drawn

form
TO

exploration of drawing for design

Ian Stewart RGD, MES, Toronto, 2014

 drawntoform

Contents

Acknowledgments 3 Appendix
Introduction 4 Proportional development worksheet 31
Drawing 5 Subdivision into 1/3 32
Representational Methods 6 Subdivision in 1/5 33
Characteristics of Perspective 7 Inclined planes 1 34
Freehand Perspective 8 Inclined planes 2 35
Errors in Freehand Perspective 9 15/75 grid 36
Freehand Perspective Cubes 30/60 grid 37
intersection 10 45 grid 38
bottom intersection 11 Tracing cubes 39
top left corner 12 Shadow Casting 40
Bisection & Projection
proportional development 13
additive volumes 14
subtractive volumes 15
errors in projection 16
additive & subtractive volumes 17
Form Definition
extracting volumes 18
linear and planar forms 19
Visible Horizon Line & Vanishing Points
distorion limiting 20
the 15/75 cube 21
the 3060 cube 22
the 45 cube 23
Inclined planes
angled planes 24
diagonal line vanishing points 25
Circles & Cylinders 26
Conical Volumes 27
Combined Volume Applications 28
Shadow Casting Relationships 29

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Acknowledgments

My interest in and passion for perspective drawing began the

day I saw my first Albrecht Durer woodcut and that passion
continues today.
Contemporary influences on my perspective drawing
thought derives from the written work of Jay Doblin, a
Product Designer and Design Educator in the 1950’s. Later,
I had the pleasure of learning about perspective drawing
from Kirby Lockard and Frank Ching, both Architects and
Design Educators.
Others who have inspired me include Bill Peirce a land-
scape architect and design educator, who works in Haslet,
Michigan, John Hartman a technical illustrator in Connecti-
cut and my colleague Doug “Mr. Ellipse” Donald at Sheridan
College in Oakville Ontario.
I would also like to thank my teaching mentors, Ken Cole-
man of Markham, Ontario and Marilyn Welsh of Port Hope,
Ontario, who provided me with my first teaching opportunity
in teaching drawing and encouraged me in the pursuit of
excellence in design education.
Most importantly, I wish to thank my students, past, pres-
ent and future who contribute to the continuing evolution of
Artist drawing a Lute (1525), Albrecht Durer (1471-1528)
my perspective on perspective.
I would be remiss in not acknowledging the ongoing con-
tribution of my partner, editor and principle cheerleader, my
spouse, Sharon, who has encouraged me to put my thoughts
and experiences into this book.

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Introduction

This handbook is developed for students of design and prac-

ticing design professionals who wish to develop and refine
their perspective drawing skills.
The handbook is a reflection of my thinking about Design
drawing over 38 years as a practicing Designer, and the past
28 years as a Design Educator.
I believe design drawing is a tool unique to applied design
featuring perspective drawing as a practical way to think
about and organize space, explore form and communicate
concepts.
The handbook provides a view of the perspective drawing
system that I developed and currently use to teach under-
graduate and graduate students in Graphic Design, Craft and
Design, Visual Merchandising and Technical Illustration.

House, Author’s drawing, about age 5 In this more recent drawing, scale and
In this drawing scale and proportion proportion are controlled through the
are secondary considerations, with use of 2 pt. perspective.
concept dominating the drawing!

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Drawing

Drawing has been a universal tool of human communication

since the dawn of time. Perspective drawing emerged as a
technique to project three dimensions onto two in the early
1500’s. Albrecht Durer was one of the first to develop a formal
perspective drawing system in 1527.
In the intervening centuries, culture and technology have
contributed to the development of various systems of per-
spective drawing. Many of these systems rely on a completed
design prior to perspective construction. Many contemporary
Carton Table
drawing texts, primarily rooted in architectural or interior
design demonstrate the projection method of perspective
construction. This approach also holds true for sophisticated
computer software programs. In essence, the perspective is
drawn after the fact of design.
The work of Jay Doblin, Kirby Lockard and Frank Ching
has helped move us beyond the concept of perspective draw-
Harlequin
ing as presentation only to our current view of perspective
drawing as an active design tool. There are numerous books
on perspective and drawing for industrial design, and all deal
to some extent on foundation principles. The Internet will
also yield multiple resources on perspective, rendering
and design.
The drawing system presented here synthesizes of the Small box
work of Doblin and Lockard and student based explorations
of educational applications for design drawing.
The balance of this handbook presents my perspective
drawing system as a step by step process. The process is not
limited to architecture or interiors and can be applied to
exhibit, trade show, furniture and graphic design.
These sketches demonstrate the range of
applications for perspective drawing at
the initial concept development phase

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Representational Methods

Two principal drawing methods represent 3 dimensional

space on 2 dimensional planes; Multi-view and single view
drawings.
Top (Plan)

Multi-View
Multi-view drawings require at least 3 views to fully represent
the object. These are referred to as orthographic projection
drawings. They allow the recording of dimensions, notes and Front (Elevation) Side (Elevation)

finishes of the object. Auxiliary views may be need to repre-

sent complex objects or inclined planes which are not
Multiview Drawing Examples
perpendicular to the viewpoint.
Views are referred to two ways: plans & elevations or top,
front and side views.

Single View Drawings parallel

There are two general categories of single view
drawings; Paraline and Perspective. parallel

Paraline
45 45 30 30
There are several forms of paraline drawing, each with differ-
ent angles of projection.
axonometic isometric
In paraline drawing, lines which are parallel in the object
remain parallel in the drawing, this allows for quick represen- Paraline Drawing Examples
tation and ease of use with drawing instruments.

Perspective
There are three main types of perspective drawing, one, two
and three point perspective. Each type draws it’s name from
the principal vanishing points in the drawing. This handbook
concentrates on two point perspective; the most common
form in use for Design Drawing. One Point Persepective Two Point Persepective

Perspective Drawing Examples

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Characteristics of Perspective

There are 4 characteristics of perspective which

distinguish the drawing method from other forms
of single view and paraline drawings.

Overlap of form
Forms overlap to provide and demonstrate spatial depth.

Diminution of Planes
As objects recede from view, they appear to diminish in
size.

Convergence
Lines which are parallel in reality, appear to converge to a
common point. This point may be on the Horizon line. objects of equal size
appear to diminish
as they move away
Foreshortening
from the observer
Planes appear to be foreshortened as they move toward
the Horizon. The front to back corner relationship
becomes smaller, the front angle becomes progressively
as planes move closer to the
more obtuse. Planes will also foreshorten as they move
horizon line, they appear
closer to the vanishing point of the lines defining the foreshortened
plane. (not indicated here)

lines which are parallel

appear to converge to a
common point

vanishing point vanishing

point

Illusion of Reality
objects overlap to indicate
Perspective appears to represent what we see. The per-
spatial depth
spective overlay on a photograph demonstrates this
point clearly.
Barton House, Frank Lloyd Wright, 1904, Buffalo New York, Photo by author

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Freehand Perspective

Visualization
In freehand perspective, the vanishing point and horizon line
are not drawn but never the less exert control on the drawing.
The process of developing free hand perspective helps to
train the eye to see and draw in perspective. It is a useful tool
for developing ideas. There is no need for formal perspective
setup and visualization can be rapidly developed.

The author's concept sketches for jewelery
cabinets were done without the use of visi-
ble vanishing points or a horizon line
Working back and forth between
orthographic projection and perspective
enhances the development of design
concepts by looking at all aspects of the
design

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Errors in Perspective
Cubes
In perspective drawing,
the cube is a basic unit of
construction. Working from
the cube, the designer can
add to or subtract from the basic
unit to develop an encompassing
volume for the object to be repre-
sented.
Drawing a cube correctly in free-
hand perspective requires practice
and the ability to identify errors
and make the necessary changes.
The four common errors are: lack
of convergence, tilted horizon line,
nearest angle being greater than
90°, and incorrect proportions.
Lack of Convergence
Parallel lines appear to converge to
a common point. If this is not repre-
sented accurately, the cube’s plane
may appear to be distorted.
In this example, the back
corner appears to be inclined or
lifted away from the volume due to
the back lines which form the top
plane are not converging to the
appropriate vanishing points.
Tilted Horizon
In 2 pt. perspective, the horizon
line must be at a right angle to the
vertical lines of the cube.
In this example, the front vertical
plane does not vanish to the same
horizon, making the volume appear
as if drawn as a paraline drawing.
Nearest angle
The lines which define the bot-
tom intersection of the front-most
planes of a cube must be greater
than 90°.
The only time a corner maybe
90° corner is in orthographic pro-
jection.
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Proportion
The planes drawn do not appear
to be ‘visually’ square. This is
often the most difficult error to
overcome.
In this example, the volume
does not read as intended, as
a cube with the ration of 1:1:1,
instead reading as a volume which
has been extended.
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Freehand Cubes

Methodology
There are three principle methods
to draw accurate cubes in freehand
perspective; top intersection,
bottom intersection and the top
left corner.

Top Intersection Method Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4

The top intersection method Draw a shallow ‘Y’ with lines Pick a point on the vertical line of Draw vertical lines on each side of To define the top plane, project
begins by drawing a shallow moving toward imaginary vanish- the ‘Y.’ From this point draw lines the centre line. Each line defines a lines from the intersection of the
letter ‘Y’. ing points. toward each vanishing point. side of the cube and must appear vertical lines defining the sides
If the ‘Y’ is too shallow, the top ‘visually square.’ toward the respective vanishing
plane of the cube becomes fore- points.
shortened, and will not allow draw-
ing in detail.
If the ‘Y’ is too steep, then the
bottom corner will be less than 90°,
creating distortion.

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Freehand Cubes
Bottom Intersection Method
This method is started by drawing
an inverted ‘T’ and projecting lines
to imaginary vanishing points.
If the angles are too steep, the
front of the cube will be less than
90°. If too shallow, then the top
plane of the cube will be a fore-
shortened plane.
The angle of the initial lines
should be unequal, unless you wish
equal emphasis on the vertical
planes. To emphasize one plane
over the other, make one angle
steeper than the other.
Step 1
Draw an inverted ‘T.’ Project lines
from the intersection of the vertical
and horizontal lines toward each
imaginary vanishing point.­­The
angles of the lines do not need to
be the same.
Step 2
From a point on the vertical project
lines toward imaginary vanishing
points.­These lines project toward
the same vanishing point as the
bottom two lines, and must adhere
to convergence of parallel lines
vanishing to a common point.
Step 3
Draw two more vertical lines to
define the vertical planes of the
cube. Each line must define the
plane and appear ‘visually square.’
The planes may differ due to the
angle of the lines which define the
top and bottom edge of the plane.
The steeper the angle the more dif-
ficult to judge whether the plane is
‘visually square.’
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Step 4
Define the top plane, projecting
lines from top rear corners of
the vertical planes toward the
respective vanishing points.
The lines will only meet at the
intersection of the vertical line if
the angle of the bottom lines are
equal.
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Freehand Cubes
Top Left Corner Method
The top left corner method
is the most difficult as at one stage
proportion and convergence are
established simultaneously when
drawing one line of one of the
planes.
Step 1
Draw a light horizontal line. Draw
a line toward an imaginary vanish-
ing point through the left end of
the horizontal line. Draw a second
line at this intersection toward the
opposite vanishing point.
The included angles do not need to
be the same.
The steeper the angles, more of
the top plane is seen, the nearest
angle at the bottom may become
lass than 90°. [remember, it must
always be greater than 90°.
Step 2
Draw a line from the end of the first
line toward the vanishing point of
the second line drawn taking care
that these lines converge.
Draw another line toward the
vanishing point of the first. This
line will define the back edge of the
top plane and must make the plane
appear ‘visually square’ while con-
verging to the same point.
Step 3
Draw vertical lines to define the
centre and the two vertical planes
of the cube. Draw each line longer
than you think you need.
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Step 4
Carefully select a point on the
centre line to determine the height
of the cube. From this point draw
lines toward each vanishing point,
defining the bottom of each plane.
Each plane must appear ‘visually
square.’
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Bisection & Projection

Proportional Development Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

To develop proportion of an object, Draw an accurate square. Extend Draw diagonal lines through the Project a vertical line, parallel to
the principles of the bisection and lines in the direction that you wish corners of the square’s side. the side, through the mid-point.
projection method are best looked to develop the ratio. Project another line parallel to the
at in elevation prior to applying to extended lines, through the mid-
2 point perspective. point.
Every object will have an over-
all proportional ratio of height to
width to depth.
Once these ratios are determined,
a square maybe extended or subdi-
vided to draw the ratio.
Extending or subdividing space
is based on diagonals drawn at 45°.

Step 4 Step 5 Step 6

Project a line through from the Project a vertical line, through the Continue projecting diagonal lines
bottom mid-point, through the mid- mid-point, from the top intersec- through the bottom, middle and top
point of the side, past the top line. tion of the diagonal and horizontal lines until the desired proportional
lines. ratio is obtained.

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Bisection & Projection
Additive Volumes
Starting with the base cube, draw
lines toward the vanishing point in
the direction in which you wish to
extend the volume.
Step 1
Draw an accurate cube. Project
the lines of the cube’s plane in
the direction you wish to add vol-
ume.
Step 5
Project a vertical line through from
the top intersection of the diagonal
and the converging line.
Step 2
Draw lines through each of the cor-
ners of the cube’s side.
Step 6
Continue projecting diagonal lines
through the bottom, middle and
top converging lines until a figure
of desired proportion is obtained.
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Step 3 Step 4
Project a vertical line, parallel to Project a line through from the
the cube’s side, through the mid- bottom mid-point, through the
point. Project another line toward mid-point of the side, past the top
the vanishing point of the side of converging line.
the cube. This line will equally
divide the space between the con-
verging lines.
Step 7
Project a line from intersection of
the top and vertical lines toward
the opposite vanishing point. This
line must converge and defines the
back edge of the volume.
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Bisection & Projection

Subtractive Volumes Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

The base cube is subdivided to Draw an accurate cube. Project diagonal lines through the Project vertical lines through mid-
create the desired ratio. Fractional Project diagonal lines through the corners of the cubes other plane. points of each of the planes.
ratios, proportional to the original corners of the plane.
cube are created with this method.

Step 4 Step 5 Step 6

Project lines through mid-points Subdivide each plane until the Project lines across the top plane to
of each of the planes towards each desired fractional ratio is obtained. complete the volumes. This volume
vanishing point. has a ratio of 1: 3/4 : 1/2.

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Bisection & Projection
Errors
If the bisection and projection lines
do not adhere to the principles of
perspective, then the accuracy of
the finished volume will not be in
proportion to the target volume.
Lack of Convergence
In this example, the mid point line
does not converge to the same VP’s
as the cube.
With a downward direction to the
midpoint line, the diagonal bisector
will travel a farther distance and
will enlarge, not diminish the ½
unit.
Lack of Convergence
In this example, the mid point
line does not converge to the same
VP’s as the cube.
With an upward direction to the
midpoint line, the diagonal bisector
will travel a shorter distance and
will diminish the ½ unit more rap-
idly than if the projection was done
accurately.
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Dancing Verticals
In this example, the vertical line is
not projected parallel to the other
vertical lines of the cube, and will
either enlarge or diminish the
intended value too rapidly.
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Bisection & Projection

Additive & Subtractive Volumes Table

This method combines adding to In this example of a simple table,
and subtracting from the base cube the ratio was established as 1:1:1:.
to obtain the proportional ratio of The base cube was added to,
the volume. towards the right, then subdivided
The first step is to determine the to establish the details that fall
ratio of height to width to depth, inside the overall volume.
i.e., 1:1:2. The second step is to add
to the base cube to create the over-
all defining volume. The third step
is to subtract from the overall vol-
ume to create details of the object.

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Form Definition

Extracting Volumes Proportions defined Line only Line with spatial edges
Once the volume has been created, Ratio 1: 1/2 : 1 1/2
it needs to be extracted or extend-
ed from the base cube. Several
techniques can be used to define
the form
A line drawing is the simplest
method. Adding a thicker line to
the edges of the object (spatial
edge) helps to separate the volume
from the background. Adding tone
using a series of lines at an angle to
the plane (avoiding convergence)
adds tonal range to the planes.
Shadows may also be added, help-
ing to add spatial depth to the
drawing
Line, spatial edge, tone applied Line, spatial edge, tone &
shadow

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Form Definition

Linear & Planar Forms Linear Support

These student examples demon- Examples of student work

strate the application of subtrac-

tive volumes. The students had to
explore methods of supporting a
surface 30" from the ground.
In the first set of explorations,
linear forms support the surface.
In the second set, only planar
forms were used.
In each set of examples, the
base cube was subdivided to aid
in locating each of the supports.
The use of a thicker line helped
to extract and define each com-
ponent, aiding our perception of
spatial depth.
Planar Support
Lines applied at a diagonal to
Examples of student work
the plane indicate shading, also
aiding our perception of the forms.

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Visible Horizon Line &

Vanishing Points

Distortion Limiting Circle

75% of distance between VP’s
Distortion-limiting Circle
Controlling visual distortion is
a challenge. One of the ways in
which the nearest angle can be con- Right Vertical
Left Vertical
Vanishing
trolled is by developing a distortion Vanishing Line
Line
limiting circle.
Draw a circle, with the centre
point on the horizon line, at the
mid-point between the two vanish-
ing points, setting the diameter at
Horizon Line
approximately 75% of the distance
Left
between the VP’s. Vanishing
Right
Vanishing
Any cube drawn within this Point
Point
circle will have a nearest angle
greater than 90°. However, some
distortion will occur at the edge of
the circle, and close to the vanish-
ing points.

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Visible Horizon Line

& Vanishing Points

1/8 7/8

75 15 Left Vanishing Point Right Vanishing Point

The 15~75 Cube

The base cube for drawing may be picture plane
oriented to our view point based
on the angle of rotation of the
cube. The cube may be rotated at
an angle of 15/75°.
This angle is measured in plan
view from a line projected from
our line of sight to an imaginary
picture plane which is perpendic-
ular to us. With the front corner of
the cube touching this plane, the Line of sight
cube is then rotated at a 15° angle.

In Plan view, the basic cube is rotated at a 15° In this example, the distance from the center
to the picture plane. One surface will be more of the cube to the right vanishing point is 1⁄8
prominent as it faces the viewer more directly. of the distance between established vanishing
points. VP’s may be any distance apart.

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Visible Horizon Line

& Vanishing Points

¼ ¾

60 30 Right Vanishing Point

Left Vanishing Point
The 30~60 Cube
The base cube for drawing may be picture plane
oriented to our view point based
on the angle of rotation of the
cube. The cube may be rotated at
an angle of 30/60°.
This angle is measured in plan
view from a line projected from
our line of sight to an imaginary
picture plane which is perpendic-
ular to us. With the front corner of Line of sight
the cube touching this plane, the
cube is then rotated at a 30° angle.

In Plan view, the basic cube is rotated at a 30° In this example, the distance from the center of
to the picture plane. One surface will be more the cube to the right vanishing point is ¾ of the
prominent as it faces the viewer more directly. distance between established vanishing points.
VP’s may be any distance apart.

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Visible Horizon Line

& Vanishing Points

½ ½

45 45 Left Vanishing Point Right Vanishing Point

The 45 Cube
The base cube for drawing may be picture plane
oriented to our view point based
on the angle of rotation of the
cube. The cube may be rotated at
an angle of 45°.
This angle is measured in plan
view from a line projected from
our line of sight to an imaginary
picture plane which is perpendic-
ular to us. With the front corner of Line of sight
the cube touching this plane, the
cube is then rotated at a 45° angle.

In Plan view, the basic cube is rotated at a 45° In this example, the distance from the center of
to the picture plane. Equal emphasis on both the cube to the right vanishing point is ½ of the
planes is a result. distance between established vanishing points.
VP’s may be any distance apart.

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Inclined Planes

1/2
1/2
1/2 1/2
Plan

3/4
1/4
Front Side

Angled Planes Orthographic Projection Perspective Construction Volume Definition

Planes which are not perpendic-
ular to the observer may be drawn
by establishing the overall propor-
tions and drawing this volume first.
The next step is to define, in
Establish the proportions for the
encompassing volume.
1
Construct the volume, then plot Define the form through the use of
the points for the inclined surface. spatial edge and line weights.
Connect the points to define the
plane.

orthographic projection, reference

points for the angled surface.
These reference point may then
1

be ‘plotted’ on the base volume.

The plane may be completed by Plan
connecting these points together.
The lines that define the inclined
plane will have their own vanish-
1

ing point, above or below the hori-

zon line Front Side

Orthographic Projection Perspective Construction Volume Definition

Establish the proportions for the Construct the volume, then plot Define the form through the use of
encompassing volume. the points for the inclined surface. spatial edge and line weights.
Connect the points to define the
plane.

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Inclined Planes

Vanishing Point for 45°

angled lines
on right vanishing vertical
planes
Vertical
Vanishing
Line Vertical
Vanishing
Line

Vanishing Point for 45°

angled lines
on left vanishing vertical
planes

Diagonal Line Vanishing Points

Lines parallel in orthographic
views will converge to a common
Horizon line
vanishing point. The same holds
true for lines which are at an angle
to the plane on which they lie.
Diagonal lines (corner to corner)
will create their own vanishing
point, on a Vertical Vanishing
Line. This line projects above and
below the horizon line through the
vanishing point of the plane. Lines
which are parallel to the diagonal
will also vanish to this point.

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Circles & Cylinders

1/2

1/4

3
2 4 70%

50%
1 5

8 6

Circle Reference Points Circle Reference Points Perspective Construction Volume Definition
A circle may be plotted in per- Establish the proportional ratio of Construct the top and bottom Define the form through the use
spective by establishing reference the circle within a square. Find the circles. Connect the outermost of spatial edge and vertical shade
points based on the circle’s rela- location where the diagonal line points to define the surface. lines along the surface of the cone.
tionship to a square. The circle will crosses the circle. These points
appear as an ellipse. may then be transferred on to a
Bisect the square, then subdi- plane of the perspective cube.
vide one quadrant. Subdivide this
again to establish a proportional
relationship. The diagonal bisector
line crosses the circle at about 70%
of the distance from the centre of
the square to the corner. The circle
also touches the midpoint of each
side of the square. This provides 8
points of reference for drawing the
circle.

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Conical Volumes
Conical Reference Points
A cone may be plotted in perspec-
tive in a manner similar to that for
a circle or cylinder.
Develop the proportional ratio of
both ends of the cone in reference
to a square.
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1
Plan
1
Front Side
Orthographic Projection Perspective Construction Volume Definition
Establish the proportions for the Construct the volume, then plot the Define the form through the use
encompassing1 volume. points for the cone. Connect the of spatial edge and lines along the
point(s) to the bottom circle of the surface of the cone.
cone.
1
Plan
1/2
1
Front Side
Orthographic Projection Perspective Construction Volume Definition
Establish the proportions for the Construct the top and bottom cir- Define the form through the use
encompassing volume. cles. Connect the outermost points of spatial edge and lines along the
to define the surface. surface of the cone.
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Combined Volume
Applications

Cylindrical and Conical Forms Examples of student work

These student examples demon-
strate the application of subtractive
volumes. The students had to
explore methods of supporting a
surface 30" from the ground.
In these explorations, cylindrical
and conical forms are used to sup-
port the surface. A spatial edge, in
addition to line as tone, has been
applied to ­assist in defining
the forms.

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Shadow Casting Relationships

Casting Edge Relationships Perpendicular Relationship Parallel Relationship Shade & Casting Edge
The technique of shadow casting The pole (casting edge) is perpen- The cross bar (casting edge) is Once the direction of light is estab-
develops by observing our envi- dicular to the surface receiving the parallel to the surface receiving the lished, the shaded surfaces can
ronment. shadow. Perpendicular shadows shadow. Parallel shadows always be identified. The casting edge is
Two relationships describe the always extend from the line which converge to the same vanishing where surfaces receiving light meet
objects casting the shadow and the casts them. point as the line which casts them. surfaces in shade.
surface receiving the shadows; per-
pendicular or parallel.
Establish a direction and angle
for the light source, then select
shadow casting edges. A casting
edge may be defined as the junc-
ture of a surface that receives light,
a surface in shade. Relationships
between casting edge and surface
must be identified as perpendicular
or parallel, in relation to the surface
Sun Angle Shadows
receiving the shadow.
The angle of the sun determines The length of the shadow and it’s
the length of perpendicular value is of darker value than the
shadows. surface which receives the shadow. 

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Appendix

The following pages may be used

as worksheets for continuing to
develop your skills in freehand
perspective drawing.

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Ratio development

Ratio 1: 2 Ratio 1: 2.25

Ratio 1: 2.5 Ratio 1: 2.625

Ratio 1: 1.75 Ratio 1: 3.125

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Subdivision into thirds

Divide the square using Draw lines from the top mid point Draw vertical lines through the
diagonals. Draw the vertical line to each bottom corner. intersection of the diagonal bisec-
through the center. tor and the mid point to corner
lines.

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Subdivision into fifths

Divide the square using Divide one quadrant to find ¾ Draw diagonals from the ¾ height
diagonals. Draw the vertical line height. to each bottom corner.
through the center.

Draw vertical lines at the intersec- Bisect the remaining spaces on

tion of the diagonal bisector and either side to fins the remaining 1/5
the diagonals. This subdivision is units.
1/5 of the width.

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Inclined Planes 1

1/2 1/2 1/2

1/2
1/2

1/2 1/2

1
Plan

Plan
3/4

3/4
1/4

Front Side

1/4
Volume 1 Front Side

Volume 2

1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2

11/2
1/2

Plan

1
Plan
1/2
1/2

1/2
Front Side

Volume 3 1/2
Front Side

Volume 4

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Inclined Planes 2

1
1

1
Plan
1/2 Plan
1/2
1

Plan

1/4 1/4
1 1/2

1/2
1

1/2
Front Side Front Side Front Side
Volume 5 Volume 6 Volume 7
2

11/2
Plan
1/2 1 1/2

1/2
1/2

Front Side
Volume 8

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15/75º Grid

ML

L-VP

15-75

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30/60º Grid

L-VP

30~60

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45º Grid

L-VP R-VP

45

SP

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Tracing Cubes

15-75 30~60 45

15-75 45
30~60

15-75 45
30~60

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Cube Shadow Casting

Create a VP for vertical lines

Flag Pole
Vanishing Point Left Vanishing Point Right Vanishing Point

Casting Edge Relationships

The principles of shadow casting
ay Vertical lines
are developed from observing our 's r cast shadows that
n
Su
environment. 1st vanish to the Flag Pole
vanishing point
There are two relationships
Draw a vertical vanishing line (VVL), Shadow length is at the
between the object casting the below FPVP intersection of the Sun's ray
shadow and the surface receiving and the Flag Pole shadow line

the shadows; perpendicular or y

Ra
parallel. n's
Su Draw a line through the top of the cube
Establish the direction and angle to the VVL

of the light source, then define

shadow casting edges. A casting
edge may be defined as the edge
of a surface that receives light, and Sun's Ray Vanishing Point
meeting the surface in shade. The
relationship between casting edge
and surface must be identified i.e.,
perpendicular or parallel.

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Cube Shadow Casting

Flag Pole
Vanishing Point Left Vanishing Point Right Vanishing Point

Lines which are parallel to

ground vanish to respective VP's

ay
's r
d Sun Draw a second line through
2n the top of the cube to the
Sun's Ray VP

ay
's R
Sun

Sun's Ray Vanishing Point

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Cube Shadow Casting

Flag Pole
Vanishing Point Left Vanishing Point Right Vanishing Point

Lines which are parallel to

ground vanish to respective VP's
ay
un's r
3rdS

ay
's R
Sun

Sun's Ray Vanishing Point

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Shadow Casting [4]

Flag Pole
Vanishing Point Left Vanishing Point Right Vanishing Point

ay
's r ay
S un un's r Vertical lines
3rd nd S
2 ray cast shadows that
S u n's vanish to the Flag Pole
1st vanishing point

ay
's R
Sun

Sun's Ray Vanishing Point

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Contact Information

Ian Stewart
3546 Pitch Pine Cres.
Mississauga, Ontario

905-606-2093

sistewart@rogers.com

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