old soils are rich in everything because all the factors like climate, parent
material, topography and living organisms take time to register their
effects on the soil formed.

PROCESSES OF SOIL FORMATION

Rocks are broken down into smaller rocks and into the individual minerals that
made up rocks. Therefore the integration or breakdown of rocks into tiny particles
to form soil is called Weathering.

Therefore soil formation involves series of processes which result in the reduction
of massive rocks to form soil. These processes could be: (a) Physical weathering
(b) Biological weathering ( c ) Chemical weathering.

Physical weathering: The agents are mostly climatic factors which involve the
action of Wind, Temperature, Ice and water on rocks.

Wind: This is more active in dry areas, it carries some dangerous particles

Temperature: Rocks are composed of different minerals, which have different

rates of expansions and contractions when heated. This difference in expansion
and contraction due to alternative heating and cooling of rocks leads to cracks and
encourage the removal of outer surface from the parent mass and consequent
breakdown of rocks into small particles.

Ice: This result from the action of water in the cracks which eventually becomes
ice due to low temperature. The freezing of water in cracks leads to increase in
volume and the pressure exerted on the cracks widens and dislodges the rock,
which eventually break into smaller pieces.

Water: Running water loaded with sediments such as fragments of rocks, wood
and other solid materials along its course, can wear down smaller pieces of rocks
to form soil.

Biological weathering: This involves the activities of plants and animals in the
breaking down of rocks. The movement of these organisms causes small fragments
of rock to break-off. Examples:

I. Animals such as rodents, termites, earthworms, etc digs into soil and beak
off fragments of rocks.
II. The roots of higher plants penetrate through crevices, releases certain
substances which causes dissolution of minerals and exerting pressures
which split some rocks.
III. The activities of man during farm operation and construction are known to
bring about break down of rocks into smaller units such as Plough and
Harrow and when earth moving machines are employed.
Chemical weathering: This is the decomposition of rocks into primary minerals
due t5o chemical reactions. The main agents are carbon dioxide (carbon (IV)
oxide), water and oxygen. The processes include:

Hydrolysis: This is the process by which the hydrogen ions from water molecule
are used to replace the metallic elements in a rock mineral. A strong alkaline is
formed which disintegrate the rocks. It is the reaction of water with rock minerals,
hydrogen being the catalyst and it is one of the most important reactions in
chemical weathering.

KAISi3 O8 + H2 O HAISi3O8 + KOH

(Orthoclase) (Water dissociated) (Acid Silicate Clay) (Potassium

hydroxide)

Hydration: This is the rigid attachment of water molecule to a rock mineral e.g.
the change of hematite (Red) to limonite (Yellow). The newly formed rock will
disintegrate due to instability.
 Fe2O3 + 3 H2 O Fe2O3. 3H2O

Red (hematite) Yellow (limonite)

Solution: This is the process by which a solvent (water) dissolves a solute (rock
minerals or salts) to form solution

Carbonation: This is the process by which certain atmospheric gases react with
water molecules to form weak acids leading to the disintegration of rocks

I. Carbon dioxide reacts with water molecules to form weak

trioxocarbonate IV acid.

CO2 + H2O H2CO3

II. Sulphurdioxide react with water to form weal trioxosulphate IV acid

SO2 + H2 O H2SO4

Oxidation: This is the addition of oxygen to a rock mineral or removal of hydrogen

from a rock mineral or the process of electron loss. During weathering the most
significant of example of oxidation is the conversion of Iron II to Iron III.

Reduction: This is the addition of hydrogen to a rock mineral or the removal of

oxygen from a rock mineral or the process of electron gain.

COMPOSITION OF SOIL : The major constituents of soil are mineral matter,

air, organic matter, water and soil living organisms or microbes. They are
collective referred to as physical component of the soil, while living organisms or
microbes are referred to as biological components of the soil. They are represent
as percentage volume as :

Mineral water – 45%

Water and Air – 25% at optimum condition of soil otherwise, it may varies
depending on the natural condition

Organic matter and other organisms – 5%

Diagram of the composition of soil by volume

Inorganic or Mineral Matter: This is derived from the parent material and it
represents small rocks fragment from the soil. It is the source of essential nutrients
needed by the plants and consists of stones, sand, gravel, silt and clay.

Effect of Inorganic or Mineral Matter:

 1. It helps in moderating soil temperature
2. It prevents leaching in soil erosion and evaporation of soil water
3. Its sources of food for soil
4. It detoxifies the soil and remove poison from the soil
5. The porosity of the soil of the soil can be affected by its mineral content

Soil Air: This refers to the amount of gasses found inside the soil. The amount of
air is inversely proportional to the amount of water in the soil, the sizes of the
pores space, the type of soil and the amount of living organisms in the soil.

Effect of Soil Air:

1. It is required for seed germination

2. The percentage of Air is about 25% of the total volume of the soil
3. It helps in the absorption of plant nutrients
4. It is essential for respiration of soil micro-organisms
5. It is needed in the nitrogen and carbon cycles

Organic Matter: This represents the accumulation of partially decomposed and

synthesized plants and animals. It is about 5% of the total volume of the soil, roots
of plant, leaves, the residue of crops, animal dung etc, when deposed on the soil
decay to form a black colour on the upper part of the soil known as organic matter
or humus.

Effect of Organic Matter:

1. It moderates the soil temperature which stimulates good development and

growth of roots.
2. It is very rich in plant nutrient
3. It allows for good drainage and holds water in the soil for plant use
4. It improved the structure of the soil by binding the particles of coarse -
texture soil together
5. It also prevents soil erosion and evaporation of soil water

Experiment to show the presence of organic matter in the soil.

Apparatus: Soil sample, tripod stand, wire quaze, Bunsen burner, evaporation
dish, stirring rod and balance.

Procedure: Weigh a sample of soil and pour into the dish and take note of the
weight, the sample should be taken within a depth of 20cm in the profile. Heat
over a Bunsen flame or Bunsen burner to evaporate the soil water, heat the dried
soil continuously while stirring the content of the dish until the organic matter is
oxidized to escape as gas.

Observation: The humus contents get burnt into gaseous state, allow it to cool and
weigh again you will observe the difference in weight between the dried soil and
the burnt soil. This represents the organic matter content.
Diagram
Soil Water: This refers to the water in the soil which is usually obtained either
from rain or irrigation, It is usually found in the soil within the pore spaces. When
water is too much in a soil that is covering the soil surface the soil is said to be
waterlogged, it can be improved by drainage thereby making soil more
productive. A situation where there is lack of water in the soil for a very long time
to the extent that plants cannot absorb water even when supplied again, results in
a condition called permanent wilting point. The plant at this stage can die.

Water is generally important in the following activities:

1. Dissolving nutrients to make them available for plant use

2. Regulation of soil air and temperature
3. Parent material accumulation and differentiation of profile
4. Determination of the extent of erosion and leaching of minerals in the soil
5. The support of microbial life in the soil.

Some specific importance of soil water includes:

1. Hydrolyzing food substances such as starch, proteins, fats and oils for easy
transportation to other part of the crop plant.
2. Providing medium for absorption of mineral salts
3. Facilitating the transfer of nutrients to other parts of the plants where they
are used in metabolic processes.
4. Maintenance of physiological processes in plants such as evapo –
transpiration
5. Constituting vital components of plant protoplasm.

Classification of soil water

Soil can be classified in two ways, Physical and Biological.

Physical classification: Water is classified physically as gravitational or free

water, Capillary and hygroscopic water. This is the form in which water exists in
the soil.
Gravitational water: This is the water that moves into, through and out of the soil
under the influence of gravity. The excess water above the field capacity is of little
or no use to the plant thereby causes poor aeration of the soil with its consequent
affect on plant and animal life in the soil.

Free water or gravitational water will drain from a soil until the soil water
potential reaches -1/3 bar. This is called field capacity. Gravitational water is not
considered available to plants because it is in the soil only a short time and reduces
oxygen levels to the point where the plant will not be absorbing water anyway.

As the soil continues to dry or water is used by plants more and more energy is
needed by the plants to remove the water. Eventually a point is reached where the
plant can no longer remove water. This is called the wilt point. and occurs at -15
bars water potential for most plants. From -1/3 to -15 bars is the zone of available
water.

Capillary water: This is water held in capillary pores or micropores in the soil. It
is held due to capillary forces acting within the soil micropores and it is the water
available for plant use. It dissolves the nutrient in the soil for the growth of plants.
Capillary water is taken up by the growing plants at suction pressure of 0.1 to 31
bars.

Hygroscopic water: This is the water present in an air dry soil held tightly by soil
solids at a suction pressure greater than 31 bars. This type of water cannot be
removed by evaporation and roots of higher plants. It is called water unavailable
to plants for use, only microbial activities have been found to take place in soils
containing hygroscopic water.

(See Diagram)
If the soil dries to an air dry state, the potential is -31 bars. (This assumes that the
air has 100% relative humidity.) Plants cannot exert enough tension to pull water
away from the soil. Tension is used to express water potential with positive
numbers. So a tension of +15 bars equals a potential of -15 bars.

Additional drying requires putting the soil in an oven to drive off the tightly held
water. Water is held in the soil like a series of beads, the farther the beads are from
the soil particle, the weaker they are held by cohesion forces

Biological classification: It is the amount of water held in the soil after excess
water has been drained away. This usually occurs a day to two after rainfall in a
well drained soil, it is influenced by a number of factors as: texture, organic matter,
structure and the type of adjourning layer of the soil.

Water is classified biologically as available and unavailable water.

I. Available water. This is water used by plants and its held with a suction
pressure of 0.1 to 15 bars.

II. Unavailable water. This is water held in tension greater than 15 bars and
cannot be taken up by the roots of growing plants.

Sources of water in the soil:

I. Precipitation such as rainfall and dew.

II. Irrigation from natural sources of water such as river, stream, spring, and
lake.
Soil Texture
Soil separates: Mineral particles ranging between specified size limits. The
names and size of soil structure is characterized in three ways:

1. Soil structure type - A classification of soil structure based on the shape of

the aggregates or peds in the profile.
2. Soil structure grade - A grouping or classification of soil structure on the
basis of inter-
and intra-aggregate adhesion, cohesion, or stability.
3. Four grades of structure are
recognized as follows: weak, moderate, strong

Physical Properties of Soil

Permeability (the rate at which water moves through the soil) and Water-Holding
Capacity (WHC; the ability of a soils micropores to hold water for plant use) are
affected by

I. The amount, size and arrangement of pores

II. Macropores control a soil’s permeability and aeration.
III. Micropores are responsible for a soil’s WHC

Porosity is in turn affected by

 I. Soil texture
II. Soil structure
III. Compaction
IV. Organic matter

Soil texture (the relative proportions of sand, silt, and clay) is important in
determining the water-holding capacity of soil:

I. Fine-textured soils hold more water than coarse-textured soils but may not
be ideal
II. Medium-textured soils (loam family) are most suitable for plant growth

- Sands are the largest particles and feel gritty

- Silts are medium-sized and feel soft, silky, or floury
- Clays are the smallest sized particles and feel sticky and are hard to squeeze.
- Relative size perspective: Sand (house) > Silt > Clay (penny)

Four main types of soil structure (the arrangement of aggregates in a soil):

I. Platy - common with puddling or ponding of soils

II. Prismatic (columnar) – common in subsoils in arid and semi-arid regions
III. Blocky – common in subsoils especially in humid regions
IV. Granular (crumb) – common in surface soils with high organic matter
content

Properties of soil particle size

Sand Silt Clay

mostly large small pores small pores

Porosity
pores predominate predominate

Permeability rapid low to moderate slow

Water holding
limited medium very large
capacity

Soil particle surface small medium very large

Soil Compaction destroys the quality of the soil because it restricts rooting depth
and decreases pore size. The effects are more water-filled pores less able to absorb
water, increasing runoff and erosion, and lower soil temperatures. To reduce
compaction:

I. Add organic matter

II. Make fewer trips across area
III. Practice reduced-till or no-till systems
IV. Harvest when soils are not wet.

Chemical Properties of Soil

I. pH
II. Salinity (EC)
III. Cation exchange capacity (CEC)
IV. Organic matter
V. C:N ratio (Carbon to Nitrogen)
Soil pH
I. A measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a soil.
II. Neutral = 7.0
III. Acidic < 7.0
IV. Alkaline > 7.0
V. Logarithmic scale which means that a 1-unit drop in pH is a 10-fold increase
in acidity.
Soil pH and plant growth
I. Affects availability of plant nutrients (in general, optimal pH is between 5.5-
7.5)
II. Low pH soils (<6.0) results in an increase in Al. Aluminum is toxic to plants
III. Affects availability of toxic metals (in general, more available in acidic soils)
IV. Affects the activity of soil microorganisms, thus affecting nutrient cycling
and disease risk
Nutrient Availability
Increasing soil pH: Liming materials (pure calcium carbonate or dolomitic lime)
will increase soil pH.

I. Lime is a certified organic product

II. Slow-release product. Do not add every year.
III. 15-25 lbs lime per 1000 sq ft is recommended

Wood ashes are another product to raise soil pH. They also are a source of K, Ca,
and Mg. Some compost also can increase soil pH.

Gypsum is calcium sulfate. It is not a substitute for lime, and has little effect on
soil pH. Gypsum only improves structure in soils that have extremely high sodium
contents (rare in the NW).

Decreasing soil pH: Some plants thrive under acidic conditions (ex.
rhododendrons, blueberries, and azaleas). Elemental sulfur is often recommended
(50 lb S per 1000 sq. ft). Ammonium and ammonium-forming N fertilizers will also
result in a decrease in soil pH.

Soil salinity
I. Potential problem in irrigated soils due to high evaporation rates and low
annual rainfall leaving salts to accumulate.
II. Salts can come from irrigation water, fertilizers, composts, and manure.
III. Salts can be reached by slowly applying excess water.
a) Three inches removes about 50% of the soluble salts.

b) Five inches removes about 90%.

Soil Salinity and Interpretation

Interpretation
Conductivity (mmho/cm)
 Severe accumulation of salts. May restrict growth of
4 or above
many vegetables and ornamentals.

Moderatre accumulation of salts. Will not restrict plant

2 to 4
growth, but may require more frequent irrigation.

less than 2 Low salt accumulation. Will not affect plants.

Cation-Exchange Capacity

A cation is a positively charged ion. Most nutrients are cations: Ca2+, Mg2+, K +,
NH4 +, Zn2+, Cu2+, and Mn2+. These cations are in the soil solution and are in
dynamic equilibrium with the cations adsorbed on the surface of clay and organic
matter.

Soil Organic Matter

Beneficial impacts of Soil Organic Matter (SOM) on soil properties:

I. Physical - stabilizes soil structure, improves water holding characteristics,

lowers bulk density, dark color may alter thermal properties
II. Chemical - higher CEC, acts as a pH buffer, ties up metals, interacts with
xenobiotics
III. Biological - supplies energy and body-building constituents for soil
organisms, increases microbial populations and their activities, source and
sink for nutrients, ecosystem resilience, affects soil enzymes

Each year, about 1 to 4% of nutrients in the soil organic matter are released through
microbial transformations to become available to plants. Release is highest under
warm, moist conditions and slowest in cool dry climates. Microorganisms are the
driving force for nutrient release to plants.

The soil food web

Soil Microorganisms
Microorganisms constitute < 0.5% (w/w) of the soil mass yet they have a major
impact on soil properties and processes. 60-80 % of the total soil metabolism is due
to the microflora. In numbers, soil microorganisms beat out all other organisms.

One gram of topsoil may contain:

I. as many as one billion bacteria
II. up to 100 million actinomycetes
III. one million fungi
IV. 100 nematodes
Importance of Soil Organisms
I. Responsible for cycling of C, N and other nutrients
II. Enhance soil structure
III. Relocate and decompose organic materials
IV. Maintain soil quality and health
V. Increase soil aeration and penetrability
VI. Involved in disease transmission and control
Plant Roots: the Rhizosphere

The narrow region of soil directly around

roots, tee

The narrow region of soil directly around roots, teeming with bacteria that feed
on sloughed-off plant cells and the proteins and sugars released by roots.
Protozoa and nematodes graze on bacteria also concentrated near roots.