Linear

Matrices and Linear System of Equations
Internal Assessment
Dr. Sukanta Deb
XDepartment of Physics, Cotton College State University
December 6, 2016
Dr. Sukanta Deb Matrices and Linear System of Equations

Internal Assessment
Outline
1 Matrices and Linear System of Equations
2 Internal Assessment

Internal Assessment
Outline

Internal Assessment
Topics in the Syllabus
In this Chapter
1 Solution of Linear Equations
Gauss Elimination Method
Gauss-Seidel Iterative Method
2 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors
Computation of Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors of Matrices by
using Iterative Methods

Internal Assessment
The Gaussian elimination method consists of two steps:

1 Reducing the matrix to its upper triangular form using
elementary row operations
2 Back Substitution
First Step: Let the system of n linear equations with n unknowns
are given by
Ax = b
Row operations consist of the following steps:
aik
aij ← aij − p ∗ akj and bi ← bi − p ∗ bk where p =
akk
for k = 1, 2, . . . n − 1, followed by i = k + 1, k + 2, . . . , n and
j = 1, 2, . . . , n. The above step reduces A|b to U|v .

Internal Assessment

Second Step: Backward substitutions are performed on U|v to
vi − nk=i+1 uik xk
P
vn
xn = and xi = , for i = n−1, n−2, . . . , 1.
unn uii
Solve the system:
2x1 + x2 + x3 =10
3x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 =18
x1 + 4x2 + 9x3 =16
Let
     
2 1 1 10 x1
A = 3 2 3 , b = 18 , X = x2 
1 4 9 16 x3

Internal Assessment

First Step:
Operations with respect to the first row (k = 1): The row
operation is
Ri ← Ri − pR1 ,
for the rows i = 2, 3. The pivot element of the first row is
a11 = 2. Therefore, p = aakkik . For i = 2, p = aa21
11
= 23 and for
i = 3, p = aa31
11
= 12 . Therefore, for i = 2
R2 ←R2 − pR1
= 3 2 3 − 23 × 2 32 × 1 3

2 ×1
= 3 2 3 − 3 32 23

= 3 − 3 2 − 32 3 − 23

= 0 12 32


Internal Assessment
For i = 3,
R3 ←R3 − pR1
= 1 4 9 − 12 × 2 12 × 1 1

2 ×1
= 1 4 9 − 1 12 12

= 1 − 1 4 − 12 9 − 12 )

= 0 72 17

2

Internal Assessment

Also
bi ← bi − pbk
Therefore, for i = 2, 3
1
b2 ← b2 − 32 b1 ,
b3 ← b3 − b1
2
1
= (18 − 32 × 10), = (16 − × 10)
2
= 3, = 11
Therefore, after first row operation, the matrix A and b becomes

   
2 1 1 10
A = 0 21 32  , b =  3 
0 72 172 11

Internal Assessment
Operations with respect to the second row (k = 2): The

row operation is
Ri ← Ri − pR2 ,
for the row i = 3. The pivot element of the second row is
a22 = 12 . Therefore, p = aakkik . For i = 2, p = aa32
22
= 72 × 2 = 7.
Therefore, for i = 2
R3 ←R3 − 7R2 b3 ←b3 − 7b2

= 0 27 17 7 21

2 − 0 2 2 =(11 − 7 × 3)
= 0 − 0 27 − 72 72 − 21

2 = − 10

= 0 0 −2

Internal Assessment

After first & second row operations, we get
   
2 1 1 10
A = 0 12 3
2 , b =
 3
0 0 −2 −10
Second Step: The reduced system of linear equations after row

operations becomes
    
2 1 1 x1 10
= 0 12 3  
2 x2 =  3 
0 0 −2 x3 −10
This system is solved by applying backward substitutions to get

b3 −10
x3 = = =5
a33 −2

Internal Assessment
b2 − a23 ∗ x3 (3 − 32 ∗ 5)
x2 = = 1
= −9
a22 2
b1 − (a12 ∗ x2 + a13 ∗ x3 ) 10 − (1 ∗ (−9) + 1 ∗ 5)
x1 = = =7
a11 1
Therefore, the required solution is
x1 = 7, x2 = −9, x3 = 5

Internal Assessment
Gauss Elimination (with pivoting) Method
Solve the following system of linear equations with the

Gaussian elimination method with partial pivoting:
2x1 + 2x2 + x3 = 6
4x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 = 4
x1 − x2 + x3 = 0
 
2 2 1 6
Let A|b = 4 2 3 4. From the first column, we find that
1 −1 1 0
the pivot element (the largest absolute value element) is 4.
Interchanging the row 
corresponding  to this element with the first
4 2 3 4
row, we obtain A|b = 2 2 1 6.
1 −1 1 0
Internal Assessment
Eliminating the first variable from the second row onwards using
the elementaryrow operations of basic Gauss elimination method,
4 2 3 4
we get A|b = 0 1 − 21 10 
3 . From the second row
3 1
0 −2 4 −1
onwards, the pivot element is searched in the second column. It
can be seen that it is − 23 . Interchanging the second row with the
 
4 2 3 4
pivot element row, A|b = 0 − 23 1
4 −1 . Eliminating the
1 10
0 1 −2 3
second variable from the second row  onwards using thebasic Gauss
4 2 3 4
3 1
elimination method, we get A|b = 0 − 2 
4 −1 .
1 10
0 0 −3 3

Internal Assessment

Therefore, after elementary row operations with partial pivoting,
we obtain
   
4 2 3 4
A = 0 − 23 1
4 , b =  − 31 
0 0 − 13 10
3
The reduced system of linear equations after row operations

becomes
    
4 2 3 x1 4
0 − 3 1 
x2 =  −1 
2 4
1 10
0 0 −3 x3 3
This system is solved by applying backward substitutions to get

10
b3
x3 = = 31 = −10
a33 −3
Internal Assessment
b2 − a23 ∗ x3
x2 = = −1
a22
b1 − (a12 ∗ x2 + a13 ∗ x3 )
x1 = =1
a11
Therefore, the required solution is
x1 = 9, x2 = −1, x3 = −10

Internal Assessment
Gauss-Seidel Method
The two most commonly used iterative methods for solving a set
of linear equations are:
jacobi’s method
Gauss-Seidel method
In the case of Jacobi’s method, the values of the unknowns are
updated when an iteration has completed. On the other hand, in
the case of Gauss-Seidel method, the values of the unknowns are
updated immediately without waiting for the iteration to complete.
These two methods are basically similar, having the same formula
for updating the values. Both methods require the coefficient
matrix of the system to be a special type of matrix called a
diagonally-dominant matrix. The difference between them lies in
the way updates are made: Gauss-Seidel uses the latest values of
the variables, whereas Jacobi does not use the latest values.

Internal Assessment
Gauss-Seidel Method
The difference between the Gauss-Seidel method and Jacobi
iteration is depicted in the following figure.
Figure: Graphical depiction of the difference between (a) the

Gauss-Seidel and (b) the Jacobi iterative methods for solving
simultaneous linear algebraic equations.

Internal Assessment
Diagonally-dominant Matrix
A square matrix A is said to be diagonally-dominant if the absolute
value of its diagonal element in each row is greater than the sum
of the absolute value of all other elements in the same row. This
condition is expressed as follows:
n
X
|aii | > |aij | , for i = 1, 2, . . . , n
j=1
j6=i
In the above definition, a diagonally-dominant matrix must always

have the largest absolute values at its diagonal elements
Theorem
If the coefficient matrix A is diagonally-dominant, then the
Gauss-Seidel method converges for any starting vector.

Internal Assessment
Diagonally-dominant Matrix
 
5 −1 3
The following matrix is diagonally-dominant: A = 2 −7 −1,
4 −2 8
since
Row1 :|5| > | − 1| + |3| (a11 > a12 + a13 ),

Row2 :| − 7| > |2| + | − 1| (a22 > a21 + a23 ),
Row3 :|8| > |4| + | − 2| (a33 > a31 + a32 )
The following matrix is not diagonally-dominant but becomes

diagonally-dominant by exchanging rows 2 and 3:
   
5 −1 3 5 −1 3
R2 ↔R3
2 3 −6 −−−−→ 3 −7 2
3 −7 2 2 3 −6

Internal Assessment
Gauss-Seidel Method
Let us consider 3 × 3 set of equations:
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 = b1
a21 x1 + a22 x2 + a23 x3 = b2
a31 x1 + a32 x2 + a33 x3 = b3
If the diagonal elements aii 6= 0 (i = 1, 2, 3), the first equation can
be solved for x1 , the second for x2 and the third for x3 to yield
b1 − a12 x2 − a13 x3
x1 = (1)
a11
b2 − a21 x1 − a23 x3
x2 = (2)
a22
b3 − a31 x1 − a32 x2
x3 = (3)
a33
Now, we can start the solution process by choosing guesses for the
x’s.
Internal Assessment
Gauss-Seidel Method
A simple way to obtain initial guesses is to assume that they are all
zero, i.e., x1 = x2 = x3 = 0. These zeros (x2 = x3 = 0) can be
substituted into Equation (1), which can be used to calculate a
new value for x1 = b1 /a11 . Then, we substitute this new value of
x1 along with the previous guess of zero for x3 into Equation (2) to
compute a new value for x2 . The process is repeated for
Equation (3) to calculate a new estimate for x3 . Then we return to
the first equation and repeat the entire procedure until our solution
converges closely enough to the true values.
Note: Before applying the Gauss-Seidel method, please ensure
that the coefficient matrix A is diagonally-dominant,i.e.,
n
X
|aii | > |aij | , for i = 1, 2, . . . , n
j=1
j6=i

Internal Assessment
Problems on Gauss-Seidel Method
Solve the following system of equations using the Gauss-Seidel

method:
8x1 − 3x2 + 2x3 = 20

4x1 + 11x2 − x3 = 33 (Diagonally-dominant matrix)
x1 + x2 + 4x3 = 9
Using the iteration equations of the Gauss-Seidel method,

b1 − a12 x2 − a13 x3 20 + 3x2 − 2x3
x1 = = (4)
a11 8
b2 − a21 x1 − a23 x3 33 − 4x1 + x3
x2 = = (5)
a22 11
b3 − a31 x1 − a32 x2 9 − x1 − x2
x3 = = (6)
a33 4

Internal Assessment

Let us assume the initial approximations as: x1 = x2 = x3 = 0
(Iteration = 0). Putting x2 = x3 = 0 in Equation (4), we get
x1 = 2.5000. Now using x1 = 2.5000 and x3 = 0 in Equation (5),
we get x2 = 2.0909. Using the value x1 = 2.5000 and x2 = 2.0909
in Equation (6), we get x3 = 1.1023. Therefore, after the first
iteration, we get the values as x1 = 2.5000, x2 = 2.0909,
x3 = 1.1023. For successive iterations, the following Table is
constructed using the above set of equations.
Iteration x1 x2 x3
0 0 0 0
1 2.5000 2.0909 1.1023
2 3.0085 2.0062 0.9963
3 3.0032 1.9985 0.9996
4 3.0 2.0 1.0
Therefore, the solution is x1 = 3, x2 = 2.0, x1 = 1.0 .

Internal Assessment

method:
28x1 + 4x2 − x3 = 32
x1 + 3x2 + 10x3 = 24 (Not a diagonally-dominant matrix)
2x1 + 17x2 + 4x3 = 35
We can see that the coefficient matrix is not a diagonally

dominant matrix. To make the coeficient matrix a diagonally
dominant matrix, we rearrange the equations as:
28x1 + 4x2 − x3 = 32
2x1 + 17x2 + 4x3 = 35 (Diagonally-dominant matrix)
x1 + 3x2 + 10x3 = 24

Internal Assessment
Using the iteration equations of the Gauss-Seidel method,

b1 − a12 x2 − a13 x3 32 − 4x2 + x3
x1 = =
a11 28
b2 − a21 x1 − a23 x3 35 − 2x1 − 4x3
x2 = =
a22 2
b3 − a31 x1 − a32 x2 24 − x1 − 3x2
x3 = =
a33 10
Let us assume the initial approximations as: x1 = x2 = x3 = 0
(Iteration = 0). Putting x2 = x3 = 0 in the first Equation, we get
x1 = 1.1429. Now using x1 = 1.1429 and x3 = 0 in the second
Equation, we get x2 = 1.9244. Using the value x1 = 1.1429 and
x2 = 1.9244 in the third Equation, we get x3 = 1.7084.

Internal Assessment

Therefore, after the first iteration, we get the values as
x1 = 1.1429, x2 = 1.9244, x3 = 1.7084. For successive iterations,
the following Table is constructed using the above set of equations.
Iteration x1 x2 x3
0 0 0 0
1 1.1429 1.9244 1.7084
2 0.9290 1.5476 1.8428
3 0.9876 1.5090 1.8485
4 0.9933 1.5070 1.8486
5 0.9936 1.5070 1.8485
6 0.9936 1.5070 1.8485
Therefore, the solution is

x1 = 0.9936, x2 = 1.5070, x3 = 1.8485

Internal Assessment
Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors

The eigenvalue problem can be stated as follows:
Definition
Given a matrix A, find the nonzero vectors X such that AX = λX,
where λ is the eigenvalue and X is its corresponding eigenvector.
The real eigenvalues and its eigenvectors of the matrix will not
exist if no value of X can satisfy AX = λX.
In many applications, it may not be necessary to find all the

eigenvalues of a given matrix. In this case, the eigenvalues whose
values are extreme become the focus. An eigenvalue whose
modulus is the largest is called the most dominant eigenvalue,
whereas one that is smallest is called the least dominant
eigenvalue. Finding the most dominant eigenvalue or the least
dominant eigenvalue may be sufficient in providing the solution to
a given problem.
Internal Assessment
Eigenvalue Problem
Let A = [aij ] be a square matrix of order n. Then, in the
eigenvalue problem, we wish to find a column vector X and a
constant λ such that
AX = λX,
where λ is called the eigenvalue and X is called the corresponding
eigenvector. The above matrix equations represent a set of n
homogeneous linear equations:
(a11 − λ)x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1n xn = 0

a21 x1 + (a22 − λ)x2 + · · · + a2n xn = 0
..
.
an1 x1 + an2 x2 + · · · + (a2n − λ)xn = 0
A nontrivial unique solutions will exist only when the determinant

of the coefficient matrix vanishes.
Internal Assessment
Eigenvalue Problem
Hence, we have

a11 − λ a12 a13 . . . a1n

a21 a 22 − λ a23 . . . a2n
=0

.. .. .. ..
. . . .

an1 an2 an3 . . . ann − λ
From this, we obtain the following polynomial equation which can

be solved for λ:
λn − p1 λn−1 − p2 λn−2 · · · − pn−1 λ − pn = 0,
where pi ’s are constants. The above equation is called the

characteristic equation of the matrix A and the polynomial is called
the characteristic polynomial of the matrix A. The roots
(λi , i = 1, 2 . . . n) of this equation are are called the eigenvalues or
characteristic values of the matrix A.
Internal Assessment
Eigenvalue Problem
For each eigenvalue λi , there exists a corresponding eigenvector Xi
such that
AXi = λXi
The eigenvalues λi may be either distinct (i.e., all different) or
repeated. The evaluation of eigenvalues in the case of repeated
roots is a much invloved process and will not be discussed here.
Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the matrix
 
5 0 1
A = 0 −2 0
1 0 5
The characteristic equation is given by
|A − λI | = 0,
where I is the identity matrix.
Internal Assessment
Eigenvalue Problem

5 − λ 0 1

∴ 0 −2 − λ 0 = 0
1 0 5 − λ
⇒ λ1 = −2, λ2 = 4, λ3 = 6
The correspinding eigenvectors can be obtained as follows:

 
x1
λ1 = −2: Let the eigenvector be X1 = x2 . Thus, we have

x3
AX1 = λ1 X1
⇒ (A − λ1 I )X1 = 0

Internal Assessment
Eigenvalue Problem
    
7 0 1 x1 0
⇒ 0 0 0 x2  = 0 which gives
1 0 7 x3 0
⇒ 7x1 + x3 = 0, x1 + 7x3 = 0
The solution is x1 = x3 = 0 with x2arbitrary.
 Let us take x2 = 1.
0
Therefore, the eigenvector is X1 = 1
0
 
x1
λ2 = 4: Let the eigenvector be X2 = x2 . Thus, we have
x3
AX2 = λ2 X2
⇒ (A − λ2 I )X2 = 0
Internal Assessment
Eigenvalue Problem
    
1 0 1 x1 0
⇒ 0 −6 0 x2  = 0 which gives
1 0 1 x3 0
⇒ x1 + x3 = 0, − 6x2 = 0
From this, we obtain x1 = −x3 and x2 = 0. Let us take

x12 + x22 + x32 = 1, i.e., X2 is normalized. From this, we get
x1 = √12 , x3 = − √12 . Hence, the normalized eigenvector X2 is
given by
 1 
√
 2
X2 =  0 
− √12

Internal Assessment
Eigenvalue Problem
 
x1
λ3 = 6: Let the eigenvector be X3 = x2 . Thus, we have
x3
AX3 = λ3 X3
⇒ (A − λ3 I )X3 = 0
    
−1 0 1 x1 0
⇒  0 −8 0  x2  = 0 which gives
1 0 −1 x3 0
⇒ −x1 + x3 = 0, − 8x2 = 0, x1 − x3 = 0
From this, we obtain x1 = x3 and x2 = 0. Let us take

x12 + x22 + x32 = 1, i.e., X3 is normalized. From this, we get
x1 = √12 , x3 = √12 .
Internal Assessment
Eigenvalue Problem
Hence, the normalized eigenvector X3 is given by

 1 
√
 2
X3 =  0 
√1
2

Internal Assessment
Power Method
Determine the largest eigenvalue and the corresponding
eigenvector of the matrix
 
10 4 −1
A= 4 2 3
−1 3 1
to 2 correct decimal places using the power method.
 
1 T
Let the initial eigenvector be X0 = 1 = 1 1 1 .

1
T
Y1 = AX0 = 13 9 3
Y1 T
X1 = = 1 0.6923 0.2308
13
T
Y2 = AX1 = 12.5384 6.0770 1.3077
Internal Assessment
Power Method
Y2 T
X2 = = 1.0000 0.4847 0.1043
12.5384
T
Y3 = AX2 = 11.8345 5.2823 0.5584
Y3 T
X3 = = 1.0000 0.4463 0.0472
11.8345
T
Y4 = AX3 = 11.7380 5.0342 0.3861
Y4 T
X4 = = 1.0000 0.4289 0.0329
11.7380
T
Y5 = AX4 = 11.6827 4.9565 0.3196
Y5 T
X5 = = 1.0000 0.4243 0.0274
11.6827

Internal Assessment
Power Method
T
Y6 = AX5 = 11.6698 4.9308 0.3003
Y6 T
X6 = = 1.0000 0.4225 0.0257
11.6698
T
Y7 = AX6 = 11.6643 4.9221 0.2932
Y7 T
X7 = = 1.0000 0.4220 0.0251
11.6643
T
Y8 = AX7 = 11.6629 4.9193 0.2911
Y7 T
X8 = = 1.0000 0.4218 0.0250
11.6629
It follows that the largest eigenvalue in magnitude correct to 2
decimal places is 11.66 and the largest eigenvector is
T
1.00 0.42 0.02
Internal Assessment
Power Method
Determine the largest eigenvalue and the corresponding
eigenvector of the matrix
 
4 1 0
A = 1 20 1
0 1 4
to 3 correct decimal places using the power method.
 
1 T
Let the initial eigenvector be X0 = 1 = 1 1 1 .

1
T
Y1 = AX0 = 5 22 5
Y1 T
X1 = = 5/22 1 5/22
22
T
Y2 = AX1 = 21/11 225/11 21/11
Internal Assessment
Power Method
Y2 T
X2 = = 21/225 1 21/225
225/11
...
T
Y7 = AX6 = 1.24806 20.12412 1.24824
Y7 T
X7 = = 0.06202 1 0.06202
20.12412
T
Y8 = AX7 = 1.24806 20.12404 1.24806
Y8 T
X8 = = 0.06202 1 0.06202
20.12404
It follows that the largest eigenvalue in magnitude correct to 3
decimal places is 20.124 and the largest eigenvector is
T
0.06202 1 0.06202 .
Internal Assessment
Outline

Internal Assessment
Internal Assessment-I (Submission on:)

Note: Failing to submit internal assignment on or within this
date will be assigned “0” marks.
Solve the following system of equations using the Gauss
elimination method:
2x1 + 8x2 + 2x3 = 14

x1 + 6x2 − x3 = 13
2x1 − x2 + 2x3 = 5

method:
12x1 + 3x2 − 5x3 = 1

x1 + 5x2 + 3x3 = 28
3x1 + 7x2 + 13x3 = 76

Internal Assessment
Internal Assessment-I (Submission on: )
Solve the following system of equations using the Gauss

elimination method:
3x1 + 5x2 + x3 = 5
3x1 + 5x2 − x3 = 2
6x1 − 2x2 − 3x3 = −1
Using the iterative method (power method), find the largest

eigenvalue and the corresponding eigenvector of the following
matrix:
 
3 −1 0
A = −1 2 −1
0 −1 3

Internal Assessment
A Quote
Nature is beautiful!
“The scientist does not study nature because it is
useful; he studies it because he delights in it, and he
delights in it because it is beautiful. If nature were
not beautiful, it would not be worth knowing, and if
nature were not worth knowing, life would not be
worth living.”
—Henri Poincaré.

Internal Assessment
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Matrices and Linear System of Equations

Matrices and Linear System of Equations

Dr. Sukanta Deb

XDepartment of Physics, Cotton College State University

Dr. Sukanta Deb Matrices and Linear System of Equations

1 Matrices and Linear System of Equations

Dr. Sukanta Deb Matrices and Linear System of Equations

1 Matrices and Linear System of Equations

Dr. Sukanta Deb Matrices and Linear System of Equations

Topics in the Syllabus

Dr. Sukanta Deb Matrices and Linear System of Equations

Gauss Elimination Method

The Gaussian elimination method consists of two steps:

Dr. Sukanta Deb Matrices and Linear System of Equations

Gauss Elimination Method

Dr. Sukanta Deb Matrices and Linear System of Equations

Gauss Elimination Method

Dr. Sukanta Deb Matrices and Linear System of Equations

Gauss Elimination Method

Dr. Sukanta Deb Matrices and Linear System of Equations

Gauss Elimination Method

Therefore, after first row operation, the matrix A and b becomes

Dr. Sukanta Deb Matrices and Linear System of Equations

Gauss Elimination Method

Operations with respect to the second row (k = 2): The

R3 ←R3 − 7R2 b3 ←b3 − 7b2

Dr. Sukanta Deb Matrices and Linear System of Equations

Gauss Elimination Method

Second Step: The reduced system of linear equations after row

This system is solved by applying backward substitutions to get

Dr. Sukanta Deb Matrices and Linear System of Equations

Gauss Elimination Method

Therefore, the required solution is

Dr. Sukanta Deb Matrices and Linear System of Equations

Gauss Elimination (with pivoting) Method

Solve the following system of linear equations with the

Gauss Elimination (with pivoting) Method

Dr. Sukanta Deb Matrices and Linear System of Equations

Gauss Elimination (with pivoting) Method

The reduced system of linear equations after row operations

This system is solved by applying backward substitutions to get

Gauss Elimination (with pivoting) Method

Dr. Sukanta Deb Matrices and Linear System of Equations

Dr. Sukanta Deb Matrices and Linear System of Equations

Figure: Graphical depiction of the difference between (a) the

Dr. Sukanta Deb Matrices and Linear System of Equations

In the above definition, a diagonally-dominant matrix must always

Dr. Sukanta Deb Matrices and Linear System of Equations

Row1 :|5| > | − 1| + |3| (a11 > a12 + a13 ),

The following matrix is not diagonally-dominant but becomes

Dr. Sukanta Deb Matrices and Linear System of Equations

Dr. Sukanta Deb Matrices and Linear System of Equations

Problems on Gauss-Seidel Method

Solve the following system of equations using the Gauss-Seidel

8x1 − 3x2 + 2x3 = 20

Using the iteration equations of the Gauss-Seidel method,

Dr. Sukanta Deb Matrices and Linear System of Equations

Problems on Gauss-Seidel Method

Therefore, the solution is x1 = 3, x2 = 2.0, x1 = 1.0 .

Problems on Gauss-Seidel Method

Solve the following system of equations using the Gauss-Seidel

We can see that the coefficient matrix is not a diagonally

Dr. Sukanta Deb Matrices and Linear System of Equations

Problems on Gauss-Seidel Method