Multivector Review and Training Center

AC MACHINES
Part I
AC GENERATORS (ALTERNATORS)

General Types of Alternators

1. Synchronous generator – its speed is called synchronous speed and it is used
in almost all types of application.

2. Induction generator (Asynchronous generator) – it is an induction motor

which is run as a generator with a speed above the synchronous speed. Its
power factor is leading and usually connected in parallel with a synchronous
generator in order to supply lighting and power loads.

3. Inductor alternator – it generates voltages at higher frequencies (500 HZ to

10,000 HZ). It is used to supply power to induction furnaces in order to heat
and melt alloys and steel.

Two Possible Constructions of an Alternator

1. Stationary field and a revolving armature
Stator – as field
Rotor – as armature

2. Stationary armature and a revolving field

Stator – as armature
Rotor – as field

Note: The latter (2nd) arrangement is more preferable.

Prime Movers for Alternators

A. For large AC generators:
1. Steam turbine
2. Hydraulic turbine
3. Gas turbine
4. Internal combustion engine

B. For small AC generators:

1. Internal combustion engine

Frequency of Generated Voltage

PN S
f
120

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where: f = frequency, HZ or cps

P = no. of poles
NS = synchronous speed, rpm

Generated Voltage in an Alternator


E ave  N x 10  8 volts
t

where: Eave – average generated voltage, volts

N – no. of turns in coil
 - flux per pole, lines/pole or maxwells/pole
t – time for flux to change by , seconds
OR

E ave  N volts (if  is in webers/pole)
t

Eave = 4 f N  x 10-8 volts  1

For sinusoidal flux-density distribution, effective voltage is

E = 1.11 Eave
E = 4.44 f N  x 10-8 volts  2

For a 3 alternator,

E = 4.44 f N  x 10-8 volts  3

where: E - generated voltage per phase

N - no. of turns per phase

Note: Equations 1, 2, and 3 are used for alternators having concentric armature
windings and full pitch coils.

Armature Windings for Alternators

Alternator windings are very similar to the dc lap winding. Coils in ac armatures
are joined together by merely connecting the proper coil ends in the correct
sequence.

Two(2) General Arrangements of Coils Employed:

1. Half-coiled (single layer) – one coil side/slot.
2. Whole-coiled (double layer) – two coil sides/slot

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Note: The whole-coiled winding is the more usual of the two arrangements.

Coil Pitch – the distance between the two sides of a coil. It is usually express as a
percent of full pitch.

Coil pitch

Coil sides

A. Full-pitch coil – a coil having a distance between its two sides exactly equal
to 180 electrical degrees.

180o

Note: For a full-pitch coil, generated voltages in both coil sides are exactly in
phase.

B. Fractional pitch coil – a coil having a distance between its two sides less
than 180 electrical degrees.

<180o

Note : For a fractional pitch coil, generated voltages in the two(2) coil sides are
not in phase.

Pitch Factor – the ratio of the voltage generated in the fractional-pitch coil to the
voltage generated in the full-pitch coil.

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P
K P  sin
2

where: KP = pitch factor in decimal

P = span of the coil in electrical degrees

For a full-pitch coil, KP = 1 (unity)

For a fractional-pitch coil, KP < 1

Distribution Factor - the factor by which the generated voltage E must be

multiplied because the coils are distributed in several slots under the poles
instead of being concentrated in single slots under the poles.
 d 
sin n  
Kd   2
 d 
n sin  
 2

where: Kd = distribution factor, decimal

n = no. of slots per pole per phase
d = no. of electrical degrees per slot

For concentric winding, Kd = 1 (unity)

For distributed winding, Kd < 1

Corrected Voltage of an Alternator

E = 4.44 KP Kd f N  x 10-8 volts

Alternator Schematic Wiring Diagram

a a
F. R.
+

DC source
(Exciter) To 3
Load
_ b b
c
DC field
winding c

Armature Windings

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Equivalent Circuit Diagrams

1. For WYE connected armature windings:
a a
IL
+ I
If Zs
Vf Rf + VL
~ _E
E_ _ E VL
_ + ~_ __~ +
Zs Zs
I b IL b
I
c IL VL
c

VL  3 V ; IL  I ; EL  3 E

2. For DELTA connected armature windings:

+ a a
_
If E IL
Zs ~ +
Vf Rf I I VL
E + Zs
_~ I VL
IL b
_ c
Zs + ~_ b
E IL VL
c

VL  V ; IL  3 I ; EL  E

Per Phase Equivalent Circuit Diagram:

(Wye or Delta Connected)

I = Ia E = V + Ia Zs (added vectorially)
Zs
V L Zs = Ra + j Xs
+ Xs = Xar + XL
E _


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where : E = generated or open circuit or no-load voltage per phase

EL = generated or open circuit or no-load line to line voltage
V = terminal (output) voltage per phase
VL = line to line terminal voltage
I = Ia = armature current per phase
IL = line current
Ra = Re = effective or ac resistance of the armature per phase
Xs = synchronous reactance per phase
XL = armature leakage reactance per phase
Xar = reactance due to armature reaction per phase
Zs = synchronous impedance per phase
Rf = field resistance
If = field current
Vf = voltage drop across the field

Alternator Voltage Regulation

V  VFL
%VR  NL x 100%
VFL
OR
E  V
%VR   x 100%
V

Factors affecting the drop or rise of the alternator terminal voltage:

1. magnitude of the load
2. actual over-all power factor of the combined loads

Effect of various types of load on the alternator terminal voltage:

1. Resistive loads (i.e. incandescent lamps, heating devices) or loads with unity
power factor.
- 8% to 20% drop in terminal voltage below its no-load value

2. Inductive Loads (i.e. induction motors, electrical welders, fluorescent lighting)

or loads with lagging power factor.
- 25% to 50% drop in terminal voltage below the no-load value.

3. Capacitive loads (i.e. capacitor devices or special types of synchronous motor)

or loads with leading power factor.
- tend to raise or increase the terminal voltage of the alternator above the no-
load value.

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Three (3) factors responsible for the change in voltage of an alternator:

1. resistance drop in the armature circuit (IaRa)
2. change in flux or armature-reaction effect (IaXar)
3. armature reactance drop (IaXL)

Alternator Phasor (Vector) Diagrams:

a. For lagging power factor b. For unity power factor

E E
IaZs IaXs
IaXs IaZs
o
V o
 Ia V IaRa
IaRa
=0
I = I a

c. For leading power factor

Ia E IaXs
IaZs
o 
IaRa
V

From the phasor diagrams:

1. In complex form, E = V + IaZs

2. In magnitude, E  V cos   IaRa  2  V sin   Ia Xs  2

where:  - power factor angle of the load
 - for lagging power factor
_ - for leading power factor

Three (3) tests necessary to perform in order to obtain data for the calculation of
the regulation of an alternator:
1. Armature dc resistance test

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2. Open-circuit test or no-load test

3. Short-circuit test

The Armature DC Resistance Test

With the dc field winding open, measure the dc resistance between each pair of
terminals. The average of the three sets of resistance values is called Rt.

Adc
1 2
Open dc field wdg.
DC Source

Vdc

High current rheostat

R 12  R 23  R 31 Vdc rdg
Rt  where: R 12 
3 A dc rdg

Rt
For Wye-connected armature windings, R a dc  
2
3R t
For Delta-connected armature windings, R a dc  
2

To get the equivalent effective or ac resistance of the armature, use a factor of 1.25
to 1.75. Say,

R a or R e  1.25 R adc

The Open-Circuit Test or No-load Test

With the armature-winding circuit open, the alternator is driven at synchronous
speed. A dc source is connected to the field, making provision to adjust the field
current so that, starting at zero, it may be raised until the ac voltage between any
pair of terminals of the armature winding is somewhat above the rated voltage.

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F.R.
If
Open armature
DC Source windings
Vt


Prime Mover

AC voltmeter

Vt
Open circuit voltage per phase, E oc 
3

The Short-Circuit Test

The alternator is driven at synchronous speed. Starting with a very low direct field
current, progressively increase its value as the ac ammeters increase their
deflections to rated current and above.

A1
Highly Resistive
F. R.
A2 Shorted
If Armature
Windings
DC Source

Prime Mover A3

A1  A 2  A 3
Average short circuit current per phase, I sc 
3
E oc
Synchronous impedance per phase, Z s 
I sc

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a. For wye-connected armature windings

Vt
E oc 3
Zs  
I sc I sc

b. For delta-connected armature windings

E oc V
Zs   t
I sc I sc
3 3

Synchronous reactance per phase, X s  Z s 2  R a 2

Alternator Efficiency:

Po Po
 x 100  x 100
Pin Po  Total Losses

Alternator losses include:

1. Rotational losses
a. Friction and windage
b. Brush friction at the field collector rings (often neglected ; quite
small)
c. Ventilation to cool the machine (if necessary)
d. Hysteresis and eddy currents in the stator

2. Electrical losses
a. Field winding
b. Armature winding
c. Brush contacts (often neglected; quite small)

3. Losses in the exciter used for field excitation

4. Stray-load loss (negligible for small alternators)

Operation of Alternators in Parallel

Requisites for connecting alternators in parallel
1. Their voltages must be the same.
2. Their wave forms (frequencies) must be the same.
3. Their phase sequences must be the same.

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If any of the above requisites is not met, there will be cross current between the
alternator windings thru the common bus bars. With the cross-current, the
alternator cannot be synchronized.

Alternator Under Faults

1. Three phase (3) fault at the alternator terminals (either wye or delta
connected alternator)

Note: In a 3 fault, the fault currents are symmetrical (balanced).

 100 
I SC( L )  I L( rated)  
 %Z 1 
If alternator resistance is neglected, then

 100 
I SC( L )  I L( rated)  
 %X 1 

2. Phase to phase fault at the alternator terminals (wye connected alternator)

In a phase to phase fault, the fault currents are asymmetrical (unbalanced).
One fault current is zero. The other two fault currents will have a magnitude
of

  100 
3 I ( rated)   (alternator resistance is neglected)
  %X 1  %X 2 

3. Line to ground or phase to ground fault (wye connected alternator)

In a line to ground fault, the fault currents are asymmetrical (unbalanced).
Two fault currents are zero. The remaining one will have a magnitude of

   Alternator resistance and neutral

100
3 I ( rated)  
 wire impedance are neglected
  %X 1  %X 2  %X 0 

4. Double line to ground fault (wye connected alternator)

In a double line to ground fault, the fault currents are asymmetrical
(unbalanced). One fault current is zero. The other two fault currents will have
a magnitude of

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 
 
1
I ( rated)  
 % X 2 %X 0 
 %X 1  % X  %X 
 2 0 

where: Isc = three phase fault line current

IL rated = rated
L
line current of the alternator
I  rated = rated phase current of the alternator
% Z1= percent positive phase sequence impedance
% X1 = percent positive phase sequence reactance
% X2 = percent negative phase sequence reactance
% Xo = percent zero phase sequence reactance

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