Materials Science and Engineering A 419 (2006) 381–388

Design of the friction stir welding tool using the

continuum based FEM model
G. Buffa a,b,∗ , J. Hua a , R. Shivpuri a , L. Fratini b
a The Ohio State University, Department of Industrial, Welding and Systems Engineering, 1971 Neil Avenue, 210 Baker Systems, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
b Dipartimento di Tecnologia Meccanica, Produzione e Ingegneria Gestionale, Università di Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, 90128 Palermo, Italy

Accepted 10 September 2005

Abstract
In friction stir welding (FSW), the welding tool geometry plays a fundamental role in obtaining desirable microstructures in the weld and
the heat-affected zones, and consequently improving strength and fatigue resistance of the joint. In this paper, a FSW process with varying pin
geometries (cylindrical and conical) and advancing speeds is numerically modeled, and a thermo-mechanically coupled, rigid-viscoplastic, fully
3D FEM analysis able to predict the process variables as well as the material flow pattern and the grain size in the welded joints is performed. The
obtained results allow finding optimal tool geometry and advancing speed for improving nugget integrity of aluminum alloys.
© 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: FSW; FEM; Tool geometry; Material flow; Grain size

1. Introduction
Friction stir welding (FSW) of butt joints is obtained by
inserting a specially designed rotating pin into the adjoining
edges of the sheets to be welded and then moving it all along the
joint [1–3]. During the process, the tool rotation speed (R) and
feed rate (Vf ) are combined in a way that an asymmetric metal
flow is obtained. In particular, an advancing side and a retreating
side are observed: the former being characterized by the “pos-
itive” combination of the tool feed rate and of the peripheral
tool velocity while the latter having velocity vectors of feed and
rotation opposite to each other. A detailed observation of the
material microstructure in the joint section by Nelson and co-
workers [4] indicated that there exists an area located at the core
of the welding, called “nugget”, where the original grain and
subgrain boundaries appear to be replaced with fine, equiaxed
recrystallized grains characterized by a nominal dimension of a
few micrometers [1–5].
Actually the effectiveness of the obtained joint is strongly
dependent on several operating parameters [5–7]. First of all,
the geometric parameters of the tool, such as the height and the
DOI of original article:10.1016/j.msea.2005.09.040.
∗ welded at varying pin angles; Prado et al. [12,13] studied the
Corresponding author. Tel.: +39 091 6657051; fax: +39 091 6657039.
E-mail addresses: g.buffa@dtpm.unipa.it (G. Buffa), hua.14@osu.edu
(J. Hua), shivpuri.1@osu.edu (R. Shivpuri), abaqus@dtpm.unipa.it (L. Fratini).
shape of the pin and the shoulder surface of the head, have a great
influence on both the metal flow and the heat generation due to
friction forces. Secondly, either the force superimposed on the
rotating tool during the process or the tool sinking in the sheet
has to be properly chosen, since the pressure generated on the
tool shoulder surface and under the pin end determines the heat
generated during the process. Finally both the rotating speed
and the feed rate have to be selected in order to improve “nugget
integrity” that results in a proper microstructure and eventually
in good strength, fatigue resistance and ductility of the joint.
Among the key components of the FSW tool geometry are
the tool shoulder and the pin. While the shoulder is the main
source of heat generated during the process, the primary con-
straint to material expulsion and the primary driver for material
flow around the tool, the pin is the primary source for material
deformation and the secondary source for heat generation in the
nugget. Consequently, the geometry of both the shoulder and pin
are important to the FSW process. Nugget integrity is therefore
primarily dependent on a well-designed pin [8].
Among the vast published literature on the FSW process, very
few publications study the effect of tool geometry on the pro-
cess variables. Notable research contributions are the following:
Kailas et al. [11] performed some tensile tests of specimens, stir
final tool geometry due to tool wear finding that, even starting
from a threaded pin, a self-optimized threadless and still effec-

0921-5093/$ – see front matter © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.msea.2005.09.041
382 G. Buffa et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 419 (2006) 381–388

tive pin shape is reached after a short welding distance; using 2D

and 3D CFD commercial software Colegrove and Shercliff [8,9]
numerically investigated the influence of pin shape on material
flow during FSW. In their paper, different pin shapes were com-
pared in terms of material flow and welding forces on the basis of
both a stick and a slip boundary condition at the tool-workpiece
interface. Although very useful information was obtained in this
research in order to optimize the tool pin geometry, it has to be
noted that the assumption of isothermal conditions limits the
accuracy of their model. Further details regarding 2D and 3D
modeling are found out in [10].
The purpose of the present research is to develop an effec-
tive methodology to optimally design weld tooling and pro-
cess parameters for friction stir welding with increased nugget
integrity. In particular a numerical model is developed for the
FSW welding process based on thermo-mechanically coupled
rigid-viscoplastic 3D FEM, and analysis is performed to pre-
dict the process variables, as well as material flow pattern in the
welded joints at varying pin angles and advancing speeds.

Fig. 2. Tool design showing geometric parameters.

2. Numerical model for FSW
Table 1
The commercial FEA software DEFORM-3DTM , which is
Geometrical properties of the tool set utilized
a Lagrangian implicit code designed for metal forming pro-
cesses, is used to model FSW. Workpiece is modeled as a Angle dpin (mm) Dshoulder (mm) Pin surface area (mm2 )
rigid-viscoplastic material, and the welding tool as a rigid body 0 3.0 10.0 26.3
(Fig. 1). As far as the workpiece material is regarded, AA7075 10 2.5 10.5 31.4
was modeled as described in details in [14]. Further model details 20 2.0 11.0 32.8
30 1.5 11.0 35.8
can be found in [14,15].
40 1.0 11.0 43.2

2.1. Tool models

Table 2
In order to obtain an effective vertical material flow, differ- The simulation plan for numerical experiments
ent pin shapes can be adopted such as a cylindrical threaded, a Advancing speed Tool pin angle
conical threaded or a smooth conical. Nevertheless it is noticed Vf (mm/min)
0 10 20 30 40
that tool threads wear during FSW quickly leading to a “self-
optimized” smooth pin surface [12,13]. For this reason a conical 50 FSW1 FSW2 FSW3 FSW4 FSW5
smooth pin shape was taken into account in this paper and a set of 100 FSW6 FSW7 FSW8 FSW9 FSW10
200 FSW11 FSW12 FSW13 FSW14 FSW15
simulations was performed at varying geometry designs. Fig. 2
includes tool design utilized. In particular, for all the pin geome-
tries selected, the same 2.8 mm pin height and a 0.5 mm fillet
angle were considered for the conical shape; and the shoulder
radius at the pin–shoulder interface were adopted; different val-
external radius was changed in order to maintain constant con-
ues of the bottom pin diameters (namely dpin ) and of the taper
tact surface between the workpiece and the tool shoulder itself,
as shown in Table 1.
All the simulations were performed using the same procedure
and process parameters; in particular a tool sinking of 0.1 mm, a
tool rotating speed of 1000 rpm, a nuting angle of 2◦ and varying
the advancing velocity according to Table 2.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Effect of pin angle and advancing speed on

temperature

It is known that during the FSW process, joining is achieved

Fig. 1. The continuum based FEM model. through frictional heating between the tool and the sheet,
 G. Buffa et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 419 (2006) 381–388
Fig. 3. Temperature profile on top left surface for different tool angles: (a) FSW6, (b) FSW8 and (c) FSW10.
and plasticizing, mixing, and extrusion action of a rotating
pin–shoulder tool that moves between two parts being joined.
The ultimate requirement for a FSW process is to create a certain
amount of friction heat that can keep the welding material in a
well-plasticized state with a suitable temperature and to generate
a high hydrostatic pressure along the joint line so that a sound
diffusion weld can be generated with good nugget integrity. The
heat generation in FSW is in direct proportion to deformation and
frictional energy generated in the welding. The latter depends on
the friction coefficient and friction area between the tool shoul-
der and workpiece surface as well on the rotation speed of the
welding head pin and the pressure applied to the welding head
shoulder [15]. When the contact surface between tool shoulder
and workpiece, the rotation speed and the tool sinking are kept
constant, the friction area is determined by the tool geometry.
Fig. 3 shows the temperature profiles around weld zone for dif-
ferent pin taper angles. It can be seen from this figure that the
heat-affected zone expands as the pin taper angle increases. The
expansion of heat-affected zone can be mainly ascribed both to
the increase in friction heat due to the large pin angle, which
increases the contact area between the welding pin and work-
piece, and to the remarkable increase in deformation energy.
The expansion of the HAZ is also visible in Fig. 4 that illus-
trates temperature profile in transverse direction of the weld zone
for different pin angles. A more uniform temperature distribu-
tion along the thickness of the sheet is obtained as pin angle
increases. The profile of temperature distribution is directly
Fig. 4. Temperature profile in a x–z section: (a) FSW10, (b) FSW8 and (c)
FSW6.
383
related to the distortion of the welded workpiece. The more uni-
form the temperature distribution along the thickness direction
of the workpiece, the less distortion in the welded workpiece
will take place, especially for the thin sheet. It is observed that
the increase in temperature is greater when the pin angle is
small than that when pin angle is large. For example, when
pin angle changes from 0◦ to 10◦ and from 10◦ to 20◦ , tem-
perature increases more than 18 ◦ C, however when the pin angle
changes from 30◦ to 40◦ the temperature increase only about
2 ◦ C. This indicates that the effect of pin angle on the heat gen-
eration during the FSW process is only relevant for the pin angle
below a certain value. A similar relationship is also observed for
maximum temperature at the sheet–pin interface. When the pin
angle is above 30◦ , there is almost no change in the maximum
temperature.
Fig. 5 shows the temperature distribution in the FSW joint
along the transverse section after a welding length of about
40 mm, as steady state conditions have been reached. It is
observed from this figure that the increase in temperature is
greater when the pin angle is small than when the pin angle is
large. For example, when pin angle changes from 0◦ to 10◦ and
from 10◦ to 20◦ , temperature increases more than about 18 ◦ C
while when the pin angle changes from 30◦ to 40◦ , the temper-
ature increases only about 2 ◦ C. This indicates that the effect of
Fig. 5. Temperature distributions along x–z section in FSW joint as a function
of pin angle α (Vf = 100 mm/min).
384 G. Buffa et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 419 (2006) 381–388

Fig. 7. Mean stress along a x–z section, advancing side.

Fig. 6. Maximum temperature in the tool vs. pin angle.

pin angle on the heat generation during the FSW process only
exists when the pin angle is below a certain value.
Fig. 6 presents the maximum temperature in the welding tool
for different pin angles at different advancing speeds. This pic-
ture indicates that the maximum temperature increases with the
pin angle. However, the effect of pin angle on maximum tem-
perature in the FSW joint works only for some small pin angles.
For example, when the pin angle is above 30◦ there is almost
no change in the maximum temperature. What is more, higher
temperatures and a more remarkable variation with the pin angle
are obtained with slower advancing speed, due to the increased
time to weld the same length.
3.2. Effect of pin angle on hydrostatic stress distribution
As discussed above that the temperature generated in the
weld zone increases with the pin angle which is favorable for
the solid diffusion and plasticized mixing, hence, is helpful for
weld quality in terms of material flow [16]. Furthermore, large
pin angle promotes high hydrostatic pressure in the weld zone,
which is significantly important for enhanced nugget integrity,
Fig. 7. However, the high temperature and hydrostatic pressure
also favor severe tool wear because both diffusion and abra-
sive wear, which are the main mechanisms in FSW welding tool
wear, increase with temperature and hydrostatic pressure.

Fig. 8. Effective strain distribution along a x–z section: (a) FSW9 and (b) at varying pin angle, Vf = 100 mm/min.

Fig. 9. Maximum effective strain distribution along a y–z section FSW9 (a), and at varying pin angle (b).
 G. Buffa et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 419 (2006) 381–388
Fig. 10. Strain rate distribution in weld zone of a x–z section at various pin
angles, Vf = 100 mm/min.
3.3. Effect of pin angle and advancing speed on strain
distribution
As it is known that the thermal history and the plastic
deformation of the weld region are strongly relevant for the
microstructure of weld itself, better understanding of the effects
of process parameters and tool geometry on the strain distri-
bution in the joint during the FSW is very helpful for optimal
design and control of the process. Fig. 8 illustrates the strain
distribution in the weld zone in the transverse section. It is seen
from this picture that the strain distributions are not symmetric
about the weld line. For all pin angles, the maximum strains are
on the material advancing side: in addition, the strain in the weld
zone increases with the pin angle. The increase in strain is larger
when the pin angle is below 20◦ than that when above 30◦ . A fur-
ther observation can also be made: not only does the maximum
strain, but also the plastically deformed area increases with the
pin angle. The large pin angle exerts more upsetting effect on the
Fig. 12. (a–f) Material flow patterns in weld zone at different pin angles (Vf = 100 mm/min).
385
Fig. 11. Maximum strain rate vs. pin angle.
workpiece and, therefore, produce deeper and wider deformed
zone than small pin angle does.
Fig. 9 presents the maximum effective strain generated in
FSW joint along transverse section for different pin angles.
Again the picture indicates that the maximum strain increases
with the pin angle, with a more significant effect when the angle
is relatively small and a nearly steady condition when above a
certain value.
3.4. Effect of pin angle and advancing speed on strain rate
In Fig. 10, the strain rate distribution at different pin angles for
a transverse section of the joint is presented. It is seen from this
figure that the strain rate increases with the pin angle and the dis-
tribution of strain rate is asymmetric about the weld line, i.e., the
maximum value appears in the welding advancing side. Fig. 11
shows the dependence of maximum strain rate on pin angle and
advancing speed. It is indicated that the strain rate increases
with the pin angle and approaches its asymptote after pin angle
386 G. Buffa et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 419 (2006) 381–388
Fig. 13. Plot of: (a) vertical force and (b) advancing force vs. pin angle.
reaches a certain value. In addition, a significant increase is
observed for advancing speed values higher than 50 mm/min,
highlighting that an extremely low speed is not suitable for
achieving a sound welding. On the contrary, a smaller differ-
ence is obtained for higher speeds.
3.5. Effect of pin angle and advancing speed on material
flow
During welding, as long as the tool sinking is kept constant,
the stresses that the tool is subjected to vary with pin angle. In
addition, material flow pattern and flow rate are also strongly
dependent on pin angle. The present FSW model is able to
investigate the material flow in the weld zone. The material flow
patterns at different pin angle are shown in Fig. 12a–f, where the
arrows represent the material velocity vectors. It can be observed
from this figure that just a small vertical material flow is observed
with a cylindrical pin [16]. On the contrary, conical pin causes an
additional down flow pattern, which becomes more remarkable
as pin angle increases (Fig. 12b and c). Furthermore, it can be
referred from this Fig. 12d–f that a helical movement is produced
by the conical pin due to the circular movement component in
the horizontal (x–y) plane, Fig. 12d, and another circular move-
ment component in vertical (y–z) plane, Fig. 12e and f. This will
produce more uniform plastic deformation in the weld zone and
is favorable for achieving fine grain size microstructure.
3.6. Effect of pin angle and advancing speed on welding
forces
The tool/pin during FSW is subjected to considerable forces
that may cause it to break if it does not have sufficient mechanical
Fig. 14. Distribution of the Zener–Hollomon parameter in weld zone for FSW9.
strength. Therefore, predicting welding force is very important
for tool designing in FSW [14]. Fig. 13 shows the advancing
force and vertical force as a function of pin angle and advanc-
ing speed. It is observed that both advancing and vertical forces
increase with the pin angle until the forces reach a maximum
point (pin angle of 10◦ ), then decrease with the increase of pin
angle and reach to its asymptote regardless of the changes in the
pin angle. This trend of welding force as a function of pin angle
can be directly attributed to the effect of pin angle on the temper-
ature and strain profile in the workpiece. As discussed earlier, the
heat-affected zone and thermo-mechanical affected zone expand
with the pin angle while the temperature increases as the pin
angle increases. The welding force is a competition between the
work hardening due to the upsetting on the workpiece and soft-
ening of the workpiece due to increase in temperature. When pin
angle changes from 0◦ to 10◦ , the expansion of HAZ and TMAZ
is small and the work hardening effect due to the upsetting caused
by pin angle is stronger than the softening effect caused by tem-
perature increase in HAZ and TMAZ. Therefore, welding forces
increase sharply. As the pin angle further increases, the HAZ and
TMAZ further expand and the temperature in HAZ and TMAZ
goes up greatly which causes the softening effect overcome the
work hardening effect resulting in reduction in welding forces.
After a certain value of pin angle (20◦ in this research), the com-
petition of work hardening and softening balance each other and
the welding force reaches its asymptote.
Fig. 15. Minimum grain size dimension at varying pin angle and advancing
speed.
 G. Buffa et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 419 (2006) 381–388
Fig. 16. Predicted grain size distribution for FSW7 and FSW10 at z = 1.5 mm (a) and actual grain in the FSW 7 weld nugget (b).
3.7. Effect of pin angle and advancing speed
Zener–Hollomon parameters, grain size and joint resistance
Microstructural evolution takes place during FSW due to
mechanical stirring and continuous dynamic recrystallization
(CDRX) effects [17–21] resulting in a highly refined grain struc-
ture in the weld nugget and strongly affecting the final joint
resistance. The grain size of 7XXX series aluminum alloys dur-
ing CDRX is strongly dependent on strain and Zener–Hollomon
parameter, a function of strain rate and temperature. In addition
to predicting strain distribution, the present FSW model is also
used to predict Zener–Hollomon parameter in the weld zone.
Fig. 14 illustrates the Zener–Hollomon parameter distribution
in the weld for FSW9. The process characteristic zones, namely
nugget, TMAZ and HAZ, are well highlighted in the model,
which are very useful for predicting microstructural evolution
during FSW process.
In these zones, material undergoes a continuous dynamic
recrystallization process, which eventually leads to the replace-
ment of the original grain and sub-grain boundaries with fine,
equiaxed recrystallized grains. CDRX process, as the well-
known DRX, is affected by a few variables; the final dimension
of the continuously recrystallized grain (d) is mainly influenced
by the local value of the Zener–Hollomon parameter (Z), and,
of course, by the selected material constants [22].
1 After this value, strain rate reaches its asymptote.
d= with a = −3.43 and b = 0.162
a + b ln(Z)
Fig. 15 shows how the minimum grain size is influenced by the
pin angle: as mentioned above both temperature and strain rate
increase with pin angle. As it is known, an increase in temper-
ature leads to an increase in grain size and, on the contrary, an
increase in strain rate leads to a decrease in grain size. Fig. 16a
and b illustrates the predicted grain size distribution for two dif-
ferent pin angles and the actual grain in the nugget of FSW 7. The
predicted results in Figs. 15 and 16a indicate that the effect of
temperature is somewhat dominant for the grain growth reason
being the slower advancing speed leads to a higher temperature
in the nuggets resulting in a larger grain size. Although a cylin-
drical pin is helpful for obtaining a smaller grain size, on the
387
other hand, nugget area obtained by cylindrical pin is smaller
than that by conical pin resulting in negative influence on joint
resistance. Based on the above discussion, it’s concluded that
with a bigger pin angle there’s a significant increase in nugget
area, namely the core of the welding where the grain size is in
the order of 2–5 ␮m [21,22], which eventually leads to enhanced
nugget integrity.
4. Summary and future work
A thermo-mechanical fully coupled 3D FEM analysis is per-
formed for investigating the effect of pin angle on the FSW
process. Based on the above discussions, the following conclu-
sions are drawn:
• Increasing the pin angle enlarges both the heat-affected zone
and thermal mechanical zone resulting in a bigger weld
nugget. The overall temperature in weld zone increases with
pin angle. In addition, increase in the pin angle leads to uni-
form temperature distribution along sheet thickness, which is
favorable for the reduction of distortion.
• The plastic deformation in the nugget increases with the
pin angle. However, the maximum deformation reaches its
asymptote as the pin angle is above a certain value. Similarly,
the strain rate increases with the pin angle until a critical value.
(1) • Using a conical pin in FSW produces a helical movement
in the weld zone. This movement causes material flow down
in the leading edge and flow up in the trailing edge. This
increases the material circulation and leads to more uniform
thorough thickness distribution of parameters such as strain,
strain rate and temperature.
• A significant refinement in the grain size is observed when
advancing speed increases from 50 mm/min to 100 mm/min.
On the contrary, such a difference in minimum grain size
is not observed for higher speeds. At the same time, a sig-
nificant increase both in the vertical and in the advancing
welding forces is observed when advancing speed increases
from 100 mm/min. to 200 mm/min. Finally a more uniform
temperature and grain size distribution, as well as a wider
388 G. Buffa et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 419 (2006) 381–388
nugget area are obtained at increasing pin angle. Based on
the above results, it can be stated that an advancing speed
equal to 100 mm/min and a tool pin angle of 40◦ is an optimal
combination for obtaining the best joint strength taking con-
sideration of grain size, nugget area, and tool wear as well as
welding forces.
Although the above analysis and conclusions are for the
AA7075 aluminum alloy, the present model is also able to work
properly with different workpiece materials, thus providing an
effective tool for optimal design of process parameters and tool
geometry for the FSW process. Research focus in the near future
will be on the prediction of residual stress distribution and dis-
tortion after FSW, as well as the limit of weldability in terms of
sheet thickness.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the Dean of College of Engineer-
ing, Prof. Bud Baeslack III, and the Manufacturing Research
Group (Professor Shivpuri, Director). Gianluca Buffa was addi-
tionally supported by the Italian Ministry of Education for his
thesis work at the Ohio State University. The authors wish to
express their grateful thanks to Prof. Fabrizio Micari for his con-
stant help and encouragement. Scientific Forming Technologies
Corporation provided help with the DEFORM software.
References
[1] H.J. Liu, H. Fujii, M. Maeda, K. Nogi, J. Mater. Process. Tech. 142
(2003) 692–696.
[2] C.G. Rhodes, M.W. Mahoney, W.H. Bingel, R.A. Spurling, C.C. Bamp-
ton, Scripta Mater. 36 (1) (1987) 69–75.
[3] M. Guerra, C. Schmidt, L.C. McClure, L.E. Murr, A.C. Nunes, Mater.
Charact. 49 (2003) 95–101.
[4] J.Q. Su, T.W. Nelson, R. Mishra, M. Mahoney, Acta Mater. 51 (2003)
713–729.
[5] I. Shigematsu, Y.J. Kwon, K. Suzuki, T. Imai, N. Saito, J. Mater. Sci.
Lett. 22 (2003) 343–356.
[6] W.B. Lee, Y.M. Yeon, S.B. Jung, Mater. Sci. Eng. A355 (2003) 154–
159.
[7] M. Song, R. Kovacevic, Int. J. Mach. Tool Manu. 43 (2003) 605–
615.
[8] P.A. Colegrove, H.R. Shercliff, Sci. Technol. Weld. Joi. 9 (6) (2004)
483–492.
[9] P.A. Colegrove, H.R. Shercliff, in: 4th International Symposium on FSW,
2003.
[10] S. Xu, X. Deng, in: Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium on
Friction Stir Welding, Park City, 2003.
[11] S.V. Kailas, U. Ramakrishna, K. Kumar, Friction Stir Welding, Pre-
sentation at Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of
Science, Bangalore, 2004.
[12] R.A. Prado, L.E. Murr, K.F. Soto, J.C. Mc Clure, Mater. Sci. Eng. A349
(2003) 156–165.
[13] R.A. Prado, L.E. Murr, D.J. Shindo, K.F. Soto, Scripta Mater. 45 (1)
(2001) 75–80.
[14] G. Buffa, J. Hua, R. Shivpuri, L. Fratini, Mater. Sci. Eng. A, in press.
[15] G. Buffa, L. Fratini, in: Proceedings of 8th NUMIFORM Conference,
Columbus, Ohio, June 12–16, 2004, pp. 1224–1229.
[16] L. Fratini, G. Buffa, D. Palmeri, J. Hua, R. Shivpuri, Int. J. Mach. Tool
Manu., submitted for publication.
[17] K.V. Jata, S.L. Semiatin, Scripta Mater. 43 (2000) 743–749.
[18] A. Barcellona, G. Buffa, L. Fratini, Process Parameters Analysis in
Friction Stir Welding of AA6082-T6 Sheets, Keynote Paper of the VII
ESAFORM Conference, Trondhaim, 2004, pp. 371–374.
[19] L. Fratini, G. Buffa, Int. J. Mach. Tool Manu. 45 (2005) 1188–1194.
[20] M.W. Mahoney, C.G. Rhodes, J.G. Flintoff, R.A. Spurling, W.H. Bingel,
Metall. Mater. Trans. A 29A (1998) 1955–1964.
[21] C.G. Rhodes, M.W. Mahoney, W.H. Bingel, Scripta Mater. 36 (1) (1997)
69–75.
[22] E. Cerri, E. Evangelista, A. Forcellese, H.J. McQueen, Mater. Sci. Eng.
A197 (1995) 181–198.