1. What is PLC?

1. In brief terms, a PLC is a digital electronic device that contains a programmable (changeable) memory in which a
sequence of instructions is stored. Those instructions enable the PLC to perform various useful control functions like
relay logic, counting, timing, sequencing, and arithmetic computation. These functions usually are used to monitor and
control individual machines or complex processes via inputs and outputs (I/Os). I/O modules connected to the PLC
provide analog or digital electronic interfaces to the external world. The PLC reads inputs, processes them through a
program, and generates outputs.

2. A PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER (PLC) is an industrial computer control system that continuously
monitors the state of input devices and makes decisions based upon a custom program to control the state of output
devices.

3. Almost any production line, machine function, or process can be greatly enhanced using this type of control system.
However, the biggest benefit in using a PLC is the ability to change and replicate the operation or process while
collecting and communicating vital information.
4. Another advantage of a PLC system is that it is modular. That is, you can mix and match the types of Input and Output
devices to best suit your application.
2. How does a PLC Work?

a. The components that make a PLC work can be divided into three core areas.
b. The power supply and rack
c. The central processing unit (CPU)
d. The input/output (I/O) section

1. The power supply and rack

The rack is the component that holds everything together. Depending on the needs of the control system it can be
ordered in different sizes to hold more modules. Like a human spine the rack has a backplane at the rear which allows
the cards to communicate with the CPU. The power supply plugs into the rack as well and supplies a
regulated DC power to other modules that plug into the rack. The most popular power supplies work with 120 VAC or
24 VDC sourceThe most popular power supplies work with 120 VAC or 24 VDC sources.

2. The CPU

The brain of the whole PLC is the CPU module. The CPU consists of a microprocessor, memory chip and other
integrated circuits to control logic, monitoring and communications. The CPU has different operating modes. In
programming mode it accepts the downloaded logic from a PC. The CPU is then placed in run mode so that it can
execute the program and operate the process.

Since a PLC is a dedicated controller it will only process this one program over and over again. One cycle through the
program is called a scan time and involves reading the inputs from the other modules, executing the logic based on
these inputs and then updated the outputs accordingly. The scan time happens very quickly (in the range of 1/1000th
of a second). The memory in the CPU stores the program while also holding the status of the I/O and providing a
means to store values.

3. I/O System

The I/O system provides the physical connection between the equipment and the PLC. There are many different kinds
of I/O cards which serve to condition the type of input or output so the CPU can use it for it‘s logic. It's simply a matter
of determining what inputs and outputs are needed, filling the rack with the appropriate cards and then addressing them
correctly in the CPUs program.
 4. Inputs

Input devices can consist of digital or analog devices. A digital input card handles discrete devices which give a signal
that is either on or off such as a pushbutton, limit switch, sensors or selector switches. An analog input card converts a
voltage or current (e.g. a signal that can be anywhere from 0 to 20mA) into a digitally equivalent number that can be
understood by the CPU. Examples of analog devices are pressure transducers, flow meters and thermocouples for
temperature readings

5. Outputs

Output devices can also consist of digital or analog types. A digital output card either turns a device on or off such as
lights, LEDs, small motors, and relays. An analog output card will convert a digital number sent by the CPU to it‘s real
world voltage or current. Typical outputs signals can range from 0-10 VDC or 4-20mA and are used to drive mass flow
controllers, pressure regulators and position controls.

6. Programming a PLC

In these modern times a PC with specially dedicated software from the PLC manufacturer is used to program a
PLC. The most widely used form of programming is called ladder logic. Ladder logic uses symbols, instead of words,
to emulate the real world relay logic control, which is a relic from the PLC's history. These symbols are interconnected
by lines to indicate the flow of current through relay like contacts and coils. Over the years the number of symbols has
increased to provide a high level of functionality.

The completed program looks like a ladder but in actuality it represents an electrical circuit. The left and right rails
indicate the positive and ground of a power supply. The rungs represent the wiring between the different components
which in the case of a PLC are all in the virtual world of the CPU. So if you can understand how basic electrical circuits
work then you can understand ladder logic.

In this simplest of examples a digital input (like a button connected to the first position on the card) when it is pressed
turns on an output which energizes an indicator light.

The completed program is downloaded from the PC to the PLC using a special cable that‘s connected to the front of the
CPU. The CPU is then put into run mode so that it can start scanning the logic and controlling the outputs.

3. If a PLC malfunctions, what will you do?

1. The first thing to check is the integrity of the PLC's power and ground. Visually inspect the power and ground wiring,
looking for loose, corroded, or otherwise questionable connections. The integrity of the ground can be electrically
checked by measuring the voltage between the PLC ground terminal and a known ground. Using a digital meter set on
the lowest scale, both the AC and DC voltages should be zero.
2. The power supply also can be tested electrically. If the PLC processor has an AC power source, check the input
voltage; it should be within the manufacturer's recommended range. PLC processors actually operate on DC power, so
that also must be checked. Measure each of the outputs of the DC power supply and check if the voltages are within
the recommended ranges.
3. Also check the DC supplies for AC ripple. This can be done using a digital meter set on a low AC range, and the value
measured should be well below the manufacturer's specifications. Excess ripple has drastic effects on the operation of
the microprocessors and memory devices typically found in PLC processors.
4. The final power check is to measure the voltage of any batteries in the system. Battery power is often used to prevent a
PLC from losing its program during power outages, and battery voltages should be within recommended values.
5. Other causes for erratic processor behavior are electro-magnetic interference (EMI) or radio frequency interference
(RFI). Try to correlate the erratic behavior with an external EMI or RFI event like a large motor starting, arc welding in
the area, lightning strikes, or even the use of handheld radio transmitters. Although they may seem harmless, handheld
radios commonly used by maintenance personnel emit powerful RF radiation and can seriously disrupt the operation of
unprotected electronic equipment.
6. Long-term solutions to EMI and RFI problems usually involve improvements in power conditioning, grounding, and
shielding.
7. Power, grounding, and interference problems all can cause the corruption of the PLC memory, so the next step is to
verify that the program is still correct. All PLCs have some method for doing this, most of which involve comparing the
program in the PLC with a backup copy on tape or disk.
8. Now on to the more common problem of troubleshooting inputs and outputs. The primary goal of I/O troubleshooting is
to find out why the internal status of the PLC (what the PLC thinks is happening) does not agree with the external
situation (what is actually happening). The first thing that must be done is to determine the relationship between
physical I/O modules and the I/O instructions in the PLC program. This is done by using the addressing scheme for the
particular PLC that you are working on, and this scheme differs from one manufacturer to another. Somewhere in the
documentation there will be an explanation of how to determine which physical I/O point a specific program address is
connected to and vice versa. Once this scheme is understood, each problem can be isolated to a single I/O module and
a program monitoring device (usually a handheld unit, terminal, or personal computer) can be used to check the internal
status of the input or output in question.
9. Troubleshooting digital input modules
10. The function of a digital input module is to determine the ON/OFF status of a signal or signals in the external world and
communicate that information to the PLC processor.
11. Determine if the power for the input in question is present, as faults in field wiring and devices can blow a fuse, trip a
breaker, or cause some other power disruption. If input power is not present, determine and rectify the cause of the
failure before proceeding.
12. If input power is present, connect a voltmeter across the input as shown in Fig. 3, actuate the input device in the field,
and measure the voltage at the PLC input to determine if it changes adequately when the field device changes state. If
it does not, the field device or wiring are most likely at fault.
13. If a proper voltage change is observed, the power and/or logic indicators on the module should change when the
voltage does, and the addressed location in the PLC, when monitored with the programming device, also should
change state. If the indicators do not properly reflect the state of the input, replace the input module.
14. If the input module is working properly but the PLC still is not registering the input internally, the problem lies in the
system used to communicate input information from the module to the processor.
15. Troubleshooting analog input modules
16. Instead of monitoring the on/off status of an input, analog inputs measure the actual value of a voltage or current and
communicate it to the processor. Analog input modules are available in many DC voltage and current ranges, and basic
troubleshooting is almost identical to that for digital modules.
17. First determine if the input is isolated or nonisolated, and determine the source of power and verify that it is present.
18. Next, change the voltage or current level generated by the field device, verify that the change is reflected at the input
module terminals, and verify that the content of the address associated with the input reflects the voltage or current
change.
19. There are two additional complications introduced by analog modules, however. First, there usually is no indication on
the module to reflect the level of the input, so an external meter must be relied upon. Second is the scale problem: You
must determine what range of voltage or current the module is designed to measure, and what numerical scale is
 associated with that range in the PLC. An input with a 1-5 VDC range may be expected to generate a change from 0 to
1000 in a PLC register, for example. Just determining if the number changes when the input does is not enough. A
good approach is to adjust the external voltage or current to minimum, half scale, and maximum values, and to observe
the PLC register to determine if corresponding changes have occurred. In the previous example, 1 VDC should
generate 0 in the PLC register, 3 VDC should generate 500, and 5 VDC should generate 1000. If the field device cannot
be easily manipulated in this manner, it can be temporarily replaced for troubleshooting purposes by a signal
transmitter. The signal transmitter can be connected directly to the input module, and if the module does not respond
correctly it should be replaced. If it does respond properly, the problem most likely is in the field device or wiring.
20. Field wiring can be tested by temporarily replacing the field device with a signal transmitter and observing the reaction
at the PLC to signal changes.
21. After that check the digital and analog outputs.

4. What is Source & Sink in PLC?

1. Source & Sinking is used exclusively with Digital DC circuits. If the common pin is + polarity, it‘s called a sourcing
circuit. If it‘s – polarity, it‘s called a sinking circuit.

2.
5. How you connect input to PLC? What is input interface between Input card & input terminals

i.

ii.
6. What is the principle of a transducer? How does it work?
1. Any device which is able convert one form of energy into another form is called as a transducer. For example, even a
speaker can be called as a transducer as it converts electrical signal to pressure waves (sound).But an electrical
transducer will convert a physical quantity to an electrical one.

2. A pressure transducer is a device which converts an applied pressure into a measurable electrical signal.
3. A pressure transducer consists of two main parts, an elastic material which will deform when exposed to a pressurized
medium and a electrical device which detects the deformation.

4. The elastic material can be formed into many different shapes and sizes depending on the sensing principle and range
of pressures to be measured. The most common method of utilising the elastic material is to form it into a thin flexible
membrane called a diaphragm. The electrical device which is combined with the diaphragm to create a pressure
transducer can be based on a resistive, capacitive or inductive principle of operation.

5. Pressure Transducer Types

6. Strain Gauge :A resistive pressure transducer has strain gauges bonded or embedded into the surface of a diaphragm
so that any change in pressure will cause a change in the electrical resistance of each strain gauge.
7. Variable Capacitance: A variable capacitance pressure transducer has a capacitive plate bonded to one side of the
diaphragm and another capacitive plate bonded to an unpressurized surface in close proximty to the diaphragm. A
change in pressure will widen or narrow the gap between the two plates which varies the capacitance.
8. Variable Inductance:An inductive pressure transducer uses the principle of inductance to convert the flexing of a
diaphragm into the linear movement of a ferromagnetic core. The movement of the core is used to vary the induced
current generated by an AC powered primary coil on another secondary pick-up coil.
9. Resonating Frequency:Other types of pressure transducer utilise the principle of the piezo-electric effect, or material
structures which vary in resonant frequency with strain.
10. Temperature transducers: RTD and thermocouple types

11. LVDTs (Displacement Transducers): In its simplest form, the LVDT design consists of a cylindrical array of a primary
and secondary windings with a separate cylindrical core which passes through the centre. (Fig A)

12.
13. The primary windings (P) are energised with a constant amplitude A.C. supply at a frequency of 1 to 10 kHz. This
produces an alternating magnetic field in the centre of the transducer which induces a signal into the secondary
windings (S & S ) depending on the position of the core.
14. Movement of the core within this area causes the secondary signal to change (Fig B). As the two secondary windings
are positioned and connected in a set arrangement (push-pull mode), when the core is positioned at the centre, a
zero signal is derived.
15. Movement of the core from this point in either direction causes the signal to increase (Fig C). As the windings are
wound in a particular precise manner, the signal output has a linear relationship with the actual mechanical
movement of the core.
16. The secondary output signal is then processed by a phase-sensitive demodulator which is switched at the same
frequency as the primary energising supply. This results in a final output which, after rectification and filtering, gives
D.C. or 4-20mA output proportional to the core movement and also indicates its direction, positive or negative from
the central zero point (Fig D).
17. The distinct advantage of using an LVDT displacement transducer is that the moving core does not make contact
with other electrical components of the assembly, as with resistive types, as so offers high reliability and long life.
18. FLOW TRANSDUCER
19. The principle of operation for the magnetic flowmeter is based on the Faraday‘s Law of Electromagnetic Induction.
20. An electrical current (I) is applied to a coil package inside the flowmeter.
As a result, a magnetic field (B) is created across the metering pipe.
 When a conductive liquid flows through the magnetic field, a small voltage (u) is induced. This voltage is proportional to
the velocity of the flow and is accurately measured by two stainless steel electrodes mounted opposite each other
inside the metering pipe. The two electrodes are connected to an advanced electronic input circuitry which processes
the signal and in turn feeds it to the a microprocessor inside the electronics module. The microprocessor then
calculates the volumetric flow and controls the various outputs on the terminal board.

7. If you are getting 50Hz supply from the shore at drydock,and your ship is 60 hz what are the consequences?
1. Motors and hence the pumps will run with reduced rpm and hence reduced efficiency.
2. Cooling is a direct function of rotational speed. The motor's fan is attached to the motor's spinning rotor so it will
experience the same speed-up or slow down the motor does. If the motor slows down, its cooling will drop (and at a
faster rate than the slow down).

3. The magnetic capacity of the motor's magnetic (iron) circuit is designed to the relationship: voltage/frequency
(V/f). If the frequency drops the V/Hz goes up. This means that the motor needs a larger magnetic circuit. Without it,
the magnetic circuit can be overloaded. This is called saturation and it leads to a rapid increase in current draw and a
corresponding large increase in temperature. This means that during parts of every power line cycle the magnetic
structure of the motor will probably be overloaded.

When this happens the motor's ability to limit current via reactance is lost. This will cause excessive current to flow
heating the motor via I squared R losses. The only recourse here is to correct the V/Hz with the variable that is
reasonably easy to adjust - V the voltage. Lower the voltage with a transformer to correct the V/Hz ratio.

You should monitor the motor's temperature and assure yourself that after extended running time, under load, it
remains below the nameplate temperature rise.

Transformers 1 KVA and larger, rated at 60 Hz, should not be used on 50 Hz service due to higher losses and resultant
heat rise. However, any 50 Hz transformer will operate on 60 Hz service.

8. What are the Explosion proof light requirements?

1. To meet the criteria for the explosion proof rating, an enclosure must be able to contain any explosion originating within
its housing and prevent sparks from within its housing from igniting vapors, gases, dust, or fibers in the air surrounding
it. Therefore, explosion proof, when referring to electrical enclosures, does not mean that it is able to withstand an
exterior explosion. Instead, it is the enclosures ability to prevent an internal spark or explosion from causing a much
larger blast.
 2. Additionally, the NEC states that equipment must meet the temperature requirements of the specific application in
which it is to be installed. This means that the operating temperature of the motor (and its enclosure) or other
component cannot be greater than the lowest ignition/combustion temperature of the gases or dusts in the atmosphere
where the component is to be installed.
3. Usually lighting requires electrical energy sufficient to cause ignition. Explosion proof lighting would require these
components: explosion proof box with the switch or sensor/relay to turn the lights on or off. electrical power in conduit
from the source in a safe area to the switch box to the light. The Conduit requires permanent packing at the ends to
prevent gasses and flames from traversing the conduit. A light fixture that holds the bulb so it can't be broken and cause
a spark and cast metal fixture to contain the ignition should it occur.

9. Intrinsic safe circuits?

1. Intrinsic safety (IS) is a protection technique for safe operation of electrical equipment in hazardous areas by limiting
the energy available for ignition. In signal and control circuits that can operate with low currents and voltages, the
intrinsic safety approach simplifies circuits and reduces installation cost over other protection methods.

2. The primary concept behind intrinsic safety is the restriction of available electrical and thermal energy in the system so
that ignition of a hazardous atmosphere (explosive gas or dust) cannot occur. This is achieved by ensuring that only low
voltages and currents enter the hazardous area, and that no significant energy storage is possible.
3. One of the most common methods for protection is to limit electric current by using multiple series resistors (assuming
that resistors always fail open); and limit the voltage with multiple zener devices to ground (assuming diodes always fail
shorted).
4.Equipment or instrumentation for use in a hazardous area will be designed to operate with low voltage and current, and
will be designed without any large capacitors or inductors that could discharge in a spark. The instrument will be
connected, using approved wiring methods, back to a control panel in a non-hazardous area that contains safety
barriers. The safety barriers ensure that, no matter what accidental contact occurs between the instrument circuit and
outside power sources, no more than the approved voltage or current enters the hazardous area.
10. ACB overload setting and other safety features

Thermal Protcetion against " Overload faults " : it can be adjusted " Ir : 0.4 to 1 x In ", where " In " is the nominal
current of ACB like : 2500A or 3200A or 4000A, so, if we adjusted it at " 0.5 " for " ACB – 4000A ", the thermal
protection value is " Ir = 0.5 x 4000 =2000A "
Magnetic Protection for " Short Circuit Faults " : it can adjusted " Isd : 1.5 to 10 x Ir " or for some manufacters to " 12
", so, if we adjusted for the same ACB at " 6 ", the magnetic protection value is " Isd = 6 x 2000 = 12000A ".
Earth Fault Protection against direct fault between any phase and the protection line, it can be adjusted " Ig
: 0.3 to 1 x In ", so, if we adjusted it for the same ACB at " 0.7 ", the earth fault protection value is " Ig = 0.7 x 4000
= 2800A ".
-Residual Protection against " Residual Faults " that means against indirect fault where the fault current's value is
normaly small ( a few Amps ), it can asjusted " IΔn : 0.5 to 30A ".
- Instantaneous Protection against " Short Circuit Faults " when the fault's current value will be very big, and in the
same time we want that ACB trip quickly without delaying, it can adjusted " Ii : 2 to 15 x In " and we can also
switched-off, so, if we adjusted it for the same ACB at " 6 " the instantaneous protection value is " Ii = 6 x 4000
= 24000A ".
In some ACB there's also a " Timing Delay " for the thermal protection and for the magnetic protection, where the "
Timimg delay " for thermal protection can be adjusted is " Seconds ", but the " Timing Delay " for the magnetic
protection can be adhusted in " mili-Seconds ", and we use these " Timing Delay " in ACB to realize the "
Discrimination or Selectivuty " between 2 ACB's or between ACB and MCCB .

11. Synchroscope conditions and operation

12. AVR requirement and operation
1. The function of the AVR is to automatically regulate the voltage of generators. As a load on a generator increases it's
terminal voltage tends to droop.The AVR senses the drop in terminal voltage by measuring the generator voltage and
boosts up the excitation to the field of the generator to maintain the terminal voltage at the set level.Similarly as the load
on the generator falls, the terminal voltage is maintained by the AVR by reducing the excitation to the field.

2. Basic principles for AVR

3. A signal proportional to generator terminal voltage obtained from the rectified output of a voltage transformer is
compared to a stabilized reference voltage obtained within the regulator.

4. If it detected any abnormal,different or error signal, it will amplified and control the excitation supply, increase or
decrease the input to the main field winding or exciter field.The main purpose is to reduce the error signal to zero or an
acceptable value.
 5. Adjustment of the set voltage is obtained either by adjustment of the reference voltage or by adjusting the proportion of
machine voltage compared to the reference voltage. The stabilizing loop is included to prevent hunting.Below
is basic diagram for AVR circuit.

6.

13. E/R crane cutout and regular checks

Following safety trips or cut outs and parts to be periodically inspected.

I. Lifting limit switch

II. Lowering limit switch
III. Forward travel limit switch
IV. Aft travel limit switch
V. Port travel limit switch
VI. Starboard travel limit switch
VII. Limit switches to be tested electrically and mechanically.
VIII. Most neglected part is the gearing. Make sure that lube oil present in sufficient quantity inside the gear system. Drain
completely and replace whole lube oil once in a year.
IX. Brakes are very important as cranes are concerned. In case of power failure, brakes prevent load on hook to come
down because of gravity. Brake lining to be checked for wear and must be within allowable limit.
X. All travelling tracks must be cleaned and greased with proper compounds.
XI. Wire rope conditions to be checked for proper strength and no strands to be broken. Wire to be coated with grease
compounds.
XII. Condition of the shafts and pulley to be monitored and greased.
XIII. Hook must be free to rotate, to be checked for any cracks by work hardening. Safety latch to be functioning properly.
XIV. Check condition of drum where wire rope is wound.
XV. Emergency stop location and operation for crane to be familiar for all ship staffs.

14. Brief the Causes for motor winding damage

1. There are six main causes of electric motor failures:

Over-Current
Low Resistance
Over heating
Dirt
Moisture
Vibration
 These causes are briefly explained below:

1. Over-Current (Electrical Overload): In different operating conditions, electrical devices will sometimes start to draw
more current than their overall capacity. This unpredictable event will happen very suddenly and will greatly impact the
motor. To avoid an over-current, there are some devices that need to be installed that can prevent it from happening.
These devices are usually wired in the circuits and will automatically shut down the extra amount of current flowing in
the circuit.

2. Low Resistance: Most motor failures occur due to low insulation resistance. This issue is considered to be the most
difficult one to tackle. In the initial stages of motor installation, the insulation resistance is observed to be more than one
thousand megaohms. After some time, the insulation performance starts to degrade at an alarming level because the
resistance starts to decay gradually.

3. Over Heating Excessive heat in motors can cause a number of performance problems. Overheating causes the
motor winding insulation to deteriorate quickly. For every ten centigrade rise in temperature, the insulation life is cut in
half. Every electric motor has a design temperature. If a motor is started off at a bad current value, it starts operating in
a much warmer condition than the design temperature. It is very important that the motors should be matched with their
ideal current values.

Overheating also occurs when an electric motor is forced to operate in a high temperature environment. This causes
the rate at which heat can be conducted to reduce at an alarming rate. The area where electric motors are operating
must have a proper cooling system and a ventilation system should be there in case the cooling system stops working.

4. Dirt: Dirt is one of the major sources that cause damage to the electric motors. It can damage the motor by blocking
the cooling fan which causes its temperature to raise. It can also affect the insulating value of the winding insulation if it
settles on the motor windings. Proper steps should be taken to prevent the motors from dirt.

5. Moisture: Moisture also affects the performance of electric motors. It greatly contributes in the corrosion of the motor
shafts, bearings and rotors. This can lead to an insulation failure also. The motor inventory should be kept dry all the
time.

6. Vibration: There are a number of possible causes of vibration, such as misalignment of the motor. Corrosion of parts
can also cause the motor to vibrate. The alignment of the motor should be checked to eliminate this issue.

7. Most motor failures stem from damaged bearings or stator windings. Lack of lubrication, over lubrication,
misalignment and bearing (shaft) currents often dramatically shorten bearing life

8. Phase damage due to unbalanced voltage: Thermal deterioration of insulation in one phase of the stator
winding can result from unequal voltage between phases. Unequal voltages usually are caused by
unbalanced loads on the power source, a poor connection at the motor terminal, or a high resistance
contact .
9. Winding damaged by voltage surge: Insulation failures like this usually are caused by voltage surges.
Voltage surges are often the result of switching power circuits, lightning strikes, capacitor discharges and
solid-state power devices.

15. Fire alarm power supply arrangements

1. The fixed fire detection and fire alarm system has a 24 volts DC power supply system. It has a rectifier connected to
the emergency switchboard. The back up is a battery which will ensure continuity of power supply.
16. Types of level sensors
1. Magnetic Float system
2. Dial Liquid level indicators
3. RF Admittance & Capacitance: A constant voltage is applied to a rod or cable (sensing element) in the process. The
radio frequency current which results is monitored to infer the level of the process material
4. Radar: The sensor emits a microwave pulse towards the process material. This pulse is reflected by the surface of the
material and detected by the same sensor which now acts as a receiver. Level is inferred from the time of flight
(transmission to reception) of the microwave signal.
5. Ultrasonic / Sonic : Ultrasonic transmitters work on the principle of sending a sound wave from a peizo electric
transducer to the contents of the vessel. The device measures the length of time it takes for the reflected sound wave to
return to the transducer. A successful measurement depends on reflection from the process material in a straight line
back to the transducer
6. Bubblers : This simple level measurement has a dip tube installed with the open end close to the bottom of the process
vessel. A flow of gas (usually air) passes through the tube and when air bubbles escape from the open end, the air
pressure in the tube corresponds to the hydraulic head of the liquid in the vessel. The air pressure in the bubble pipe
varies proportionally with the change in head pressure.
 7. Differential Pressure Transmitter: This device does not really measure level. It measures the head pressure that the
diaphragm senses due to the height of the material in the vessel multiplied by a second variable, the density of the
product. This gives you the resultant force being exerted on the diaphragm, which is then translated into a
measurement of level

17. Hydraulic start of Emcy Generator

i. Procedure for Hydraulic Start
ii. Out the switch in manual mode as stated above and check the pressure gauge for sufficient oil pressure.
iii. Open the valve from accumulator to generator.
iv. Push the spring loaded valve and the generator should start.
v. Check voltage and frequency.
vi. Keep the generator running for 10-15 min and check the exhaust temp and other parameters.
vii. Check the sump level
viii. For stopping, use the manual stop button from the panel.
ix. After stopping the generator, pressurize the hydraulic accumulator to desired pressure.
x. Close the valve from accumulator to generator.
18. Emcy generator starting arrangements
i. Battery b) Hydraulic c) Spring Loaded type
19. FRAMO cargo pumping system – working pressure, transmitter location
1. The design pressure of the system is 320 bar. But the system is normally running at 260 Bar and the return line is 16
bar. When not in operation the system is kept pressurized at 2 – 6 bar, to prevent impurities from entering the hydraulic
system. This is done by running one of the jockey / feed pumps to circulate the hydraulic oil.
2. The system pressure is to be 15 – 25 bar above the highest consumer. Never operate the system in such a way that the
system pressure falls below 50 bar. This happens when too many consumers are started.
3. If system pressure is set excessively higher that consumers‘ (Hydraulic motor) pressure the surplus energy will change
into heat and this is loss of energy.
4. Transmitters: Oil level High & Oil Level Low (Main Hydraulic tank)

20. Difference between Online UPS and Offline UPS

1. Online UPS supply power to electrical and electronic devices from batteries all the time. The UPS first converts grid
power to charge the batteries and then discharges the batteries to power the load. As the battery power is supplied to
the load at all times, it is known as Online UPS. The grid power is converted from (Alternating Current) AC to DC (Direct
Current) to charge the battery and the battery power is converted from DC to AC to power the load. Therefore online
UPS is also known as Double Conversion UPS.

Offline UPS supplies Mains to the output when power supply is regular and charges batteries as well at the same time.
When power fails it switches those batteries to produce output for power backup. In OFF line UPS supply will come
from batteries when main line supply fails. Batteries will charge on line.

21. Difference between Analog & Digital

1. Analog and digital signals are used to transmit information, usually through electric signals. In both these technologies,
the information, such as any audio or video, is transformed into electric signals. The difference between analog and
digital technologies is that in analog technology, information is translated into electric pulses of varying amplitude. In
digital technology, translation of information is into binary format (zero or one) where each bit is representative of two
distinct amplitudes.
22. Why are we not getting shock while touching a metal which is being welded?
1. ground clamp being part of it, since the path through the ground clamp and your work piece have almost zero ohms, but
also the 'open circuit' voltage.
2. Normal welding voltage is only around 18-27 volts.This is much less than household current which is 110 volts. In other
words, welding uses very high CURRENT, but low VOLTAGE. Under normal circumstances, welding voltage is not
dangerous.

It would take quite a lot of consecutive bad judgments, before you'd be in danger of electrocution from a welder. (I won't
say it's never happened though....)

It is HIGH VOLTAGE which makes electricity dangerous, not high current. Dry human skin is a very good insulator. so it
takes high voltage to overcome the resistance of the skin.
 To understand why this is, I'll indulge you with a little physics. The relationship between voltage and current is known as
"Ohm's Law:"

V/R=I

Where V is voltage, R is resistance, and I is current.

The resistance from hand to hand in a human body can vary a lot. With welding gloves on, I'd estimate that to be >
100,000 ohm. So even at 28 volts, the current would be only

28 / 100,000 = 0.00028 amps.

This is far too little current to even be FELT!

It generally takes about 0.005 amps to be picked up by the nerves, .06 amps is very painful and potentially dangerous,
whereas it would take 0.2 - 1.0 amps to be seriously life threatening, This much current would also cause immediate
unconsciousness.

With your welding gloves off, with sweaty hands, touching bare metal, your resistance could go down to around 1500
ohms. So,

28/1500 = 0.02 amps.

23. Working principle of Megger.

1. Meggar has two coils namely 'control coil' and 'deflection coil'.The 'Control Coil' will always be kept
energized by the DC Source.If the insulation strength is low then there will be current flow through the 'deflection coil'
and the resulting torque in the coil will produce deviation in the pointer connected to a permanent magnet.The torque
produced by the two coils will be opposite in nature..

WORKING
Resistance to be measured is connected across the test terminals i.e. connected in series with the deflecting coil and
across the generator.When current are supplied to the coils then they have torque in opposite direction.

If the resistance to be measured is high,no current is flowing through the deflecting coil.The controlling coil will therefore
,set itself perpendicular to the magnetic axis and hence,set the pointer at infinity.
If the resistance to be measured is small,a high current is flowing through the deflecting coil and the resulting torque
sets the pointer to zero.
For intermediate values of resistances,depending upon the torque production,the pointer is set at a point between zero
and infinity.
The hand driven generator is of permanent magnet type and it is designed to generate from 500V to 2500V

24. Why is megger used to measure insulation resistance and not a multimeter?

1. The meggar tester /or insulation tester actually uses a high voltage at its terminals to do the measurements thus being
more efficient in driving In a current and then the measurements are made.
Multimeter as the name says is used for a variety of measurements but using basically the same moving coil.when a
high resistance or very small leakage is to be tested using a multimeter it usually fails because of its in ability to drive a
current through a very high resistance circuit and give a correct reading.

2. With a megger tester,a voltage of not less than 500 volts DC is used for testing the insulation resistance of
windings.With a multi-tester, the voltage used is not more than 3-volts DC. A megger is specifically designed to
accurately measure high impedances. An ordinary multi-meter is designed to measure lower, more finite impedances. A
megger is therefore more accurate for the application.
25. What will happen if we give AC supply to DC motor, and vice versa?

1. When A.C. supply is given to a D.C. motor,

1)In case of Series connection of armature winding and field winding , it may run.
2)But, In case of parallel connection , it won't rotate at all and will start humming and will create vibrations, as a torque
produced by positive and negative cycle will cancel out each other. D.C. motor will be heated up.

When D.C. supply is given to an AC. motor ,

1) D.C. supply will not produce rotating magnetic field , hence motor will not run.
2) If rated voltage is given (in D.C. form), there will be only resistance of the winding will affect the D.C. current ,
whereas in case of a.c. supply, impedance will affect the A.C. current. Now, resistance of winding will always be less
than total impedance. Hence, larger amount of current will flow (with compare to A.C. current) through the winding and
will damage the winding.

26. What is Emi filter

1.
2. An electromagnetic wave that interferes with the operation of electronic devices is called noise. Filters are
used for noise that conducts through conductors, while shields are used for noise that conducts through space.
However, since the conductor through which noise conducts can also work as an antenna, these two types of
conductions are mutually transformed into each other via the conductor as an antenna. Therefore, in order to
completely shut out noise, both filters and shields need to be used at one location.
3. An EMI filter is a passive electronic device used to suppress conducted interference present on any power or signal
line. It may be used to suppress the interference generated by the device itself as well as to suppress the interference
generated by other equipment to improve the immunity of a device to the EMI signals present within its electromagnetic
environment. Most EMI filters include components to suppress both common and differential mode interference. Filters
can also be designed with added devices to provide transient voltage and surge protection as well as battery backup.

4. An EMI filter has a high reactive component to its impedance. That means the filter looks like a much higher resistance
to higher frequency signals. This high impedances attenuates or reduced the strength of these signals so they will have
less of an effect on other devices.

27. What will happen if DC supply is given on a transformer?

For D.C, impedance Z=R, as frequency is zero, series inductive reactance Xl is zero(Xl=2ΦfL), and parallel capacitive
reactance (Xc=1/2ΦfC) is infinity, hence current flow would be I=V/R, hence the little voltage applied to primary, would
raised the current above rated , and would damage the winding.

If DC supply is given to the primary of Transformer then DC current flows through primary winding which is
constant(time invarient).For production of emf in any winding the current flowing through that must be sinusoidal since
e=L*(dI/dt).So in the given case ie, for DC input,no emf produced in primary winding. So net voltage in the primary
winding will be (Vin-0) more due to which primary winding draws more current which leads to burning of winding.

28. Even though resistance of coil winding is less, coil does not burn when power is supplied to it. Why?
Magnetic field produced by a coil of wire is much stronger than the field produced when the wire is straight.
When a wire is wound to form a coil by say N times then the strength of the magnetic field is N times more than the
magnetic field produced when the wire is straight. This is because the direction of current in each turn of the coil is and
the field due to each turn adds up to form a stronger magnetic field.

29. Why humming sound occurs in HT transmission line?

This sound is coming due to ionization (breakdown of air into charged particles) of air around transmission conductor.
This effect is called as Corona effect, and it is considered as power loss.

30. How to check capacitor with the help of multimeter?

A shorted Capacitor will clearly show very low resistance. A open Capacitor will not show any movement on ohmmeter.
 A good capacitor will show low resistance initially, and resistance gradually increases. This shows that Capacitor is not
bad. By shorting the two ends of Capacitor (charged by ohmmeter) momentarily can give a weak spark. To know the
value and other parameters, you need better instruments

31. Why the capacitor works on AC only and blocks DC?

Mathematically: The Impedance (Reactance with no Resistance) of the capacitor Xc = 1 / (2*Pi*f*C).For D.C. frequency
f = 0. Then Xc = infinity and D.C. Current is blocked and does not flow.For A.C. f is not Zero and hence A.C. Current
can flow.

In the case of D.C. the Voltage across the capacitance does not change after full charging and remains equal and
opposite to the D.C. Voltage across it and hence no current can flow through it.
In the case of A.C., after full charging the Voltage across the capacitance decreases and reverses and so does the A.C.
current through the capacitor.

Consider a circuit with a capacitor, a voltage source, and a switch. Suppose the voltage source is DC and we flip the
switch. If the capacitor is initially uncharged, then at the instant you close the switch current will flow as if the capacitor
was not there. Instead of an electron crossing the capacitor, an electron will arrive at the negative capacitor plate and
another electron will leave the positive plate. So, at first, current can flow, but as the charge builds up the capacitor
begins to oppose the voltage placed on it and eventually there is no more current in the system because the capacitor
is charged and at equal voltage to the DC voltage source.

Now suppose we did the same thing with an AC source. We close the switch, current flows, the capacitor starts building
up charge to stop the current...but then the voltage flips around and the capacitor no longer opposes the current, so the
current can flow the other way, the capacitor starts to change its polarity, but as it does the current changes
AGAIN...etc.

In short, when a capacitor is placed in a DC circuit it very quickly becomes charged in such a way as to oppose the
applied voltage and all current stops. When the power source is AC, however, the capacitor never has time to "adapt" to
it and so won't build up a charge that opposes the current. It's like you keep flipping an hourglass back over

32. Can 60 HZ transformer be used at higher frequencies?

higher the line frequency, the lower the core (iron) losses! increasing the frequency also increases the magnetizing
inductance, thus lowering the magnetizing current. should be safe, but may result in higher voltage drop because of
lower magnetizing current and because of higher leakage inductance (the series inductance).

Transformers can be used at frequencies above 60 Hz up through 400 Hz with no limitations provided nameplate
voltages are not exceeded. However, 60 Hz transformers will have less voltage regulation at 400 Hz than 60 Hz.
Voltage regulation in transformers is the difference between the no load voltage and the full load voltage. This is usually
expressed in terms of percentage.

33. Can 60 HZ transformer be operated at 50 Hz?

Transformers 1 KVA and larger, rated at 60 Hz, should not be used on 50 Hz service due to higher losses and resultant
heat rise. However, any 50 Hz transformer will operate on 60 Hz service.

The transformer design does not impose any practical upper limit on how much the supply frequency can exceed the
rated frequency, but a supply frequency lower than the rated frequency has the same effect as an overvoltage.

34. Can transformers be used in parallel?

Yes, Transformers can be operated in parallel with the following conditions:

1. Same voltage ratio of transformer.

2. Same percentage impedance.

3. Same polarity.

4. Same phase sequence.

35. Can single phase transformers be used for 3 phase operation?

For three phase system three single phase transformers are required. Three phase transformation can be done in two
ways, by using single three phase transformer or by using a bank of three single phase transformers. Both are
having some advantages over other. Single 3 phase transformer costs around 15% less than bank of three single
phase transformers. Again former occupies less space than later. For very big transformer, it is impossible to transport
large three phase transformer to the site and it is easier to transport three single phase transformers which is
erected separately to form a three phase unit. Another advantage of using bank of three single phase transformers is
that, if one unit of the bank becomes out of order, then the bank can be run as open delta.
36. Why short circuit do not take place when electrode is touched to ground.
Basically during welding we force a short-circuit at the electrode tip. The fault condition produces large magnitude
currents. Greater the Current value have greater I2R heat produced. The arcing energy elevates the temperature &
hence melts the electrode material over the joint.
The transformer is designed to withstand such high currents. But welding is a very complex & detailed phenomenon.
Besides there are many principles on which welding operates. Some may be a welding, dc welding, arc, constant
voltage, constant current etc

37. Why fuse is only for PT and not for CT?

Fuse if given for CT blows off due to a fault then rather than protecting the CT it will make it open circuited hence it will
be saturated & damaged. For PT it gives overload & SC protection.

38. What is class of accuracy of Instruments?

class of accuracy is a figure which represents the error tolerance of a measuring device. This figure is the percentage
of the inherent error of the measuring device with respect to full scale deflection. For example, if the class of accuracy is
2 that means an error of 2 volts in a full scale 100 volt reading

39. Why are NGR‘s (Neutral Grounding resistors) rated for 10 secs?
The grounding resistor may be short time (10-second) rated because fault currents of this magnitude must be relayed
off quickly. Also, the ground fault relaying must be sensitive enough to protect the grounding resistor on a low level
fault. A 10-second rated resistor will carry approximately 10% of its rating continuously. For example, on a system with
a 400 A neutral grounding resistor, the ground fault relay must pick up at a current lower that 40 amperes. This will
protect the resistor and give greater protection for non-bolted line-to-ground faults.
40. Which supply system is more lethal/dangerous AC or DC?
There are too many variables to give a straight AC or DC answer. Going back to basics V=I x R. It is usually a Voltage
that you will come in contact with that will cause a Current to flow thru your body. The Resistance of your body will
determine how much current will flow thru your body. This will depend on many factors - skin resistance, sweat, wet
fingers, rubber boots, wet floor etc.

AC is more dangerous that it cause more energy dissipations and the actual levels of AC are √2 times of the given
value.

AC, when it causes fibrillation, does so because it interferes with, and destabilizes, the signals that tell your heart how
often to beat. DC almost never causes fibrillation, so death by DC almost always involves either long-term exposure,
preventing normal heart/lung operation, or tissue damage.
The minimum current a human can feel depends on the current type (AC or DC) as well as frequency for AC. A person
can feel at least 1 mA (rms) of AC at 60 Hz, while at least 5 mA for DC. At around 10 milliamperes, AC current passing
through the arm of a 68-kilogram (150 lb) human can cause powerful muscle contractions; the victim is unable to
voluntarily control muscles and cannot release an electrified object. This is known as the "let go threshold" and is a
criterion for shock hazard in electrical regulations.

The current may, if it is high enough, cause tissue damage or fibrillation which leads to cardiac arrest; more than 30
[6]
mA of AC (rms, 60 Hz) or 300 – 500 mA of DC can cause fibrillation

41. What is skin effect and how does it happen?

Skin effect is the tendency of an alternating electric current (AC) to become distributed within a conductor such that
the current density is largest near the surface of the conductor, and decreases with greater depths in the conductor.
The electric current flows mainly at the "skin" of the conductor, between the outer surface and a level called the skin
depth. The skin effect causes the effective resistance of the conductor to increase at higher frequencies where the skin
depth is smaller, thus reducing the effective cross-section of the conductor. The skin effect is due to opposing eddy
currents induced by the changing magnetic field resulting from the alternating current.
 An alternating current in a conductor produces an alternating magnetic field in and around the conductor. When the
intensity of current in a conductor changes, the magnetic field also changes. The change in the magnetic field, in turn,
creates an electric field which opposes the change in current intensity. This opposing electric field is called ―counter-
electromotive force‖ (back EMF). The back EMF is strongest at the center of the conductor, and forces the conducting
electrons to the outside of the conductor, as shown in the diagram on the right.

42. Why do we ground the sheath of single core power cables and to avoid grounded at both ends?
A single core cable with a sheath is nothing but a conductor carrying current surrounded by another conductor
(sheath). Hence the Alternative current in the conductor induces voltages in the sheath or the armour. Hence grounding
these cables at both ends will cause the potential of the armour to be same as ground potential & hence shall become
safe for the personnel.
But grounding the cables at both the end will cause a problem. In that case the circulating currents will start flowing with
the armor, the ground & with the two ends of the grounding completing the circuit. This will also provide path for the
fault currents to flow. Hence this whole thing will cause the cable to produce some I2R losses, hence heating & hence
the current carrying capacity will be de rated.
When only one end of the cable sheath is grounded then there is no path for the circulating current to flow. Hence the
current carrying capacity of the cable will be good. But in this case potential will be induced between sheath & ground.
This potential is proportional to the length of the cable & hence this will limit the length of the cable used. This method is
called single point bonding. This is thus used only for short lengths.
There is another system called the cross bonding system in which the sheath are sectionaliosed & cross connected so
that the circulating currents are minimized. Although some potential will also exist between sheath & ground, the same
being maximum at the link boxes where bonding is done. This method provides maximum possible current carrying
capacity with the maximum possible lengths.

43. How many types of Neutral grounding system are there?

Method of Neutral Earthing:

There are five methods for Neutral earthing.

1. Unearthed Neutral System
2. Solid Neutral Earthed System.
3. Resistance Neutral Earthing System.Resonant Neutral Earthing System.
1. Low Resistance Earthing.
2. High Resistance Earthing.
4. Resonant Earthing System.
5. Earthing Transformer Earthing.

Unearthed Neutral System

In ungrounded system there is no internal connection between the conductors and earth. However, as
system, a capacitive coupling exists between the system conductors and the adjacent grounded surfaces.
Consequently, the ―ungrounded system‖ is, in reality, a ―capacitive grounded system‖ by virtue of the
distributed capacitance.

Solidly Neutral Grounded Systems:

Solidly grounded systems are usually used in low voltage applications at 600 volts or less.
In solidly grounded system, the neutral point is connected to earth.

Resistance earthed systems:

Resistance grounding has been used in three-phase industrial applications for many years and it
resolves many of the problems associated with solidly grounded and ungrounded systems.
Resistance Grounding Systems limits the phase-to-ground fault currents.
 Low Resistance Grounded:

Low Resistance Grounding is used for large electrical systems where there is a high investment in
capital equipment or prolonged loss of service of equipment has a significant economic impact and it
is not commonly used in low voltage systems because the limited ground fault current is too low to
reliably operate breaker trip units or fuses. This makes system selectivity hard to achieve. Moreover,
low resistance grounded systems are not suitable for 4-wire loads and hence have not been used in
commercial market applications
A resistor is connected from the system neutral point to ground and generally sized to permit
only 200A to 1200 amps of ground fault current to flow. Enough current must flow such that
protective devices can detect the faulted circuit and trip it off-line but not so much current as to create
major damage at the fault point.
High Resistance Grounded:

High resistance grounding is almost identical to low resistance grounding except that the ground fault
current magnitude is typically limited to 10 amperes or less. High resistance grounding accomplishes
two things.
The first is that the ground fault current magnitude is sufficiently low enough such that no
appreciable damage is done at the fault point. This means that the faulted circuit need not be tripped
off-line when the fault first occurs. Means that once a fault does occur, we do not know where the
fault is located. In this respect, it performs just like an ungrounded system.
The second point is it can control the transient overvoltage phenomenon present on ungrounded
systems if engineered properly.

Resonant earthed system:

Adding inductive reactance from the system neutral point to ground is an easy method of limiting the
available ground fault from something near the maximum 3 phase short circuit capacity (thousands of
amperes) to a relatively low value (200 to 800 amperes).
To limit the reactive part of the earth fault current in a power system a neutral point reactor can be
connected between the transformer neutral and the station earthing system.
A system in which at least one of the neutrals is connected to earth through an
Inductive reactance.
Petersen coil / Arc Suppression Coil / Earth Fault Neutralizer.
The current generated by the reactance during an earth fault approximately compensates the
capacitive component of the single phase earth fault current, is called a resonant earthed system.

Earthing Transformers:

For cases where there is no neutral point available for Neutral Earthing (e.g. for a delta winding), an
earthing transformer may be used to provide a return path for single phase fault currents

In such cases the impedance of the earthing transformer may be sufficient to act as effective earthing
impedance. Additional impedance can be added in series if required.

44. . How to identify the starting and ending leads of winding in a motor which is having 6 leads in the terminal box?
 The easier method requires a multimeter,current tester and a 3 phase supply.
find the 3 paths from one end to the other mark them A's B's and C's
then connect the motor in star one of the A's, B's and C's connected together.
the other ends of the A's , B's and C's are to the supplys.
make sure that you only try it long enough to hear it run properly just a few seconds.
run it and see if the currents are normal.
if not then swap A leads around and try again.
if that doesn't work swap back the A leads and repeat with the B leads
if that doesn't work swap back the B leads and repeat with the C leads
by now it should work.
make sure to swap back each phase that you try or you will be chasing your tail all day.

 If it is a single speed motor then we have to identify 6 leads.

 Use IR tester to identify 3 windings and their 6 leads. Then connect any two leads of two winding and apply
small voltage across it and measure the current.
 Then again connect alternate windings of same two windings and apply small amount of voltage (same as
before) and measure current.
 Check in which mode you get the max current and then mark it as a1-a2 & b1-b2. You get max current when
a2-b1 will be connected and voltage applied between a1-b2.
 Follow the same process to identify a1-a2, b1-b2, c1-c2.now we will be able to connect it in delta or star.

45. Why one terminal of current transformer grounded???

The one pole of the CT is earthed to avoid voltages being present due to capacitive coupling between the CT
secondary and the line being monitored (CT Primary). At low voltages CT Secondary is not earthed but this is always
the case with 11Kv and above.

46. Can transformers be operated at voltages other than nameplate voltages?

In some cases, transformers can be operated at voltages below the nameplate rated voltage. In NO case should a
transformer be operated in excess of its nameplate rating unless taps are provided for this purpose. When operating
below the rated voltage the KVA capacity is reduced correspondingly.
47. There are a transformer and an induction machine These two have the same supply> For which device the load current will be
more?.
If induction machine refers to an induction motor then the load current will be more for induction motor compared to t/f
b'coz of magnetising current in motor power has to be transferred from stator to rotor through air medium , air act's as
some reluctance path where transformer has less reluctance and more over induction motor has rotational losses which
are purely absent in transformer
48. Difference between CT class 0.2 and 0.2S?

0.2S is more accurate at low currents than 0.2. While both have maximum errors of +/- 0.2% at 100% and 120% of
rated current, 0.2S has +/- 0.75% at 1%, 0.35% at 5% and 0.2% at 20 % of rated current while 0.2 has 0.75% at 5%
and 0.35% at 20% rated current.
's' stands for special.0.2s class cts guarantee the the specified accuracy even at 1% and 120% of rating where 0.2
class cts may not be accurate upto 5% and beyond 100% 0f rating.
For 0.2 Class specified accuracy is 'defined' between 5% to 120% of rated current, whereas for 0.2 S the accuracy is
provided between 1% to 120% of rated current. At these secondary current ranges, accuracy is applicable when the
burden is between 25% to 100%.

49. what is the knee point of Current Transformer?

It is generally defined as the voltage at which a further 10% increase in volts at the secondary side of the CT requires
more than 50% increase in excitation current. For most applications, it means that current transformers can be
considered as approximately linear up to this point.
  That point on the magnetizing curve where an increase of 10% in the flux density (voltage) causes an increase of 50%
in the magnetizing force (current).
 The ‗Knee Point Voltage‘ (Vkp) is defined as the secondary voltage at which an increase of 10% produces an increase
in magnetizing current of 50%. It is the secondary voltage above which the CT is near magnetic saturation.

50. What is Insulation resistance/Polarization index?

Polarisation index is the ratio of IR measured after voltage has been applied for 10 minutes (R10) to the IR measured
after one minute (R1), i.e. PI = R10 / R1

A low value of PI indicates that the windings may have been contaminated with oil, dirt etc or absorbed moistures. In
the test, a relatively high DC voltage is applied between the copper conductor and the stator or rotor core usually
between the winding and ground as the machine core & body are grounded). By applying Ohm's law, IR (Rt) at time t is
then,
R1 = V / It
V is the DC Voltage applied and It is the current flowing in the circuit.

The characteristics of the insulation are such that the current. I t is not constant and it varies with time.
The purpose of measuring PI can be understood by knowing the flow of the different currents in the insulator. There are
four currents in the insulator.

a) Capacitive Current: Insulator behaves as a capacitor when a DC voltage is applied to a capacitor, a high charging

current first flows and then it decays exponentially. The size of the capacitor and the internal resistance of the

voltage supply, typically a few hundred kilo ohms, set the currents decay. In case of generator or motor windings,

the current effectively decays to zero in less than 10 seconds. Since the capacitive current contains little diagnostic

information, the initial IR is measured once the capacitive current has decayed. Hence the first IR measurement

has been set as one minute to ensure that this current does not distort the IR calculation.
b) Conduction Current: This current is due to the flow of electrons between the copper and the core. This is galvanic

current through ground wall. Such a current can flow if the ground wall has absorbed moisture, which can happen

on the older thermoplastic insulation systems. The current may also flow if there are cracks, cuts or pinholes in the

ground insulation and some contamination is present to allow current to flow.This current is constant with time.

With modern insulation this current usually is zero (as long as there no damage to the insulation).
c) Surface leakage Current: This is constant DC current that flows over the surface of the insulation. It is caused by

conductive contamination (oil or moisture mixed with dust, dirt, insects, chemicals etc) on the surface of the

windings. This current is also constant with time.

d) Polarization Current: Electrical insulation is hygroscopic in nature and presence of moisture will be there either in

low quantity or in excess. Water molecules are very polar. When an electric field is applied across the insulation

start absorbing electrons from the hydrogen molecules causing ionization of hydrogen. In other words, the

molecules constituting water align in the electric field, just as magnetic field. The energy required to align the

molecules comes from the current in the DC test voltage supply. This current is called polarization current. The
 water becomes completely polarized when the absorption of electron from hydrogen merging with oxygen is

completed. Once the molecules are all aligned, the current stops. The approximate time for complete polarization
is 10 minutes. That is why the IR is measured after 10 minutes of applying voltage.

Now, the total current is the sum of all above currents, i.e. It = Ic + IR + IL+ 1p

A Polarization Index (PI) test is generally performed at the same voltage as the Insulation Resistance (IR)
test. Where the IR test is performed for a period of one minute, the PI test is performed over a period of ten
minutes. This gives the absorption (polarization) current ample time to decay, and reveals a more detailed
indication of the total leakage and conduction current. As such, PI is a good indication of winding
contamination, moisture ingress (leakage currents), and/or bulk insulation damage (conduction currents).

Polarization Index testing is generally performed with an Insulation Resistance (IR) test set (commonly known
as a Megger), immediately after performing the IR test. However, the test can also be performed utilizing a DC
high potential (hipot) test set. The readings produced by the two instruments are different. A Megger
commonly gives readings in ohms of resistance. A hipot registers the amount of current (typically in microamps
(mA). One microamp is equal to 1 x 10-6 amps, or 0.000001 amps.

The Polarization Index is derived by the ratio between the one minute reading and the ten minute reading.
Recommended minimum PI results for suitability for service (or implementation of high voltage testing) is
widely accepted as 2:1 or greater. Any reading lower than this minimum value is a concern. The windings
would be presumed to be wet, contaminated, and/or compromised in some fashion

51. What is the minimum value of Insulation resistance/Polarization index?

Insulation resistance should be approximately one megohm for each 1,000 volts of operating voltage, with a minimum value
of one megohm. For example, a motor rated at 2,400 volts should have a minimum insulation resistance of 2.4 megohms
The value of minimum polarizing index is 2.0 for induction motors.

52. Why does the pointer of a Megger go towards zero during the start of the IR test?

It is due to the Capacitive Component. When a DC voltage is applied across in insulator, because of its dielectric nature
there will be an initial high charging current through the insulator from line to ground. Although this current decays
exponentially and becomes zero. The deflection is due to the absorption of the current by the dielectric medium.

53. In transistor why emitter is heavily doped?

Emitter is heavily doped to provide large no. of majority charge carriers & base and collector are lightly doped to accept
these charge charge carriers from emitter. If they are also heavily doped then the charges will not flow towards the base or
collector and the transistor becomes inactive
Also Ie = Ib + Ic
so emitter has more current than collector & base

54. Why flywheel of Ref. compressor is connected through the motor with the belt and in case of main air compressor it is directly
attached through the coupling and not through belt?
Unlike the air compressor, in the reefer compressor there is a possibility of liquid refrigerant coming back to the
compressor through the suction line in case there is a malfunction in the evaporator coils or expansion valves. In such a
scenario it may damage the compressor. If it is given through a belt, the belt will slip and hence prevent the compressor
being further driven by the motor and will save the compressor.
55. Why relief valve is provided in condenser of reefer system?
Relief valves are fitted in discharge side of compressor and will lift and safeguard the compressor in the event of over
pressure. One relief valve is also fitted in the condenser refrigerant line to avoid damage to the condenser if there is high
pressure in the discharge line.
 56. What will happen to the motor current if the discharge valve of a centrifugal pump is completely shut off?

Centrifugal pumps that are driven by AC induction motors should be started with minimum load on them so as to limit the
starting current. Therefore, it is recommended that radial impeller pumps be started with discharge valves closed whereas
propeller pumps are started with discharge valves fully open.

57. Why battery rating is in AH and not in VA???

Capacity of batteries depends on current by keeping voltage constant. That‘s why batteries are rated in AH.

generally batteries are power storage devices which supply current for some time based on the amount of the charge
stored..coming to generators they generate power at the moment and the amount of power they generate depends on them
hence the difference in units
Ah is a Time Based Unit and VA is only a quantity of measurement. Ah(Amp hour) is the amount of energy charge in battery
that will allow1 ampere of current to flow for1 hour.

and where VA is apparent power it can be applicable only for those system has power factor. So it rated to Alternator, UPS,
Transformer. (UPS has the Transformer)

58. How to find the value of Burnt resistor?

Method 1
1. Scarp the outer coating.

2. Clean the Burnt Section of the resistor

3. Measure resistance from one end of the resistor to the damaged section

4. Again measure the resistance from damaged section to the other end of the resistor.
 5. Add these two value f resistances

6. This is the approximate value of Burn resistor

7. Just add a small value of resistance for damaged section .i.e., suppose the value of burnt resistor was 1k Ω,
but you got 970 Ω. So just add 30 Ω, and you will have 1k Ω.

Method 2
This method also can be used for finding the value of resistors (Also, for connected resistors in the circuit) if you
don‘t know about Resistance Color Coding.
1. Connect Resistor to Multimeter and measure voltage drop across Resistor.

2. Now measure the current flowing into the resistor.

3. Multiply both values and you will get the wattage of Resistor (As P = VI)

4. This Wattage must be less than the wattage of the resistor being replaced

Method 3
This method can be better used if you know the expected Output Voltage of the circuit and you have resistors set
of same wattage as burnt resistor. Perform this method if you don‘t know the value of resistor.
1. Start with a high value of resistance and temporarily connect this resistor instead of burnt resistor

2. Measure the expected output voltage of the circuit. If you obtained same voltage as expected voltage then you
have done.

3. If you don‘t know about the expected voltage, then keep reducing the value of resistor until you satisfy with
work of circuit for which purpose it was designed.
59. What is special about a overload safety?

Electrical circuit overloads happen when more amperage is put across an electrical wire or circuit than it can handle.
For instance, a #14 wire can safely carry 15 amps and should be protected by a 15-amp breaker. If it happens to get
connected to a 20-amp breaker instead, the breaker will allow 20 amps of current to flow through a wire that can only
handle 15 amps. The wire and breaker start to heat up and could cause start an electrical fire.

Circuit overloads can also be caused by loose or corroded wires and connections.

There are two kinds of protection for electrical units that need to be considered. The first is concerned with the
protection of the actual electrical wires supplying the circuits against an overload above their carrying capacity. The
second type is concerned with protecting the individual appliances and electrical equipment connected to a supply
circuit from an overload. Both types of protection involve either fuses or breakers, but are based on different ideas and
objectives.

First, you need to know the current that the load demands, under all conditions. You then need to choose a fuse or
circuit breaker that will not blow (or trip) when carrying that current, but with only the smallest safety margin under
worst-case conditions. Finally, you must choose everything in between – cable, switches, plug & sockets, etc – so that
each will safely carry the current that will guarantee that the fuse will blow, or the circuit breaker will trip, under all
conditions (paying particular regard to ambient temperature and the ability of the cable expecially to stay cool, i.e. it
must not be buried in insulation).

A fuse is a piece of wire that has resistance, and mass, and some insulation around it. The resistance makes it heat up
when current flows. The mass regulates how long it takes the temperature to rise with a given amount of heat going in.

60. Is there any difference between Steering motors and other motors?

Electrical motor overload alarm

When ever hydraulic motor or helesaw pump motor draws excessive current during bad weather, the steering should
not fail. Instead it gives an alarm about excessive current being drawn by the motor. Continued recurrence of this alarm
could mean that the electrical motor might burn up.

POWER FAILURE ALARM:

The full power failure alarm will be raised if the power fails in black out condition. Emergency power should be arranged
with in 45 seconds and the emergency generator must be capable to give power for at least 30 minutes
61. Is there any specific difference in purifier motors and other motors?
The purifier bowl and its associated bowl parts are really heavy when assembled together. Thus the inertia is huge enough
that the machine cannot be started in the same manner like other pumps or blowers. If such heavy machinery is started with
direct coupling, the motor will trip on overload or may cause severe damage to the worm gear arrangement due to sudden
load on the gears. In order to avoid such disaster, a friction clutch is mounted on the horizontal shaft. The motor shaft has
two or more friction pads mounted on it, which is contained within the friction drum. Thus as the motor starts, the friction
pads move out due to centrifugal force, thus causing a friction on the internal surface of the friction drum. This friction starts
to drive the horizontal shaft, gradually increasing its speed. As the motor speed reaches maximum, the centrifugal force on
the pads reach a maximum value, creating maximum friction which gradually brings the horizontal shaft to the rated speed.
Thus the motor does not get overloaded and the high inertia machine is brought to rated speed gradually without any
damage.

62. Why megger is used instead of multimeter for insulation testing?

With a megger tester,a voltage of not less than 500 volts DC is used for testing the insulation resistance of windings.With a
multi-tester, the voltage used is not more than 3-volts DC.The former uses high impedance testing and is therefore more
accurate than a multi-tester

63. What are the safeties of MSB?

The Important safety devices fitted on main switch board are:

 Circuit breakers: A circuit breaker is an auto shut down device which activates during an abnormality in the electrical

circuit. Especially during overloading or short circuit, the circuit breaker opens the supplied circuit from MSB and thus

protects the same.

 Fuses: Fuses are mainly used for short circuit protection and comes in various ratings. If the current passing through

the circuit exceeds the safe value, the fuse material melts and isolates the MSB from the default system.

 Over current relay: OCR is used mainly on the local panel and MSB for protection from high current.

 Dead front panel: It is another safety device provided on the Main switch board individual panels wherein you cannot

open the panel until the power of that panel is switched off.

 Ebonite Rod

 Rubber mat in front

 0.6 meter gap behind the switchboard

 Earth fault indicators

 Panel doors are earthed

 No water, steam or oil pipe line to pass in the vicinity

 Under voltage relay

 Reverse power trip

 Preferential trip

 Short circuit trip

 Air chut

64. When does reverse power flow?

Causes of Reverse Power

The failure can be caused to a starvation of fuel in the prime mover, a problem with the speed controller or an other
breakdown. When the prime mover of a generator running in a synchronized condition fails. There is a condition known as
motoring, where the generator draws power from the bus bar, runs as a motor and drives the prime mover. This happens as
in a synchronized condition all the generators will have the same frequency. Any drop in frequency in one generator will
cause the other power sources to pump power into the generator. The flow of power in the reverse direction is known as the
reverse power .
 Another cause of reverse power can occur during synchronization. If the frequency of the machine to be synchronized is
slightly lesser than the bus bar frequency and the breaker is closed, power will flow from the bus bar to the machine. Hence,
during synchronization(forward), frequency of the incoming machine is kept slight higher than that of the bus bar i.e.
the synchroscope is made to rotate in the "Too fast" direction. This ensures that the machine takes on load as soon as the
breaker is closed.

Setting the Reverse Power Relay

The reverse power relay is usually set to 20% to 50% of the motoring power required by prime mover. By motoring power
we mean the power required by the generator to drive the prime mover at the rated rpm. This is usually obtained from the
manufacturer of the prime mover (turbine or engine).

65. What is difference between reverse power relay and directional relay in electrical protection?
A reverse power relay is a directional overcurrent relay. Directional relays are relays that sense power flow in one direction,
and include (directional) overcurrent relays, reverse power, and impedance based relays.

So a reverse power relay is a directional relay, but a directional relay is not necessarily a reverse power relay.

66. Does engine of alternator rotates in reverse direction during reverse power flowing in alternator?

The direction of rotation is not affected by the direction of current flow or torque flow. when the machine is in reverse power
it is trying to turn the prime mover that is supposed to be providing torque to the generator. In other words, the synchronous
machine is providing torque to the prime mover instead of the prime mover providing torque to the synchronous machine.
This can be very damaging to the prime mover, depending on the type of prime mover. This is really not good for most
steam turbines. They are trying to pull steam into the turbine. Many reciprocating engines don't like to be rotated by the
synchronous machine they are supposed to be rotating.
Heating of the generator rotor and stator can occur with excessive amounts of reverse power. This usually occurs when
there is very low excitation or no excitation.
67. How the protection against reverse power flow is provided?
A reverse power relay is a directional power relay that is used to monitor the power from a generator running in parallel with
another generator or the utility. The function of the reverse power relay is to prevent a reverse power condition in which
power flows from the bus bar into the generator. This condition can occur when there is a failure in the prime mover such as
an engine or a turbine which drives the generator.
68. How do you test reverse power trip?
To test the reverse power relay just reduce the energy flow-rate into the prime mover until the reverse power relay operated-
-opening the generator breaker
69. How you test preferential trip on board ship?

Preferential trip is a kind of electrical arrangement on ship which is designed to disconnect the non-essential circuit i.e. non-

essential load from the main bus bar in case of partial failure or overload of the main supply

The non-essential circuits or loads on ships are air conditioning, exhaust and ventilation fans, and galley equipments which

can be disconnected momentarily and can be connected again after fault finding.

It can be tested by either by primary injection from a primary injection test set or by secondary injection from a secondary

injection test set.

If you want to actually test the whole system you would use a primary injection test or if you want to test the relay(s) only use

the secondary injection method.

These tests should be done by a competent technician trained and used to relay testing

70. How you test under-voltage trip onboard ship? Why is it provided?

Connect voltage from a "step up transformer" across the undervoltage coil to keep that in, and test the UV coil by reducing
that voltage.
No testing would normally be carried out with the Alternator running yet alone on load. The Breaker would have to be
electrically isolated from the Generators and the Main Bus Bars to test it. So it would usually be "Racked out" of the Board.

Old Breakers have simple electo mechanical trips for overload and undervoltage, and can only be tested by current
injection. This involves connected the low voltage, high current windings of a transformer across the breaker, the output
current, delivered at only a few Volts, is adjusted until the breaker trips.

More Modern breakers have sophisticated Electronic devices to trip the breaker in addition to the electro mechanical system
and sometimes these can be tested by adjusting the set points for undervoltage and over current to the actual operating
conditions and thus causing the breaker to trip.
 The Under Voltage trip prevents a generator from being connected until generating full voltage. It disconnects the
generator from the busbar if the generator voltage falls below the set limit.
71. What are the undervoltage settings of a Generator?

Generators are to be provided with an undervoltage protection which trips the breaker if the voltage falls to 70%-35% of the
rated voltage.
The undervoltage release also prevents the closing of the circuit-breaker if the generator voltage does not reach a minimum
of 85% of the rated voltage.
The operation of the undervoltage release is to be instantaneous when preventing closure of the breaker, but it is to be
delayed for selectivity purposes when tripping the breaker.
72. What happens if you press breaker close button on idle generator?
The breaker will not close. The UVT will prevent it from closing.
73. What will you do if you get earth fault alarm?

First action is to check the trueness of the alarm. Usually there will be a test button which when pressed, resets
the alarm and rechecks the condition of the earth fault.
If the ship is having IAS (Integrated Automation System), check on the computer in the list of events after which the alarm
has activated. If IAS facility is not available, there is only one option of isolating each and every machinery in the 440 V
circuit and check whether the earth fault indication returns back to normal.
Isolation of all machinery, which operates on 440V, is not always possible. Certain critical equipment like steering gear and
lubricating oil pumps cannot be isolated for when the ship is underway. However changeover can be done from running
machinery to the standby one and thus the earth fault can be found.
Earth Fault alarm sounds on a 220V panel
a) Check the trueness of the alarm.
b) Isolate the complete Group start panel for a lighting division one by one.
c) Check the Earth Fault indicator for status (still faulty or normal).
d) If faulty, then put on the breaker which is put off earlier and isolate other group start panel for lighting circuit.
e) Once the group start panel is identified, then individual lighting switches are turned off one by one and checked for the
alarm condition.
f) When any switch when turned off and thus the condition becomes normal, then this lighting circuit is marked and then
inspection is done on the particular light for abnormalities.

74. Where does reactive power (watless) go?

Power in an electric circuit is the rate of energy consumption or production as currents flow through various parts
comprising the circuit. In alternating current circuits, immediate power transferred through any phase varies periodically.
Energy storage elements such as inductors and capacitors may result in periodic reversals of the direction of energy flow.
The portion of power that, averaged over a complete cycle of the AC waveform, results in net transfer of energy in one
direction is known as active power (sometimes also called real power). The portion of power due to stored energy, which
returns to the source in each cycle, is known as reactive power

"reactive power" is due to the delay between voltage and current, known as phase angle, and cannot do useful work at the
load. It can be thought of as current that is arriving at the wrong time (too late or too early). To distinguish reactive power
from active power, it is measured in units of "volt-amperes reactive" or var.
Energy stored in capacitive or inductive elements of the network give rise to reactive power flow. Reactive power flow
strongly influences the voltage levels across the network.

Reactive power (vars or volt amperes reactive) is power that is a result of capacitive or inductive reactance. Conductors
that are used for transmitting power, as well as motor loads inherently produce reactive power, either of a purely capacitive
or inductive nature, or in the case of transmission lines, both since there is a reactive component in the makeup of these
devices. Reactive power is not consumed by the customer like real power is, it is basically losses as a result of the inherent
nature of the power consuming device. In the case of customer motors, the inductive nature of the motor puts inductive vars
into the utiility system, which degrades the utility power system by pulling down the voltage as well as putting inductive,
or lagging, reactive loading on the line (capacitive reactive var power is leading ). Reactive power also takes up capacity
on transmission lines, transformers, etc. These losses cost the efficiency; the more inefficient the system is, the more
expensive power system equipment is since it has to be bought with enough capacity to allow for the reactive power flow as
well as the real power. These losses are also hard on equipment like transformers, the heat loss generated reduces the life
of the equipment, making it suspectible to premature failure.

75. What is INTRINSICALLY SAFE BARRIER?

. Intrinsic safety (IS) is a protection technique for safe operation of electrical equipment in hazardous areas by limiting the
energy available for ignition. In signal and control circuits that can operate with low currents and voltages, the intrinsic safety
approach simplifies circuits and reduces installation cost over other protection methods. Areas with dangerous
concentrations of flammable gases or dust are found in applications such as petrochemical refineries and mines.

This is a passive network device that uses Zener diodes, resistors and fuses to safely divert excess electrical energy to
ground and thus prevent sparking in or overheating of equipment in hazardous areas. Their key benefits are low cost and
the ability to operate with data in analogue DC or high-speed digital forms
 An intrinsic safety equipment is connected to a circuit through a Zener barrier that limits the current, the voltage and the
power.

If a fault voltage occurs between the terminals in the non- hazardous area, the Zener diode (protected by a fuse) limits the
voltage that risks appearing in the hazardous area and the resistor limits the current to an acceptable value.

If a fault voltage occurs between the terminals in the non- hazardous area and the ground, the voltage of the wires in the
hazardous area relative to ground will not exceed Zener-Voltage Vz provided that the Zener barrier is correctly grounded at
(T1).

Suppose the zener voltage is 9 volts,

Current path in normal operation, U <= 9V

Current path in the overvoltage case, U <= 9V
The Zener diode becomes conducting
The fuse protects the Zener diode from destruction

76. What is Lockout/Tagout?

Lockout-tagout (LOTO) or lock and tag is a safety procedure which is used in industry and research settings to ensure that
dangerous machines are properly shut off and not started up again prior to the completion of maintenance or servicing work.
It requires that hazardous power sources be "isolated and rendered inoperative" before any repair procedure is started.
"Lock and tag" works in conjunction with a lock usually locking the device or the power source with the hasp, and placing it
in such a position that no hazardous power sources can be turned on. The procedure requires that a tag be affixed to the
locked device indicating that it should not be turned on.
When two or more people are working on different parts of a system, the locked-out device is first secured with a folding
scissors clamp that has many padlock holes capable of holding it closed. Each subcontractor applies their own padlock to
the clamp. The locked-out device cannot be activated until all workers have signed off on their portion of the project and
removed their padlock from the clamp.
77. What is doping?

Doping is the process of adding impurities to intrinsic semiconductors to alter their properties. Normally Trivalent and
Pentavalent elements are used to dope Silicon and Germanium. When a intrinsic semiconductoris doped with Trivalent
impurity it becomes a P-Type semiconductors.

In semiconductor production, doping intentionally introduces impurities into an extremely pure (also referred to as intrinsic)
semiconductor for the purpose of modulating its electrical properties. The impurities are dependent upon the type of
semiconductor. Lightly and moderately doped semiconductors are referred to as extrinsic. A semiconductor doped to such
high levels that it acts more like a conductor than a semiconductor is referred to as degenerate.

In the context of phosphors and scintillators, doping is better known as activation.

78. Explain intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors?

Intrinsic Semiconductor: An intrinsic semiconductor material is chemically very pure and possesses poor conductivity. It has
equal numbers of negative carriers (electrons) and positive carriers (holes). A silicon crystal is different from an insulator
because at any temperature above absolute zero temperature, there is a finite probability that an electron in the lattice will
be knocked loose from its position, leaving behind an electron deficiency called a "hole".If a voltage is applied, then both the
electron and the hole can contribute to a small current flow.

Extrinsic Semiconductor
Where as an extrinsic semiconductor is an improved intrinsic semiconductor with a small amount of
impurities added by a process, known as doping, which alters the electrical properties of the
semiconductor and improves its conductivity. Introducing impurities into the semiconductor materials
(doping process) can control their conductivity.
The Doping of Semiconductors : The addition of a small percentage of foreign atoms in the regular
crystal lattice of silicon Or germanium produces dramatic changes in their electrical properties,
producing n-type and p-type semiconductors.

Pentavalent impurities : (5 valence electrons) produce n-type semiconductors by contributing extra electrons.

Trivalent impurities: (3 valence electrons) produce p-type semiconductors by producing a "hole" or electron deficiency.
 N-Type Semiconductor: The addition of pentavalent impurities such as antimony, arsenic or phosphorous contributes free
electrons, greatly increasing the conductivity of the intrinsic semiconductor . Phosphorous may be added by diffusion of
phosphine gas (PH3).

P-Type Semiconductor: The addition of trivalent impurities such as boron, aluminum or gallium to an intrinsic

semiconductor creates deficiencies of valence electrons,called "holes". It is typical to use B 2H6 diborane gas to diffuse boron
into the silicon material.

79. What happens to insulation when temperature rises?

INSULATORS are liable to DECREASE their resistance with an increase in temperature. Materials used for practical
insulators (glass, plastic etc.) only exhibit a marked drop in their resistance at very high temperatures. They remain good
insulators over all temperatures they are likely to encounter in use.

The flow of current is actually the movement of electrons from one atom to another under the influence of an electric field.

Electrons are very small negatively charged particles and will be repelled by a negative electric charge and attracted by a

positive electric charge. Therefore if an electric potential is applied across a conductor (positive at one end, negative at the

other) electrons will "migrate" from atom to atom towards the positive terminal.

Only some electrons are free to migrate however. Others within each atom are held so tightly to their particular atom that

even an electric field will not dislodge them. The current flowing in the material is therefore due to the movement of "free

electrons" and the number of free electrons within any material compared with those tightly bound to their atoms is what

governs whether a material is a good conductor (many free electrons) or a good insulator (hardly any free electrons).

The effect of heat on the atomic structure of a material is to make the atoms vibrate, and the higher the temperature the

more violently the atoms vibrate.

In a conductor, which already has a large number of free electrons flowing through it, the vibration of the atoms causes

many collisions between the free electrons and the captive electrons. Each collision uses up some energy from the free

electron and is the basic cause of resistance. The more the atoms jostle around in the material, the more collisions are

caused and hence the greater the resistance to current flow.

In an insulator however, there is a slightly different situation. There are so few free electrons that hardly any current can
flow. Almost all the electrons are tightly bound within their particular atom. Heating an insulating material vibrates the atoms,

and if heated sufficiently, the atoms vibrate violently enough to actually shake some of their captive electrons free, creating

free electrons to become carriers of current. Therefore at high temperatures the resistance of an insulator can fall, and in

some insulating materials, quite dramatically.

In a material where the resistance INCREASES with an increase in temperature, the material is said to have a POSITIVE

TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT.

When resistance FALLS with an increase in temperature, the material is said to have a NEGATIVE TEMPERATURE

COEFFICIENT.

In general, conductors have a POSITIVE temperature coefficient, whilst (at high temperatures) insulators have a NEGATIVE

temperature coefficient.Different materials within either group have different temperature coefficients. Materials chosen for

the construction of the resistors used in electronic circuits are carefully selected conductors that have a very low positive

temperatur coefficient. In use, resistors made from such materials will have only very slight increases in resistivity, and

therefore their resistance. Using such materials for the manufacture of resistors creates components whose value changes

only slightly over a given range of temperature.

 Materials chosen as insulators will have a very low NEGATIVE TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT over their working range of

temperature.

80. Does current pass through hull during welding?

The earthing should be as far as possible close to the welding transformer to prevent flow of current through the hull.
81. Why is this reverse power used instead of reverse current in alternators?

In case of a failure of the prime mover, the generator starts motoring and draws power from the MSB, In this case the Prime
mover acts as the load and there is a power flow from the MSB to the Generator which is motoring the Prime mover now.
82. Why is DC excitation used in a synchronous alternator instead of AC excitation?

Synchronous motor's rotor need to have a magnet, and then only when we have AC applied to stator, it will pull rotor
along with it to rotate at synchronized speed.
For rotor it just has to be fixed magnet. If you apply DC it will work perfectly as we desire.
If AC is applied, its effect is different. During first half cycle, at particular point on rotor if you take it acts as north pole &
next half as south pole. It keeps changing like this 50 times, if you give 50Hz supply.
Thus rotor may not move at all. Also AC fluctuation lead to varying magnetic strength, which is not desired.

83. Why excitation provided to alternator is dc? Why not ac?

IN ORDER TO INDUCE THE VOLTAGE AS PER THE FARADAYS LAW WE RECQUIRE FIELD SO WE ARE PROVIDING IT
WITH THE DC SUPPLY AND SINCE ROTOR OF THE ALTERNATOR IS ROTATING THEN EMF IS INDUCED.WE HAVE TO
NOTICE HERE THAT SINCE THE ROTOR IS ROTATING FIELD IS ALSO ROTATING AND HENCE THERE IS RATE OF
CHANGE OF FLUX.YOU CAN ALSO USE A.C SUPPLY BUT IF WE USE SINCE EMF PRODUCED IS ROTATING AND
ROTOR IS ALSO ROTATING RATE OF CHANGE OF FLUX LINKAGES IS LESS THAN FORMER ONE AND SO ITS NOT A
EFFICIENT ONE.

84. How is the speed of Induction motor varied?

Speed Control From Stator Side

a) By changing the applied voltage: Rotor resistance R2 is constant and if slip s is small then sX2 is so small that
2
it can be neglected. Therefore, T ∝ sE2 where E2 is rotor induced emf and E2 ∝ V
2
And hence T ∝ V , thus if supplied voltage is decreased, torque decreases and hence the speed decreases.

This method is the easiest and cheapest, still rarely used because-

1) A large change in supply voltage is required for relatively small change in speed.

2) Large change in supply voltage will result in large change in flux density, hence disturbing the magnetic
conditions of the motor.

b) By changing the applied frequency:Synchronous speed of the

rotating magnetic field of induction motor is given by N=120f/P,

c) Changing the number of stator poles

From the above equation, it can be also seen that synchronous speed (and hence, running speed) can
 be changed by changing the number of stator poles. This method is generally used for squirrel cage
induction motors, as squirrel cage rotor adapts itself for any number of stator poles. Change in stator
poles is achieved by two or more independent stator windings wound for different number of poles in
same slots.
For example, a stator is wound with two 3phase windings, one for 4 poles and other for 6 poles.
for supply frequency of 50 Hz
i) synchronous speed when 4 pole winding is connected, Ns = 120*50/4 = 1500 RPM
ii) synchronous speed when 6 pole winding is connected, Ns = 120*50/6 = 1000 RPM

2. Speed Control From Rotor Side:

a) Rotor rheostat control

This method is similar to that of armature rheostat control of DC shunt motor. But this method is only applicable

to slip ring motors, as addition of external resistance in the rotor of squirrel cage motors is not possible.

b) Cascade operation

In this method of speed control, two motors are used. Both are mounted on a same shaft so that both run at same

speed. One motor is fed from a 3phase supply and other motor is fed from the induced emf in first motor via slip-

rings.

Motor A is called main motor and motor B is called auxiliary motor.

Let, Ns1 = frequency of motor A

Ns2 = frequency of motor B

P1 = number of poles stator of motor A

P2 = number of stator poles of motor B

N = speed of the set and same for both motors

f = frequency of the supply

Now, slip of motor A, S1 = (Ns1 - N) / Ns1.

frequency of the rotor induced emf in motor A, f1 = S1f

now, auxiliary motor B is supplied with the rotor induce emf

therefore, Ns2 = (120f1) / P2 = (120S1f) / P2.

now putting the value of S1 = (Ns1 - N) / Ns1

At no load, speed of the auxiliary rotor is almost same as its synchronous speed.

i.e. N = Ns2.

With this method, four different speeds can be obtained

1. when only motor A works, corresponding speed = .Ns1 = 120f / P1

2. when only motor B works, corresponding speed = Ns2 = 120f / P 2

3. if commulative cascading is done, speed of the set = N = 120f / (P 1 + P2)

4. if differential cascading is done, speed of the set = N = 120f (P 1 - P2)

 c) By injecting EMF in rotor circuit

In this method, speed of induction motor is controlled by injecting a voltage in rotor circuit. It is necessary that

voltage (emf) being injected must have same frequency as of slip frequency. However, there is no restriction to the

phase of injected emf. If we inject emf which is in opposite phase with the rotor induced emf, rotor resistance will be

increased. If we inject emf which is in phase with rotor induced emf, rotor resistance will decrease. Thus, by

changing the phase of injected emf, speed can be controlled. The main advantage of this method is a wide rage of

speed control (above normal as well as below normal) can be achieved. The emf can be injected by various

methods such as Kramer system, Scherbius system etc

85. How does an invertor work?

When the AC mains power supply is available.

When the AC mains supply is available: The AC mains sensor senses it and the supply goes to the Relay and battery
charging section of the inverter.AC main sensor activates a relay and this relay will directly pass the AC mains supply to the
output socket.The load will by driven by the line voltage in this situation.Also the line voltage is given to the battery charging
section where the line voltage is converted to a DC voltage(12V DC or 24V DC usually),then regulated and battery is
charged using it.There are special circuits for sensing the battery voltage and when the battery is fully charged the charging
is stopped.In some inverters there will be a trickle charging circuit which keeps the battery constantly at full charge.
When the AC mains power supply is not available: When the AC mains power supply is not available,an oscillator circuit
inside the inverter produces a 50Hz MOS drive signal.This MOS drive signal will be amplified by the driver section and sent
to the output section.MOSFETs or Transistors are used for the switching operation.These MOSFETs or Transistors are
connected to the primary winding of the inverter transformer.When these switching devices receive the MOS drive signal
from the driver circuit,they start switching between ON & OFF states at a rate of 50 Hz.This switching action of the
MOSFETs or Transistors cause a 50Hz current to the primary of the inverter transformer.This results in a 220V AC or 110V
AC (depending on the winding ratio of the inverter transformer) at the secondary or the inverter transformer.This secondary
voltage is made available at the output socket of the inverter by a changeover relay.
86. Explain an Oscillator with diagram.
An ―oscillator‖ is a device that produces oscillations (back-and-forth) changes - usually an electronic circuit that produces AC
- from a steady (DC) source of power.

 In an LC oscillator circuit, the filter is a tuned circuit (often called a tank circuit; the tuned circuit is a resonator) consisting
of an inductor(L) and capacitor (C) connected together. Charge flows back and forth between the capacitor's plates
through the inductor, so the tuned circuit can store electrical energy oscillating at its resonant frequency. There are small
losses in the tank circuit, but the amplifier compensates for those losses and supplies the power for the output signal. LC
[2]
oscillators are often used at radio frequencies, when a tunable frequency source is necessary, such as in signal
generators, tunable radio transmitters and the local oscillators in radio receivers. Typical LC oscillator circuits are
[2]
the Hartley, Colpitts and Clapp circuits.

 In a crystal oscillator circuit the filter is a piezoelectric crystal (commonly a quartz crystal).
[2][3]
The crystal mechanically
vibrates as a resonator, and its frequency of vibration determines the oscillation frequency. Crystals have very high Q-
factor and also better temperature stability than tuned circuits, so crystal oscillators have much better frequency stability
than LC or RC oscillators. Crystal oscillators are the most common type of linear oscillator, used to stabilize the
frequency of most radio transmitters, and to generate the clock signal in computers and quartz clocks. Crystal oscillators
often use the same circuits as LC oscillators, with the crystal replacing the tuned circuit;

An oscillator is an electronic circuit that generates repeated waveforms. The exact waveform generated depends on the

type of circuit used to create the oscillator. One of the most commonly used oscillator circuits is made from a pair of
transistors that are rigged up to alternately turn on and off. This type of circuit is called a multivibrator.

If the circuit is designed to continuously cycle between the two transistors, it's called an astable multivibrator because the

circuit never reaches a point of stability — that is, it never decides which of the two transistors should be on, so it just

keeps flipping back and forth between the two.

Here is a schematic diagram for an astable multivibrator made from a pair of NPN transistors.
When you first power on this circuit, only one of the transistors turns on. You might think that they would both turn on,

because the bases of both transistors are connected to +V, but it doesn't happen that way: One of them goes first. For

the sake of discussion, assume that Q1 is the lucky one.

When Q1 comes on, current flows through R1 into the collector and on through the transistor to ground. Meanwhile, C1

starts to charge through R2, developing a positive voltage on its right plate. Because this right plate is connected to the

base of Q2, positive voltage also develops on the base of Q2.

When C1 is charged sufficiently, the voltage at the base of Q2 causes Q2 to start conducting. Now the current flows

through the collector of Q2 via R4, and C2 starts charging through R3. Because the right-hand plate of C2 is bombarded

with positive charge, the voltage on the left plate of C2 goes negative, which drops the voltage on the base of Q1. This

causes Q1 to turn off.

C1 discharges while C2 charges. Eventually, the voltage on the left plate of C2 reaches the point where Q1 turns back

on, and the whole cycle repeats. The dueling capacitors alternately charge and discharge, turning the two transistors on

and off, which in turn allows current to flow through their collector circuits.

Here are a few other interesting things to know about astable multivibrators:

 The time that each half of the multivibrator is on is determined by the RC time constant formed by the capacitor

charging circuits. Thus, you can vary the speed at which the circuit oscillates by adjusting the capacitor and resistor

values.

 You can, if you want, create an astable multivibrator from PNP transistors simply by switching the ground with the

+V voltage source.

 Output from the multivibrator circuit can be taken directly from the collector of either transistor. For example, you

could place an LED or a speaker in series with R1 or R4 to see or hear the oscillator in action.

 Alternatively, you can use a third transistor to couple the multivibrator with an output load. Just connect the emitter

of one of the multivibrator transistors to the base of the third transistor and connect the load to the collector.

This arrangement has two advantages. First, the load itself interferes with the multivibrator circuit if you take it

directly from the collector of Q1 or Q2. By using a third transistor, you isolate the load from the multivibrator circuit.

Second, the output is much closer to a true square wave when the coupling transistor is used; without it, the output

isn't a clean square wave because of the effects of the capacitor charging.
 87. How does capacitor block DC supply?

The explanation is in the fact that opposite charges attract each other. A capacitor is a compact construction of 2 conducting
plates separated by a very thin insulator. If you put DC on it one side will be positively charged and the other side negatively.
Both charges attract each other but can't pass the insulating barrier. There's no current flow. So that's end of story for DC.
For AC it's different. One side will successively be positively and negatively charged, and attract negative and positive charges
resp. So changes on one side of the barrier provoke changes on the other side, so that it appears that the charges cross the
barrier, and that current effectively flows through the capacitor.
A charged capacitor is always DC charged, i.e. one side has the positive charges and the other side the negative. These charges are
a storage for electrical energy, which is necessary in many circuits.
The maximum voltage is determined by the insulating barrier. Above a certain voltage it will breakdown and create a short circuit. That
can happen under DC but also under AC.

XC = 1/(2pi(f)C) capacitive reactance.

XC is inversely proportional to frequency f. Now for DC f=0. Hence XC is infinite(theoritically). Hence it blocks DC.

but any how when we connect capacitor to battery there will be dc current flow in circuit as long the capacitor is fully charged.

88. How does a tubelight work?

1. A fluorescent lamp basically consists of a long glass gas discharge tube. Its inner surface is coated with phosphorous
and is filled with an inert gas, generally argon, with a trace of mercury.
2. The tube is then finally sealed at low pressure with two filament electrodes each at its both ends.
3. These electrode filaments are used to preheat the tube and initiate a rapid conduction of electrons between the two end
electrodes. The process initially requires a relatively high amount of power.
4. The energy also converts some of the mercury from a liquid to a glass. Electrons then collide with the gaseous mercury
atoms, increasing the amount of energy. As electrons return to their original energy level, they begin to release light.
However, the light they emit is ultraviolet, and not visible to the naked eye, so another step needs to take place before
we can see the light.
5. This is why the tube was coated with phosphorous. Phosphors will give off light when exposed to light. When exposed
to the ultraviolet light, the particles emit a white light which we can see.
6. Once the conduction of electrons between the electrodes is complete, no more heating of the filaments is required and
whole system works at a much lower current.

Here is one example of a tube light fixture consisting of a large heavy square "choke‖ or ―ballast‖ and a small cylindrical ―starter.‖ Let‘s try
to understand how the whole system works. Please refer to the circuit diagram on the right as you read the following points:

I. The choke is in fact a large inductor. It consists of a long copper winding over iron laminations.
II. An inductor by nature always has a tendency to throw back the stored current in it, every time the power through it is
switched OFF. This principle of the choke is exploited in lighting a fluorescent tube light.
III. When an AC voltage is applied to a tube light fixture, the voltage passes through the choke, the starter, and the
filaments of the tube.
IV. The filaments light up and instantly warm up the tube. The starter is made up of a discharge bulb with two electrodes
next to it. When electricity passes through it an electrical arc is created between the two electrodes. This creates light,
 however the heat from the bulb causes one of the electrodes (a bimetallic strip) to bend, making contact with the other
electrode. This stops the charged particles from creating the electrical arc that created light. However, now that the heat
from the light is gone, the bimetallic strip cools and bends away from the electrode, opening the circuit again.
V. At this point, the ballast or choke "kick's back" it‘s stored current, which again passes through the filaments and ignites
the tube light once again.
VI. If the tube does not sufficiently charge up, subsequent kicks are delivered by the choke due to rapid switching of the
starter, so that finally the tube strikes.
VII. After this the choke only acts like a low impedance current limiter to the tube as long as the light is kept illuminated.
A common problem associated with these types of fixtures is humming or buzzing. The reason for this lies in the loosely fitted choke on to
the fixture which vibrates in accordance with the 50 or 60 hertz frequency of our AC mains and creates a humming sort of noise.
Tightening the choke's screws may instantly eliminate the problem.

The working principle of today‘s modern electronic ballasts is to avoid the use of starters for the preheating purpose. They are also very
light in weight. These inhibit the initial flickering of the tube light as normally seen in the ordinary tube fixtures by changing the frequency
of the mains power to a much higher 20,000 hertz or more. Moreover, electronic ballasts are very energy efficient.

89. How does a starter in a tube light work?

The most common fluorescent starter is called a "glow tube starter" (or just starter) and contains a small gas (neon, etc.) filled tube
and an optional radio frequency interference (RFI) suppression capacitor in a cylindrical aluminum can with a 2 pin base.
The glow tube incorporates a switch which is normally open. When power is applied, a glow discharge takes place which heats a
bimetal contact. A second or so later, the contacts close and provide current to the fluorescent filaments. Since the glow is
extinguished, there is no longer any heating of the bimetal and the contacts open. The inductive kick generated at the instant of
opening triggers the main discharge in the fluorescent tube. If the contacts open at a bad time, there isn't enough inductive kick and
the process repeats.

90. How does a ballast in a tube light work?

In a fluorescent lighting system, the ballast regulates the current to the lamps and provides sufficient voltage to start the lamps.
Without a ballast to limit its current, a fluorescent lamp connected directly to a high voltage power source would rapidly and
uncontrollably increase its current draw. Within a second the lamp would overheat and burn out. During lamp starting, the ballast
must briefly supply high voltage to establish an arc between the two lamp electrodes. Once the arc is established, the ballast quickly
reduces the voltage and regulates the electric current to produce a steady light output.

91. How does a sodium vapour lamp work?

Sodium Vapour lamp consists of :

An arc tube which contains the xenon and sodium-mercury amalgam mixture and provides the proper environment for producing
light.

The electrodes, which are made of tungsten, carry a high-voltage, high-frequency pulse to strike the arc and vaporize the mercury
and sodium.

The base of the lamp which provides a means of electrical connection.

Ballasts to regulate the arc current flow and deliver the proper voltage to the arc. HPS lamps do not contain starting electrodes.
Instead, an electronic starting circuit within the ballast generates a high-voltage pulse to the operating electrodes

The outer bulb shields the arc tube from drafts and changes in temperature, prevents oxidation of the internal parts, and acts as a
filter for most of the UV radiation generated by the mercury vapor.

Some lamps have a phosphor coating on the inner surface of the outer bulb to diffuse the light.

Basic Operation: In a high pressure sodium lamp, a compact arc tube contains a mixture of xenon, sodium and mercury. The xenon
gas which is easily ionized, facilitates striking the arc when voltage is applied across the electrodes. The heat generated by the arc
then vaporizes the mercury and sodium. The mercury vapor raises the gas pressure and operating voltage, and the sodium vapor
produces light when the pressure within the arc tube is sufficient.
Theory of operation

Diagram of a high-pressure sodium lamp.

An amalgam of metallic sodium and mercury lies at the coolest part of the lamp and provides the sodium and mercury vapor that is
needed to draw an arc. The temperature of the amalgam is determined to a great extent by lamp power. The higher the lamp power, the
higher will be the amalgam temperature. The higher the temperature of the amalgam, the higher will be the mercury and sodium vapor
pressures in the lamp and the higher will be the terminal voltage. As the temperature rises, the constant current and increasing voltage
result in increased power until the nominal power is reached. For a given voltage, there are generally three modes of operation:

The lamp is extinguished and no current flows.

The lamp is operating with liquid amalgam in the tube.
The lamp is operating with all amalgam evaporated.

The first and last states are stable, because the lamp resistance is weakly related to the voltage, but the second state is unstable. Any
anomalous increase in current will cause an increase in power, causing an increase in amalgam temperature, which will cause a
decrease in resistance, which will cause a further increase in current. This will create a runaway effect, and the lamp will jump to the high-
current state (#3). Because actual lamps are not designed to handle this much power, this would result in catastrophic failure. Similarly,
an anomalous drop in current will drive the lamp to extinction. It is the second state that is the desired operating state of the lamp,
because a slow loss of the amalgam over time from a reservoir will have less effect on the characteristics of the lamp than a fully
evaporated amalgam. The result is an average lamp life in excess of 20,000 hours.

In practical use, the lamp is powered by an AC voltage source in series with an inductive "ballast" in order to supply a nearly constant
current to the lamp, rather than a constant voltage, thus assuring stable operation. The ballast is usually inductive rather than simply
being resistive to minimize resistive losses. Because the lamp effectively extinguishes at each zero-current point in the AC cycle, the
inductive ballast assists in the reignition by providing a voltage spike at the zero-current point.

92. Why is capacitor used in rectifier bridge circuit?

The raw rectified DC requires a smoothing capacitor circuit to enable the rectified DC to be smoothed so that it

can be used to power electronics circuits without large levels of voltage variation.

The raw DC supplied by a rectifier on its own would consist of a series of half sine waves with the voltage varying between zero and √2
times the RMS voltage (ignoring any diode and other losses). A supply of this nature would not be of any use for powering circuits
because any analogue circuits would have the huge level of ripple superimposed on the output, and any digital circuits would not function
because the power would be removed every half cycle.

To smooth the output of the rectifier a reservoir capacitor is used - placed across the output of the reciter and in parallel with the load..
This capacitor charges up when the voltage from the rectifier rises above that of the capacitor and then as the rectifier voltage falls, the
capacitor provides the required current from its stored charge.

Full-wave rectifier (with capacitor filter).

Another thing to keep in mind is that the ripple component (E r) of the output voltage is an ac voltage and the average output voltage (E avg)
is the dc component of the output. Since the filter capacitor offers a relatively low impedance to ac, the majority of the ac component flows
through the filter capacitor. The ac component is therefore bypassed (shunted) around the load resistance, and the entire dc component
(or Eavg) flows through the load resistance. This statement can be clarified by using the formula for X C in a half-wave and full-wave
rectifier. First, you must establish some values for the circuit.

93. Why inductor is used in rectifier bridge circuit?

The inductor is used in a choke filter. In the choke filter an inductor is connected between the rectifier and the load. As the
rectificed DC supply flows from the rectifier to the choke, the choke only allows the DC component to pass through it and blocks
the AC component. Hence the load is fed with a smooth DC.

94. How inductor blocks AC supply?

An inductor blocks AC while allowing DC because it resists a change in current. The equation of an inductor is ...

di/dt = V/L

... meaning that the rate of change of current is proportional to voltage and inversely proportional to inductance.

If you apply DC across an inductor, it will stabilize to some current flow based on the maximum current available from the
current / voltage source. In this mode, the inductor presents very low resistance, so it can be said that it allows DC to pass.

If, however, you apply AC across an inductor, you need to consider its inductive reactance by integrating the above equation
in terms of the circuit conditions. The equation for inductive reactance is ...

XL = 2 pi F L

... meaning that the inductive reactance is proportional to the frequency and to the inductance.

Thus, the higher the frequency, the higher the reactance. Since reactance is a phasor measure of resistance, it can be thus
said that an inductor will block AC.

95. What is Synchronous condenser?

Synchronous motors load the power line with a leading power factor. This is often usefull in cancelling out the more
commonly encountered lagging power factor caused by induction motors and other inductive loads. Originally, large
industrial synchronous motors came into wide use because of this ability to correct the lagging power factor of induction
motors.

This leading power factor can be exaggerated by removing the mechanical load and over exciting the field of the
synchronous motor. Such a device is known as a synchronous condenser. Furthermore, the leading power factor can be
adjusted by varying the field excitation. This makes it possible to nearly cancel an arbitrary lagging power factor to unity
by paralleling the lagging load with a synchronous motor. A synchronous condenser is operated in a borderline condition
 between a motor and a generator with no mechanical load to fulfill this function. It can compensate either a leading or
lagging power factor, by absorbing or supplying reactive power to the line. This enhances power line voltage regulation.

The efficiency of long power transmission lines may be increased by placing synchronous condensers along the line to

compensate lagging currents caused by line inductance. More real power may be transmitted through a fixed size line if

the power factor is brought closer to unity by synchronous condensers absorbing reactive power.

The ability of synchronous condensers to absorb or produce reactive power on a transient basis stabilizes the power grid

against short circuits and other transient fault conditions.

96. If the AVR is defective, can it handle additional load?

When the load increases, the current drawn from the stator windings increases. This current drawn flowing from the
stator winding provides a rotating magnetic field. This field rotates at the same speed as the rotor. The field lies across
the rotor field and exerts a torque or pull over the rotor and tries to pull the rotor backwards. The rotor slows down as a
result of the magnetic torque exerted.The governor detects this reduction in speed and opens the throttle to increase
the fuel to the prime mover. The throttle is opened up until the frequency returns to normal. Now the ;prime mover
develops enough power to maintain the correct speed and meet the KW demand.
KVAr component of the load imposes no power demand on the prime mover as the energy flow during KVAr loading is
backwards and forwards between the generator and the load. The stator current again sets up a rotating magnetic field.
But in this case the rotating magnetic field is in line with the rotor field and hence does not exert a torque on the rotor.

The magnetic field is acting in the opposite direction to the rotor field which results in large reduction of flux in the
machine and hence reduced flux means reduced output voltage.

The AVR responds to the fall of the output voltage and increases the excitation current to rotor to increase the flux. The
excitation is increased until the voltage is brought back to normal.

In case the AVR is defective,if the generator is running solo, the system voltage will collapse thus resulting in a blackout
situation.

If it is running in parallel, then the reduction in flux continues which will further reduce the terminal voltage and with a
total loss of excitation, the generation will run as an induction generator drawing its excitation from the running
generator. Both the generators currents will rise rapidly with the serviceable one having a LAGGING POWER FACTOR
and the other one having a LEADING POWER FACTOR. A LOSS OF EXCITATION trip or OVERCURRENT trip should
trip the generator causing an overload on the serviceable generator.

Alternatively the serviceable generator will trip on Overcurrent that will deprive the other generator of excitation and its
breaker will trip on undervoltage.

97. What steps to take in case generator not building voltage?

Decfective voltmeter Check voltmeter and replace

Short circuit between phases Check and ensure no short circuit between
phases.
Neutral earthing short with body
earthing
Check and rectify
Power cable faulty Cehck and replace
Excitation circuit open Check for loose connection
Incorrect excitation circuit connection

Check for proper connection

Low residual voltage
Grounded excitor field
Rotating rectifier faulty
Fuse in AVR failed
Check for residual voltage. If residual
voltage is less than 2.5V(L-N) field flashing
required for few seconds.
Field fleshing procedure-
1. Disconnect regulator connections.
2. Connect 12/24V battery keeping F1 to
positive and F2 to negative terminal of
excitor stator.
Check and correct
Check rotating diodes
Replace fuses
 AVR Defective Replace AVR

98. What remedial action to be taken if Generator does not share KW load proportionately?

Prime mover speed droop improperly set. Set prime mover speed properly,Droop ( Governor) characteristic of engines.

99. What safety precaution you will take during battery maintenance ?

Proper ventilation inside the compartment.

Prevent any source of ignition.

The tools used for maintenance should be rubberized coating to prevent any chance of short circuit and any kind of spark
generation when the tool falls on the floor.

The paint used in the battery room and materials for ducting should be corrosion resistant

No metal jugs should be used for filling distilled water inside the batteries.

Prevent usage of naked lamps and avoid smoking in the battery room.

The battery should not be placed in the emergency switchboard room as arcing of the circuit breakers.

Wear goggles while working with batteries

Wear gloves
100. What safety precaution you will take before entering battery room?
The battery room of a ship is always under explosion risk as batteries release hydrogen during charging. Hydrogen is a
highly explosive gas and it is therefore important to take necessary steps or actions while working inside the battery room
during maintenance.

1) Providing proper ventilation inside the compartment.

2) By preventing any source of ignition.

Moreover, the ventilation is provided with the help of ventilation fans. The ventilation arrangement should be such that

there is no accumulation of hydrogen in the space. The hydrogen is lighter than air and thus tends to accumulate in the

top of the compartment. The fans should be of non sparking type and should not produce any static charge.

The ventilation ducts should be below the battery level which would help in forcing the gases out. The motor used

should be of a standardized approved type so that there is no chance of spark from the motor.

The tools used for maintenance should be rubberized coating to prevent any chance of short circuiting by mistake. The

coating would also prevent any kind of spark generation when the tool falls on the floor.

The paint used in the battery room and materials for ducting should be corrosion resistant.

101. Where is it mentioned in Solas about battery maintenance and regulation?

102. Working principle of Salinometer.

Water purity, in terms of the absence of salts, is essential where it is to be used as boiler feed. Pure water has a high
resistance to the flow of electricity whereas salt water has a high electrical conductivity. A measure of conductivity, in
Siemens, is a measure of purity.

The salinity measuring unit ( shown in Figure ) uses two small cells each containing a platinum and a gunmetal electrode.
The liquid sample passes through the two cells and any current flow as a result of conductance is measured. Since
conductivity rises with temperature a compensating resistor is incorporated in the measuring circuit.
 The insulating plunger varies the water flow in order to correct values to 20 degree C for a convenient measuring unit, the
microsiemens/cm3 or dionic unit. A de-gassifier should be fitted upstream of this unit to remove dissolved carbon dioxide
which will cause errors in measurement.

103. If all air bottles are at low pressure and there is black out how will you start the generators?

Start the Emergency generator and take it on load. Start the No.1 Main Air compressor which is connected to the ESBD. Fill
up the Auxiliary Air reservoir. Start one generator and start all the main air compressors and charge the main air bottles and
nd
then you can start the other machineries including the 2 generator and main engine.

104. Why are generator and motor bearing insulated?

The magnetic field inside a motor or generator is not completely uniform. Thus as the rotor turns, a voltage is developed on
the shaft longitudinally (directly along the shaft). This voltage would cause microcurrents to flow through the lubricant film on
the bearings. These currents, in turn, would cause minor arcing, heating, and eventual bearing failure. The larger the
machine is, the worse the problem becomes.

To avoid this problem, the rotor side of the bearing body is often insulated from the stator side. In most instances, at least
one bearing will be insulated, usually the one farthest from the prime mover for generators and farthest from the load for
motors. Sometimes, both bearings are insulated.

105. State the maximum safe current a human body can tolerate
The amount of current that a body can tolerate depends on the frequency, duration and physical condition of the body.
Generally for a the threshold of perception is 1 mA. A current of 9 – 25 mA makes it difficult for a person to release their grip
from a power circuit, and at 30mA muscular contradictions can make breathing difficult. At higher currents a person‘s heart
can cease to function.

1. In terms of electric current there is a sensation that shock is occurring when the value is about 1 mA.
2. The upper limit of safe or harmless range of electric current is 5 mA.
3. In terms of electric current at the let-go threshold the victim cannot shake loose from the source of shock and
perspires,,this is approximately at 10 – 20 mA.
4. There is sustained muscle contraction and cramping when the value of electric shock (Current) is 30 – 40 mA.
5. There is Extreme pain, physical exhaustion, fainting, irreversible nerve damage, possibility of ventricular fibrillation
(Heart) repiratory arrest when the value of electric (shock) current is 50 – 70 mA.
6. There is ventricular fibrillation and death if the current in excess of 100mA passes through the body trunk.

106. State the first aid to be administered to a person exposed to electric shock

Separate the Person From Current's Source

Response
 To give your casualty the optimum chance of survival you must quickly assess their
levels of response. Check whether the casualty is conscious
Ask ―hello, can you hear me‖ and call their name if you know it.
Ask in both the casualty‘s ears to open their eyes.
Pinch an ear lobe or gently tap the shoulders.
Shout for HELP!
DO NOT move the casualty unless the environment or situation is dangerous.
If alone call for help. If someone responds to your call ask them to stay with you whilst you assess the Airway and Breathing.

For an unresponsive casualty open the airway

Look in the mouth to ensure there are no obvious obstructions.

2. Open the airway by lifting the chin and tilting the head back. This will free the tongue from the back
of the throat.
3. If neck/spinal injury is suspected, put one hand on the stomach to feel if it rises and falls. This
indicates normal breathing.
Assess for breathing
LOOK for the rise and fall of the chest.
2. LISTEN for sounds of breathing.
3. FEEL for air on your cheek.
4. Carry this out for up to 10 seconds.
Breathing normally
If breathing is present go straight to the Recovery Position section.
Not breathing
If the casualty is not breathing normally, commence full Cardio-Pulmonary Resuscitation (CPR). If you are
alone, leave the casualty at this stage and call for help. Return to the casualty and commence CPR (Cardio-
Pulmonary Resuscitation).
5) Unconscious – Not Breathing
To commence CPR:
For an unresponsive casualty
Ensure the casualty is on a firm, flat surface
2. Place your hands one on top of the other in the centre of the casualty‘s chest
3. Compress the chest (up to a maximum depth of approximately 4-5cm) 30 times at a rate of 100
compressions per minute. The compressions and releases should take an equal amount of time
4. After 30 compressions, open the airway again using head tilt/chin lift
5. Seal the nostrils with your thumb and forefinger.
6. Blow steadily into the mouth until you see the chest rise, take about a second to make the chest
rise. It is advisable to have Resuscitation Equipment at this stage such as a face shield.
7. Remove your mouth to the side and let chest fall. Inhale some fresh air, when breathing for the
casualty
8. Repeat so you have given 2 effective rescue breaths in total
9. If chest does not rise after the second breath, go back to 30 compressions then try again with 2
breaths.
10. Return your hands to the correct position on the chest and give a further 30 chest compressions.
Continue with CPR until:
The casualty shows signs of recovery

If the casualty is breathing normally

Check for any other obvious injuries.
2. Remove sharp objects from pockets.
3. Turn the casualty into the recovery position.
4. Place the nearest arm at a right angle to the body.
5. Draw the furthest arm across the chest and place the back of the hand across the cheek.
6. Keep this here whilst you raise the furthest leg by grasping the top of the knee.
7. Gently pull on the knee so that the casualty pivots over onto their side facing you.
8. The casualty should be fully over and stable.
 9. Re-check the airway, breathing and circulation.
10. Draw up the leg at a 90 degree angle.
11. Check for continued breathing.

Burns

Exposure to electricity can cause burns to the skin and, in severe cases, internal organs. In such cases the
electricity may, for example, enter via a hand and leave via the feet causing ‗entry‘ and ‗exit‘ burns.
Conscious casualties
Cool burns for a minimum of 10 minutes under cold water.

Action in the event of a major seizure

The casualty will almost definitely collapse during a major seizure. Try to control the fall.
2. Ensure the safety of the casualty by removing any objects that may cause injury if they are struck.
3. Place padding under the head of the casualty. Improvise if necessary by using clothing.
4. DO NOT place anything in the casualty‘s mouth.
5. Loosen any clothing that may restrict the airway.
6. When the seizure has subsided:
7. Check the casualty‘s Airway, Breathing and Circulation (ABC).
8. If unconscious and breathing normally or semi-conscious, place the casualty in the recovery
position (see above). Perform CPR if not breathing.
9. Can also put a blanket over casualty to preserve modesty, also time the seizure.
10. Reassure the casualty whilst continuing to monitor the ABC and any other injuries.

107. Describe the CO2 system

A Co2 system of machinery spaces consists of a bank of Co2 bottles that can be operated from a remote place located
away from the machinery spaces. The system also consists of pilot Co2 cylinders which control the activation of the bank of
Co2 bottles.

The Co2 from the pilot cylinders will open the system's main stop valve. The main stop valve has a piston which gets
depressed due to the Co2 gas pressure and allows the pilot gas to flow to the bank of CO2 cylinders. This pilot gas operates
the cylinders' valves. These valves are known as Klem valves. All these valves have an actuator which gets operated by the
pilot pressure.

.Though the opening of control box operates an alarm, the main decision for Co2 flooding is taken by the Chief engineer,
after due consultation with the master of the ship. Before releasing Co2 into the fire affected space, it should be made sure
that everybody is out of the place and the place is fully enclosed i.e all skylights and ventilators are closed air-tight. Pumps
supplying fuel oil should also be stopped in order to prevent re-ignition.

Separate levers for each and every space are present inside the main controlling cabinet. The operating of a particular lever
activates the pilot bottles, which helps in releasing the complete bank of bottles designated for that place. With the opening
of the master valve, Co2 is flooded inside the fire affected space, which then smothers the fire with the help of blanket effect.

Precaution to be taken after the fire is extinguished.

After the fire is extinguished by the flooding system, all the doors,hatches,vents and other openings should be opened
in order to ventilate the space properly, before any entry is made into the space.

The space should not be approached with any type of open flames as it might contain flammable vapours, which can
lead to fire or explosion.

Checks on the system

1. Pipes leading to the spaces should regularly be blown with air to ensure that they are not blocked.
2. The level in the Co2 bottles should be checked on regular basis. If in a particular check, the difference is 10% of the
total volume, the bottle should be replaced as soon as possible.
3. Sensors should be checked periodically.
 4. Cabinet door alarms should also be checked on regular interval of time.
5.

108. State how sensors are tested for air flow, feed water and flame in boiler
109. Describe the boiler operation monitoring devices
Drum Water level Differential Pressure Transmitter
Steam Pressure Transmitter
Air Flow Transmitter
Fuel Oil Pressure Transmitter
FO temperature Transmitter
Flame monitor
Atomizing Steam Pressure Switch
Instrument Air Pressure switch
Windbox temperature sensor

110. Explain the term ―manual call station‖

Manual call station or Manual call points are part of the Fire alarm system onboard a ship. These are installed to raise an
alarm immediately on seeing a fire.

It contains of a push button which is mounted inside a casing and is kept in the depressed by a glass cover. Whenever
somebody who spots a fire wants to raise an alarm has to just break the glass. When the glass Is broken the push button is
released and an electrical signal is given to the main fire alarm panel and the Fire alarm buzzers and sounders. The buzzers
and sounders start ringing drawing the attention of the other people. The main panel will display the address of the manual
call point which has been activated. The push button in the manual call point may be NC or NO depending on the circuit
111. Demonstrate systematically the tests that are made on the unmanned machinery space (UMS) alarm system
Deadman alarm system..27 mins Pre alarm and after 1 minute dead man alarm
Engineer‘s call alarm
Alarm tested in all engineer‘s cabins and common places like Officer‘s mess and smoke room, Crew mess and smoke room,
Bridge.
112. Simulate auto slow-down and emergency shut down
113. Explain the types of main engine revolutions per minute (RPM) pick-up sensor SENSING PRINCIPLES

Various kinds of principles are employed in speed sensors. Some of them are listed below

1. Variable reluctance based

2. Hall effect based

3. Eddy Current based

4. Radar Doppler based

5. LIDAR based
6. Accelerometer based

7. Pitot tube based.

8. Pitometer based.
VARIABLE RELUCTANCE SPEED SENSORS

Variable Reluctance (VR) sensors convert mechanical motion to electric energy without direct contact when positioned

near a gear, shaft, rotor, or other regularly moving device. The output signal can be fed electronic circuit. The sensor

provides a uncomplicated, accurate, reliable, inexpensive transducer for highly sophisticated control systems.

Variable Reluctance sensor consists of a coil of wire wound around a cylindrical magnetic material, typically a ferrous

material and is referred to as a pole piece. A magnet is attached behind the pole piece, creating a magnetic field

through the pole piece and winding. This magnetic field projects out from the pole piece front, also known as the sensor
tip.
As the ferromagnetic material, e.g., gear teeth, flywheel or other target features, pass by the sensor tip, the magnetic

field is disrupted. The amount of magnetic flux passing through the magnet, and consequently the coil, to varies. Due to

the time varying flux, a voltage is induced in the coil.

When the target feature is moved close to the sensor, i.e. the air gap between the sensor and the target is reduced, the

flux increases. When the target is moved further away, the flux reduces. Thus, the motion of the target feature results in

a time-varying flux that induces a proportional voltage in the coil. The amplitude and frequency of the induced voltage is

proportional to the speed of the target feature.

This voltage signal is fed to the electronic circuitry that processes it to output the signal in the desired format.
Advantages
· Variable reluctance sensors are passive sensors as they don‘t require external power supply

· As the wire and magnets used are pretty inexpensive, these sensors are low cost sensors

· They are light weight, robust and can work in harsh(high temperature and high vibration) environments

Disadvantages
· Target material must be ferrous only.

· As the magnitude of the induced voltage in these sensors is proportional to target speed, it becomes difficult to

design circuitry appropriate for very low speed signals. Thus Variable Reluctance sensors have a definite lower limit on

the speed of the target.

· Though sensors themselves are cheap, the cost advantage is offset by the additional electronic circuitry required to

process the low amplitude induced voltages.

The Hall Effect

The basic principle is that when a bias voltage is applied to the silicon plate via two current contacts, an electric field is
created and a current is forced. If the plate is then exposed to a perpendicular magnetic induction , the Hall electric field
gives rise to the appearance of the Hall voltage between the two sense contacts. This Hall voltage, Vh, is proportional
to the amount of magnetic field applied normally to the plate. This basic principle is the foundation for all Hall effect
sensors today.

Figure 1: The Hall Effect.

 Because Hall effect ICs detect the strength of a magnetic field, sensing is accomplished by changing the magnetic field
passing through the IC. This is commonly accomplished through linear or rotary motion of a multi-pole magnet.

The position and rotation of ferrous gear teeth can be detected using the Hall effect by measuring the changes induced
by the gear at the face of an opposing magnet. The presence of the ferrous gear alters the reluctance of the magnetic
circuit and creates a concentration effect at the magnet surface. These changes can be measured by using a Hall effect
sensing element located on the magnet face1.

Eddy Current based Principle of Operation An eddy-current probe works by passing an alternating current through a

coil of wire and measuring the coil‘s impedance. This impedance changes when the probe is brought near an

electrically conductive material and the impedance change is proportional to the physical gap between the coil and the

conductive target. The sensing electronics in turn convert this impedance change to a voltage, providing an electrical

output directly proportional to physical gap

114. What is a proximity switch?

Proximity sensor is a device which detects objects nearby without any physical contact up to nominal range or sensor‘s
vicinity. In brief we can also say that Sensors which convert information on the movement or presence of an object into an
electrical signal are called proximity sensors.

An Inductive Proximity Sensor consists of an oscillator, a ferrite core with coil, a detector circuit, an output circuit, housing,
and a cable or connector.

The oscillator generates a sine wave of a fixed frequency. This signal is used to drive the coil. The coil in conjunction with
ferrite core induces a electromagnetic field. When the field lines are interrupted by a metal object, the oscillator voltage is
reduced, proportional to the size and distance of the object from the coil. The reduction in the oscillator voltage is caused by
eddy currents induced in the metal interrupting the field lines. This reduction in voltage of the oscillator is detected by the
detecting circuit.

TYPES OF PROXIMITY SENSORS

There are several types of proximity sensor which are used according to the need, material detection and many other things.
To classify them here are its types:

INDUCTIVE PROXIMITY SENSORS: Device which generates output signal or electrical signal when metal objects are
either inside or entering into its sensing area from any direction. The metal objects above includes iron, aluminum, brass,
copper, etc with varied sensing distances.

CAPACITIVE PROXIMITY SENSORS: It can also detect metals but along with it can also detect resins, liquids, powders,
etc. This sensor working can vary accordingly covering material, cable longness, noise senstivity. Its sensing distance also
vary according to factors such as the temperature, the sensing object, surrounding objects, and the mounting distance
between Sensors. Its maximum range of sensing is 25 mm.

MAGNETIC PROXIMITY SENSORS :Name is saying its sensing object – magnets. Magnetic Proximity Sensors have no
electrical noise effect and it can work on DC, AC, AC/DC, DC. Again sensing distance can vary due to factors such as the
temperature, the sensing object, surrounding objects, and the mounting distance between Sensors. This type of sensors
have highest sensing range upto 120 mm.

115. What is the Difference Between Star and Delta

The basic difference between star and delta is that star generates a high voltage at a low current, and delta generates a low
voltage at a high current. The total (no load) power generated is the same.

To calculate the output AC voltage and current of a three-phase alternator wired in star or delta it is only necessary to
measure the voltage and current of one of the coils. Multiply the voltage of one coil by the number of coils per phase to
obtain the phase voltage. The square root of the number of phases (3) = 1.732 can be used to calculate the total outputs
with either configuration.

For example, if you have one phase which gives 20 Volts at 12 Amps:
Star - Voltage = 20 * 1.732 = 34.6V, Current is unchanged at 12 Amps.
Delta - Voltage is unchanged at 20 Volts, Current = 12 X 1.732 = 20.8 Amps.

Note that since power is equal to the voltage multiplied by the current, in both cases the power is around 415 Watts in the
 example above.

Star and Delta in the Real World

Since star and delta wiring both give the same power, why does it matter which is used? Well a wind turbine alternator will
generate a higher voltage at lower RPM and will therefore start charging thebattery bank sooner if star is used. An alternator
wired in delta requires more effort (wind or water power) to get it turning in the first place compared to star. However at high
RPM the voltage generated in star can be too high whereas in delta a good current is generated at a lower voltage.

Ideally an alternator would start off wired in star so it starts spinning easily and the high voltage output would start charging
sooner, but then at a certain RPM would switch to Delta to output a big current at a not too high voltage. Switching in this
way maximises the amount of power actually sent to the batteries and therefore the overall efficiency of the system. Most
large commercial wind turbine generators do exactly this switching from star to delta when optimal to do so. The
technology is very simple since it is essentially the same as that used to soft-start motors - starting in star and then switching
to delta when everything has got going.

Perhaps the greatest advantage of the ∆-connected source is its fault tolerance. It is possible for one of the windings in a ∆-
connected three-phase source to fail open without affecting load voltage or current. The only consequence of a source
winding failing open for a ∆-connected source is increased phase current in the remaining windings.

If dual voltages are needed (e.g. 120/208) or preferred for lower line currents, Y-connected systems are

∆-connected three-phase voltage sources give greater reliability in the event of winding failure than Y-connected sources.
However, Y-connected sources can deliver the same amount of power with less line current than ∆-connected sources.

116. What is Mains failure relay?

117. What is sequential starting

Following is the general sequential starting of machineries.

05 Sec after main power is restored: 1) Stern Tube Luboil pump 2) Main LO Pump

10 Secs after main power is restored: 1) MCSW P/P 2) LT CW P/P 3) M/E JCW P/P
 15 Secs after main power is restored: 1) Deck seal water P/p 2) Aux. Blr. & Comp. Blr Feed P/P

20 Secs after main power is restored: 1) All E/R fans 2) Fire & GS Pump

118. Why overcurrent does not trip during starting of motor when motor draws heavy current?

The motor starting or "inrush" current, which is also called "locked rotor current," is only present during the acceleration
period at the moment the motor is started. The inrush current decreases rapidly as the motor begins to rotate. The motor
branch-circuit overcurrent protection easily handles these currents within the limitations of the motor branch circuit
conductors.

119. Why power factor of motor is low during induction motor starting?

Reactive power is required for the magnetization of a motor but doesn't perform any action. The reactive power required by
inductive loads increases the amounts of apparent power - measured in kilovolt amps (kVA) - in the distribution system.
Increasing of the reactive and apparent power will cause the power factor - PF - to decrease.
A low power factor is the result of inductive loads such as transformers and electric motors. Unlike resistive loads creating
heat by consuming kilowatts, inductive loads require a current flow to create magnetic fields to produce the desired work.
Reactive current will be high if motor require more magnetic field to develop. Reactive power consumption depend on size
of the motor.
Inductive reactance depends on the frequency and the slip. When the rotor is not turning, the slip frequency is at maximum
and so is the inductive reactance. When the motor starts rotating the slip is 100 % and the motor current is at maximum. The
slip and motor current start reducing as the motor starts running.

The inductive reactance will change with the slip since the rotor impedance is the phase sum of the constant resistance and
the variable inductive reactance.

When the motor starts rotating the inductive reactance is high and impedance is mostly inductive. The rotor has a low
lagging power factor. When the speed increases the inductive reactance goes down equaling the resistance.

120. What is Aldis lamp?

It is a signal lamp (named after Arthur Cyril Webb Aldis who invented a widely used design). It is a visual signaling device
for optical communication (typically using Morse code).

121. How does current gets affected by starting delta motor in star?

An induction motor is similar to a poly-phase transformer whose secondary is short circuited. Thus, at normal supply
voltage, like in transformers, the initial current taken by the primary is very large for a short while. If an induction motor is
directly switched on from supply, it takes 5 to 7 times its full load current, and develops a torque which is only 1.5 to 2.5
times the full load torque.
This large starting current will produce large voltage drop in line, which may affect the operation of other devices connected
in the line. From the torque equation of induction motor, it can be seen that starting torque can be improved by increasing
the rotor resistance. Rotor resistance can be easily increased in case of slip-ring induction motors, but for squirrel cage
motorsstarting current can be controlled by applying reduced stator voltage.
When stator winding is star connected, voltage over each phase in motor will be reduced by a factor 1/(sqrt. 3) that it would
be for delta connected winding. The starting torque will 1/3 to that of it will be for delta connected winding. Hence a star-
delta starter is equivalent to an auto-transformer of ratio 1/(sqrt. 3) or 58% reduced voltage.electrically interlocked and

preferably mechanically interlocked as well. The star contactor serves to initially short
the secondary terminal of the motor U2, V2, W2 for the start sequence during the initial run of the motor from stands till.
 This provides one third of DOL current to the motor, thus reducing the high inrush current inherent with large capacity
motors at startup.

Controlling the interchanging star connection and delta connection of an AC induction motor is achieved by means of a star delta or

wye delta control circuit. The control circuit consists of push button switches, auxiliary contacts and a timer.

Control Circuit of Star-Delta Starter (Open Transition)

122. What is under voltage protection for motors?

An undervoltage relay which removes a motor from service when a lowvoltage condition develops,
so that the motor will not drawexcessive current, or which prevents a large induction or synchronous
motor from starting under low-voltage conditions.

The principle is simple, it will check for voltage at all times. If the voltage falls below a preset. Relay will not work and the
LED is a warning.

As AC main in normal level, the relay will apply AC line to motor. And if voltage falls to less than 10% of normal voltage the
relay will cut off load at once. Until the voltage is restored to its original condition.

123. What is synchronous and super synchronous motor?

The name ―super synchronous‖ has been given to a certain type of motor, not because the motor
operates above synchronous speed but because it has the ability to develop super torque in starting.
There has been a demand for a long time for some type of synchronous motor that would develop
during the starting cycle a torque as great or greater than that of an induction motor of the wound-rotor,external-resistance
type. The first applications of synchronous motors, where considerable starting torque was required, were accomplished by
the use of friction clutches.
 Requirements for medium sized AC electric motors are fulfilled satisfactorily by conventional machines of the synchronous
or squirrel-cage induction type. They have, among other advantages, a very simple form of construction resulting from the
absence of electrical connection to the rotor. However, they have a limitation in that the rotor speed cannot exceed the
supply frequency (e.g., 3600 r.p.m. for 60 Hz). Described is a synchronous motor in which the self-contained rotor, not much
more complicated than a squirrel-cage, runs at twice synchronous speed.

124. How vibration protection is provided for NER on board ship?

for the purpose of preventing undue vibration of the element and increasing its resistance to deformation. Insulating spacers
I9, which are clearly illustrated in Figs. l and 2, may be provided, comprising a plurality of spaced apart fingers 20 which may
be disposed between the adjacent straight portions of the resistance element, near the central portion thereof, to further
increase the rigidity thereof. Connection may be made to the resistance element I4 in any suitable manner, such as by
connecting a bus bar 22 directly to the resistance element by suitable means, such as the bolts 23, which may be reinforced
by welding if desired.

125. What type of overload protection is provided in steering gear system?

In case of an overload, an alarm will be sounded inn the Engine room and Wheelhouse indicating
the overload. However, the steering gear motor will not stop and will keep running until the cause
has been investigated and remedial action is taken.

126. What alarms are provided for steering gear system?

Phase failure
Motor overload
Hydraulic oil tank low level
Oil temperature high
Isolation valve operated

127. Can we store leadacid and alkaline battery in same room? Yes or no …give reason
We cannot store them together due to the fumes that may be poisonous and explosive in nature.

128. What is called a "memory effect" ??

 Memory effect means is that when a NiCad battery is only partially discharged before charging, the battery "forgets" that it
has the capacity to further discharge all the way down.

If you, on a regular basis, fully charge your battery and then use only 40% of its capacity before the next recharge,
eventually the battery will become unaware of its extra 60% capacity which had remained unused. Your battery will remain
functional, but only at 40% of its original capacity.

The way to avoid the dreaded "memory effect" is to fully cycle your NiCad battery at least once a month. In other words, fully
discharge your battery and then fully charge it.

129. What is SVDR? What information is fed into SVDR?

Passenger ships and ships other than passenger ships of 3000 gross tonnage and upwards constructed on or after 1 July
2002 must carry voyage data recorders (VDRs) to assist in accident investigations, under regulations adopted in 2000,
which entered into force on 1 July 2002.

The mandatory regulations are contained in chapter V on Safety of Navigation of the International Convention for the Safety
of Life at Sea, 1974 (SOLAS).

Like the black boxes carried on aircraft, VDRs enable accident investigators to review procedures and instructions in the
moments before an incident and help to identify the cause of any accident.

The simplified voyage data recorder, S-VDR is not required to store the same level of detailed data as a standard VDR, but
nonetheless should maintain a store, in a secure and retrievable form, of information concerning the position, movement,
physical status, command and control of a vessel over the period leading up to and following an incident.

SVDR is used for safe collection and storage of voyage data such as ship position, movements, physical condition, bridge
commands etc. for a defined time period, with an available playback function.

130. Difference between VDR and S-VDR

There is no principle difference between a voyage data recorder (VDR) and a simplified voyage data recorder (S-VDR). The
difference is the amount of information required to be recorded. The VDR requires more data to be recorded than the S-
VDR.

Data types
 Date and time: Referenced to UTC with an indication of the source. The source could be the GPS
 Ship‘s position: In latitude and longitude with the datum used. The source could be the GPS
 Speed: Through water or speed over ground with indication of which it is. The source could be the speed log
 Heading: As indicated by the ship‘s compass. The source could be the gyro compass
 Bridge audio: As picked up by one or more microphones positioned on the bridge so that conversation at or near the
conning stations, radar displays, chart tables, etc., is adequately recorded. As far as practicable, the positioning of
microphones should also capture intercom, public address systems and audible alarms on the bridge
 VHF communications: Relating to ship operations should be recorded
 Radar data: Electronic signal information from within one of the ship‘s radar installations with recording of all the
information which was actually being presented on the master display of that radar at the time of recording
 AIS data: If it is impossible to obtain radar data by using a commercially available interface then AIS target data should be
recorded as a source of information regarding other ships. If radar data is recorded, AIS information may be recorded
additionally as a beneficial secondary source of information on both other and own ship. AIS data is not mandatory, but an
option when it is impossible to obtain radar data by means of a commercially available interface
 Additional data: Items listed by IMO with the requirements set out in resolution A.861(20) should be recorded when the
data is available in accordance with the international digital interface standard NMEA0183 using approved sentence
formatters. The additional data listed by IMO with the requirements in resolution A.861(20) are:
– Echo sounder
– Main alarms
– Rudder order and response
– Engine order and response
– Hull openings status
– Watertight and fire door status
– Accelerations and hull stresses
– Wind speed and direction
 The additional data (any or all) shall only have to be recorded if the data are available on the bridge and the data
signals are available in NMEA0183 format. Hence, the principle difference between VDR and S-VDR lays in the
requirements for recording of additional data

131. What is Doppler log? How it works?

A doppler speed log measures ship's speed by utilizing the principle of the Doppler effect, which defines that a signal emitted
from a moving object is heard
with its frequency shifted at stationary locations and the degree of the frequency shift is proportional to the speed of the moving
object.

The doppler effect is a physical phenomenom which affects waves in motion. The standard example is the effect on a fire
engine siren as it quickly drives past. When it movestowards you the sound waves are compressed, and so the frequency
becomes higher, and when it moves away from you the frequency becomes lower.

132. What is autopilot? How does it work?

The main task of an autopilot is to lock the heading of the boat to a predefined reference course. This is the course the boat
has when you press the auto button. In the auto mode the autopilot constantly compares the boats true heading given by the
compass with the wished reference course in the same way that any control system does. If there is deviation, the autopilot
applies power to the steering system and the rudder turns the boat and get it back on track. The rudder angle is feed back to
the system. There is a trade off between the accuracy of holding the reference course and the activity of the rudder
movements.

Modes of Operation

An autopilot can work in one of several modes dependent on what you want to do with it. At start up it will always go in to
manual or stand-by mode. The different modes are explained below:

Manual Mode, the autopilot is standby and the boat is under manual steering. The display shows the actual heading
course.

Auto Mode, the autopilot is activated and steers the boat to the reference course which is then shown on the display. The
refence course will be the course the boat has when auto mode is selected. You can change this desired reference course
by pressing the arrow buttons on AP47 and AP55 or by rotating the course knob on AP4 and AP9.

GPS Mode. In this mode the autopilot gets steering information from a separate GPS unit. All Autopilots with GPS
connected for navigation can follow a track to a distant bearing and can follow a route of multiple way points and
automatically turn to a new reference course when switching to next way point. In the picture at right you can see how it
looks on a GPS plotter. Note that the boat will not cross the waypoint, when it‘s close enough to the waypoint the autopilot
will automatically turn to the next waypoint.

133. Draw a typical circuit of navigational light.

134. What is radar? How does it work?

Radar (Radio Detection and Ranging) is an object-detection system that uses radio waves to determine the range, angle, or
velocity of objects. It can be used to detect aircraft, ships.
We can see objects in the world around us because light (usually from the Sun) reflects off them into our eyes. If you want to
walk at night, you can shine a torch in front to see where you're going. The light beam travels out from the torch, reflects off
objects in front of you, and bounces back into your eyes. Your brain instantly computes what this means: it tells you how far
away objects are and makes your body move so you don't trip over things.

Radar works in much the same way. The word "radar" stands for radio detection and ranging—and that gives a pretty big
clue as to what it does and how it works.

A radar set needs the same basic set of components: something to generate radio waves, something to send them out into
space, something to receive them, and some means of displaying information so the radar operator can quickly understand
it.

The radio waves used by radar are produced by a piece of equipment called a magnetron. Radio waves are similar to light
waves: they travel at the same speed—but their waves are much longer and have much lower frequencies. Light waves
have wavelengths of about 500 nanometers (500 billionths of a meter, which is about 100–200 times thinner than a human
hair), whereas the radio waves used by radar typically range from about a few centimeters to a meter—the length of a finger
to the length of your arm—or roughly a million times longer than light waves.

Once the radio waves have been generated, an antenna, working as a transmitter, hurls them into the air in front of it. The
antenna is usually curved so it focuses the waves into a precise, narrow beam, but radar antennas also typically rotate so
they can detect movements over a large area. The radio waves travel outward from the antenna at the speed of light
(186,000 miles or 300,000 km per second) and keep going until they hit something. Then some of them bounce back toward
the antenna in a beam of reflected radio waves also traveling at the speed of light. The speed of the waves is crucially
important.

The antenna doubles up as a radar receiver as well as a transmitter. In fact, it alternates between the two jobs. Typically it
transmits radio waves for a few thousandths of a second, then it listens for the reflections for anything up to several seconds
before transmitting again. Any reflected radio waves picked up by the antenna are directed into a piece
of electronic equipment that processes and displays them in a meaningful form on a television-like screen, watched all the
time by a human operator. The receiving equipment filters out useless reflections from the ground, buildings, and so on,
displaying only significant reflections on the screen itself. Using radar, an operator can see any nearby ships or planes,
where they are, how quickly they're traveling, and where they're heading.

The antenna doubles up as a radar receiver as well as a transmitter. In fact, it alternates between the two jobs. Typically it
transmits radio waves for a few thousandths of a second, then it listens for the reflections for anything up to several seconds
before transmitting again. Any reflected radio waves picked up by the antenna are directed into a piece
of electronic equipment that processes and displays them in a meaningful form on a television-like screen, watched all the
time by a human operator. The receiving equipment filters out useless reflections from the ground, buildings, and so on,
displaying only significant reflections on the screen itself. Using radar, an operator can see any nearby ships or planes,
where they are, how quickly they're traveling, and where they're heading.
 How does radar work?

Here's a summary of how radar works:

1. Magnetron generates high-frequency radio waves.

2. Duplexer switches magnetron through to antenna.
3. Antenna acts as transmitter, sending narrow beam of radio waves through the air.
4. Radio waves hit enemy airplane and reflect back.
5. Antenna picks up reflected waves during a break between transmissions. Note that the same antenna acts as both
transmitter and receiver, alternately sending out radio waves and receiving them.
6. Duplexer switches antenna through to receiver unit.
7. Computer in receiver unit processes reflected waves and draws them on a TV screen.
8. Enemy plane shows up on TV radar display with any other nearby targets.

135. Why we should switch off synchroscope after synchronizing alternators?

It should not be left in circuit for more than 20 minutes as it is not continuously rated.

136. What is bus coupler?

Bus coupler is a device which is used to couple one bus to the other without any interruption in power supply and without
creating hazardous arcs. Bus coupler is a breaker used to couple two busbars in order to perform maintenance on other
circuit breakers associated with that busbar

137. Explin the principle of operation of various detectors in fire alarm system

Ionisation Smoke Detector

An ionisation type smoke detector# is the earliest form of smoke detection originally developed by Swiss physicist
Walter Jaeger in 1930. The ionisation smoke detector operates on the principal that, under normal circumstances, air in
a chamber is ionised by the radioactive element (Americum 241) which causes the free and equal flow of electrons
between two adjacent electrodes. When smoke particles enter the chamber between the electrodes, the normal flow of
electrons is interrupted causing an alarm actuation.

The ionisation chamber is very sensitive to temperature and air pressure, which is overcome by have a second
reference chamber.
 Ionisation smoke detectors require a very low power to operate and traditionally have been the most regularly used
residential smoke alarms. Ionisation smoke detectors are most effective for invisible particles of combustion such as
those found in fast flaming fires.

Photo-electric Smoke Detector

As the name suggests the photo-electric smoke detector is an optical device comprising a transmitter and receiver. The
transmitter and receiver are mounted inside a black chamber with the transmitter and receiver in an offset arrangement.
Under normal circumstances, the transmitter emits a focused light beam into the chamber. The projected light is
absorbed by the black walls of the chamber and the receiver receives no light.

When visible smoke particles enter the chamber the projected light is scattered in all directions. When this scattered
light is detected by the receiver it will activate an alarm.

There are two main types of photoelectric smoke detectors, namely the projected beam type and the reflected beam
type. Photoelectric smoke detectors work on basis of the presence or absence of light.

The projected beam type consists of a photoelectric sensor with light falling on it from a source located at holds or other
protected space on the ship. When there is the presence of smoke, the light intensity of the beam that is received in the
photoelectric cell decreases due to it being obscured by the smoke particles. This reduced level of light intensity causes
the electrical circuit to the photocell to be unbalanced, and hence activating the alarm.

The reflected light beam type smoke detector consists of a light source, a light catcher positioned opposite to the light
source and also a photoelectric cell fixed normal to the light source. When smoke particles enter into the light beam
region, some light is being reflected onto the photoelectric cell. This creates a closed circuit, and hence setting off the
alarm.

Photoelectric detectors are commonly used to protect storage areas and high value compartments, and also to provide
smoke detection for air ducts and plenum areas.

However, the downside of this type of photoelectric smoke detector is that the smoke has to be thick before it can be
detected. This is due to its relatively low sensitivity. The plus side of this type of smoke detectors is that there will be
fewer false alarms.

Flame Detectors

These detectors comprise an electronic circuit with an electromagnetic radiation receiver. Flame detectors are actuated
when they receive electromagnetic radiation from one or more defined wave lengths are received according to their
design in the ultra-violet or infrared spectrum.

Heat Detectors

The most common form of heat detector is an electronic device with a thermistor acting as the heat sensitive element. A
thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance changes significantly according to temperature. These detectors can
operate as a fixed-temperature and a rate-of-rise device or both depending on their intended design. These detectors
may also include features to reduce the possibility of deceptive phenomena causing false alarms.

138. Which sensor other than smoke, flame and heat sensor used onboard ship?

a) Flammable Gas Detector

Flammable gases are gases that at ambient temperature and pressure, forms a flammable mixture with air at a
concentration of 13 percent by volume or less. Some examples of flammable gases that are commonly found in ships
are hydrocarbon gases, hydrogen sulphide and oxygen.

Flammable gas detectors will draw samples of air periodically, and analyse them for mainly hydrocarbon gas and also
other flammable gases. If the gas concentration is above the pre-set alarm threshold, an alarm will sound off
immediately.
 Flammable gas detectors, though not mandatory, are commonly installed in enclosed spaces which can hold high
volumes of flammable gases. The danger of cargo leaks into void spaces and ballast tanks, and the risk of explosions
associated with a build up of hydrocarbon gas is something to be taken seriously.

Flammable gas detectors are sometimes also installed at accommodation air conditioning inlet. This is to prevent fire
outbreaks to happen in areas where there are constant human activity.

b) Refrigerant Gas Leak Detector

Refrigerant gases are chemical products used in freezers, refrigerators, air conditioning units. These gases have low
evaporation points, hence they will condense under pressure to chill the air. The repeated process of evaporating and
condensing the gases pulls heat out of the air, thus reducing the temperature of the in the unit. There are many different
types of refrigerant gas, and the more common ones include chlorofluorocarbon (CFC), hydrochlorofluorocarbon
(HCFC), hydrofluorocarbon (HFC), perfluorocarbon (PFC), and blends made from ammonia and carbon dioxide.

However, cases of leakage of refrigerant gases is a common sight. Some refrigerant gases are detrimental to our
environment. For example, when CFC is released into the atmosphere, a chemical change will take place due to its
exposure to the UV light. This reaction will result in the production of green house gases, and also depletes the ozone
layer. Being able to detect refrigerant gas leakage can help cut down on unnecessary expenses and also help protect
the environment.

According to MARPOL Annex VI Regulation 12 - ozone depletion substances, refrigerant gas detectors are to be
installed to monitor and detect any leakages of refrigerant gases. Refrigerant gases are continually monitored by fixed
gas sensors. When the detector detects that the refrigerant gas concentration exceeds a certain prefixed limit (e.g. 25
ppm for ammonia, 300 ppm for halogenated fluorocarbons), the alarm will be set off, alerting whoever manning the
system.

Refrigerant gas detectors are usually located in places where the refrigerant are likely to leak, such as the centralised
cargo refrigeration systems, centralised air conditioning systems and centralised domestic refrigeration systems.

c) Water Level Detector

Water leakage and ingress may happen onboard ships. When cargo holds or bulkhead are filled with excess water, it
will damage the cargo onboard and also severely affect the buoyancy and stability of the ship. Worst case scenario
would be the flooding of the ship, leading to it sinking. Hence, water detectors are of high importance, and are used to
detect if the water level, in any compartment, exceeds over a predetermined height.

Water detectors are positioned at a predetermined height at the aft end of each individual cargo hold or compartment.
The height position specifications are different between bulk carriers and cargo vessels. When the water level in any
particular compartment reaches the alarm level, the detector will detect it, and the alarm will be set off. The picture
below is an illustration of the position of the water detector sensors.
139. What type of signal is between fire alarm panel and sensor? Voltage or current?

Fire Alarm Loop

In a fire alarm system, a loop is a pair of wires. It carries power and signals between the circuit boards inside the control
panel and the off-panel devices in the field.

The loop:

As an Initiating Device Circuit (IDC), carries signals from the input devices to the panel

As a Notification Appliance Circuit (NAC), carries signals and power from the panel to the fire horns, speakers, and
strobes, causing the devices to make noise and flash lights, telling the occupants of the alarm.

IDC (Initiating Device Circuit)

The IDC is a pair of wires connecting the panel to the input sensing devices.

Smoke Detectors, flame detectors, Heat Detectors, Manual call Stations

 The Initiating Device Circuit is two way communication. The fire alarm panel provides voltage for supervision, the circuit
uses resistance to affect current telling the panel - normal, alarm, trouble.

NAC (Notification Appliance Circuit)

Wired similar to the IDC Class A or Class B loop, the NAC carries power to operate the "Notification Appliances":

o Fire horns
o Strobes
o Bells
o Chimes
o Speakers

In alarm, the voltage on the loop is forward biased; the electrical current provided by the panel goes through the
notification appliances, letting people know about the alarm. They are notified.

SLC (Signaling Line Circuit)

The Signaling Line Circuit (SLC) carries signals both to and from the panel; it uses data to carry the signals out from the
panel to field devices, and data to carry the signals back from the field devices to the panel.

The SLC also provides a small amount of power to operate the field devices.

Field Devices Connected to an SLC

Input

 Smoke Detectors
 Heat Detectors
 Combination Smoke/Heat Detectors
 Pull Stations
 Alarm and Supervisory Input Module

Output

Control Relays

NAC Riser Modules

 Audible
 Visible
 Combination Audible/Visible
 Audio for Speakers
140. Explain in brief fixed foam system.

In all the ships requiring foam as an extinguishing agent, mechanical foam is generally used. Mechanical foam is formed by
mixing foam making material with large quantities of water. But just the ingression of this mixture in the fire affected area is
not sufficient. Violent agitation of the mixture into the air is required to create large amount of air bubbles in the foam.

Automatic Foam Induction System

A foam induction system is used to monitor and control the whole foam generating
process. The main parts of the system are :
1. Automatic Inductor unit
2. Foam Compound tank
3. Fire Pumps
4. Hydrants

The automatic inductor unit monitors the main function of the system and ensures that correct mixing of water and foam
compound in order to generate adequate amount of foam. The mixing of the foam compound and water takes place
inside a foam compound tank, which is sealed from all the sides to prevent the deteriorating of the mixture formed. This
mixture is then pumped through the hydrants with the help of fire pumps. The Foam compound tank also has linked
compound supply and air vent valves, which are used to control the flow of water, air and the foam mixture.

When the system is to be operated, first of all, both the linked valves are opened. The mixing of the foam producing
compounds and water is carefully metered using a automatic inductor unit. Once the mixing is done, air under pressure
 in forced into the tank to produce foam. The foam is then pumped out using fire pumps. It is of utmost importance that
both, the fire pumps and compound tanks are located away from the engine room and at a well protected area.

141. How fire alarm sensors connected to Hyper mist system. Explain with diagram
The engine room employs fire detection systems which have a master control panel on the bridge with auxiliary panels in
the engine control room and the fire control station. The system consists of different types of fire detectors located at various
places as per the risk of the type of fire. There are three phenomena associated with a fire: smoke, flames, and heat. These
are employed for the detection purposes. There are three type of detectors used in engine room, which are infrared flame
detectors, smoke detectors, and heat detectors. We cannot go into the details of the different types of the fire detectors as it
is outside the scope of this article, however, the placement of the fire detectors is as follows:

 In work shop where there is always welding works going on and smoke and naked flame are always present, a heat
detector would be placed or none at all as it is a certified hot work area.
 In engine control room smoke detectors are used.
 Near boilers and incinerators where abnormal conditions can produce a naked flame, an infrared flame and an
ionization type smoke detector is used.
 Generally smoke detectors are used throughout the engine room. The flame detectors are used near fuel handling units
like purifiers, hot filters, refiners, conditioners.
Upon the detection of a fire, an audible alarm is sounded throughout the ship, with the control panel and alarm systems
showing the location of the fire. If two types of fire detectors, i.e. flame and smoke, are simultaneously triggered they would
activate the Hyper-Mist system in that zone automatically.
142. What is the pressure of hyper mist pump?
High-pressure water is injected through a special nozzle working within pressure range of 4 to 10 MPa (depending upon the
design of the system), which breaks the water droplets into fine mist. The diameter of the water mist particle range from 50
to 200 µm which improves the fire extinguishing effect and efficiency of the system. The distance between any two nozzles
is very critical as area covered by one nozzle must be such that no space is left unsprayed in the fire affected area.

143. What type of pump is used in hyper mist?

Vertical centrifugal pump, capacity : 8.1 ㎥/hr x 101 m, Motor : 6.3kw 3ph 440VAC 60Hz
144. H2S sensor working principle.
Electrochemical Detectors In an electrochemical sensor the cells combine enclosed electrodes and electrolyte. H2 S
diffuses through a permeable membrane, the volume of H2 S increases in the air, an oxidation or reduction reaction occurs
at one of the electrodes, and as a result, a linear current change occurs. This enables a display or an amplifier device to
generate an indication of the H2 S level. These detectors also have high sensitivity and repeatability, which has established
this as the toxic detection technology of choice in a wide variety of applications. The use of electrochemical sensors in
desert and arctic regions is not the ideal solution though. The detector‘s lack of resilience in high and low temperatures and
the effect of humidity on the detector‘s performance are serious considerations. The capability of the sensor and its
performance life will likely be affected due to evaporation of electrolytes in dry, hot conditions. Extreme cold conditions may
also reduce the detector‘s speed of response. Normally one can expect a T90 response in around about 30 seconds in
temperate conditions. When you start to approach -20 °C the detector‘s speed of response reduces significantly, as
temperatures continue to lower the output will decrease even further.

Optical Sensing Technology: In an optical H2 S sensor, the signal is absorbed by the H2 S gas as it passes through the
detector‘s optical path. The sensor will record the signal reduction and a micro-processor will calculate a corresponding gas
value. Because the sensor uses positive feedback at its zero gas level, this technology is inherently fail safe. Any internal
damage to the detector results in an impact on processing so they must continuously perform valuable fault diagnostics to
ensure optimum performance, which also compensates effectively for temperature and humidity.

Metal Oxide Semiconductor (MOS) Sensors: The typical construction of an MOS sensing element includes a platinum
heater element, an insulation medium and the sensing element itself, which is a gas-sensitive resistive film. When H2 S
comes into contact with this film there are measurable changes in the electrical conductivity. These changes are typically
amplified in a transmitter device. MOS detectors have a long life compared to electrochemical sensors and continue to
operate in wide ranging temperatures, particularly high temperatures, as well as in extremely dry conditions. Similar to
electrochemical detectors, MOS detectors are not fail-safe and a change in oxygen levels may affect their output.

145. H2S sensor working principle.

Electrochemical Detectors In an electrochemical sensor the cells combine enclosed electrodes and electrolyte. H2 S
diffuses through a permeable membrane, the volume of H2 S increases in the air, an oxidation or reduction reaction occurs
at one of the electrodes, and as a result, a linear current change occurs. This enables a display or an amplifier device to
generate an indication of the H2 S level. These detectors also have high sensitivity and repeatability, which has established
this as the toxic detection technology of choice in a wide variety of applications. The use of electrochemical sensors in
desert and arctic regions is not the ideal solution though. The detector‘s lack of resilience in high and low temperatures and
 the effect of humidity on the detector‘s performance are serious considerations. The capability of the sensor and its
performance life will likely be affected due to evaporation of electrolytes in dry, hot conditions. Extreme cold conditions may
also reduce the detector‘s speed of response. Normally one can expect a T90 response in around about 30 seconds in
temperate conditions. When you start to approach -20 °C the detector‘s speed of response reduces significantly, as
temperatures continue to lower the output will decrease even further.

Optical Sensing Technology: In an optical H2 S sensor, the signal is absorbed by the H2 S gas as it passes through the
detector‘s optical path. The sensor will record the signal reduction and a micro-processor will calculate a corresponding gas
value. Because the sensor uses positive feedback at its zero gas level, this technology is inherently fail safe. Any internal
damage to the detector results in an impact on processing so they must continuously perform valuable fault diagnostics to
ensure optimum performance, which also compensates effectively for temperature and humidity.

Metal Oxide Semiconductor (MOS) Sensors: The typical construction of an MOS sensing element includes a platinum
heater element, an insulation medium and the sensing element itself, which is a gas-sensitive resistive film. When H2 S
comes into contact with this film there are measurable changes in the electrical conductivity. These changes are typically
amplified in a transmitter device. MOS detectors have a long life compared to electrochemical sensors and continue to
operate in wide ranging temperatures, particularly high temperatures, as well as in extremely dry conditions. Similar to
electrochemical detectors, MOS detectors are not fail-safe and a change in oxygen levels may affect their output.

146. Carbon monoxide working principle

Semiconductor : Thin wires of the semiconductor tin dioxide on an insulating ceramic base provide a sensor monitored by
an integrated circuit. This sensing element needs to be heated to approximately 400 °C in order to operate. Oxygen
increases resistance of the tin dioxide while carbon monoxide reduces resistance. The integrated circuit monitors the
resistance of the sensing element. Lifespans are approximately five to 10 years.

The large power demand of this sensor means that it is usually powered from the mains. A battery-powered, pulsed sensor
is available with a lifetime in months.

Electrochemical : This is a type of fuel cell that instead of being designed to produce power, is designed to produce a
signal current that is precisely related to the amount of the target gas (in this case carbon monoxide) in the atmosphere.
Measurement of the current gives a measure of the concentration of carbon monoxide in the atmosphere. Essentially the
electrochemical cell consists of a container, two electrodes, connection wires and an electrolyte - typically sulfuric acid.
Carbon monoxide is oxidized at one electrode to carbon dioxide while oxygen is consumed at the other electrode. For
carbon monoxide detection, the electrochemical cell has advantages over other technologies in that it has a highly accurate
and linear output to carbon monoxide concentration, requires minimal power as it is operated at room temperature, and has
a long lifetime (typically commercial available cells now have lifetimes of five years or greater).

Opto-chemical : The detector consists of a pad of a coloured chemical which changes colour upon reaction with carbon
monoxide. They only provide a qualitative warning of the gas however. The main advantage of these detectors is that they
are the lowest cost, but the downside is that they also offer the lowest level of protection.

Biomimetic sensor technology reproduces CO's effects on hemoglobin in the blood. In a biomimetic sensor, a gel changes
color as it absorbs CO. A separate sensor detects the color change and alerts the detector's processor to sound the alarm.
Once a biomimetic sensor has changed color, it must be placed in a CO-free environment to reset itself. Biomimetic sensors
can also be used on portable CO detector cards -- if you see the disc on the card turn dark, there's a dangerous amount of
CO in the air.

147. Working principle of Hydrocarbon sensor.

IR GAS SENSING TECHNOLOGY : The IR method of measuring gas concentration is based on the absorption of IR
radiation at certain wavelengths as the radiation passes through a volume of the gas. IR hydrocarbon gas detectors can be
classified into two types known as point detectors and open path detectors. For point detectors, the absorption path length is
fixed, and is determined by the instrument design to be a few inches. For the open path IR detectors, the absorption path
length can be as long as 130 meters as opposed to the few inches of the point detector. Instruments based on IR
technology use two wavelengths, one at the gas absorbing wavelength and the other at a wavelength not absorbed by the
gas; neither wavelength is absorbed by the other atmospheric constituents such as water vapor, nitrogen, oxygen, or carbon
dioxide.

Point combustible gas detectors are used to monitor the presence of flammable levels of hydrocarbon gas or vapor in
industrial environments such as refineries and chemical plants. If the concentration of the hydrocarbon gas or vapor
exceeds its Lower Explosive Level (LEL), the gas can be ignited and lead to an explosion. Point combustible gas detectors
are therefore located at several dozen sites to monitor for gas leaks. In the point IR detector, the concentration of
hydrocarbon gas is measured via the infrared absorption of an optical beam known as the active beam.

A second optical beam known as the reference follows the same optical path as the active but contains radiation at a
wavelength not absorbed by the gas. This second beam provides for the fail-to-safe operation of the point IR detector
 The two wavelengths are generated by two infrared sources which have the active and reference filters attached to them,
are pulsed alternately and guided by the optics onto a common optical path. A detector receives the two optical pulses after
they have traversed the optical absorption path. All the components of the instrument are mounted inside an explosion-proof
housing with infrared transparent optical windows.

The signals from the IR detector are converted into digital format and processed by a microprocessor with the help of a gas
concentration lookup table and a correction factor for ambient temperature variations. The instrument outputs a 4-20 mA
analog signal as well as a RS485 serial output.

Open Path IR Detectors In open path IR gas detectors, the concepts of the point IR detector are expanded to a gas
sampling path which can be as long as 130 meters as opposed to a few inches internal to the instrument.

Catalytic Detectors

Catalytic detectors are based upon the principle that when gas oxidizes it produces heat, and the sensor converts the
temperature change via a standard Wheatstone Bridge-type circuit to a sensor signal that is proportional to the gas
concentration. The sensor components consist of a pair of heating coils (reference and active). The active element is
embedded in a catalyst. The reaction takes place on the surface of the catalyst, with combustible gases reacting
exothermically with oxygen in the air to raise its temperature. This results in a change of resistance.

There is also a reference element providing an inert reference signal by remaining non-responsive to gas, thereby acting as
a stable baseline signal to compensate for environmental changes which would otherwise affect the sensor s temperature.

Infrared Detectors

The Infrared (IR) detection method is based upon the absorption of infrared radiation at specific wavelengths as it passes
through a volume of gas. Typically two infrared light sources and an infrared light detector measures the intensity of two
different wavelengths, one at the absorption wavelength and one outside the absorption wavelength. If a gas intervenes
between the source and the detector, the level of radiation falling on the detector is reduced. Gas concentration is
determined by comparing the relative values between the two wavelengths. This is a dual beam infrared detector.

Infrared gas detection is based upon the ability of some gases to absorb IR radiation. Many hydrocarbons absorb IR at
approximately 3.4 micrometers and in this region H2O and CO2 are relatively transparent. As mentioned earlier, there are
some hydrocarbons and other flammable gases that have poor or no response on a general purpose IR sensor. In addition
to aromatics and acetylene, hydrogen, ammonia and carbon monoxide also cannot be detected using IR technology with
general purpose sensors of 3.4 micron specifications

148. What is the pressure of Hyper mist pump?

About 40 to 100 kgf/cm2. FOGTEC pump systems operate at a pressure of 120 bar.

149. What type of pump used for water mist system?

It uses centrifugal pump type to maintain pressure of 120 kg/cm2
150. How much maximum time you should take to lower free fall life boat?

Every passenger ship lifeboat shall be so arranged that it can be boarded by its full complement of persons in not more
than 10 minutes from the time the instruction to board is given. Every cargo ship lifeboat shall be so arranged that it can
be rapidly boarded by its full complement of persons in not more than 3 minutes from the time the instruction to board is
given. The recovery time of a rescue boat shall not be greater than 5 minutes. Ready so that 2 crew members can
prepared for embarking and launching in less than 5 minutes
151. When should we change life boat fall?
The falls shall be turned end for end at intervals of not more than 30 months and be renewed when necessary, due to
deterioration of the falls or at intervals of not more than five years, whichever is the earlier
152. What does intrinciscally safe mean?

Intrinsic safety is a design technique applied to electrical equipment and wiring for hazardous locations. The technique is
based on limiting energy, electrical and thermal, to a level below that required to ignite a specific hazardous atmospheric
mixture.

Intrinsically safe equipment and wiring shall not be capable of releasing sufficient electrical or thermal energy under normal
or abnormal conditions to cause ignition of a flammable or combustible atmospheric mixture in its most easily ignitable
concentration.

153. What does Explosion proof mean?

Electrical apparatus (such as compressors, motors, and switches) designed to contain explosions or flames produced within
them (due to arcs, sparks, or flashes) without igniting the surrounding (external) flammable gases or vapors.

It is the enclosures ability to prevent an internal spark or explosion from causing a much larger blast.

154. What is the voltage and current of intrinsically safe equipments?

The basic design of an intrinsic safety barrier uses Zener Diodes to limit voltage, resistors to limit current and a fuse. 29
volts 400mA.

155. How you connect input to PLC? What is input interface between input card and input terminals?

Input devices such as switches, pushbuttons and sensors are wired to input module points and output devices such as
indicator lights, solenoids and motor starter coils are wired to output module points.

Many types of inputs and outputs can be connected to a PLC, and they can all be divided into two large groups analog
(discrete) and digital. Digital inputs and outputs are those that operate due to a discrete or binary change - on/off,
yes/no. Analog inputs and outputs change continuously over a variable range - pressure, temperature, potentiometer.

A digital input card is chosen to handle discrete devices such as push-buttons, micro-switches, selector switches,
photocells and proximity sensors which give a signal that has only two states. They are either on or off.

Analogue devices can also be input devices to PLCs, but due to how PLCs work, they needs a special card to translate
their infinitely variable signal (which could be voltage or current) into something the CPU can understand. Analogue
signals need to be, what's called digitised before the CPU can deal with them.

This simply means converting say a 0V to 10V DC signal that you might get from load cell or speed control
potentiometer into a value. For example if 10V DC equalled a value of 4000 then 2.5V DC would equal 1000 and 5V
2000.

An I/O interface is required whenever the I/O device is driven by the processor. The interface must have necessary
logic to interpret the device address generated by the processor. The processor can communicate with an I/O device
through the interface. If different data formats are being exchanged, the interface must be able to convert serial data to
parallel form and vice versa.

It would not be practical for every I/O device to be wired to the computer in a different way, so we must have a scheme
where the hardware connections are fixed, and yet the communication with the device is flexible, so that the widely
varying needs of devices can all be met.

An I/O device, from the viewpoint of the CPU, is a set of registers. The CPU communicates with and controls the I/O
device by reading and writing these registers. The registers in the I/O devices are connected to the CPU using buses.
We need an address bus to specify which I/O device register is to be accessed. We need control lines to specify what
 kind of access is desired (read, write, reset, etc.) Finally, we need a data bus to transfer the data between the CPU and
the device.

Whereas memory is just a large pool of slow, inexpensive registers for storing data, each I/O device register has a
unique purpose in controlling a specific I/O device. This does not affect how the CPU accesses them at the hardware
level, but it does affect how they are used by software.

Since I/O devices are of a very different nature than CPU circuits, there must be interface hardware to connect each
device to the CPU.

Input/Output modules (I/O modules) are interface cards where data is transferred to accomplish a function. They
receive input data from sensors. I/O modules comprise I/O logic (module between CPU and I/O module), data lines (for
data transfer between system bus and I/O module) and input/output interface (to control device operation).

Major functions of I/O modules are:

 Control and timing

 Processor communication
 Device communication
 Data buffering
 Error detection

Types of I/O modules are classified as:

 Analog I/O modules

 Digital I/O modules
 PCI I/O modules

Advantages

I/O modules are needed to overcome certain problems when:

there is a mismatch between CPU and input devices speed it is improper to use slow peripheral on a high speed
system bus

numerous I/O devices are to be connected to a single system bus but it is highly difficult as flexibility is reduced

the I/O data format differ from that of CPU format

I/O modules have data buffering capability to remove mismatch between speed of I/O devices and CPU, and in built
error detector mechanism for checking mechanical and communicational errors.

156. What is hazardous area?

Gases, vapours, mists and dusts can all form explosive atmospheres with air. Hazardous area classification is used to
identify places where, because of the potential for an explosive atmosphere, special precautions over sources of
ignition are needed to prevent fires and explosions.

a place where an explosive atmosphere may occur in quantities that require special precautions to protect the health
and safety of workers as hazardous. A place where an explosive atmosphere is not expected to occur in quantities that
require such special precautions is deemed to be non-hazardous. For these purposes ―special precautions‖ means
precautions to control potential ignition sources within a hazardous area, particularly in relation to the construction,
installation and use of equipment

157. How explosion meter, oxygen meter works?

The explosion meter, also called a combustible gas detector, operates on the principle of resistance proportional to
heat—a wire is heated, and a sample of the gas is introduced to the hot wire. Combustible gases burn in the presence
of the hot wire, thus increasing the resistance and disturbing a Wheatstone bridge, which gives the reading.

A flashback arrestor is installed in the device to avoid the explosimeter igniting the sample external to the device.
 Zirconia sensor

A planar zirconia sensor (schematic picture)

The zirconium dioxide, or zirconia, lambda sensor is based on a solid-state electrochemical fuel cell called the Nernst
cell. Its two electrodes provide an output voltage corresponding to the quantity of oxygen in the exhaust relative to that
in the atmosphere.

An output voltage of 0.2 V (200 mV) DC represents a "lean mixture" of fuel and oxygen, where the amount of oxygen
entering the cylinder is sufficient to fully oxidize the carbon monoxide (CO), produced in burning the air and fuel,
into carbon dioxide (CO2). An output voltage of 0.8 V (800 mV) DC represents a "rich mixture", one which is high in
unburned fuel and low in remaining oxygen.

Electrodes: The Clark-type electrode is the most used oxygen sensor for measuring oxygen dissolved in a liquid. The
basic principle is that there is a cathode and an anode submersed in an electrolyte. Oxygen enters the sensor through a
permeable membrane by diffusion, and is reduced at the cathode, creating a measurable electric current. There is a
linear relationship between the oxygen concentration and the electric current. With a two-point calibration (0% and
100% air saturation), it is possible to measure oxygen in the sample

A dissolved oxygen meter for laboratory use

.
158. How will you connect speed sensor to PLC in purifier starter? What is the interface between them?
Speed sensor that provides a 4-20 mA signal that is directly proportional to the rotational speed is generally used. Since
both the 4 mA and 20 mA calibration points are programmable the user can also if desired operate the system with the
4 mA offset from 0 RPM. They are connected either through Analog module or PCI MODULE (Peripheral Component
Interconnect)
159. What is PID controller? Explain in brief
PID controller consists of three terms, namely proportional, integral and derivative control. The combined operation of
these three controllers gives control strategy for process control. As a feedback controller, it delivers the control output
at desired levels. Before microprocessors were invented, PID control was implemented by the analog electronic
components. But today all PID controllers are processed by the microprocessors. Programmable logic controllers also
have the inbuilt PID controller instructions. Due to the flexibility and reliability of the PID controllers, these are used in
process control applications traditionally.

All control applications don‘t need all the three control elements. Combinations like PI and PD controls are very often
used in practical applications.

Proportional or P- controller gives output which is proportional to current error e (t). It compares desired or set point
with actual value or feedback process value. The resulting error is multiplied with proportional constant to get the
output. If the error value is zero, then this controller output is zero. It never reaches the steady state condition. It
provides stable operation but always maintains the steady state error.

P-controller

I-Controller : Due to limitation of p-controller where there always exists an offset between the process variable and set
point, I-controller is needed, which provides necessary action to eliminate the steady state error. It integrates the error
over a period of time until error value reaches to zero. It holds the value to final control device at which error becomes
zero

PI controller

D-Controller: I-controller doesn‘t have the capability to predict the future behavior of error. So it reacts normally once
the set point is changed. D-controller overcomes this problem by anticipating future behavior of the error. Its output
depends on rate of change of error with respect to time, multiplied by derivative constant. It gives the kick start for the
output thereby increasing system response.
 PID controller

PROPORTIONAL BAND: By measuring the position (PV), and subtracting it from the setpoint (SP), the error (e) is
found, and from it the controller calculates how much electric current to supply to the motor (MV). The obvious method
is proportional control: the motor current is set in proportion to the existing error. Proportional Band

With proportional band, the controller output is proportional to the error or a change in measurement (depending on the
controller).

(controller output) = (error)*100/(proportional band)

With a proportional controller offset (deviation from set-point) is present. Increasing the controller gain will make the
loop go unstable. Integral action was included in controllers to eliminate this offset.

INTEGRAL: With integral action, the controller output is proportional to the amount of time the error is present. Integral
action eliminates offset. , Integral action, using the accumulated position error in the past to detect whether the position
of the mechanical arm is settling out too low or too high and to set the electrical current in relation not only to the error
but also the time for which it has persisted.
Notice that the offset (deviation from set-point) in the time response plots is now gone. Integral action has eliminated
the offset. The response is somewhat oscillatory and can be stabilized some by adding derivative action. As we know in
an integral controller output is directly proportional to the integration of the error signal, writing this mathematically we
have,

Removing the sign of proportionality we have,

Where Ki is integral constant also known as controller gain. Integral controller is also known as reset controller.

DERIVATIVE: With derivative action, the controller output is proportional to the rate of change of the measurement or
error. The controller output is calculated by the rate of change of the measurement with time. This considers the rate of
change of error, supplying more or less electric current depending on how fast the error is approaching zero. in a
derivative controller output is directly proportional to the derivative of the error signal, writing this mathematically we
have,

Removing the sign of proportionality we have,

 Where Kd is proportional constant also known as controller gain. Derivative controller is also known as rate controller.

160. What is DP sensor? Explain in brief

This sensor measures the difference between two pressures, one connected to each side of the sensor. Differential
pressure sensors are used to measure many properties, such as pressure drops across oil filters or air filters, fluid
levels (by comparing the pressure above and below the liquid) or flow rates (by measuring the change in pressure
across a restriction).

Unlike Gauge or Absolute pressure transmitters, Differential Pressure Transmitters do not attempt to fix the reference.
Importantly an increase in differential can be the result of increasing one of the pressures or decreasing the other.

An increase in differential pressure would occur if P1 became smaller OR if P2 became larger. In a similare way, a
decrease in differential pressure would occur if P1 became larger OR if P2 became smaller. The differential pressure
measurement is not concerned whether the lower of the two pressures is at a vacuum, atmospheric or some other
pressure. It is only interested in the difference between the two pressures being measured.

It is often the basis of other measurements such as flow, level, density, viscosity and even temperature. The most
common being level and flow.

DP Flow rate measurement (Fig-5) is one of the most common applications for differential pressure transmitters. By
measuring the difference in fluid pressure while the fluid flows through a pipe it is possible to calculate the flow rate.

The output signal from and industrial DP transmitter is likely to be 4-20mA, but it may also include digital
communications such as HART, Profibusm Fieldbus, Modbus 485 RTU or one of many other communication
protocols. The objective being to provide an electrical signal for transmission to a remote process control
instrument.

The most common and useful industrial pressure measuring instrument is the differential pressure transmitter.
This equipment will sense the difference in pressure between two ports and produce an output signal with
reference to a calibrated pressure range
 . The industrial differential pressure transmitters are made of two
housings.Pressure sensing element is housed in the bottom half, and the electronics are housed at the top
half. It will have two pressure ports marked as ―High‖ and ―Low‖. It is not compulsory that the high port will be
always at high pressure and the low port always at low pressure. This labeling has its relation to the effect of
the port on the output signal.

Construction:

Direct Pressure sensing element (located in the lower housing): DP Transmitters are fitted with
diaphragm as the pressure sensing element. This diaphragm is a mechanical device. It is placed in between
the two pressure inlet ports. The diaphragm will be deflected by the applied pressure.

This deflection is converted into an electrical signal. This is normally done by the sensors. The commonly used
sensors are (a) Strain Gauge (b) Differential Capacitance (c) Vibrating wire. The sensor output is proportional
to the applied pressure.

Electronic Unit: The electrical signal generated at the lower chamber by the sensor is in the range of milli-volt
only. This signal is to be amplified to 0-5V or 0-10V range or is to be converted to 4-20mA for onward
transmission to a remote instrument.

2-Wire 4-20mA Current Transmitter: A DC output current is generated which is directly proportional to the
pressure range of the Differential Pressure Transmitter. The lower range is 4mA, and the upper range is
20mA. This controlled current output is not affected by load impedance variation and supply voltage
fluctuations. This 4-20mA output is superimposed with digital communications of BRAIN or HART FSK
protocol.

161. What is the difference between main engine and generator governor?

The one of the difference in generator governor is having speed drop setting. this setting is used to maintain the speed
when the genrator runs parralel and especially during the time of load sharing. a small fall in the rpm occurs. if this is
considered the genrator will run under the motoring effect and cause black out.to avoid this we have droop speed
setting in the gen governor.
 Generator governor- load dependent constant speed governor, m/e governor- speed dependent variable speed.

162. What is droop?

Droop control is a control strategy commonly applied to generators for primary frequency control (and occasionally voltaqe
control) to allow parallel generator operation (e.g. load sharing)

The fuel being admitted to the prime mover of the AC generator is being controlled in response to the difference between a
speed (frequency) reference and the actual speed (frequency) of the prime mover. The speed of generator connected to
infinite bus bar cannot change irrespective of load connected to it. The throttle control action is proportional to the difference
between the speed reference and actual speed. The frequency/speed reference is increased so that there is a difference
between reference speed and actual speed hence more fuel is allowed to pass. ''Operating Speed" is allowed to ''droop''
below the set speed for a while to increase active power o/p of generator.This is known as droop control.

Droop is the permanent variation in running rpm of an generator when moving from no load to 100
percent load. It is calculated in percentage by takin no loading rpm as refrence. Droop indicates the sensitivity of the
machine . droop persentage indicates the RPM required to increase the load from 0% to 100%

Droop is defined as a decrease in speed setting with increase in. Without some form of droop, it would be difficult to control
the speed of engine with load changes..

163. Why should you use droop control?

Suppose that a generator is paralleled with the utility grid. If it is considered as an infinite bus, the utility grid will determine
the generator frequency (speed) and voltage. When the speed (and frequency) setpoint is slightly lower, the speed
governor will fully close the fuel supply in attempt to lower the frequency. Is the setpoint slightly higher, the speed governor
will fully open the fuel supply. For the automatic voltage regulator and the reactive power something similar happens. To
solve these problems, we use droop controls
164. What is difference between Isochronous and Droop Speed Control

In the isochronous speed control mode the speed will return to the original speed setpoint after a load has been applied
or rejected. However in parallel operation this would cause instability as explained above.
 In the droop speed control mode the speed will decrease by a fixed percentage when the generator is loaded from no-load
to full load. This provides a stable working point for each load in case of parallel operation

165. How is it set?

The frequency (F) of a synchronous generator is directly proportional to its speed (N). When multiple synchronous
generators are connected in parallel to electrical grid, the frequency is fixed by the grid, since individual power output of
each generator will be small compared to the load on a large grid. Synchronous generators connected to the grid run at
various speeds but they all run at the same frequency because they differ in the number of poles (P).

A speed reference as percentage of actual speed is set in this mode. As the generator is loaded from no load to base
load, the actual speed of the prime mover tend to decrease. In order to increase the power output in this mode, the
prime mover speed reference is increased. Because the actual prime mover speed is fixed by the grid, this difference in
speed reference and actual speed of the prime mover is used to increase the flow of working fluid (fuel, steam, etc.) to
the prime mover, and hence power output is increased. The reverse will be true for decreasing power output. The prime
mover speed reference is always greater than actual speed of the prime mover. The actual speed of the prime mover is
allowed to "droop" or decrease with respect to the reference, and so the name.

For example, if the turbine is rated at 3000 rpm, and the machine speed reduces from 3000 rpm to 2880 rpm when it is
loaded from no load to base load, then the droop % is given by
 = (3000 – 2880) / 3000
= 4%
In this case, speed reference will be 104% and actual speed will be 100%. For every 1% change in the turbine
speed reference, the power output of the turbine will change by 25% of rated for a unit with a 4% droop setting.

Droop is therefore expressed as the percentage change in (design) speed required for 100% governor action

166. What is MCR and CSR?

Maximum continuous rating- max continuous output at which engine can be run safely and continuously, used for
calculation of strength of engine. CSR- continuous standard rating output at service speed for economical and efficient
operation corresponding to thermal and mechanical load. Maintenance point of view

167. What is PS? What is its relation to kilowatt?

PS german unit for horse power. 1 PS = 0.7355 KW =

0.986 hp

168. What is the difference between ―heat‖ and ―temperature‖?

heat is a form of energy. Temp is the degree of hotness or coolness of the body

169. What action will you take if Main Engine Piston is about to seize?

Increase cylinder lub and keep turning on turning gear.

170. What is the use of telegraph?

Communication device

171. State remedial measures of a Scavenge fire.

In small fire continue to run engine, cut off fuel to affected

unit, inc cyl oil, keep clear of scavenge door, check parameters, if large fires reduce speed stop engine,
auxiliary blower off, t\c inlet covered, fuel oil shut off, scavenge drains closed, cyl lube shut, introduce
fixed fire fighting, boundry cooling,when temp low enogh , enter ,clean, find outcause and rectify

172. How to start a purifier and stop it?

Fill operating water tank, open steam to heater, start motor, wait till
amperage drops to normal. manual starting...first run the px motor...then supply the bowl closing water for
10 sec...then supply seal water till u see it coming out of sludge port. then supply bowl opening water for 2
sec...then supply closing water again...supply supply water ....confirm no leakage from bowl....then start the
feed of oil

173. What are the action when you receive 2 hour notice for sailing.

Aux gen, lo/ fo/ purifier, propeller clearance, prelube, turning, stering
gear test, control test, t/c drains and main air start line drains shut, top up air bottle, blowers on auto, blow
through,

174. What are the M/E trips??

Over speed trip, LO low pressure trip, jacket cooling water low pressure trip, piston cooling ware low pressure trip, main
bearing oil low pressure trip, emergency manual trip

175. How will be the current of motor if discharge of centrifugal pump shut
As centrifugal pump is not positive displacement pump, there is no work done when the discharge side is closed. That‘s
why the current will be very low or tend to zero if discharge side is closed

176. What is air compressor safety device

Safety v/v at each stage, pressure gauge, thermometer, lube oil pressure trip (low and high) , final compressed air
temperature trip, motor overheat trip, oil filter

177. What is the function of the weak link of life raft

The weak link of the life raft is to make sure the life raft deploy properly in the emergency situation. As the ship sinks,
the water pressure will activate the hydrostatic release unit, cut the rope which secured the life raft to the deck, so the
 liferaft will float free. As the ship sinks, the liferaft painter line will be stretched and the liferaft starts to inflate. The weak
link will then break under strong stretch and survivors can board the floating liferaft.

178. What is earth fault

The majority of earth faults occur within electrical equipment due to an insulation failure or loose wire, which allows a
live conductor to come into contact with its earthed metal enclosure.
To protect against the dangers of electric shock and fire that may result from earth faults, the metal enclosures and the
other non-current carrying metal parts of electrical equipment must be earthed.

179. What is ISM code and its function

ISM (International Safety Management) Code means the International Management Code for the Safe operation of
ships and for Pollution Prevention. ISM Code aims to ensure safety at sea, prevention of human injury or loss of life,
and avoidance of damage to the environment, particularly the marine environment, and to the property. ISM
emphasises on the essential ingredient of Shipping Management that, every company should develop, implement and
maintain a Safety Management System (SMS) to the Code. But this does not mean that the code is trying to tell the
company how to go about running their business. It is up to the company how to go about implementing the codes

180. when voltage increases current decreases & vice versa why it is so?
for the same power.p=v*i.this is why as voltage increases current decreases
181. WHY IS THE POWER FACTOR NOT MORE THAN UNITY.
The definition of power factor is the cosine angle between
voltage and current.
but maximum cosine value is 1 and minimum is -1.
so power factor above 1 is impossible.
182. . Is it possible to increasing the real power generation by reducing the reactive power in power generation plants
Yes it is possible.When we bring down the reactive power, there will be some decrease in the load current of the machine.
Hence we get more allowance to get additional load on it which eventually results in more power output from the machine.
183. Difference between alternating and pulsating field?
Alternating means which attains positive and negative values through zero at regular intervals. puslating means which is having
positive and zero value.
184. Why it is important to earth neutral of 3 phase transformer?
it is done to make the neutral at zero potential coz if there is unbalance in potential the neutral may shift. when there is a
unbalance among the phases due to change in load circulating current introduced this fault caurrent can be earthed via neutral
185. How much current will be drawn by 3 phase, 415v, 50 hz, 20 ton central ac
one ton = 1250 watts
20 * 1250 = 25KW
P = 1.732 * V *I * Cos phi
25000=1.732*415*I*0.8
I=43.47Amps
186. How can we calculate the cable size??? plz give the formula !!!!
The basic equation is

P = 1.732VIcosA, where CosA can be taken as 0.85

V = 415 V
P = load
From this u have to find the current I and then using the table select a suitable cable and cable size which can withstand the
current.

187. I have a transformer whose primary operates at 230V, 50Hz for which the secondary voltage will be 12V, 50Hz. What will be the
secondary voltage if the primary is fed with 400V, 8KHZ Signal?
Assume that the transformer is typical iron-cored stepdown
transformer.
The actual output result will not be 20.86 volts calculated
with straight ratio and the transformer will likely be
destroyed due to the following factors:
1. Iron core has lower frequency response and that makes it
good only for 50-60Hz. 8,000Hz frequency will not get
transformed properly because the magnetic flux in iron core
will be saturated. The primary coil will receive
equivalent to direct current voltage therefore is likely to
 overheat.
2. The insulation of a 230v transformer will not withstand
400v therefore ground leakage is very likely.
3. The size of copper wire and number of winding suitable
for the current rating designed for 230v will draw more
power into the coil when connected to 400v, again,
overheated.
188. Advantages of Induction Motors
induction motors are cheap ,robust easy to maintain there operation is simple

189. Draw and explain working of SCR.

The SCR is a four-layer, three-junction and a three-terminal device and is shown in fig.a. The end P-region is the
anode, the end N-region is the cathode and the inner P-region is the gate. The anode to cathode is connected in series
with the load circuit. Essentially the device is a switch. Ideally it remains off (voltage blocking state), or appears to have
an infinite impedance until both the anode and gate terminals have suitable positive voltages with respect to the
cathode terminal. The thyristor then switches on and current flows and continues to conduct without further gate
signals. Ideally the thyristor has zero impedance in conduction state. For switching off or reverting to the blocking state,
there must be no gate signal and the anode current must be reduced to zero. Current can flow only in one direction.

In absence of external bias voltages, the majority carrier in each layer diffuses until there is a built-in voltage that
retards further diffusion. Some majority carriers have enough energy to cross the barrier caused by the retarding
electric field at each junction. These carriers then become minority carriers and can recombine with majority carriers.
Minority carriers in each layer can be accelerated across each junction by the fixed field, but because of absence of
external circuit in this case the sum of majority and minority carrier currents must be zero.

1. 1. Diode Model. The thyristor is similar to three diodes in series as there are three P-N junctions. Without gate bias,
there is always at least one reverse biased junction to prevent conduction irrespective of the polarity of an applied
voltage between anode and cathode. If the anode is made positive and the gate is also biased positively with respect
 to cathode, the P-layer at the gate is flooded by the electrons from the cathode and loses its identity as a P-layer.
Accordingly the thyristor becomes equivalent to a conducting diode.

2. Two Transistor Model. Imagine the SCR cut along the dotted line, as shown in fig. a. Then we can have two devices,
as shown in fig.b. These two devices can be recognized as two transistors. The upper left one is P-N-P transistor and
the lower right N-P-N type. Further it can be recognized that the base of the P-N-P transistor is joined to the collector of
the N-P-N transistor while the collector of P-N-P is joined to the base of N-P-N transistor, as illustrated in fig. c. The
gate terminal is brought out from the base of the N-P-N material. This construction has been conceived merely to
explain the working of SCR, otherwise in physical shape the SCR has four solid layers of P-N-P-N type only.
Now we can see that the two transistors are connected in such a manner that the collector of Q 1 is connected to the
base of Q2 i.e. the output collector current of Qt becomes the base current for Q2. In the similar way the collector of Q2 is
joined to the base of Q1 which shows that the output collector current of Q2 is fed to Q1 as input base current. These are
back to back connections of transistors in such a way that the output of one goes into as input of other transistor and
vice-versa. This gives net gain of loop circuit as β 1 x β2 where β1 and β2 are current gains of two transistors
respectively.
When the gate current is zero or the gate terminal is open, the only current in circulation is the leakage current, which is
very small in case of silicon device specially and the total current is a little higher than sum of individual leakage
currents. Under these conditions P-N-P-N device is said to be in its forward blocking or high impedance ‗off state. As
soon as a small amount of gate current is given to the base of transistor Q 2 by applying forward bias to its base-emitter
junction, it generates the collector current as β2 times the base current. This collector current of Q2 is fed as input base
current to Q: which is further multiplied by β1 times as ICl which forms input base current of Q2 and undergoes
further amplification. In this way both transistors feedback each other and the collector current of each goes on
multiplying. This process is very quick and soon both the transistors drive each other to saturation. Now the device is
said to be in.on-state. The current through the on-state SCR is controlled by external impedance only.
190. What is Bipolar junction transistor ?
The Bipolar junction transistor is an active device that works as a voltage-controlled current source and whose basic
action is control of current at one terminal by controlling voltage applied at other two terminals

191. Draw and explain Transistor characteristics

A BJT is a current operated transistor, which means that the current flowing between emitter and collector of a
transistor is much greater than that flowing between base and emitter. So a small base current is controlling the much

larger collector/emitter current. The ratio of the two currents, ICE / IBE is constant, provided that the collector emitter
voltage VCE is constant. Therefore, if the base current rises, so does collector current.

The BJT Input Characteristic

Input Characteristic.

The INPUT CHARACTERISTIC (Fig. above), a graph of base emitter current I BE against base emitter voltage VBE
(IBE/VBE) shows the input CONDUCTANCE of the transistor. As conductance I / V is the reciprocal of RESISTANCE
(V / I) this curve can be used to determine the input resistance of the transistor. The steepness of this particular curve
 when the VBE is above 1 volt shows that the input conductance is very high, and there is a large increase in current (in
practice, usually enough to destroy the transistor!) for a very small increase in V BE. Therefore the input RESISTANCE
must be low. Around 0.6 to 0.7 volts the graph curves, showing that the input resistance of a transistor varies, according
to the amount of base current flowing, and below about 0.5 volts base current ceases

The BJT Output Characteristic

Output Characteristic.

Fig. shows the OUTPUT CHARACTERISTIC whose slope gives the value of output conductance (and by implication
output resistance). The near horizontal parts of the graph lines show that a change in collector emitter voltage V CE has
almost no effect on collector current in this region, just the effect to be expected if the transistor output had a large value
resistor in series with it. Therefore the graph shows that the output resistance of the transistor is high.

192. How Nox and Sox is controlled onboard?

The two main pollutants from the ship‘s emission are Nitrogen oxides (NOx) and Sulphur oxides (SOx). These gases
have adverse effects on the ozone layer in the troposphere area of the earth‘s atmosphere which results in the green
house effect and global warming.

As the air mixture is 21 % Oxygen and 78% Nitrogen, nitrogen reacts with oxygen under certain engine operating
conditions to form Nitrogen oxides or NOx.

What Causes NOx in Marine Engines?

 High Cylinder Temperature and Pressure during combustion proce

 Heavy Load on the engine or engine unit.
 Improper air and fuel ratio for combustion.
 High Temperature of intake or scavenge air inside the cylinder.
 Over heated cylinder jacket due to poor heat transfer by jacket cooler.
 Jacket water temperature is on the higher side.
 Bad quality of fuel used for engine.

Annex VI of MARPOL deals with restricting the amount of harmful emissions from ships‘ main propulsion system and
provides guidelines for substances such as Sox and NOx.
The presence of NOx in marine engine‘s exhaust emission is due to high combustion temperature which reacts with
nitrogen in the air supplied for combustion.

High Scavenge Pressure and Compression Ratio: With high scavenge pressure and compression ratio, large
amount of air can be introduced inside the cylinder to lower combustion temperature and NOx emission.

Selective Catalytic reduction: In this method, low sulphur fuel oil is used and exhaust temperature is maintained
above 300 deg C. The exhaust gas is mixed by water solution of urea and then it is passed through catalytic reactor.
The only disadvantage of SCR is its expansive installation and operating cost.

Two Stage Turbocharger: ABB‘s latest two stage turbocharger can reduce the exhaust temperature in the intercoolers
and also the NOx content in the emitted exhaust

Exhaust Gas Re circulation (EGR): As the name suggests, some amount of engine exhaust gases are send back to
the scavenge space to mix up with the air to be supplied to cylinder for combustion. This reduces the oxygen content of
the air and hence reduces formation of NOx.
 Water Injection and Water emulsion: In this method, water is added to reduce the temperature of combustion leading
to low NOx emission. In water emulsion, fuel is blended with water and in water injection a separate fresh water injector
is mounted in the cylinder head which injects water.

The sulphur oxides emission is due to the presence of sulphur compound in the marine fuels used in marine engines on
board vessel. Better the grade, lower will be the sulphur content as it is removed by refining of the fuel.
The smoke containing sulphur oxides emitted by the combustion of marine fuel will further oxidise and in presence of
catalyst like NO2, will form sulphuric acid which is a major cause of acid rain.
The sulphur content of any oil used onboard ship must not exceed 3.5 %.

Following are the methods and technologies used to reduce sulphur emission from marine engines:

Use of Low sulphur fuel oil: It is expensive but most commonly used method to comply with Annex VI of MARPOL
while entering emission controlled Area or ECA.

Exhaust Gas Scrubber Technology: The exhaust gas from the engine is passed through the scrubber tower where a
liquid is showered over it. Fresh water blended with caustic soda (NaOH) is used as a scrubbing liquid which reduces
the SOx to 95%. The scrubbing water is then sent to a water treatment effluent emulsion breaking plant after which it
can be discharged overboard.

Cylinder Lubrication: Good quality cylinder lubrication along with efficient control systems such as Pulse or Alpha
lubrication systems can neutralise the sulphur in the fuel and reduce SOx emissions from the engine.

193. Explain catalytic convertor

Pollutant gases are made of harmful molecules, but those molecules are made from relatively harmless atoms. So if we
could find a way of splitting up the molecules after they leave the Main engine and before they get pumped out into the
air, pollution can be controlled. That's the job that a catalytic converter does.

A catalyst is simply a chemical that makes a chemical reaction go faster without itself changing in the process. In a
catalytic converter, the catalyst's job is to speed up the removal of pollution. The catalyst is made from platinum or a
similar, platinum-like metal such as palladium or rhodium.

Inside the converter, the gases flow through a dense honeycomb structure made from a ceramic and coated with the
catalysts. The honeycomb structure means the gases touch a bigger area of catalyst at once, so they are converted
more quickly and efficiently.

Typically, there are two different catalysts in a catalytic converter:

 One of them tackles nitrogen oxide pollution using a chemical reaction called reduction (removing oxygen). This
breaks up nitrogen oxides into nitrogen and oxygen gases (which are harmless, because they already exist in the
air around us).
 The other catalyst works by an opposite chemical process called oxidation (adding oxygen) and turns carbon
monoxide into carbon dioxide. Another oxidation reaction turns unburned hydrocarbons in the exhaust into carbon
dioxide and water.

In effect, three different chemical reactions are going on at the same time. That's why we talk about three-way
catalytic converters. (Some, less-effective converters carry out only the second two (oxidation) reactions, so
they're called two-way catalytic converters.) After the catalyst has done it's job, what emerges from the exhaust
is mostly nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water (in the form of steam).

It has two pipes coming out of it. One of them (the converter's "input") is connected to the engine and brings in hot,
polluted fumes from the engine's cylinders (where the fuel burns and produces power). The second pipe (the
converter's "output") is connected to the exhaust. As the gases from the engine fumes blow over the catalyst,
chemical reactions take place on its surface, breaking apart the pollutant gases and converting them into other
gases that are safe enough to blow harmlessly out into the air.

194. Draw VFD and explain

Variable frequency drives applied to AC motors are by far the most common. Their basic design consists of four elements:

 Rectifier: the working principle of rectifier is changing the incoming alternating current (AC) supply to direct current (DC).
Different designs are available and these are selected according to the performance required of the variable frequency drive.
The rectifier design will influence the extent to which electrical harmonics are induced on the incoming supply. It can also control
the direction of power flow.
 Intermediate circuit: the rectified DC supply is then conditioned in the intermediate circuit, normally by a combination of
inductors and capacitors. The majority of VFDs currently in the marketplace use a fixed-voltage DC link.
 Inverter: the inverter converts the rectified and conditioned DC back into an AC supply of variable frequency and voltage. This is
normally achieved by generating a high frequency pulse width modulated signal of variable frequency and effective voltage.
Semiconductor switches are used to create the output; different types are available, the most common being the Insulated Gate
Bipolar Transistor (IGBT).
 Control unit: the control unit controls the whole operation of the variable frequency drive; it monitors and controls the rectifier,
the intermediate circuit and the inverter to deliver the correct output in response to an external control signal.

Variable frequency drives are typically 92-98% efficient with 2-8% losses being due to additional heat dissipation caused by the
high-frequency electrical switching and the additional power required by the electronic components.

When operated from a constant frequency power source (typically 60Hz), AC induction motors are fixed speed devices.
A variable frequency drive controls the speed of an AC motor by varying the frequency supplied to the motor.
The drive also regulates the output voltage in proportion to the output frequency to provide a relatively constant ratio of voltage to
frequency (V/Hz), as required by the characteristics of the AC motor to produce adequate torque.
The first step in this process is to convert the AC supply voltage into DC by the use of a rectifier. DC power contains voltage
ripples which are smoothed using filter capacitors. This section of the VFD is often referred to as the DC link.
This DC voltage is then converted back into AC. This conversion is typically achieved through the use of power electronic
devices such as IGBT power transistors using a technique called Pulse Width Modulation (PWM). The output voltage is turned
on and off at a high frequency, with the duration of on-time, or width of the pulse, controlled to approximate a sinusoidal
waveform.
Older drive technologies like Current Source Inverters and Variable Voltage Controllers used SCRs or Thyristors as control
devices. These technologies have now been replaced by the PWM VFD.
The entire process is controlled by a microprocessor which monitors the:
incoming voltage supply,speed set-point,DC link voltage,output voltage and current to ensure operation of the motor within
established parameters.
 Circuit diagram for a Pulse Width Modulated Variable Frequency Drive

Graph comparing voltage to current for a Pulse Width Modulated Variable Frequency Drive
 Block diagram of a typical PWM VFD
195. What is speed of Purifier?

Rotational speeds vary according to designs and are of the order of 7,000 to 9,000 rpm.

196. What is differential relay and where is it fitted in main switch board?

The differential relay is one that operates when there is a difference between two or more similar electrical quantities
exceeds a predetermined value. In differential relay scheme circuit, there are two currents come from two parts of an
electrical power circuit. These two currents meet at a junction point where a relay coil is connected. According to
Kirchhoff Current Law, the resultant current flowing through the relay coil is nothing but summation of two currents,
coming from two different parts of the electrical power circuit. If the polarity and amplitude of both currents are so
adjusted that the phasor sum of these two currents, is zero at normal operating condition. Thereby there will be no
current flowing through the relay coil at normal operating conditions. But due to any abnormality in the power circuit, if
this balance is broken, that means the phasor sum of these two currents no longer remains zero and there will be non-
zero current flowing through the relay coil thereby relay being operated. DIFFERENTIAL REVERSE POWER RELAY

197. What are the protections for motor?

a) Short-circuit: disconnection in case of a short-circuit at the motor terminals or inside the motor windings.

b) Thermal overload: disconnection of motor in case of sustained operation with a torque exceeding the nominal

value. Overload is detected by measurement of excessive stator current or by using PTC probes.
c) Phase current imbalance: disconnection of the motor in case of high current imbalance, responsible for

increased power losses and overheating.

d) Phase current loss: disconnection of the motor if one phase current is zero, as this is revealing of cable or

connection breaking.
e) Over-current: alarm or disconnection of the motor in case of high phase current, revealing a shaft over-

torque.
f) Ground fault: disconnection in case of a fault between a motor terminal and ground.Even if the fault current is

limited, a fast action could avoid a complete destruction of the motor. It can be measured with the sum of the 3

phases if the accuracy required is not high (~ 30%). If high accuracy is required then it must be measured with

a ground CT (0.01A accuracy).

g) Long start (stall): disconnection in case of a starting time longer than normal (due to mechanical problem or

voltage sag) in order to avoid overheating of the motor.

h) Jam: disconnection in order to avoid overheating and mechanical stress if motor is blocked while running

because of congestion.
i) Undercurrent: alarm or disconnection of the motor in case a low current value is detected, revealing a no-load

condition (e.g.: pump drain, cavitation, broken shaft, …)

j) Phase current reversal: disconnection when a wrong phase current sequence is detected

k) Motor temperature (by sensors): alarm or disconnection in case of high temperature detected by probes.
 l) Rapid cycle lock-out: prevent connection and avoid overheating due to too frequent start-up.

m) Load shedding: disconnection of the motor when a voltage drop is detected, in order to reduce the supply

load and return to normal voltage.

n) Phase voltage imbalance: disconnection of the motor in case of high voltage imbalance, responsible for

increased power losses and overheating.

o) Phase voltage loss: disconnection of motor if one phase of the supply voltage is missing. This is necessary in

order to avoid a single-phase running of a three-phase motor, which results in a reduced torque, increased

stator current, and inability to start.

p) Phase voltage reversal: prevent the connection and avoid the reverse rotation of the motor in case of a

wrong cabling of phases to the motor terminals, which could happen during maintenance for example.
q) Under-voltage: prevent the connection of the motor or disconnection of the motor, as a reduced voltage could

not ensure a correct operation of the motor.

r) Over-voltage: prevent the connection of the motor or disconnection of the motor, as an increased voltage

could not ensure a correct operation of the motor.

198. How does a oil mist detector work‖

Accumulation of dense Mist in the crankcase of an engine can lead to fire or an explosion. It is important to

keep this oil mist under control and for that reason Oil Mist detectors are used. Oil Mist is created in

the crankcase when the lubricating oil is splashed by moving and rotating parts of the engine. This oil mist

reduces the flash point of the oil, allowing it to catch fire in presence of a hot spot. It is important that this

concentration of oil is kept under control and incase its presence is detected, the engine should be stopped or

the speed lowered. But how will an engine detect that the level of oil mist has increased in the crankcase? Oil

Mist detectors are used for this purpose. Crankcase of each cylinder is connected to the OMD, which

continuously checks the air sample from each cylinder.

It uses a photo electric cell to measure small increases in oil density. A motor driven fan continuously draws

sample of oil mist from the crank case through a measuring tube, In case a sample contains excessive mist

when compared to either clean air or to other crank case compartments, then an alarm will be sounded which

may result in an engine slowdown or shutdown.

The arrangement of OMD consist of two tubes of equal sizes. Both these tubes are places parallel to each

other. At one end of each tube, a photo-electric cell is fixed. Photo-electric cells generate an electric current

when light falls on their surface. The amount of electric current generated is directly proportional to the

intensity of light falling on it. The other ends of both the tubes are sealed by fitting lens that allow light to pass

through them.

Out of the two tubes, one is called the reference tube and the other is called the measuring tube. Measuring
tube has a connection for oil mist, which is extracted from the crankcase with the help of an electric extractor
fan. The reference tube is filled with clean air and is used as a reference for measuring the level of mist in the
measuring tube. Samples from each cylinder is monitored by using a rotating selector valve, which connects
each cylinder in sequence to the OMD.

Equal intensity of light is reflected on the photo-electric cells using a lamp. Light passes through the lenses
after being reflected by mirrors. If the concentration of Oil mist in the measuring tube rises, the intensity of light
reaching the photo-electric cell reduces. Now as both the tubes are electrically connected, reduction in the
generation of electric current will induce an electrical imbalance between the two cells, which will lead to
ringing of the alarm.

When Oil mist is detected, the rotating selector valve immediately stops to indicate the cylinder with high
concentration of mist.On indication of an alarm, the engine should be slowed down or stopped to prevent
damage or explosion.
199. Briefly explain working of 15ppm sensor.

It utilizes a photo sensor that measures the amount of light hitting it. When oil or sediment travels between the
light and the photo sensor, it reduces the amount of light hitting the sensor and causes the monitor to display a
PPM of contaminate in the water.

Most instruments of this type depend on transmission of a beam of light. A sample of water leaving the OWS is
drawn off automatically and passed through a detector cell. A low power light shines a beam through a window
in the side of the detector. This is transmitted through the water sample and picked up by a detector on the far
side of the cell. Pure water will only have a slight attenuating effect on the beam, whereas, oil will absorb the
light, reducing the intensity reaching the detector and causing the OCM to sound the alarm. But soot, rust and
other non-oil contaminants of the bilge water will also have their affect on the light beam. As each solid particle
acts as a minute mirror such material may cause false alarms.

The degree to which a beam of light will be scattered (diffused) while passing through liquid containing a
concentration of finely divided particles, such as soot or rust. Oil tends to absorb light rather than scatter it. By
judicious design, the difference between light scatter by rust/soot and absorption by oil can be accounted for
and the OCM can be relied on to react to oil but not to solid contaminants.

Normally the un-attenuated light beam will pass directly to the ‗transmit‘ photocell. Oil droplets in the water will
absorb light and diminish the beam reaching the transmit photocell, thus sounding the alarm. But when the
beam is scattered by solid particles rather than absorbed by oil, light will simultaneously reach the ‗occluded‘
or ‗scatter‘ photocell and be diminished at the transmit photocell. The alarm will not sound for this situation,
except when the software incorporated into the system detects the simultaneous presence of oil and solid
particles because of a mismatch between the degree to which light diminishes at the transmit cell and
increases at the scatter cell.

200. Draw and explain zener how it works?

When forward-biased, zener diodes behave much the same as standard rectifying diodes:
they have a forward voltage drop which follows the ―diode equation‖ and is about 0.7 volts.
In reverse-bias mode, they do not conduct until the applied voltage reaches or exceeds the socalled zener
voltage, at which point the diode is able to conduct substantial current, and in
doing so will try to limit the voltage dropped across it to that zener voltage point. So long as
the power dissipated by this reverse current does not exceed the diode‘s thermal limits, the
diode will not be harmed.
Zener diode is a P-N junction diode specially designed to operate in the reverse biased mode. It is acting as
normal diode while forward biasing. It has a particular voltage known as break down voltage, at which the
diode break downs while reverse biased. In the case of normal diodes the diode damages at the break down
voltage. But zener diode is specially designed to operate in the reverse breakdown region.
The basic principle of zener diode is the zener breakdown. When a diode is heavily doped, it‘s depletion
region will be narrow. When a high reverse voltage is applied across the junction, there will be very strong
electric field at the junction. And the electron hole pair generation takes place. Thus heavy current flows. This
is known as Zener break down.
So a zener diode, in a forward biased condition acts as a normal diode. In reverse biased mode, after the
break down of junction current through diode increases sharply. But the voltage across it remains constant
 In the forward bias direction, the zener diode behaves like an ordinary silicon diode.

 In the reverse bias direction, there is practically no reverse current flow until the breakdown voltage is reached. When this occurs

there is a sharp increase in reverse current.

 Varying amount of reverse current can pass through the diode without damaging it. The breakdown voltage or zener voltage (VZ)

across the diode remains relatively constant.

 The maximum reverse current is limited, however, by the wattage rating of the diode.

 Manufacturers rate zener diodes according to their Vz value and the maximum Power Dissipation (PD) at 25ºC. This gives an

indication of the maximum reverse current(IR)that a diode an safely conduct.

 For example, a 1W, 15V zener diode can conduct an IR of 0.066A(P=VI).

 Zener diodes are available in a wide range of breakdown voltages (VZ = 1.4V to 200V).

 Each VZ value is generally specified at minimum zener current(IZ).

 In the reverse direction, once this value has been reached, the VZ remains constant over a wide range of IZ.

201. What is zener break down?

When a diode is heavily doped, it‘s depletion region will be narrow. When a high reverse voltage is applied
across the junction, there will be very strong electric field at the junction. And the electron hole pair generation
takes place. Thus heavy current flows. This is known as Zener break down.
202. Purpose of zener in rectifier out put circuit.
 The circuit shown in figure above generates a DC voltage of 12-volts and ground across the two terminals

marked and . Your requirement however, is a 5 volt supply. We can step down this 12 voltage voltage
to a 5 voltage voltage in several ways. One method is to use a Zener diode to clamp the voltage at 5 volts. A
zener diode is a diode whose breakdown voltages has been designed to sit at a specific voltage level. The
circuit shown in figure below performs this function. The resistor in series with the diode is used to limit the
output current, typical values are on the order of 100-500 ohms.

Zener Diode Voltage Regulator

203. Zener barrier diagram and how it works

A Zener barrier is an associated equipment that is installed in the safe area. It is designed to limit the amount of energy
that could appear in an electrical circuit passes through the hazardous area despite the connection before the barrier. A
barrier consists of:

Resistors to limit the current

Zener diodes to limit the voltage

Fuses to protect the components

As any intrinsic safety equipment, the Zener barrier allows cables to short circuit to each other or to metallic parts
connected to ground without danger.
 Figure above illustrates an intrinsic safety equipment (A) connected to a circuit (C) through a Zener barrier (B) that
limits the current, the voltage and the power.

If a fault voltage occurs between the terminals (m) and (n), the Zener diode (protected by a fuse) limits the voltage that
risks appearing in the hazardous area and the resistor limits the current to an acceptable value.

If a fault voltage occurs between the terminal (m) or (n) and the ground, the voltage of the wires (e) and (f) relative to
ground will not exceed Vz provided that the Zener barrier is correctly grounded at (T1).

The Zener barrier permits wires (e) and (f) to be short circuited without danger. However, if point (n) accidentally
reaches a high potential relative to ground, a ground fault at (f) risks causing a dangerous spark.

To ensure the safety of such a wiring, point T1 must be connected to ground as illustrated in Fig.below. So, in the event
of a fault between (m) and (n), the voltage between (e) and (f) will not exceed Vz, the short circuit current between (e)
and (f) will not exceed Vz/R, and the ground fault current will be zero for point (f), and equal to Vz/R for point (e).

204. What is an Optocoupler?

An optoisolator (also known as optical coupler, optocoupler and opto-isolator) is a semiconductor device that uses a short
optical transmission path to transfer an electrical signal between circuits or elements of a circuit, while keeping them
electrically isolated from each other. These components are used in a wide variety of communications, control and
monitoring systems that use light to prevent electrical high voltage from affecting a lower power system receiving a signal.

In its simplest form, an optoisolator consists of a light-emitting diode (LED), IRED (infrared-emitting diode) or laser diode for
signal transmission and a photosensor (or phototransistor) for signal reception. Using an optocoupler, when an electrical
current is applied to the LED, infrared light is produced and passes through the material inside the optoisolator. The beam
travels across a transparent gap and is picked up by the receiver, which converts the modulated light or IR back into an
electrical signal. In the absence of light, the input and output circuits are electrically isolated from each other.

An optical coupler, also called opto-isolator, optocoupler, opto coupler, photocoupler or optical isolator, is a passive
optical component , an electronic device which is designed to transfer electrical signals by using light waves in order to
provide coupling with electrical isolation between its input and output.

The main purpose of an optocoupler is to prevent rapidly changing voltages or high voltages on one side of a circuit
from distorting transmissions or damaging components on the other side of the circuit. An optocoupler contains a light
source often near an LED which converts electrical input signal into light, a closed optical channel and a photosensor,
which detects incoming light and either modulates electric current flowing from an external power supply or generates
electric energy directly. The sensor can either be a photoresistor, a silicon-controlled rectifier, a photodiode, a
phototransistor or a triac.

Transformers isolate the primary input voltage from the secondary output voltage using electromagnetic coupling by
means of a magnetic flux circulating within the iron laminated core. But we can also provide electrical isolation between
an input source and an output load using just light by using a very common and valuable electronic component called
an Optocoupler.

An Optocoupler, also known as an Opto-isolator or Photo-coupler, is an electronic components that interconnects

two separate electrical circuits by means of a light sensitive optical interface.

The basic design of an Optocoupler consists of an LED that produces infra-red light and a semiconductor photo-
sensitive device that is used to detect the emitted infra-red beam. Both the LED and photo-sensitive device are
enclosed in a light-tight body or package with metal legs for the electrical connections as shown.

An optocoupler or opto-isolator consists of a light emitter, the LED and a light sensitive receiver which can be a single
photo-diode, photo-transistor, photo-resistor, photo-SCR, or a photo-TRIAC and the basic operation of an optocoupler
is very simple to understand.

Phototransistor Optocoupler

Assume a photo-transistor device as shown. Current from the source signal passes through the input LED which emits
an infra-red light whose intensity is proportional to the electrical signal.

This emitted light falls upon the base of the photo-transistor, causing it to switch-ON and conduct in a similar way to a
normal bipolar transistor.

The base connection of the photo-transistor can be left open for maximum sensitivity or connected to ground via a
suitable external resistor to control the switching sensitivity making it more stable.

When the current flowing through the LED is interrupted, the infra-red emitted light is cut-off, causing the photo-
transistor to cease conducting. The photo-transistor can be used to switch current in the output circuit.
205. Purifier Starting principle.

The starting current of an induction motor is six to eight times the full load current. When such a motor is used as a
prime mover for these high inertia machines, some special arrangements are to be incorporated. The instant load on
the electric motor at start-up is not as big as the separator is driven by the means of centrifugal clutch. At first, the motor
attains the rated full speed, making the torque on the friction pads increase. This causes the bowl to gradually achieve
its rated speed. Thus it is necessary to use a motor which can withstand the initial start-up overload.

The drive system is specially designed with gear and friction clutch arrangements.

The purifier bowl is mounted upon the vertical shaft. The most important point is that the bowl is driven on a keyless
taper secured by a lock nut on the vertical shaft. The vertical shaft is supported on the upper part by a bearing to take
up vibration in the horizontal direction. The lower end of the vertical shaft is supported by a ball bearing to take up the
vertical thrust.

Between the upper bearing and the lower bearing, a worm gear is located on the vertical shaft. This worm gear is
exactly in mesh with the worm wheel on the horizontal shaft. The horizontal shaft is supported on both the ends by
simple ball bearings just to support and allow rotation. One end of the horizontal shaft has the friction block, which also
acts as a brake drum.

Friction Clutch Arrangement

The purifier bowl and its associated bowl parts are really heavy when assembled together. Thus the inertia is huge enough
that the machine cannot be started in the same manner like other pumps or blowers. If such heavy machinery is started with
direct coupling, the motor will trip on overload or may cause severe damage to the worm gear arrangement due to sudden
load on the gears. In order to avoid such disaster, a friction clutch is mounted on the horizontal shaft. The motor shaft
has two or more friction pads mounted on it, which is contained within the friction drum. Thus as the motor starts, the friction
pads move out due to centrifugal force, thus causing a friction on the internal surface of the friction drum. This friction starts
to drive the horizontal shaft, gradually increasing its speed.

Friction Block and Pads

The friction block is circular in shape having a provision to accommodate the friction pads within it. Thus the motor shaft
having the friction pads on it fits inside the friction block. These friction pads have a curved surface and may vary from 2
to 6 in number with each having a special Ferodo lining. These pads, when rotating along with the motor shaft, fall out
and touch the inner surface of the friction drum. It actually does slip when rotating so that a gradual acceleration of the
horizontal shaft is achieved.

Functions of the Centrifugal Clutch

 Apart from the main function of driving the bowl (by friction and slipping), it also acts as a safety device. If there is any
mechanical obstruction on the bowl or on the drive assembly, the clutch will slip preventing very severe damage. Since
the purifier bowl assembly has very high inertia, it takes some time to stop. To stop the purifier immediately, there is a
brake assembly provided, which when engaged rubs against the outer surface of the friction block. Take care not to
start the purifier with its brake on.

Points to be observed during Operation:

1. The current (amperes) during starting remains elevated till the bowl speed attains the rated value.
2. When the separator discharges sludge, the speed of the separator drops momentarily and the amperage goes up
till the bowl attains the rated speed.
3. The amperage shows a slight increase during the discharge cycle, when sealing water is added to the bowl.
4. After sludge discharge, when the oil is fed into the bowl, the amperage slightly increases and reaches back normal
value.
The above points are evident from the graph which shows the current versus speed characteristics of the purifier and its
prime mover. The reason for the increase in current during discharge cycle is not clear, however it is assumed that as
the bowl separates into two different parts, there is a change in moment of inertia, which causes the mass of the
rotating bowl to increase and thus increase in current.

The motor starting circuit has a special arrangement for allowing the motor to consume high current only during
starting.The circuit has a special timer, which keeps the overload circuit out of action for the initial starting period. Once
the timer has reached its limit, the main circuit takes over the control with its overload protection. The starter circuit
remains isolated till the next starting sequence. The usual timer setting is for 10 minutes and it can be varied depending
upon the type of purifier.

206. Purifier operating principle

The main operating principle is separation of two liquids with different specific gravities. The dirty fuel or lube oil is fed
into the purifier bowl. The water and sludge particles with higher density move outward compared to the less dense oil.
Thus with the help of the gravity disc, the clean oil and water interface is maintained. The clean oil is taken out of the
bowl and pumped into the service tanks for consumption by the engine. The waste water and sludge get accumulated
and are discharged into the sludge tank for disposal. When the oil is at room temperature and kept in a tank, it is difficult
to separate oil and water. But as the temperature is increased, the settling of water takes place comparatively faster in
the still tank. But in a purifier, the separation efficiency is improved eight times more by the action of centrifugal
force and elevated temperature. However, the recent modern purifiers are capable of separating high density oils, care
to be taken not to exceed 100 degrees as water will start boiling and thus the interface will not exist and thus causes oil
overflow.

207. Water ingress system.

SOLAS XII REGULATION 12

Bulk carriers must be fitted with an approved water ingress detection system, such as BulkSafe, to comply with the
SOLAS XII Regulation 12.
In each cargo hold, giving audible and visual alarms, one when the water level above the inner bottom in any hold
reaches a height of 0.5m and another at a height not less than 15% of the depth of the cargo hold but not more than 2.0
m. On bulk carriers to which regulation 9.2 applies, only the latter alarm need be installed. The water level detectors
shall be fitted in the aft end of the cargo holds. For cargo holds which are used for water ballast, an alarm overriding
device may be installed. The visual alarms shall clearly discriminate between the two different level detectors in each
hold.

system consists of a main alarm panel with cabinet and level sensor operated by detecting the conductivity in a liquid
when present. The sensor and the alarm panel are connected together with intrinsically safe barrier. When the
presence of water has reached the detecting points (ref. rule requirement) of level sensor installed at the preset level in
the cargo hold or other space, the electric signals which are activated on the level switches are transmitted to the main
alarm panel. At the same time, the audible and visual alarms are activated on the main alarm panel. The system has
also all necessary functions like loop monitoring of sensors and power failure.There is also overriding device for which
the alarm can be deactivated or reactivated for the detector installed in the tank and holds used for carriage of water
ballast according to the SOLAS regulation XIII 12.1. The main power and standby power are prepared in such way that
if the main power fails, the standby power will make sure that the alarm panel will be supplied continuously. An alarm
will be given under such condition.

Sensors can be float type, Water sensor type, Reed Type, Capacitance type.
208. Types of Explosive zones.
 Zone 0: Area where an explosive mixture of gas and air is present continuously or for a long period of time

Zone 1: Area where where an explosive mixture of gas and air is likely to occur for a short time during Operation

Zone 2: Area where an explosive mixture of gas and air is is not likely to occur, and if it occurs it will only exist for a
very short time due to an abnormal condition.

209. What are the different types of Explosion protection???

Zone

Ex d Flameproof (Explosion proof) Enclosure 1, 2

Ex e Increased Safety 1, 2

Ex ia Intrinsically Safe 0, 1, 2

Ex ib Intrinsically Safe 1, 2

Ex o Oil Immersion 2

Ex p Pressurized Apparatus (Purged Apparatus) 1, 2

Ex q Powder Filling (Sand Filling) 2

Ex m Encapsulation 1, 2

Ex n or Ex
Non incentive or/and normally no sparking circuits 2
N

Flameproof (Explosion proof) Enclosure

All electrical circuits are enclosed in a house strong enough to contain any explosion or fire that may take
place on the inside.

Increased Safety

Electrical circuits incorporates special measures to reduce the probability of excessive temperatures and the
occurrence of arcs and sparks in normal service.

Intrinsically Safety

The electrical energy available in circuits and equipment, is limited to a level to low to ignite the most easily
ignitable mixtures in a hazardous area.

Intrinsically safe barriers, as Zener, are installed in the circuit to limit current and voltage in the hazardous
areas to avoid sparks or hot spots under fault conditions.

210. What is Floating Neutral?

 If the Star Point of Unbalanced Load is not joined to the Star Point of its Power Source (Distribution Transformer or
Generator) then Phase voltage do not remain same across each phase but its vary according to the Unbalanced of the
load.
 As the Potential of such an isolated Star Point or Neutral Point is always changing and not fixed so it‘s called Floating
Neutral.

211. Effects of Neutral floating.

 A floating neutral can be a serious problem. Suppose we have a breaker panel with 3 Pole Breaker for Three Phase
and Bus bar for Neutral for 3 Phase inputs and a neutral (Here we have not used 4 Pole Breaker). The voltage between
each Phase is 440 and the voltage between each Phase and the neutral is 230. We have single breakers feeding loads
that require 230Volts. These 230Volt loads have one line fed by the breaker and a neutral.
Now suppose the Neutral gets loose or oxidized or somehow disconnected in the panel or maybe even out where the
power comes from. The 440Volt loads will be unaffected however the 230V loads can be in serious trouble. With this
Floating neutral condition you will discover that one of the two lines will go from 230Volts up to 340 or 350 and the other
line will go down to 110 or 120 volts. Half of your 230Volt equipment will go up in high due to overvoltage and the other
half will not function due to a low voltage condition. So, be careful with floating neutrals.

212. How to detect Floating Neutral Condition??

Condition (1): Neutral is not Floating

Whether the Neutral is grounded the voltages remain the same 240V between phase & Neutral and 440V between
phases. The Neutral is not Floating.

Condition (2): Neutral is Floating

All Appliances are connected: If the Neutral wire for a circuit becomes disconnected from the household‘s main
power supply panel while the Phase wire for the circuit still remains connected to the panel and the circuit has
appliances plugged into the socket outlets. In that situation, if you put a voltage Tester with a neon lamp onto the
Neutral wire it will glow just as if it was Live, because it is being fed with a very small current coming from the Phase
supply via the plugged-in appliance(s) to the Neutral wire.
All Appliances are Disconnected: If you unplug all appliances, lights and whatever else may be connected to the
circuit, the Neutral will no longer seem to be Live because there is no longer any path from it to the Phase supply.
Phase to Phase Voltage: The meter indicates 440V AC. (No any Effect on 3 Phase Load)
Phase to Neutral Voltage: The meter indicates 110V AC to 330V AC.
Neutral to Ground Voltage: The meter indicates 110V.
Phase to Ground Voltage: The meter indicates 120V.
This is because the neutral is ―floats‖ above ground potential (110V + 120V = 230VAC). As a result the output is
isolated from system ground and the full output of 230V is referenced between line and neutral with no ground
connection.

213. How to Eliminate Neutral Floating??

a) Use ELCB, RCBO or 4 Pole Circuit Breaker as income in the 3ph supply system since if neutral opens it will trip the
complete supply without damaging to the system.

b) Using Voltage Stabilizer:

 Whenever neutral fails in three phase system, the connected loads will get connected between phases owing to
floating neutral. Hence depending on load resistance across these phases, the voltage keeps varying between 230V
to 400V.A suitable servo stabilizer with wide input voltage range with high & low cutoff may help in protecting the
equipments.
c) Good workmanship & Maintenance :
 Give higher Priority on Maintenance of LV network . Tight or apply adequate Torque for tightening of Neutral
conductor in LV system

214. Dangers of Floating Neutral.

A Floating Neutral (Disconnected Neutral) fault condition is VERY UNSAFE because If Appliance is not working and
someone who does not know about the Neutral Floating could easily touch the Neutral wire to find out why appliances
does not work when they are plugged into a circuit and get a bad shock. Single phase Appliances are design to work its
normal Phase Voltage when they get Line Voltage Appliances may Damage .Disconnected Neutral fault is a very
unsafe condition and should be corrected at the earliest possible by troubleshooting of the exact wires to check and
then connect properly.
215. Motor overhaul procedure.

In motor construction, the air gap between the stator and the rotor is very less. If there is a little deviation in the shaft
rotation, the rotor will slowly start touching the stator (In this condition, you can feel much more vibrations in the motor),
which can lead to short circuit and burning of windings.
The scheduled maintenance of motor should be carried out in such a way that the motor does not reach this stage.
Thus, proper overhauling of the motor is of great importance.

i. Checking the insulation of the stator winding

ii. Marking of both motor housing and connection wires
iii. Check direction of rotation
iv. Take out the motor from the place and keep it in a horizontal position
v. Open the motor from any one side
vi. If it‘s a small motor take out the rotor
vii. If it‘s a huge motor keep the rotor inside and open the bearings using a good bearing puller
viii. Clean the shaft on both ends and heat the new bearing up to 70 deg. C to avoid tight insertion of the bearing in
the shaft. Do this for both sides.
ix. Wait for 20 minutes, let the bearing cool down, and after that insert the bearing housing cover from one side.
x. Box back the motor

Box up to be done as per the markings

Take up the rotor with one side cover (If bearing locking nut were there in one of the sides, prefer that to be the
first to assemble) and push it inside the stator
Lock with one side nut bolts, slowly insert the other side cover, do the hammering slowly by wooden hammer,
insert and lock with nut and bolts, and the rotor will now apply load on the bearing
Gently tighten the bolts using opposite tightening method. Insert the cooling fan and protection cover, and
once again verify the tightness of the bolts
xi. Fix in place the motor as per the marking and give the connections accordingly.
xii. Try out and check the Amperage. Compare with rated amperage and before overhaul amperage.
xiii. Note: Check the direction of rotation after overhauling. If it indicates opposite direction, it means the
connection done is wrong.

216. What is air gap in a motor? Why should it be small?

AIRGAP OF MOTOR : THE GAP BETWEEN THE STATOR CORE AND ROTOR CORE
The airgap of motor below 2h.p. is 0.5mm. The air gap should be low as possible so the magnetic flux will cut more and
it will give allowance for bearing play so that rotor will not touch stator.

The air gap should be small to minimise reluctance. But air gap length also affects the stability of the machine. More
the air gap length, more is the stability. So an optimum amount of air gap is to be maintained to ensure stability.

217. How does airgap effect a machine? why air gap in synchronous machines is large with respect to induction ones?

The main source of low power factor at which induction motor operates is the air gap between the stator and the rotor.
This air gap increases the reluctance between the stator and the rotor, which enhances the magnetizing current for
production of the given mutual flux between the stator and the rotor for a given supply voltage. Therefore, the no-load
current of an induction motor becomes 30 to 40 per cent of full-load current, which is remarkably larger than the no-load
current of a transformer for a given kVA rating. The air gap in an induction motor should be made small so that the
induction motor gives better performance.

Being self-excited a synchronous machine is a source of reactive power. This reactive power is a function of the air-gap
and a larger air-gap or low synchronous / magnetising reactance allows the synchronous machine to deliver and absorb
higher levels of reactive power. This is very important as reactive power is required for establishing and maintaining the
EM fields in a power system network and voltage stability.

The IM machine on the other hand is self excited and must draw its reactive power from the supply. To limit the reactive
power drawn from the supply one requires a high magnetising reactance which is achieved by using a smaller air-gap.

Thus the SM has a large air gap for low magnetising reactance to allow higher reactive and active power to be delivered
whereas the IM has a small air gap for higher magnetising reactance to limit the reactive power drawn.
 Simply put. The magnetizing field in an IM has to jump the gap, the bigger the gap, the harder it is to get the flux
induced in the rotor cage, and the more current it takes to get the job done i.e. loss of efficiency. Synchronous
machines have a separately excited field in the rotor, it is fed through other means and does not have to jump across
the air gap, so the gap is bigger to facilitate manufacturing.

In Induction Motors the EMF induced in the Rotor Winding is Mutually Induced EMF.Induction Motor can be treated as a
Rotating Transformer as the E.M.F induced in the rotor is by Mutual Induction.If the air gap is more the Leakage Flux
will be more and the Mutual Flux gets reduced,reducing Rotor Emf,Current and Torque.

In Synchronous Machine the Magnetic Flux is set up separately by Field Winding.The Emf induced in the Stator
Armature Winding is not by Mutual Induction.It is a Dynamically induced Emf due to relative motion between the Field
and Conductors.

218. What are the causes of motor failure

There are six main causes of electric motor failures:

 Over-Current - In different operating conditions, electrical devices will sometimes start to draw more
current than their overall capacity. This unpredictable event will happen very suddenly
and will greatly impact the motor.
 Low Resistance - Most motor failures occur due to low insulation resistance.
 Over heating - Excessive heat in motors can cause a number of performance problems. Overheating
causes the motorwinding insulation to deteriorate quickly. For every
ten centigrade rise in temperature, the insulation life is cut in half. It has been
concluded that more than 55% of the insulating failures are caused by over heating.
 Dirt - Dirt is one of the major sources that cause damage to the electric motors. It can damage the
motor by blocking the cooling fan which causes its temperature to raise. It can also affect
the insulating value of the winding insulation if it settles on the motor windings.
 Moisture - It greatly contributes in the corrosion of the motor shafts, bearings and rotors. This can lead to an
insulation failure also. The motor inventory should be kept dry all the time.
 Vibration - There are a number of possible causes of vibration, such as misalignment ofthe motor.
Corrosion of parts can also cause the motor to vibrate. The alignment of the motor should be
checked to eliminate this issue.

219. What is EPIRB.. explain everything you know about it. why two frequencies given. Where do each of these frequencies interact
with.How does the signal reach the search parties

An Emergency Position Indicating RadioBeacon (EPIRB) is a device used in the maritime sector to alert rescue
authorites and indicate the location and the identity of a vessel in distress. When activated, the EPIRB
starts to emit a signal that is detectable by the COSPAS-SARSAT satellite network anywhere in the world.
The network passes the alert to the nearest rescue authority.
Most EPIRB's operate in the 406 MHz band. There are two types of 406 MHz EPIRB's. A category I EPIRB
is automatically activated when a ship sinks. These category I EPIRBs are housed in a special bracket
equiped with a hydrostatic release.
This mechanism releases the EPIRB at a water depth of 1 - 3 meter. The EPIRB floats to the surface
and starts transmitting.
Category I EPIRBS can also be activated manually. A category II EPIRB has to be activated manually.
 The satellite system can detect the location of the EPIRB with an accuracy of 2 to 5 km.
There are also 406 MHz EPIRB's available with an integrated GPS navigation receiver. These EPIRB's
will transmit an Accurate location.
Both categories of the 406 MHz EPIRBs also transmit a low-power (0,25 W) "homing" signal on
121.5 MHz. This allows rescue forces to home in on a beacon as soon as they are in the vicinity.
An 406 MHz EPIRB transmits a 5 W signal once every 50 seconds. The message is either a "short
message" of 122-bit in length or a "long message" of 144-bit in length. Both messages contain a 49 bit
field for identification and position information. The MMSI number is used to identify the vessel in distress.
The 406 MHz channel is 170 kHz wide with a center frequency at 406.05 MHz.
A 406 MHz EPIRB is part of the requirements for GMDSS.

220. Working and application of thermistor.

A thermistor is a temperature sensor constructed of semiconductor material that exhibits a large modification
in resistance
in proportion to a tiny low modification in temperature. Thermistors are inexpensive, rugged, reliable and
responds quickly. Because of these qualities thermistors are used to measure simple temperature
measurements, but not for high temperatures. Thermistor is easy to use, cheap, durable and respond
predictably to a change in temperature. Thermistors are mostly used in digital thermometers and home
appliances such as refrigerator, ovens, and so on.

221. How much is minimum ohms required to run a motor??

IR Value in MΩ

IR (Min) = kV+1 For most windings made before about 1970, all field windings,
and others not described below
IR (Min) = 100 MΩ For most dc armature and ac windings built after about 1970
(form wound coils)
IR (Min) = 5 MΩ For most machines with random -wound stator coils and form-
wound coils rated below 1kV
Example-1: For 11KV, Three Phase Motor.

IR Value =11+1=12 MΩ but as per IEEE43 It should be 100 MΩ

Example-2: For 415V,Three Phase Motor

IR Value =0.415+1=1.41 MΩ but as per IEEE43 It should be 5 MΩ.

222. Advantage of auto transformer starter over star delta.

Problems with the star/delta starter.

1. If there is insufficient torque in star to accelerate the motor to full speed, the motor will be changed to delta at
part speed and this wil result in close to Locked Rotor Current. (no advantage over Direct On Line)
2. The transition from star to Delta is open transition. That is, the motor is effectively disconnected from the supply
during the transition. During this open time, the rotor with it's magnetic field is spinning inside the stator and
acting as a generator. When you reconnect the motor in delta, the supply voltage is effectively added to the
generated voltage causing a very high transient current and torque. This transient is many times higher than DOL
and is the cause of much electrical and mechanical damage.
Auto-transformer starters and normally provided with 3 voltage tappings. The ability to select the tapping which
best meets the starting torque requirement of the motor will ensure the minimum possible electrical and
mechanical stress.
Auto-transformer starters and normally provided with 3 voltage tappings. The ability to select the tapping which
best meets the starting torque requirement of the crusher will ensure the minimum possible electrical and
mechanical stress.
223. What is IEEE?

IEEE stands for the "Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers". The Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (IEEE) is a professional association. Its objectives are the educational and technical
advancement of electrical and electronic engineering, telecommunications, computer engineering and allied
disciplines. The IEEE Standards Association is in charge of the standardization activities of the IEEE.

224. What is surging.causes of surging

A power surge, or transient voltage, is an increase in voltage significantly above the designated level in a
flow of electricity. A power surge is basically a spike in your home's electrical current. The spike is very brief,
usually lasting less than a thousandth of a second, but it can still cause damage to appliances. High-power
electrical devices can create a spike in the electrical current when they're switched on or when their motors
kick on. Refrigerators, air conditioners and even space heaters can cause a power surge strong enough to
damage electrical systems.
Lightning strikes are another common cause of power surges. A lightning strike doesn't have to occur near
you to cause a spike in your electrical current. In fact, striking close to a power line can cause a spike.
Power surges occur when the flow of electricity is interrupted, then started again, or when something sends
electricity flowing back into the system.
Surges can range from five or ten volts when you turn on your hair dryer to thousands of volts if lightning
strikes a transformer.
Power surges, (sometimes called voltage surges) are fast, temporary spikes in voltage within an electrical
circuit. These surges, which are unavoidable, occur when something boosts the electrical charge at some
point in the circuit. This boost can increase the current flowing into or within your home‘s electrical wiring,
affecting lighting, appliances and other electrical equipment in your home or business. Power surges are
caused by many different factors, including lightning, faulty or damaged electric wiring or the sudden turning on
and off of a high power electrical device like an air conditioner or large electric motor.
The effect of a voltage spike is to produce a corresponding increase in current (current spike). However
some voltage spikes may be created by current sources. Voltage would increase as necessary so that a constant
current will flow. Current from a discharging inductor is one example. Fast, short duration electrical transients
(overvoltages) in the electric potential of a circuit are typically caused by:
Lightning strikes
Power outages
Tripped circuit breakers
Short circuits
Power transitions in other large equipment on the same power line
Malfunctions caused by the power company
Electromagnetic pulses (EMP) with electromagnetic energy distributed typically up to the 100 kHz and 1 MHz
frequency range.
Inductive spikes
225. Difference between surge and spike.

Various factors can cause a brief increase in voltage. When the increase lasts three nanoseconds (billionths of
a second) or more, it's called a surge. When it only lasts for one or two nanoseconds, it's called a spike.If the
surge or spike is high enough, it can inflict some heavy damage on a machine.

226. How Surge Protectors Work ??

A standard surge protector passes the electrical current along from the outlet to a number of electrical and
electronic devices plugged into the power strip. If the voltage from the outlet surges or spikes -- rises above
the accepted level -- the surge protector diverts the extra electricity into the outlet's grounding wire.

In the most common type of surge protector, a component called a metal oxide varistor, or MOV, diverts the
extra voltage. As you can see in the diagram below, an MOV forms a connection between the hot power line
and the grounding line.

An MOV has three parts: a piece of metal oxide material in the middle, joined to the power and grounding line
by two semiconductors.

These semiconductors have a variable resistance that is dependent on voltage. When voltage is below a
certain level, the electrons in the semiconductors flow in such a way as to create a very high resistance. When
the voltage exceeds that level, the electrons behave differently, creating a much lower resistance. When the
voltage is correct, an MOV does nothing. When voltage is too high, an MOV can conduct a lot of current to
eliminate the extra voltage.

As soon as the extra current is diverted into the MOV and to ground, the voltage in the hot line returns to a
normal level, so the MOV's resistance shoots up again. In this way, the MOV only diverts the surge current,
while allowing the standard current to continue powering whatever machines are connected to the surge
protector. Metaphorically speaking, the MOV acts as a pressure-sensitive valve that only opens when there is
too much pressure.
 Gas Discharge Arrestors-Another common surge protection device is a gas
discharge arrestor, or gas tube. These tubes do the same job as an MOV -- they divert the extra current from
the hot line to the ground line. They do this by using an inert gas as the conductor between the two lines.

When the voltage is at a certain level, the makeup of the gas is such that it is a poor conductor. When the
voltage surges above that level, the electrical power is strong enough to ionize the gas, making it a very
effective conductor. It passes on current to the ground line until the voltage reaches normal levels, and then
becomes a poor conductor again.

As a backup, some surge protectors also have a built-in fuse. A fuse is a resistor that can easily conduct
current as long as the current is below a certain level. If the current increases above the acceptable level, the
heat caused by the resistance burns the fuse, thereby cutting off the circuit. If the MOV doesn't stop the power
surge, the extra current will burn the fuse, saving the connected machine. This fuse only works once, as it is
destroyed in the process.

227. How are surge protectors rated?

Surge Protector Rated as follows:

Clamping voltage - This tells you what voltage will cause the MOVs to conduct electricity to the ground line. A
lower clamping voltage indicates better protection. There are three levels of protection in the UL rating -- 330 V,
400 V and 500 V. Generally, a clamping voltage more than 400 V is too high.

Energy absorption/dissipation - This rating, given in joules, tells you how much energy the surge protector can
absorb before it fails. A higher number indicates greater protection. Normal least rated at 200 to 400 joules.
Good protection is 600 joules or more.

Response time - Surge protectors don't kick in immediately; there is a very slight delay as they respond to the
power surge. A longer response time tells you that your computer (or other equipment) will be exposed to the
surge for a greater amount of time. good surge protector is that responds in less than one nanosecond.

228. What is wattage? Also, what is a kilowatt-hour or a kWh?

Wattage measures the work being done at a given point and time. It‘s found by multiplying voltage by the
current flowing in a wire. For example, a 100-watt light bulb burning for 10 hours uses 1,000 wattage hours —
or one kilowatt hours (kWh). A kwh equals 1,000 watts used for one hour.
Kilowatt-hours are the measurements that Oncor uses to determine your electric consumption.

229. What is the difference between fuse and OCR??...

An Over current relay is a switch which will energise when there is current beyond the acceptable current
rating and through its changed over contacts will trip the supply to the device and may also initiate an alarm. A
fuse is a fault protection device. If a short circuit develops, large currents will flow, and the fuse link will melt,
causing the circuit to open.

An Overcurrent relay can be reset after the fault is cleared. But the fuse has to be replaced

There are also protective relays, which are devices that sense fault, or other undesireable conditions, and are
used to send trip commands to breakers
230. What is the difference between overcurrent protection and overload protection?
Overcurrent protection is protection against excessive currents or current beyond the acceptable current rating of
equipment. It generally operates instantly. Short circuit is a type of overcurrent. Magnetic circuit breakers, fuses and
overcurrent relays are commonly used to provide overcurrent protection.

Overload protection is a protection against a running overcurrent that would cause overheating of the protected
equipment. Hence, an overload is also type of overcurrent. Overload protection typically operates on an inverse time
curve where the tripping time becomes less as the current increases. Overload relays as well as ―slow blow‖ fuses are
commonly used to provide overload protection.

Some devices provide both overcurrent and overload protection. A thermal-magnetic circuit breaker has both thermal
(overload) and magnetic (overcurrent) elements. Both elements operate as described above.
231. What is difference between relays and contactors?

Relays and Contactors are electromagnetic switches. The only difference is that relays are usually used for low
voltage applications while contactors are used for higher voltage application. Contactors usually have
Overload protection. Relays are use as electromagnetic switches to control
certain parts of a circuit (low voltage application), Contactors can be used for example, to start motors or
a number of motors that require a higher voltage in order for the motor or motors start working.

232. What is difference between relays and Circuit Breakers?

Relay senses a condition (voltage, flow, amperage, pressure, level, etc.) and allows component actuations
(circuit breaker operation, pump start, valve open/close, etc.) to occur. It is part of the control circuitry for a
component.

A circuit breaker interrupts electrical current flow by opening a circuit under load conditions.

Both can provide component protection, but only a circuit breaker directly protects components. A relay could
actuate a circuit breaker to provide protection.
233. There are certain losses in Electricity.Iron loss,copper loss?what is these losses called?

Iron losses are known as Constant or Fixed Losses. There are two types of losses occur in three phase
induction motor. These losses are, Constant or fixed losses,Variable losses. Constant losses are those losses
which are considered to remain constant over normal working range of induction motor.

Iron or core losses: Iron or core losses are further divided into hysteresis and eddy current losses.
Eddy current losses are minimized by using lamination. Hysteresis losses are minimized by using high
grade silicon steel . The core losses depend upon frequency. The frequency of stator is always supply
frequency, f and the frequency of rotor is slip times the supply frequency, (sf) which is always less
than the stator frequency. Hence the rotor core loss is very small as compared to stator core loss and
is usually neglected in running conditions.

Mechanical losses and Brush friction losses: Mechanical losses occur at the bearing and brush
friction loss occurs in wound rotor induction motor. These losses occurs with the change in speed. In
three phase induction motor the speed usually remains constant. hence these losses almost remains
constant.

Copper losses occur due to current flowing in stator and rotor windings. As the load changes, the
current flowing in rotor and stator winding also changes and hence these losses also changes.
Therefore these losses are called variable losses.

234. Explain in brief the power cycle in an Induction motor.

The main function of induction motor is to convert an electrical power into mechanical power. During this
conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy the power flows through different stages.

Three phase supply is given to the stator of three phase induction motor.
Let, Pin = Electrical power supplied to the stator of three phase induction motor,
VL = line voltage supplied to the stator of three phase induction motor,
IL = line current,
Cosφ = power factor of the three phase induction motor.
Electrical power input to the stator, Pin = √3VLILcosφ
A part of this power input is used to supply stator losses which are stator iron loss and stator copper loss. The
remaining power i.e ( input electrical power – stator losses ) are supplied to rotor as rotor input.
So, rotor input P2 = Pin – stator losses (stator copper loss and stator iron loss).
 Now, the rotor has to convert this rotor input into mechanical energy but this complete input cannot be
converted into mechanical output as it has to supply rotor losses. As explained earlier the rotor losses are of
two types rotor iron loss and rotor copper loss. Since the iron loss depends upon the rotor frequency, which is
very small when the rotor rotates, so it is usually neglected. So, the rotor has only rotor copper loss. Therefore
the rotor input has to supply these rotor copper losses. After supplying the rotor copper losses, the remaining
part of Rotor input, P2 is converted into mechanical power, Pm.
Let Pc be the rotor copper loss,
I2 be the rotor current under running condition,
R2 is the rotor resistance,
Pm is the gross mechanical power developed.
2
Pc = 3I2 R2
Pm = P2 – Pc
Now this mechanical power developed is given to the load by the shaft but there occur some mechanical
losses like friction and windage losses. So, the gross mechanical power developed has to supplied these
losses. Therefore the net output power developed at the shaft, which is finally given to the load is Pout.
Pout = Pm – Mechanical losses (friction and windage losses).

235. What is residual magnetism? How will you start generator if no residual magnetism and no power onboard?

Remanence or remanent magnetization or residual magnetism is the magnetization left behind in a ferromagnetic
material (such as iron) after an external magnetic field is removed.
In Dc machine poles (core) materials are made of special magnetic material that will hold some amount of magnetic
effect even after supply is cut off.It is the special property of a DC machine .If we make reverse instantaneous
power supply thro battery it will lose.Again after feeding right polarity it will hold its residual magnetism.Because of
this residual magnetism set up in the field poles, no need of external excitation, it will work as a self excitation
Generator. FIELD WINDING IS A FORM OF INDUCTANCE SO IT STORES SOME ENERGY IN IT AND THIS ENERGY
IS USED FOR VOLTAGE BUILD UP IN IT
Residual Magnetism is needed for instant voltage build up. If there is no residual magnetism, then we may connect
machine with a battery for just 5-7 seconds to develop some magnetism.

236. DCP fire extinguisher.

Dry chemical fire extinguishers are by far the most common fire extinguishers in the home. They can handle all three
types of fires you would find in a kitchen or workshop: combustible solids like wood or paper, combustible liquids
like gasoline or grease, and electrical fires. The idea behind a dry chemical fire extinguisher is to blanket the fuel with
an inert solid (similar to dirt or sand). A dry chemical extinguisher sprays a very fine powder of sodium
bicarbonate (NaHCO3, baking soda), potassium bicarbonate(KHCO3, nearly identical to baking soda),
or monoammonium phosphate ((NH4)H2PO4). These solidscoat the fuel and smother the fire.

Dry chemical powder fire extinguishers are effective because they interrupt the oxidation process.
Dry-chemical powder is stored under pressure inside the extinguisher cylinder and is expelled when the hand-held
trigger valve is depressed.
237. Class of fires

The six classes of fire are:

238. Class A - Ordinary Combustibles (such as paper, wood, plastics, etc.)

239. Class B - Flammable and combustible liquids
240. Class C - Flammable gases
241. Class D - Combustible metals
242. Class E - Electrically energised equipment
243. Class F - Cooking oils and fats

244. What is Trickle charging?

Trickle charging means charging a fully charged battery under no-load at a rate equal to its self-discharge rate,
thus enabling the battery to remain at its fully charged level.

245. What is float charging?

Float voltage is the voltage at which a battery is maintained after being fully charged to maintain that capacity
by compensating for self-discharge of the battery. Float charging is used where the battery rarely gets
discharged. Float charging of a battery involves charging the battery at a reduced voltage. This reduced
voltage reduces the possibility of overcharging.The Float charger ensures that the battery is always in the
charged condition and is therefore considered "floating". The Float charger starts by applying a charging
volltage to the battery. As the battery gets charged, its charging current reduces gradually. The float charger
senses the reduction in charging current and reduces the charging voltage. If the battery gets drained, the float
charger will again increase the charging voltage and process continues. Float chargers can be connected
indefinitely to the batteries

A battery under continuous float voltage charging is said to be under float-charging. For lead-acid batteries
under no-load float charging(such as in SLI batteries), trickle charging is achieved naturally at the end-of-
charge, when the lead-acid battery takes in a trickle charge to keep itself fully charged.

246. What is Boost charging?

Boost charging involves a high current for short period of time to charge the battery. It is generally if the
battery has been discharged heavily. Boost charge enables the quick charging of depleted batteries.

For instance, a two volt lead acid battery which has been discharged will initially be boost charged with a
charging voltage of around 2.35-2.4 volts. However, as the battery voltage rises, the charger will switch over to
the float charge mode with a float voltage of 2.25 volts.

247. Different cutouts on cranes.

JIBCRANES:

A general cargo crane has three separate drives that provide the principal movements:

i. A hoisting motor for lifting the load.

ii. A luffing motor for raising or lowering the jib.
iii. A slewing motor for rotating the crane.
a. Hoisting
 b. The up and down movement of the hook from the jib by means of running wire; the
hoisting limit switch works when:
iv. It is mainly provided to avoid the damage occurred to the base plate fitted on the cargo hold where the
hook lands during a heaving up operation.
v. The hoisting motor will stop at a distance before the hook block touches the base plate.
a. Luffing
b. In the movement of jib up and down, the limit switch works when:
vi. Jib is limited to certain angle of inclination.
vii. The movement of the jib above this limit is prevented by luffing limit switch; this stops the motor and
luffing drum.

Slewing
o
The rotation movement of whole crane through 360 with all the machinery; the aft most crane near to the
o
accommodation can be rotated only 180 and it is provided with a slewing limit switch.
Slack wire limit
If the operators by mistake pay more wire rope, which is lowering, the wire gets slack. Then the slack wire limit
switches activate and stop the hoisting operation by stopping the hoisting motor and drum.
This is to avoid winding of the wire irregular in the drum while heaving and causes damage to the drum,
supporting brackets, and other parts related to the hoisting. The operator‘s cab is designed to provide a
clear view of all cargo working areas so that the crane operator can function alone.

Gantry Cranes
Gantry provide a base for the ship board cranes, each gantry is of open steel construction consist of an
horizontal span supported on two pair of legs. The gantry straddles the ship‘s holds each pair of legs resting
on rails switch run the length of the deck to port and starboard at the hatch cover.
The gantry is equipped with extension (wings or arm) of each end of the horizontal span. When extended
telescopically, they project over the ship sides. A top platform with cabins beneath is situated on a bogie and
able to travel the length of the span. Also on the platform is the winch with four hoist wires on grooved barrels,
each driven by an electrical motor. The wires have at their lower ends the lifting head which can be used with a
grab or hook. The operator can raise or lower the load and can rotate it in some cases through 360degrees. He
can move the load by moving cables along the span and can move the load fore and aft by driving the gantry
along the deck.
Movements along the deck are driven by rack and pinion gears, but the weight of the system is borne on the
railway-type wheel running on rail tracks. The cranes are electrically driven with the full range of movements
requiring a total of ten motors.
Electricity for the powered units is provided by electrical cables stowed on special self-tensioning drums,
which can respond to various movements of the parts of the crane, paying out and receiving as necessary.
The extending and retracting of the gantry arms is achieved hydraulically when jacking up the cranes before
they are parked or stowed for sea. Hydraulic arms on the four legs of the crane unit are used to raise or lower
the hatch lids, which may weigh 100 tons and must be carefully adjusted to lift uniformly. When raised a hatch
lid is moved to another hatch and stacked on the top of the lid for that hatch.

Manual Safety Stops and Cut Outs

Bells and flashing lights are fitted to each leg to give a warning when they are moved. They should be
regularly checked. Manual safety stop buttons are provided and situated at the base of each leg of
the crane and also on the top platform and in the driver's cab.

They are clearly marked and are to be used in an emergency such as someone getting in the way of the
moving crane. They have the effect of instantly cutting of the power from the hoisting and crane moving motor.
Once the safe stop buttons have been operated, they must be reset by ship's staff in the main power house of
the crane.

Safety cut outs are fitted at the ends of the gantry arms to stop the cab and hoisting gear from going off the
end of the arm. Cutoffs are fitted for the fires and aftmost movement of the gantry crane to stop the crane from
collision with one other or with the accommodation housing or the end line buffer pads.

ENGINE ROOM CRANE

Following safety trips or cut outs and parts to be periodically inspected.

Lifting limit switch

Lowering limit switch
Forward travel limit switch
 Aft travel limit switch
Port travel limit switch
Starboard travel limit switch
Limit switches to be tested electrically and mechanically.
Most neglected part is the gearing. Make sure that lube oil present in sufficient quantity inside the gear system. Drain
completely and replace whole lube oil once in a year.
Brakes are very important as cranes are concerned. In case of power failure, brakes prevent load on hook to come
down because of gravity. Brake lining to be checked for wear and must be within allowable limit.

248. Safety Features of Engine Room Crane:

The most important safety feature of the crane is the electromagnetic fail safe brakes which do not allow the
crane to fall with the load even when there is failure of power. For this:
– Normally centrifugal brakes are used which are fitted inside the rotating drum.
– The brake pads are always in applied state and pushed by magnetic springs when not in operation or
when there is a power failure.

– As the crane is operated or the power is supplied, the spring gets pulled inward or
compressed due to the electromagnetic effect of the current. This allows the crane to be
operated normally.

Emergency stop is provided in the remote so that the operator can stop the crane at any time.
1. The motor is fitted with distance limit switch in both transverse and longitudinal direction so
that the travel of the trolley and hence crane should not overshoot the rack‘s end.
ii. Mechanical stoppers are provided for both directions in case the electrical distance
limit trips fail.
iii. The up and down travel of the hook is also attaches with automatic stopper to avoid overloading of the
motor.
iv. The motor is fitted with thermal protection trip. When the motor windings get overheated, trip will
activate saving the motor winding from burning.
v. Load limit switch is also fitted which will trip the motor if the load to be lifted is above the crane
capacity.

249. How is the crane‘shoist motor protected from freefalling during lowering a weight?
The controlled lowering of weight by the hoist motor of a crane is done by a breaking mechanism called ―mechanical load break‖.
In the lowering direction, this mechanism allows the hoist winch drum to rotate according to the rotation of the motor only. This
mechanism working in such a way that the load will be always squeezing the break due to the freefalling tendency and the motor
will be continuously releasing the break while rotates in the lowering direction as a result the load will go down in a controlled
way. This mechanism will not allow the driven force to drive the driving force while lowering the weight.Basically the motor is
using to release the mechanical load break while lowering. During hoisting a load, this mechanism allows the drum to rotate
against the weight freely which is made possible by a pawl and ratchet in the mechanism

. A ratchet mechanism is based on a wheel that has teeth cut out of it and a pawl that follows as
the wheel turns. Studying the diagram you will see that as the ratchet wheel turns and the pawl falls into the 'dip' between the
teeth. The ratchet wheel can only turn in one direction - in this case anticlockwise.

250. How is Load testing of Engine Room crane carried out and at what periodicity?
It is recommended to carry out load test once in 5 years.Crane is tested to 1.5 times safe working load (SWL), by
using a dynamo-meter. One end of the dynamo-meter is connected to the crane hook while other end is connected
to a strong point in ship structure.
251. What are the Main Engine Slow down conditions?

Main engine will come to dead slow RPM i.e. below 30 RPM as the slow down protection gets activated.
Following are different slow down situation for main engine:
 Lube oil pressure falls to 1.5 bar
Cam shaft pressure falls below 2 bar
There is no flow of piston cooling media (water or oil)
Oil mist detector or Main bearing sensors has been activated
Lube oil temperature at the inlet of engine is high > 60 deg C
Piston Cooling temperature is high > 75 deg C
Jacket water Temperature is high > 88 deg c
Engine cylinder exhaust temperature is high > 450 deg C
Scavenge air temperature is high > 65 deg C
Thrust block temperature is high > 75 deg C
Low flow of Cylinder lube oil
Control air pressure is low < 5.5 bar

252. What are the Main Engine Shut down conditions?

Different Shut down Situations:

1. Lube oil inlet pressure to engine is very low <1 bar
2. Cam shaft Lube oil pressure is very low < 1.5 bar
3. Very high Jacket cooling water temperature >95 deg C
4. Low Jacket cooling water pressure < 0.1 bar
5. No flow of Cylinder lube oil
6. Thrust block temperature very high > 90 deg C
7. Lube oil inlet pressure for turbocharger is low < 0.8 bar
8. Over speed of the engine which activates shut down at 107 % of Max. continuous rating MCR

253. What are the Main Engine starting interlocks.

Different Starting Interlocks are:

Turning gear engage interlock
Auxiliary blower off interlock
Lube oil and other important pump not running interlock
254. ―Point Count‖ and the Size of the PLC System

The number of I/O devices used within a control system is called its ―point count‖. Analog device data requires
significantly more manipulation and processing than digital device data. Digital and analog point counts are
typically considered separately. The total number of digital and analog points is used to give an indication of
the size of a control system.

255. IP rating of electrical appliances (Ingress protection)

Ingress protection has two digits. The first digit is the size of the object that can fall into the machinery. The
second digit is the protection against the liquid.

0 = Unprotected 0 = Unprotected

1 = 50mm 1 = Dripping water

2 = 12mm 2 = Dripping when tilted 15‘ either side

3 = 2.5mm 3 = Spraying water

4 = 1mm 4 = Splashing water

5 = Dust protected 5 = Jet sprays

6 = Dust tight 6 = heavy seas

7 = Immersion

8= Submersion

'Immersion' means placing something in a liquid, while submersion

means sending something under the surface of a liquid. Immersion has
the sense of being visible and exposed; submersion has the sense of
being hidden. We'd say a swimmer immerses himself in the ocean
because he never goes too far under the surface and his head is usually
above water; We'd say a scuba diver submerges herself because she is
 diving down into the deeps.

Rule of thumb... If you look at something in the water and can see it
easily, say that it is immersed; if you look at something in the water and it
is hard to make out under the surface, or completely hidden, say it is
submerged.

256. What are the different insulation classes

Insulation Rating Insulation Class Average Winding Temperature Rise Hot Spot Temperature Rise
Maximum Winding Temperature
Class 105 A 55 degree C 65 degree C 105 degree C
Class 150 or 130 B 80 degree C 110 degree C 150 degree C
Class 180 F 115 degree C 145 degree C 180 degree C
Class 200 N 130 degree C 160 degree C 200 degree C
Class 220 H 150 degree C 180 degree C 220 degree C

Note: the maximum acceptable temperature rise based on an average ambient of 30 degree C during any 24 hour period and a
maximum ambient of 40 degree C at any time.
Insulation systems are rated by standard NEMA (National Electrical Manufacturers Association) classifications according to
maximum allowable operating temperatures:

Temperature Tolerance Class Maximum Operation

Temperature Allowed Allowable Temperature Rise at full load
1)
1.0 service factor motor Allowable
Temperature Rise
1)
1.15 service factor motor
o o o o
C F C C

A 105 221 60 70

B 130 266 80 90

F 155 311 105 115

H 180 356 125 -

o o
T( F) = [T( C)](9/5) + 32

o
Allowable temperature rises are based upon a reference ambient temperature of 40 C. Operation temperature is
reference temperature + allowable temperature rise + allowance for "hot spot" winding.

257. Faraday‘s law of Electromagnetic Induction

Faraday's First Law:

Any change in the magnetic field of a coil of wire will cause an emf to be induced in the coil. This emf induced
is called induced emf and if the conductor circuit is closed, the current will also circulate through the circuit
and this current is called induced current.

Faraday's Second Law:

It states that the magnitude of emf induced in the coil is equal to the rate of change of flux that linkages with
the coil. The flux linkage of the coil is the product of number of turns in the coil and flux associated with the
coil.

258. Lenz‘s law : If an induced current flows, its direction is always such that it will oppose the change which produced it.
Lenz's law states that when an emf is generated by a change in magnetic flux according to Faraday's Law, the polarity
of the induced emf is such, that it produces an current that's magnetic field opposes the change which produces it. It
uses Newton‘s third law of motion.

The Lenz law can be summarized as under:

 • If the magnetic flux Ф linking a coil increases, the direction of current in the coil will be such that it will
oppose the increase in flux and hence the induced current will produce its flux in a direction as shown below

(using right hand thumb rule).

259. Distinction between the Fleming‘s right-hand and left-hand rule

Fleming's left-hand rule is used for electric motors, while Fleming's right-hand rule is used for
electric generators.

Different hands need to be used for motors and generators because of the differences between cause and
effect.
In an electric motor, the electric current and magnetic field exist (which are the causes), and they lead to the
force that creates the motion (which is the effect), and so the left hand rule is used. In an electric generator, the
motion and magnetic field exist (causes), and they lead to the creation of the electric current (effect), and so
the right hand rule is used.

Left Hand rule: When current flows in a wire, and an external magnetic field is applied across that flow, the wire
experiences a force perpendicular both to that field and to the direction of the current flow. A left hand can be
held, as shown in the illustration, so as to represent three mutually orthogonal axes on the thumb, first finger
and middle finger.

The Thumb represents the direction of the Thrust on the conductor / Motion of the Conductor

The Fore finger represents the direction of the magnetic Field

The Centre finger represents the direction of the Current

Fleming's right-hand rule (for generators) shows the direction of induced current when a conductor moves in
a magnetic field. It can be used to determine the direction of current in a generator's windings.

The right hand is held with the thumb, first finger and second finger mutually perpendicular to each other (at
right angles), as shown in the diagram.

The thumb is pointed in the direction of motion of the conductor.

The first finger is pointed in the direction of the magnetic field. (north to south)

Then the second finger represents the direction of the induced or generated current (the direction of the induced
current will be the direction of conventional current; from positive to negative).
 260. Conduction, Ionization and Electrolysis.
Conduction: Electricity passing through solids
Ionization: Electricity passing through Gas
Electrolysis: Electricity passing through Liquids
261. Construction Of RTD Temperature sensor
Consists of a platinum wire over mica strip and encapsulated in ceramic enclosure for mechanical rigidity.The
resistance of the coil changes with temperature in linear relation. The change in resistance is indicative of
temperature
262. What is the normal life of a bearing?

263. Working Principle of Thermal Relay

A thermal relay works depending upon the above mentioned property of metals. The basic working principle of thermal relay is
that, when a bimetallic strip is heated up by a heating coil carrying over current of the system, it bends and makes normally
open contacts.

Construction of Thermal Relay

The construction of thermal relay is quite simple. As shown in the figure above the bimetallic strip has two metals – metal A and
metal B. Metal A has lower coefficient of expansion and metal – B has higher coefficient of expansion. One heating coil is
wound on the bimetallic strip. When over current flows through the heating coil, it heats up the bimetallic strip.

Due to the heat generated by the coil, both of the metals are expanded. But expansion of metal B is more than expansion of
metal A. Due to this dissimilar expansion the bimetallic strip will bend towards metal A as shown in the figure below.
264. Critical field resistance of a generator.
The critical field resistance is defined as the maximum field circuit resistance (for a given speed) with which the
shunt generator would excite. The shunt generator will build up voltage only if field circuit resistance is less
than critical field resistance.
265. What is the difference between X-band and S-band radars?
Simply put, they differ in frequency. The majority of marine radars operate on X-band.
X-band is widely used because of the ability to utilize smaller antennas that fit on most boats and to provide
better target resolution. S-band radars are often used for specialized applications, such as seeing through
heavy weather or precipitation and for long-range bird detection. S-band antennas are larger. The smallest
Furuno S-band antenna is 9 feet long and can be as long as 12 feet.

There are two basic marine radar frequencies commonly known as "X" and "S" band. "X" band, because of its
higher frequency, 10 GHz provides a higher resolution and a crisper image while "S" band, at 3 GHz is less
affected by rain and fog. In most situations larger vessels are fitted with both "X" and "S" band radars while
smaller vessels will only have an "X" band. Vessels in excess of 300 gross tons are required to have two
operational marine radars and one of those radars must be an ARPA. An industry misconception is that if a
vessel is fitted with three radars that all three must be operational. This is not true; only two radars, one being
an ARPA, are required.
S band is lower frequency than X band. It therefore has a larger antenna and is normally only found on larger
vessels.

X band has better resolution and can see smaller targets due to its higher frequency, but is also more
susceptible to clutter from weather than S band. Large vessels usually carry both to give them the best
visibility under differing conditions.

266. What is the working principle of Radar?

The electronic principle on which radar operates is very similar to the principle of sound-wave reflection. If
you shout in the direction of a sound-reflecting object (like a rocky canyon or cave), you will hear an echo. If
you know the speed of sound in air, you can then estimate the distance and general direction of the object.
The time required for an echo to return can be roughly converted to distance if the speed of sound is known.

Radar uses electromagnetic energy pulses in much the same way. The radio-frequency (rf) energy is
transmitted to and reflected from the reflecting object. A small portion of the reflected energy returns to the
radar set. This returned energy is called an ECHO, just as it is in sound terminology. Radar sets use the echo
to determine the direction and distance of the reflecting object.
The term RADAR is an acronym made up of the words: RAdio (Aim) Detecting And Ranging

267. Explain LRIT.

 The Long-Range Identification and Tracking (LRIT) system provides for the global identification and tracking of
ships utilizing the INMARSAT Satellite system.

SOLAS Chapter V, Regulation 19-1, on Long Range Identification and Tracking (LRIT) refers to the requirement
that vessels automatically transmit their identity, position and date/time of the position at 6-hourly intervals.
The LRIT system was designed in such a way as to limit direct cost to shipping or search and rescue services
with Member States bearing the cost of the system.
The Regulation applies to ships engaged on international voyages, including all passenger ships, cargo ships
of 300 gross tonnes and above and Mobile Offshore Drill Units.
Compliance to LRIT is important. Some governments have indicated that they may not grant entry to their
waters, or to their ports, for vessels that do not comply with LRIT.

There are two aspects to LRIT:

1. The ‗reporting‘ aspect where vessels of 300 gross tonnage and above engaged on international voyages
report their identity and position, with a date/time stamp, every six hours (four times per day).
2. The ‗receiving‘ aspect where coastal states can purchase reports when vessels are within 1,000 nautical
miles, or port states can purchase reports when vessels seeking entry to a port at a pre-determined distance or
time from that port (up to 96 hour pre-entry).
Put in simplistic terms, LRIT is a collection and distribution system for basic information on vessels, and
applies to the following ships engaged on international voyages:

1. all passenger ships including high speed craft

2. cargo ships, including high speed craft of 300 gross tonnage and above
3. mobile offshore drilling units.

The obligations of ships to transmit LRIT information and the rights and obligations of SOLAS Contracting
Governments and of Search and rescue services to receive LRIT information are established in regulation V/19-
1 of the 1974 SOLAS Convention.

The LRIT system consists of the shipborne LRIT information transmitting equipment, the Communication
Service Provider(s), the Application Service Provider(s), the LRIT Data Centre(s), including any related Vessel
Monitoring System(s), the LRIT Data Distribution Plan and the International LRIT Data Exchange. Certain
aspects of the performance of the LRIT system are reviewed or audited by the LRIT Coordinator acting on
behalf of all SOLAS Contracting Governments.

LRIT information is provided to Contracting Governments to the 1974 SOLAS Convention and Search and
rescue services entitled to receive the information, upon request, through a system of National, Regional and
Cooperative LRIT Data Centres using the International LRIT Data Exchange.
 Each Administration should provide to the LRIT Data Centre it has selected, a list of the ships entitled to fly its
flag, which are required to transmit LRIT information, together with other salient details and should update,
without undue delay, such lists as and when changes occur. Ships should only transmit the LRIT information
to the LRIT Data Centre selected by their Administration.

268. Explain AIS.

The Automatic Identification System (AIS) is an automatic tracking system used on ships and by vessel traffic
services (VTS) for identifying and locating vessels by electronically exchanging data with other nearby
ships, AIS base stations, and satellites.
The Automatic Identification System (AIS) is an automatic tracking system used on ships and by vessel traffic
services (VTS) for identifying and locating vessels by electronically exchanging data with other nearby
ships, AIS base stations, and satellites. Information provided by AIS equipment, such as unique
identification, position, course, and speed, can be displayed on a screen or an ECDIS. AIS is intended to assist a
vessel's watchstanding officers and allowmaritime authorities to track and monitor vessel movements. AIS
integrates a standardized VHF transceiver with a positioning system such as a GPS or LORAN-C receiver, with
other electronic navigation sensors, such as a gyrocompass or rate of turn indicator. Vessels fitted with AIS
transceivers can be tracked by AIS base stations located along coast lines or, when out of range of terrestrial
networks, through a growing number of satellites that are fitted with special AIS receivers which are capable of
deconflicting a large number of signatures.

The International Maritime Organization's International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea requires AIS to be
fitted aboard international voyaging ships with gross tonnage (GT) of 300 or more, and all passenger ships
[1]
regardless of size.

AIS is intended, primarily, to allow ships to view marine traffic in their area and to be seen by that traffic. This
requires a dedicated VHF AIS transceiver that allows local traffic to be viewed on an AIS enabled chartplotter or
computer monitor while transmitting information about the ship itself to other AIS receivers. Port authorities or
other shore-based facilities may be equipped with receivers only, so that they can view the local traffic without the
need to transmit their own location. All AIS transceivers equipped traffic can be viewed this way very reliably but is
limited to the VHF range, about 10-20 nautical miles.

269. How AIS Works?

AIS tranceivers automatically broadcast information, such as their position, speed, and navigational status, at
regular intervals via a VHF transmitter built into the tranceiver. The information originates from the ship's
navigational sensors, typically its global navigation satellite system (GNSS) receiver and gyrocompass. Other
information, such as the vessel name and VHF call sign, is programmed when installing the equipment and is also
transmitted regularly. The signals are received by AIS transceivers fitted on other ships or on land based systems,
such as VTS systems. The received information can be displayed on a screen or chart plotter, showing the other
vessels' positions in much the same manner as a radar display. Data is transmitted via a tracking system which
makes use of a Self-Organized Time Division Multiple Access (SOTDMA) datalink designed by Swedish
inventor Håkan Lans.

270. Explain MF/HF.

MF/HF RT radio is often known as SSB radio. It is a transmitting-receiving system often referred to as a Transceiver
(Tx/Rx), which allows the operator to either transmit or receive information by voice. MF/HF radios
use SSB modulation for voice communication.

One of the greater disadvantages of an MF/HF RT radio is that it is not able to "address" a particular radio. A voice
broadcasted over MF/HF RT radio can be heard by all other MF/HF radios within range.

Because of that, MF/HF radios integrate an MF/HF DSCController. Its function can be regarded as a cross between
a normal telephone and a radio. The DSCfunctions via the DSC Controller or Modem, which simply sends a burst of
digital code on the MF/HF DSCfrequencies, will automatically ―ring‖ another MF/HF radio. This is feasible because
each MF/HF DSC Controller has been allocated a unique MMSI number that acts like a telephone number
 The main components of a MF/HF radio consist of:

* A receiver (Rx) with an earphone and/or loudspeaker;

* A transmitter (Tx) with a microphone – the microphone and the earphone are often combined into a single
handset;
* A MF/HF DSC controller;
* A radio telex system (option);
* An antenna enabling both simplex and duplex operation;
* Power supply - often a 12 V or 24 V battery.
271. What should be the distance between fire detectors?
The horizontal distance between any point in a protected area and the detector nearest to that point shall not
exceed 7.5 mtrs in case of smoke detector, and 5.3 mtrs in case of heat detector. As per BUREAU OF INDIAN
STANDARDS.

272. Why alternator winding connected in star

in star conection ,phase voltage is lesser than line voltage and induced emf in the phase winding of an
alternator is directly propotional to number of turns,a star connected alternator will require less number of
turns than a delta connected one for the same line voltage.

IT IS BECAUSE THIRD HARMONICS CAN BE ELIMINATED USING STAR

CONNECTION AND DISTRIBUTED WINDINGS IN 3-PH ALTERNATORS..
273. What difference between TRANSFORMERS and TRANSDUCERS???
A transducer is an electronic device that converts energy from one form to another. Common examples
include microphones, loudspeakers, thermometers, position and pressure sensors, and antenna. Although not
generally thought of as transducers, photocells, LEDs (light-emitting
diodes), and even common light bulbs are transducers.

And A transformer is a static electrical device that transfers energy by inductive coupling between its winding
circuits.
274. The transformer which is smallest in size is and how to calculate that? The options are

100 KVA, 50 Hz
100 KVa, 100 Hz
100 KVA, 25 Hz
50KVA, 25 HZ
The transformer equation
E = 4.44(f)(B)(N)(a) where E is the voltage in the winding either primary or secondary, f is the frequency, B is
the flux density in the core, N are the number of turns on the winding, and a is the cross area of the core. At
higher frequencies the number of winding turns N is reduced. This formula follows from the Faraday formula, E = N
d&#952;/dt and &#952; = B(a).
This formula is why switching power supplies use a much higher frequency (thousands of hertz) than 60 hertz,
they use smaller transformers that don't need as much wire as transformers operating at 60 hertz.

So 100 KVa, 100 Hz is smallest in size

275. Why transformer does not obey ohms low?
Ohms law is applicable where there is no induction/ inductance. It is applicable where only resistance is
present. This can happen in D.C. Circuit and ohm's law is 100% applicable in D.C. circuit. In A.C. circuit,
impedence which consist of resistance and inductance is applicable as load. i.e r+jwL. The inducatance depends
on frequency of system and L (henery).

D.C Circuit : C = V/R, where C is current, V is voltage, R is resistance

 A.C. circuit C = V/Z where Z = R+JWL. Z is impedence, L is inductance.

Transformer works on the principle of induction and has no of coils both in the primary and secondary
windings.Hence very high inductance and very low resistance. Here Impidence (Z) is very close to wL both in
primary and secondary windings as resistance is very low in both the windings. Hence the transformer circuit does
not obey ohm's law.

276. Can we use ACB for HT supply

ACB rated voltage is not more than 600V AC thereby ACB cannot used in HT
277. In step down transformer (415/200V),mistakenly secondary side is connected to 415V for some hours, what would be
result of this condition?
secondary side winding turns is designed for 200 volts. If we give 415v the secondary side winding turns will not
sustain the voltage . For which insulation and winding both will damage .If we give 415v to secondary the primary
will get 816.125v
278. Transformer tap changer is set at HT side or LT side??
Transformer tap changer is placed at HT side. Following are major advantages:
1- Finer (smoother) voltage variation for per turn tap changing.
2- Lower current to handle than LT side.
279. Why dc shunt motor in lathe, compound motor in rolling mills?
Lathe machine operation needs linear torque nd this is done in DC shunt motor i.e constant torque at constant
current i.e linear torque. While rolling mills can have diffrent values of torque while considering its operation in
certain applications, which can be provided by compound motor i.e b/w series nd shunt.
280. What would happen when synchronous motor will operate beyond synchronous speed?
when the synchronous motor operates beyond synchronous speed delta(angle bt v&e) decreases.then magnetic
torque decreases.and the hunting starts.
281. Why do we measure Power factor?
Power factor means cos of angle between real power and active power (kw and kvah)and it should be 90 deg.
that means,power factor is unity.
Now if the angle comes down below 90 deg. the rective power (kvarh)increases and that means your company pay
extra money for that power which we not use that is only losses because in low power factor current lead voltage
and due to this copper losses increase and ultimately consumption
increase.
Finally purpose of finding power factor daily in any company is that
1) To minimise the unwanted consumption
2) avoid heat losses and improving equipment life
power factor is actually the measure of the degree to which a given load matches to that of a pure resistance.
Power factor actually gives the percentage of real power supplied.If it is .85 it means that a given the supplied
power is 85% useful which is known to be the active and 15% reactive which is not useful.

282. What is Eddy Current Loss ?

In transformer, we supply alternating current in the primary, this alternating current produces alternating
magnetizing flux in the core and as this flux links with secondary winding, there will be induced voltage in
secondary, resulting current to flow through the load connected with it. Some of the alternating fluxes of
transformer; may also link with other conducting parts like steel core or iron body of transformer etc. As
alternating flux links with these parts of transformer, there would be a locally induced emf. Due to these emfs, there
would be currents which will circulate locally at that parts of the transformer. These circulating current will not
contribute in output of the transformer and dissipated as heat. This type of energy loss is called eddy current loss
of transformer. This was a broad and simple explanation of eddy current loss.
283. Working Principle of Induction Cup Relay
The working principle of induction cup relay, is same as the induction motor. A rotating magnetic field is produced
by different pairs of field poles. In four poles design both pair of poles are supplied from same current
transformer‘s secondary, but phase difference between the currents of two pole pairs is 90 deg; This is done by
inserting an inductor in series with coil of one pole pair, and by inserting a resistor in series with coil of another
pole pair.
The rotating magnetic field induces current in the aluminum brum or cup. As per working principle of induction
motor, the cup starts rotating in the direction of rotating magnetic field, with a speed slightly less than the speed of
rotating magnetic field.
The aluminum cup is attached with a hair spring : In normal condition the restoring torque of the spring is higher
than deflecting torque of the cup. So there is no movement of the cup. But during faulty condition of system, the
current through the coil is quite high, hence, deflecting torque produced in the cup is much higher than restoring
torque of spring, hence the cup start rotating as rotor of induction motor. The contacts attached to the moving of
the cup to specific angle of rotation.

Construction of Induction Cup Relay

The magnetic system of the relay is constructed by attaching numbers of circular cut steel sheets. The magnetic
pole are projected in the inner periphery of these laminated sheets.

The field coils are wound on these laminated poles. The field coil of two opposite facing poles are connected in
series.
The aluminum cup or drum, fitted on a laminated iron core is carried by a spindle whose ends fit in jeweled cups or
bearings. The laminated magnetic field is provided on inside the cup or drum to strengthen the magnetic field
cutting the
cup.

284. Write the difference between OCB,VCB ?

OCB is oil circuit Breaker in which oil is used as circuit breaker and VCB is vacuum circuit breaker in which
vacuum or air gap is used for circuit breaker
285. What happens if we give 1-ph supply for 3-ph Bridge rectifier...??
It will work as 1 phase rectifier if one of the other two phases is replaced with neutral
286. WHY WE CAN GENERATE POWER IN 3PHASE MODE ONLY NOT IN 4 OR 5 PHASE?
3 phase power is the most economical solution.
Firstly as the number of phases increase accordingly the number of conductors, insulators etc will increase which
will be costlier. And secondly as number of phases increases power does not increase linearly i.e. total power
supplied in N phase system is not equal to N(power supplied by single
 phase).It is their vector addition. Power v/s phase graph will take a shape like the saturation curve of transformer
core. So at higher phases cost wise input is high but power wise output is not that high.
That's why 3phase system is the optimum solution.
287. Which Transformer is commonly used for power distribution?
Step down transformer which is 11kv/415v.
288. Why delta connected motors are used normally??
Since the Phase voltage is equal to line voltage. So all windings will get same voltage.
1.There will not be neutral shifting due to unbalanced voltages
2. currents in all phases are fairly balanced
3.As the current in the windings is less ,heat generated will be less
4. delta connected motors runs with high torque than star. the line current is more than phase current.
5. IF WE USE STAR CONNECTED WINDING WE NEED 3 PHASE 4 WIRE
SYSTEM..HENCE MOSTLY DELTA WINDING PREFRED
289. Why do we connect voltmeter in parallel,why not in series,and why do we connect ammeter in series why not in parallel
A voltmeter measures the potential difference between 2 points of an electric circuit and completes the
circuit which is open between this to points that means is "parallel" with remaining elements in circuit.

An ammeter measures the current flowing through the circuit so you have to break the circuit and put the ammeter
"in series" with the circuit elements.

290. Why transformer rating is in kva??

the transformer rating is in kva because as the iron losses & copper losses in transformer depend on the voltage &
current so depending on the losses the heat generation occurs & hence the rating is explained in KVA to give a
detail how much amount of power it can transfer without getting damaged.

291. safeties during bulb changing on main mast.

Following safety procedures must be followed before doing any maintenance work on ship navigation lights
i. Prepare the work permit
ii. Put the lock out tag and inform the officer who is on duty
iii. Try to do the routine maintenance when the ship is in the port
iv. Before climbing up the main mast, take the working aloft permit
v. Switch off the radars and take out the fuses
vi. Disable the power supply of the nearby ship whistle
vii. Switch off any other communication devices as the antennas, which are usually located near the mast,
generate radiations harmful for humans
viii. While working on navigation lights at sea, check the wind flow meter for wind speed and direction. If
the wind is heavy avoid climbing on the mast
ix. Check for rolling and pitching of the ship. If it‘s too much, don‘t climb the mast

292. Nav lights requirement, regulation, angle,

1. Sidelights are red (port) and green (starboard) and shine from dead ahead to 112.5° aft on either side.
2. Stern lights are white and shine aft and 67.5° forward on each side. (Thus, the sidelights and stern light
create a full circle of light.)
3. All-round lights are white and shine through 360°.
4. Masthead lights are white and shine from 112.5° on the port side through dead ahead to 112.5° on the
starboard side. They must be above the sidelights.
5. Sailboats under power are considered powerboats.
6. Sidelights may be combined into a single "bicolor" light.
7. Powerboats less than 20m (65.7') in length need to show sidelights, a stern light and a masthead light.
Power vessels less than 12m may show a single all-round light in lieu of the separate masthead and stern
lights.

Definitions

All-Round Light: White (32pt/ 360°)

Masthead Light: White (20pt/ 225°)
Sidelights: Red (10pt/ 112.5°) & Green (10pt/ 112.5°)
Stern Light: White (12pt/ 135°)
U.S. Coast Guard / Transport Canada Requirements
Boat Length: >16' (4.88m) 39.4' (12m) 65.7' (20m) 165' (50m)
Under Power Sidelights, Stern Light, & Masthead 1,2
Under Sail Sidelights & Stern Light 1, 3
Rowing Same as ―Under Sail‖
At Anchor All-Round Light (night) or Black Anchor Ball (day) when outside a designated anchorage 4
Visibility Range 1nm Sidelights, 2nm All Others 3nm Masthead, 2nm All Others 5nm Masthead, 2nm All Other

293. How to the calculating the Reactive power ( kvar )

Active Power = VI COSØ=P Reactive Power - VI SINØ=Q Apparent Power - P+jq
Where Ø - Phase Angle Between Voltage & Current
294. What are methods to avoid the inrush current at the time of starting of power transformer ?
BEFORE STARTING ON THE TRANSFORMER WE SHOULD SWITCH OFF ALL
THE OUTGOING FEEDER FROM THE DISTRIBUTED PANEL BOARD,THEN
ON THE TRANSFORMER WITHOUT CONNECTING ANY LOAD, THEN SWITH
ON THE FEEDER ONE BY ONE,R CONNECTED LOAD.THIS THE METHOD
TO AVOID THE INRUSH CURRENT FROM THE TRANSFORMER... We cannot avoid inrush current when any
transformer is switched on after a long period of shutdown. Only thing we can do is minimising it by charging the
transformer by the lowest voltage (using tapp changers)and we can avoid spurious tripping by inrush current by
using only transformer differential relays in which an inrush current filter is used.

295. What will happen if an AC induction motor is applied with DC voltage?????????

If an AC induction motor is applied with DC voltage,then due to unavailability of change in flux as in AC,the
induction will not be possible. also in case of dc supply the motor winding will not be able to withstand for long
time and at last the motor winding will be damaged.

296. In a ship where do we get the earth is connected to and in a 3 phase supply where the neutral is connected to in a ship
normally?
1. The earth is connected to the ship's hull.
2. The neutral is isolated in a ship, NOT connected to the hull. Therefore it is necessary to have two earth faults
before the protection breaker will open. This is for safety purposes so there is not a blackout (all systems dead)
when a earth fault occurs.
297. What is a synchronizer and why do we need it compulsory in a ship?In a blackout condition how does a ship get its
back up power?
It is needed to parallel the generators during change-over so a blackout is not necessary.
In case of a blackout Emergency generator must start within 30 sec of blackout.
298. Explain the types of pumps?
Basically there are two types.
1.positive displacement pumps
2.roto dynamic pumps
1. positive displacement p/p
a)reciprocating p/p
b)rotary p/p
i)gear p/p
ii) vane p/p
iii) lobe p/p
iv) screw p/p
2.roto dynamic p/p
i) centrifugal p/p
ii) special pumps (eductor ..etc)
299. What is the difference between overcurrent protection and overload protection?

Overcurrent protection is protection against excessive currents or current beyond the acceptable current rating of
equipment. It generally operates instantly. Short circuit is a type of overcurrent. Magnetic circuit breakers, fuses
and overcurrent relays are commonly used to provide overcurrent protection.

Overload protection is a protection against a running overcurrent that would cause overheating of the protected
equipment. Hence, an overload is also type of overcurrent. Overload protection typically operates on an inverse
time curve where the tripping time becomes less as the current increases. Overload relays as well as ―slow blow‖
fuses are commonly used to provide overload protection.

Some devices provide both overcurrent and overload protection. A thermal-magnetic circuit breaker has both
 thermal (overload) and magnetic (overcurrent) elements. Both elements operate as described above. Likewise the
dual element fuse has both instantaneous and inverse time characteristics in the same fuse providing both
overcurrent and overload protection.

300. Explain the Shaft grounding system and purpose.

The electrical potential between shaft and hull can also cause a heavy current to flow in bearings when the oil film
breaks down or is contaminated with seawater.This current can cause deep pitting of the bearing surface.
Excessive wear on the shaft bearings canoften be traced to this cause.Trouble can be avoided and cathodic
protection extended to the propeller if the shaft is properly earthed with a shaft earthing system.

Advantages of a Propeller Shaft Grounding System

Serves for a short circuit between the rotating propeller shaft and the ship's hull

Can prevent the micro pitting marks at the propeller, on the sliding surfaces of crankshaft journalsand main bearings of
the engines to be assumed as spark erosion

Ensures an excellent potential decomposition and the contact brushes ensure lubrication and long life

A remote indicator system in order to achieve a continuous control the effectiveness of the wholesystem

A continuous slip ring cleaning device to prevent an increase of the residual potential during operation

Propeller Shaft Grounding System consists of the following

Slip Ring - Elevated silver band reduce dirt for best possible contact.

Brush Holders - Double and single brush holders for grounding and measurement. Strong springs for proper brush
pressure

Silver slip band - Reliable contact. Easy installation

 Silver brushes - High purity silver brushes for proper shaft grounding

Monitoring Meter- Continuously monitoring the shaft potential. (Remote Indicator)

301. What is Bedding of Brushes?

When fitting a full set of carbon brushes on a machine, it is very important to bed the brushes to assure a full
contact are with the commutator or slip rings to avoid overloads. There are a few ways t bed carbon brushes,
the most common is with a Brush Bedding Stone in which case the particles of soft grinding stone will grind
the brushes to a perfect radius and a perfect contact face. Once the brushes are bedded, the machine should
be stopped and cleaned thoroughly. Lift brushes from the brush holders and by means of blowing air, clean
the area where carbon brushes made contact with the commutator or slip ring to ensure that no grinding dust
is set between the segments of the commutator or in the surface of slip ring.
Other means of bedding carbon brushes is to fit an emery cloth around the commutator or slip ring, fit carbon
brushes on brush holders applying pressure with spring finger, rotate commutator or slip ring slowly in the
direction that normally operates. If commutator or slip ring cannot be rotated, then place a longer strip of
emery cloth under the carbon brush as mentioned before and do one carbon brush at a time by sliding the
emery cloth back and forward until desired radius is achieved.
If a single brush is replaced, then there is no need to bed brush replaced as it will bed itself and the other
brushes in that arm will carry the additional load until full contact is achieved.

302. A 3 - Φ, 4 pole 50 Hz is running at 1450 rpm under full load. The full load current is 22 Amp, and the rotor resistance at
standstill is 2 Ω. Calculate the mechanical power developed?

31299 Watt.

32000 Watt.

32500 Watt.

35000 Watt.

303. If starting current of 3Φ induction motor is 5 times the rated current, while rated slip is 4%, then ratio of starting torque
to full load torque is

0.6.

0.8.

1.0.

1.2
304. If rotor power output 3 phase induction motor is 15 kW. Then rotor copper losses at a slip of 4 % will be

600 Watt.

625 Watt.

650 Watt.

700 Watt

305. The stator loss of a 3 - Φ induction motor is 2 kW. What will be the rotor copper loss if the motor is running with a slip
of 4 % and power input 90 kW?

3.53 kW.

4.53 kW.

2 kW.

84.48 kW.
Slip, s = 0.04, stator input = 90 kW and stator loss = 2 kW. Now, Rotor input = stator output = stator input -
stator loss = 90 - 2 = 88 kW. ∴ Rotor copper loss = s × rotor input = 0.04 × 88 = 3.52 kW.

306. The stator output of a 3 - Φ induction motor is 59 kW. The stator losses total 1 kW, total rotor copper loss 1.77 kW. What
is the mechanical power developed?

45.89 kW.

57.23 kW.

59 kW.

88 kW.
Total rotor copper loss = 1.77 kW. Rotor input = stator output = 59 kW. ∴ Mechanical power developed = rotor
input - rotor copper loss = 59 - 1.77 = 57.23 kW.

307. If a 3 - Φ slip ring induction motor is fed from the rotor side with stator winding short circuited, then frequency of the
current flowing in the short circuited stator is

supply frequency.

slip frequency.

frequency corresponding to rotor speed.

zero.

Induction motor is similar to a transformer with secondary short-circuited if supply is supplied across primary or
primary short-circuited if supply is applied across rotor, then flux which is revolving in nature is developed. It sweeps
pass the stator surface and cuts conductor of stator and so emf is induced in the stator which is revolving at natural
but lesser speed than the rotor. So due to this relative speed, the rotor starts to rotate. So frequency of stator at the
above specific condition is slip frequency.

308. Counter emf of a DC motor

 Exceeds supply voltage

Aids applied voltage.

Helps in energy conversion.

Regulates its armature voltage.

When the motor armature continue to rotate due to motor action, the armature conductors cut the magnetism
flux and therefore emf are induced in them. This emf is known as counter emf or back emf. This back emf or
counter emf makes the DC a self regulating machine i.e. it makes the DC motor to draw as much armature
current as is just sufficient to develop the required load torque. Thus it helps in energy conversion.

309. Width of a carbon brush should be equal to

Less than the width of commutator segment.

The width of the 1 to 2 commutator segment.

The width of the 2 to 3 commutator segment.

The width more than 3 commutator segment.

Width of carbon brush is equal to the width of the 2 to 3 commutator segment.

310. Eb/V ratio of a DC motor is an indication of

Speed regulation.

Starting torque.

Effiency.

Running Torque.
Electrical motor efficiency is defined that the ratio of mechanical power developed to the total electrical power
input. In case of DC motor total electrical power input = V × I L. Where V is supply voltage and IL = Load current.
The mechanical power developed = Ta × ω. Where Ta = Torque in armature into mechanical power in armature =
Eb × Ia. So efficiency = EbIa/VIL.

311. As load is increased, speed of DC shunt motor

Increase slightly.

Reduce slightly.

Remains constant.

Increase proportional.
In case of DC shunt motor, the flux per pole is considered to be constant, torque increase with the increase in
load current. If the load current increase then the armature current also be increase then the armature current
the speed slightly falls due to increase in voltage drop in armature.

312. A large series motor is never started without some mechanical on it because otherwise it will

Produce sparking at brushes.

Open fuse or circuit breaker.

Draw too much current.

Develop excessive speed and damage itself.

When the motor is connected across the supply mains without load, it draws small current from the supply
mains flowing through the series field and armature, the speed tends to increase so that back emf may
approach the applied voltage in magnitude. The increase in back emf weakens the armature current and hence
the field current. This cause again increase in speed so in back emf. Thus the field continues to weaken and
speed continues increase until the armature gets damaged.
313. With the increase in speed of DC motor

Back emf increase but line current falls.

Back emf falls and line current increase.

Both back emf as well as line current increase.

Both back emf as well as line current fall.

In case of DC motor, the speed is proportional to the back emf. So with the increase in speed, the back emf
also be increased. Therefore armature current is also small. In case of motor, armature current is equal to the
line or load current.

314. The no load and full load speed of DC mototr are 1400 rpm and 1200 rpm respectively. What is the percentage speed
regulation of the motor?

14.28%.

15.30%.

16.67%.

18.25%
% speed regulation = (NnL − NfL) × 100/Nfl.

315. The output power of any electrical motor is taken from the

Field.

Coupling mounted on the shaft.

Armature.

Motor frame
The output power of any electrical motor is alway from the coupling mounted on the shaft because the motor
converts electrical power to mechanical power.

316. The output indicate on the name plate of any motor is always the

Power drawn in KW.

Power drawn in KVA.

Output power at the shaft.

Gross power.

In case of electric motor (AC or DC), the mechanical power is available at the shaft in horse power.

317. The speed of a DC motor is

Directly proportional to flux and inversely proportional to back emf.

Directly proportional to both back emf and flux.

Directly proportional to back emf and flux.

Directly proportional to back emf and inversely proportional flux.

Speed of DC motor is given by N = K × (Eb/φ). Where N = Speed in rpm, Eb = back emf and φ = flux per pole. In
above relation, we get speed of DC motor is directly proportional to its back emf and is inversely proportional
to flux.

318. When the mechanical power is developed by a DC motor maximum

Back emf is equal.

 Back emf is equal to half of applied voltage.

back emf is equal to applied voltage.

None of above.

Back emf is equal to half of applied voltage.

319. A circuit with a resistor, inductor and capacitor in series is resonant of f 0 Hz. If all the component values are now
doubled the new resonant frequency is

2f0.

remains unchanged.

f0/2.

f0/4.

320. Iron loss in a transformer mainly occurs in

iron made tank of transformer.

steel core in transformer.

winding of transformer.

transformer insulating oil.

Iron loss is also called core loss in transformer which consists of hysteresis loss and eddy current loss. Both
of these losses associated with transformer core.
321. What are the effects of loading on the Generator?

When the generator is on no-load the governor set point is manually adjusted until the frequency is correct.
The A VR trimmer (if fitted) is adjusted until the voltage is correct. The prime mover does not require much fuel to
run the generator on no-load, so the governor opens the fuel throttle valve only by a small amount.

There are two types of loads. KW load and KVar load

If a kW load such as the galley heaters is switched on, then as we know by now, the energy is drawn from the
generator and converted into heat. Increasing the rate of fuel supply to the prime mover will result in providing this
energy. This happens automatically in the following way:
• When the load is applied the load draws current from the stator windings . This current flowing in the
stator windings provides a rotating magnetic field. This field rotates at the same speed as the
rotor.
• The stator field lies across the rotor field and exerts a magnetic pull or torque on the rotor that
tries to pull the rotor backwards

i. The magnetic torque exerted on the rotor causes the rotor to slow down. The governor detects this
reduction of speed and opens up the throttle to increase the fuel supply.
The throttle is opened up until the frequency returns to normal (in fact slightly less).
Now the prime mover develops enough power to drive the alternator at the correct speed and meet the kW load
demand.

In short, the governor responds to changes of kW load to keep the system frequency constant.

The graph of frequency against kW for the governor shows how closely it maintains constant frequency.
Figure - Exertion of Torque on the Rotor due to the Stator Field

When a kV Ar load is applied to an alternator, there is no power demand on the prime mover. This is because the energy
flow with kV Ar loading is backwards and forwards between the generator and the load, the prime mover is not involved. The
stator current again produces a rotating magnetic field, but unlike kW loading, it does not exert a magnetic torque on the
rotor. This time the stator field is in line with the rotor field and so no torque is produced..

With reference to Figure we see that the stator field is acting in the opposite direction to the rotor field which results in a
large reduction of flux in the machine and reduced flux means reduced output voltage. The A VR responds to the fall of the
output voltage and boosts the excitation current to the rotor to increase the flux. The excitation is increased until the voltage
is back to normal (in practice slightly less than normal). Thus the
; A VR responds to changes of kV Ar load to keep the system voltage constant. The A VR characteristic, which is a graph of
voltslkV Ar, like the governor, exhibits a droop, which is required for stable operation.

Figure - Opposition of the Stator & Rotor Fields

322. What we need to check phase balance in motor ? What should be the values?

Electrical equipment; especially motors and their controllers; will not operate reliably on unbalanced voltages in a
3-phase system. Generally, the difference between the highest and the lowest voltages should not exceed 4% of the
lowest voltage. Greater imbalances may cause overheating of components; especially motors; and intermittent
shutdown of motor controllers. Motors operated on unbalanced voltages will overheat, and many overload relays
can't sense the overheating. In addition, many solid-state motor controllers and inverters include components that
are especially sensitive to voltage imbalances.
 How much imbalance is too much? Let's look at an example. Suppose the lowest voltage on a 3-phase circuit is
230V, while another phase is 235V, and the third phase is 240V. Is this a significant voltage imbalance? Let's use
the 4% rule to see.

Four percent of the lowest voltage (230V) is 9.2V (230V24%49.2V). The difference between the highest voltage
(240V) and the lowest voltage (230V) is 10V. Therefore, these voltages have too great an imbalance. Why? Because
the 10V difference is greater than four percent of the lowest voltage (9.2V).

You can use a more precise procedure for calculating voltage imbalance. The first step is to calculate the average
voltage by adding all three phases and dividing by 3. In our example, the average is 235V: You add the voltages to
get your total. 230V`235V`240V=705V. Then you divide by the number of phases. 705V / 3 = 235V.

Next, add up the absolute differences between each phase voltage and the average voltage. In this case, the
difference between the average voltage and 230V is 5V. The difference between the average and itself is 0V; and the
difference between the average and 240V is 5V. Adding up the differences, we get 10V. And that 10V is what we call
the total imbalance.

Now divide the total imbalance in half to get an adjusted imbalance. Half of 10V is 5V. Finally, divide the adjusted
imbalance into the average voltage to get a percentage imbalance. In this case, 5V / 235V = 0.021. That is 2.1%
imbalance.

Reliable, long-term operation of most electrical equipment requires a voltage imbalance of less than two percent;
which means your system has too much imbalance.

If you find voltage imbalances in your facility, the first place to look is not the power company. Instead, look for
electrical distribution systems in which one leg of a 3-phase supply powers both single-phase and 3-phase loads.
You may find single phase loads not evenly balanced across the phases. Or, look for in-line reactors installed to
correct imbalances. These reactors usually have taps for adjustment, and somebody may have adjusted them. Or,
the imbalance they originally corrected may have shifted over time. Circuits with tapped reactors rarely stay in
balance indefinitely.

Now, here's a practice question. You go out onto the floor and find a 460V motor with phase voltages of 458V, 465V,
and 480V. Is there a problem or not? There sure is.

Lowest voltage is 458V. First, calculate your four percent. 0.042458V 418.32V. The difference between the highest
voltage (480V) and the lowest voltage (458V) is 22V (480-458). Since the difference (22V) is greater than 4% of the
lowest voltage (18.32V), the phases are too far out of balance to ensure continued, reliable operation of electrical
equipment.

323. Describe Unbalanced currents in the motor

Motor users and installers get concerned when they detect unbalanced phase currents on a 3-phase motor.

Sources of unbalanced phase currents was either a problem in the motor, such as an unbalanced number of
turns in the windings, an uneven air gap or unbalanced phase voltages. Winding or air gap problems are
definitely motor related. On the other hand unbalanced phase voltages are a power system problem.
Unbalanced voltages will generally produce unbalanced currents that are many times greater than the
percentage of voltage unbalance. The ratio used is close to 8:1. In other words, a voltage unbalance of 1%
could create unbalanced phase currents of as much as 8%..

Suppose a motor has a nameplate full load current of 10 amps. At full load the amps on each leg of the 3
phases added together would be 10 + 10 + 10 or 30. However, if the load is the same but the phase currents are
unbalanced, the total of the 3 legs added together will always be more than the total of the balanced currents.
 In this case the currents might be 10.5, 11.3 and 12.1 for a total of 33.9. This is a very unscientific way of
looking at it, but it is accurate in describing the effect. What this means is that high current on one leg doesn‘t
mean that the other two legs will be reduced by an equal amount. It can be said that unbalanced currents
always result in higher operating temperature, shortened motor life and efficiency reduction.

―What creates unbalanced currents?‖ In years past, if the motor was not the problem — the source of
unbalanced currents was unbalanced phase voltages. When measuring line to line voltages from phase A to B,
B to C, and C to A, detectable differences in the voltages would show up. The voltage differences would
account for the unbalanced currents.

In today‘s world there are other problems that are frequently not detectable with simple voltage tests. One
problem of growing concern, is voltage distortion caused by harmonics in the power system currents. This can
happen if there are loads in the general area that draw non-linear (harmonic rich) currents from the power
system, they can create voltage distortion in the normal voltage sine-wave that, in turn, can cause unbalanced
currents in motors even when phase voltage differences are not detectable with a voltmeter. For example, if
you were to detect unbalanced motor currents and took measurements with a digital voltmeter on the three
phases, they might be very close to one another. The natural tendency under these conditions, would be to
blame the motor for the problem. When this happens it is necessary to go a step further to identify or dismiss
the motor as the source of the problem. The test is to rotate all 3 phases. If the power phases are labeled A, B
and C and the motor leads connected to them are labeled 1, 2, and 3, motor lead #1 might be reconnected to
power supply lead B; motor lead #2 would be reconnected to power supply lead C, motor lead #3 would be
reconnected to power supply lead A. Moving all three legs will keep the motor rotating in the same direction.
The currents are recorded on each power line leg before and after the connections are changed. If the high
current leg stays with the power line phase (for example, B), then the problem is a power supply problem rather
than a motor problem. If, however, it moves with the motor leg, then it is a motor problem. This test will
pinpoint the problem to be either power supply or motor.

324. HOW MUCH UNBALANCE CAN BE TOLERATED?

In general, this depends on the conditions that are found. If the motor is driving the load and the highest
amperage of the three legs is below the nameplate Full Load rating, then generally it is safe to operate. If the
high leg is above the nameplate rating, but within the normal service factor amps (for a motor with a service
factor, normally 1.15) then it is probably still safe to operate the motor. Also, it is not unusual to find currents
more unbalanced at no load than they will be under load, so the loaded amps should be used. Finally, in
general, if the high leg is not more than 10% above the average of the three legs, determined as shown in the
example, it is probably safe to operate the motor.

EXAMPLE

Motor Nameplate FLA = 10.0

Service Factor 1.15

Phase Loaded Amps

A 10.6
B 9.8
C 10.2

Determine the Average

(10.6 + 9.8 = 10.2)/3 = 10.2 amps

Determine the % Difference

(Highest Phase – Average)/Average x 100

(10.6 – 10.2)/10.2 x 100 = (.4/10.2) x 100 = .039 x 100 = 3.9%

The following table shows some of the sources of unbalanced voltages and currents along with possible
remedies.

TABLE 1
PROBLEM
SOLUTION
Blown fuse on a power factor
correction capacitor bank
Search, find and replace blown fuse.

Uneven single phase loading of the 3 phase system

Locate single phase loads and distribute them more evenly on the 3 phase circuit.
Utility unbalanced voltages

If the incoming voltages are substantially unbalanced, especially at lightly loaded or no load periods, contact the utility
company and ask them to correct the problem.
Harmonic distortion

Locate the sources of the harmonics and use harmonic filters to control or reduce harmonics. Install line reactors on existing
and new variable frequency controls.

SUMMARY

Unbalanced currents on 3 phase motors are undesirable but a small amount can generally be tolerated. Excessive unbalanced
currents can shorten motor life and increase energy consumption.

325. What is service factor of a motor?

NEMA defines service factor as a multiplier, when applied to the rated horsepower, indicates a permissible
horsepower loading, which may be carried under the conditions specified for the service factor at rated voltage
and frequency.

Motor Service Factor (SF) is the percentage of overloading the motor can handle for short periods when
operating normally within the correct voltage tolerances. This is practical as it gives you some ‗fudge‗ in
estimating horsepower needs and actual running horsepower requirements.

It also allows for cooler winding temperatures at rated load, protects against intermittent heat rises, and helps
to offset low or unbalanced line voltages. Motor Service Factor (SF) is the percentage of overloading the motor
can handle for short periods when operating normally within the correct voltage tolerances. This is practical as
it gives you some ‗fudge‗ in estimating horsepower needs and actual running horsepower requirements.

It also allows for cooler winding temperatures at rated load, protects against intermittent heat rises, and helps
to offset low or unbalanced line voltages.

326. What are the characteristics of Star/Delta Starter?

Motor Starting Characteristics of Star-Delta Starter

Available starting current: 33% Full Load Current.

Peak starting current: 1.3 to 2.6 Full Load Current.

Peak starting torque: 33% Full Load Torque.

327. What are the advantages and disadvantages of Star/Delta starter?

Advantages of Star-Delta starter

The operation of the star-delta method is simple and rugged

It is relatively cheap compared to other reduced voltage methods.

Good Torque/Current Performance.

It draws 2 times starting current of the full load ampere of the motor connected

Disadvantages of Star-Delta starter

Low Starting Torque (Torque = (Square of Voltage) is also reduce).

Break In Supply – Possible Transients

 Six Terminal Motor Required (Delta Connected).

It requires 2 set of cables from starter to motor.

It provides only 33% starting torque and if the load connected to the subject motor requires higher starting

torque at the time of starting than very heavy transients and stresses are produced while changing from star

to delta connections, and because of these transients and stresses many electrical and mechanical break-

down occurs.

In this method of starting initially motor is connected in star and then after change over the motor is

connected in delta. The delta of motor is formed in starter and not on motor terminals.

High transmission and current peaks: When starting up pumps and fans for example, the load torque is low

at the beginning of the start and increases with the square of the speed. When reaching approx. 80-85 % of

the motor rated speed the load torque is equal to the motor torque and the acceleration ceases. To reach the

rated speed, a switch over to delta position is necessary, and this will very often result in high transmission

and current peaks. In some cases the current peak can reach a value that is even bigger than for a D.O.L

start.

Applications with a load torque higher than 50 % of the motor rated torque will not be able to start using the

start-delta starter.

Low Starting Torque: The star-delta (wye-delta) starting method controls whether the lead connections from

the motor are configured in a star or delta electrical connection. The initial connection should be in the star

pattern that results in a reduction of the line voltage by a factor of 1/√3 (57.7%) to the motor and the current

is reduced to 1/3 of the current at full voltage, but the starting torque is also reduced 1/3 to 1/5 of the DOL

starting torque.

The transition from star to delta transition usually occurs once nominal speed is reached, but is sometimes

performed as low as 50% of nominal speed which make transient Sparks.

328. I have a 20hp motor(20*746 watt=14920 watt).it requires a star delta control system.what should be the three MC ‗s
rating.

Full Load ampere for your motor.

FLA = 14920/(415*1.732*0.9)
FLA = 23 Ampere

So for MAIN contactor

= FLA / FLI
= 23 ampere

For DELTA contactor

= FLA x 0.58
= 23 x 0.58
= 13.4 @ 15 ampere

For STAR contactor

= FLA x 0.33
= 23 x 0.33
= 7.6 @ 8 ampere

why multiply with 0.58?

 The Star/Delta starter is manufactured from three contactors, a timer and a thermal overload. The contactors
are smaller than the single contactor used in a Direct On Line starter as they are controlling winding currents
only. The currents through the winding are 1/root 3 (58%) of the current in the line.
There are two contactors that are close during run, often referred to as the main contactor and the delta
contactor. These are AC3 rated at 58% of the current rating of the motor. The third contactor is the star
contactor and that only carries star current while the motor is connected in star. The current in star is one third
of the current in delta, so this contactor can be AC3 rated at one third of the motor rating.

329. How should the star to delta time be set.???

1. Use the clamp on meter ( analogue ) : Get information for motor Full Load Ampere(FLA),measure the ampere
during star and set stop watch.Stop the watch and see the time when ampere reach 80 % of motor FLA.Use the
time to setting your timer. –

2. Use the RPM meter : Get information for motor RPM speed.Use the RPM meter to measure motor RPM and use
the stop watch to get a how many second that motor achieve 80% of RPM during star.Use that time to setting
your timer.

Typical times for Star Delta starter timer is around 10 until 25 seconds…but its depend on load

330. Compare the Star and Delta connections of a Motor.

The delta and wye motors provide the exact same performance in theory. The delta has a lower resistance, a
lower torque constant and a higher current. The end result is that force/torque is exactly the same.

A delta winding is used if more speed is needed, and the winding can not be scaled, and more voltage is not
available.

A delta winding should be avoided because it allows currents to circulate in a circle in the delta if the back emf
wave form has odd harmonic content. This causes additional losses. Therefore, a scaled wye windings is
better for high speed than a delta winding.

For a wye wound motor as compared to a delta wound motor, presuming each phase resistance is the same,
between any two phases, a delta wound motor has 1/3 the resistance as compared to the wye.

The wye-wound has higher resistance and higher inductance, better for drives with lower switching
frequencies.
Above stated reason is very imp for choosing wye or delta
where we need to start or stop motor frequently, we use delta and elsewhere wye

331. Why the motor running in delta connection ? it can be in star?

Motor can be connected in delta as well as star.

In delta connection the maximum power that motor can give is motor rating.ex 15 kw motor 15kw power.

In star connection the maximum power motor can give is (motor KW * 1/3). Now the motor is derated.

Also note that if your motor 50% only loaded then the motor winding can be connected in star instead of delta.
This will give you power saving. Also take care that always load on motor is less than 50% or else motor
winding will get burnt.

When a delta motor is connected in star, the voltage across the windings is reduced by the square root of
three resulting in reduced flux in the iron, this will reduce the magnetizing current, and will also reduce the
torque capacity of the motor.

In star the maximum power is reduced but the starting current is lower than for Delta
In Delta the motor gives maximum power but the starting
current is often too high and the overload trips out.
To overcome this a star/delta starter is fitted
All 6 wires from the motor windings are connected to the
starter and the starter functions are as follows :-
 When start button is pressed the motor is automatically
connected in star and the start current is acceptable. At
the same time a timer is initiated and after a
predetermined time the starter automatically changes from
star connection to delta. The motor now runs in Delta until
switched off.

332. Why generators/transformers are rated in KVA while an induction motor is in KW?
Output power of transformer depends on type of load connected to it. The value of output power factor will vary
with load. So they can't be rated in terms kilowatt. Hence KVA is used in transformer like devices. Whereas the load
to induction motor is fixed. So rating is given in terms of KVA for induction motors

Because a motor has a fixed power factor which when multiplied by the KVA gives the usable power in KW.
However, generators and transformers have variable power factor so they are just rated in KVA.

333. What is Proportional control?

In the proportional control algorithm, thecontroller output is proportional to the error signal, which is the
difference between the setpoint and the process variable. In other words, the output of a proportional
controlleris the multiplication product of the error signal and the proportional gain

334. What is Selsyn?

Selsyn or synchro is an electro-mechanical device used for the easy and precise transmission of angular data
between two or more remote points. The readings may be provided in terms of mechanical position or as an
electrical signal.

Selsyn is a portmanteau of ‗self-synchronous‘. In the broad sense, selsyn systems can refer to a variety of
rotary, electromechanical, position-sensing devices. In the early 1900s, selsyn systems were initially used in
the control system of the Panama Canal to transmit lock gate and valve stem positions as well as water levels
to control desks.

Advancement in the smaller sized selsyns has allowed the construction of smaller and more compact
equipment.

Types of Selsyns

Selsyn or synchro systems consist of two or more selsyns interconnected electrically. There are two types of
selsyn systems:

Torque system - The selsyns in this system provide a low-power mechanical output, which is sufficient to
position an indicating device, trigger a sensitive switch, or move light loads without the need for power
amplification. Accuracy on the order of one degree is attainable by this system. In the torque system, only
small loads are turned and hence only a small amount of torque is required. Some torque systems can be used
as control systems; however, control systems cannot replace torque units.

Control-type system – This particular system is used in applications such as follow-up links and error
detectors in servo and automatic control systems. For this system, the transmitted signal manipulates the
power source.

Working Principle

A selsyn system requires the use of at least two synchro machines. The selsyn motors resemble two
synchronous motors. They are connected to each other with three wires.The system uses the principle of
electromagnetic induction.

When the rotors of the two machines are in corresponding positions, the voltages of the two secondaries at
that given time are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. In this case, there is no current flow in the
rotor circuits, and no torque is formed in either machines; thus the machines remain in equilibrium.
 When the two rotors are not in corresponding positions, the voltages of the two secondaries do not neutralize
each other and a current is produced in the two secondaries. This current produces torque in the machines,
which in turn acts upon the rotors, causing them to move in corresponding positions.

Basically, the selsyn machine falls into these functional categories - torque transmitter (TX), control transmitter
(CX), torque differential transmitter (TDX), control differential transmitter (CDX), torque receiver (TR), torque
differential receiver (TDR), torque receiver-transmitter (TRX), and control transformer (CT).

Transmitter - receiver

Small instrumentation selsyns, also known as sychros, use single phase paralleled, AC energized rotors,
retaining the 3-phase paralleled stators, which are not externally energized. (Figure below) Synchros
function as rotary transformers. If the rotors of both the torque transmitter (TX) and torque receiver (RX) are
at the same angle, the phases of the induced stator voltages will be identical for both, and no current will
flow. Should one rotor be displaced from the other, the stator phase voltages will differ between transmitter
and receiver. Stator current will flow developing torque. The receiver shaft is electrically slaved to the
transmitter shaft. Either the transmitter or receiver shaft may be rotated to turn the opposite unit.

335. What is control loop?

A control loop is a process management system designed to maintain a process variable at a desired set
point. Each step in the loop works in conjunction with the others to manage the system.

336. What is a control system? Types of control system.

A control system is a device, or set of devices, that manages, commands, directs or regulates the behaviour of
other devices or systems. Industrial control systems are used in industrial production for controlling equipment or
machines.
There are two common classes of control systems, open loop control systems and closed loop control systems. In
open loop control systems output is generated based on inputs. In closed loop control systems current output is
taken into consideration and corrections are made based on feedback. A closed loop system is also called a
feedback control system.
 In the case of linear feedback systems, a control loop, including sensors, control algorithms and actuators, is
arranged in such a fashion as to try to regulate a variable at a setpoint or reference value. An example of this may
increase the fuel supply to a furnace when a measured temperature drops. PID controllers are common and
effective in cases such as this. Control systems that include some sensing of the results they are trying to achieve
are making use of feedback and so can, to some extent, adapt to varying circumstances. Open-loop control
systems do not make use of feedback, and run only in pre-arranged ways.

Logic control systems for industrial and commercial machinery were historically implemented at mains
voltage using interconnected relays, designed using ladder logic. Today, most such systems are constructed
with programmable logic controllers (PLCs) or microcontrollers. The notation of ladder logic is still in use as a
[1]
programming idiom for PLCs.
Logic controllers may respond to switches, light sensors, pressure switches, etc., and can cause the machinery to
start and stop various operations. Logic systems are used to sequence mechanical operations in many
applications. PLC software can be written in many different ways – ladder diagrams, SFC – sequential function
charts or in language terms known as statement lists
337. Different terminologies in Control system.
1. Feedback: The output of the system is passed through some sort of processing unit H, and
that result is fed into the plant as an input.
2. Control System: A system or device that manages the behavior of another system or device.
3. Compensator :A Control System that augments the shortcomings of another system.
4. Open Loop :when the system is not closed, its behavior has a free-running component rather
than controlled
5. Positive Feedback: A feedback system where the system output is added to the system input,
and the sum is input into the plant.
6. Digital Signal:A discrete value at which an action is performed. A digital signal is a binary
signal with two distinct states - 1 or 0, often used as an on - off indication.
7. Process Value (Process variable) – PV: The actual value in the control loop, temperature,
pressure, flow, composition, pH, etc
8. Set Point: The set point is the desired value of the process variable.
9. PID Controller: Controller including Proportional, Integrating and Derivative controller
functions.
10. Proportional Band – P: With proportional band the controller output is proportional to the
error or a change in process variable. Proportional Band
11. Integral Action: The integral part of the PID controller. With integral action, the controller
output is proportional to the amount and duration of the error signal. If there is more integral
action, the controller output will change more when error is present.
12. Derivative – D: The derivative - D - part of a PID controller. With derivative action the controller
output is proportional to the rate of change of the process variable or process error.
13. Deviation: Any departure from a desired or expected process value.

338. Explain a Control loop system

A robotic arm can be moved and positioned by a control loop. By applying forward and reverse power to
an electric motor to lift and lower the arm, it may be necessary to allow for the inertial mass of the arm, forces
due to gravity, and to correct for external forces on the arm such as a load to lift or work to be done on an
[10]
external object.
The sensed position is the process variable (PV). The desired position is called the setpoint (SP). The input to
the process (the electric current in the motor) is the output from the PID controller. It is called either the
manipulated variable (MV) or the control variable (CV). The difference between the present position and the
setpoint is the error (e), which quantifies whether the arm is too low or too high and by how much.

By measuring the position (PV), and subtracting it from the setpoint (SP), the error (e) is found, and from it the
controller calculates how much electric current to supply to the motor (MV). The obvious method
is proportional control: the motor current is set in proportion to the existing error. A more complex control may
include another term: derivative action. This considers the rate of change of error, supplying more or less
electric current depending on how fast the error is approaching zero. Finally, integralaction adds a third term,
using the accumulated position error in the past to detect whether the position of the mechanical arm is
settling out too low or too high and to set the electrical current in relation not only to the error but also the time
for which it has persisted. An alternative formulation of integral action is to change the electric current in small
persistent steps that are proportional to the current error. Over time the steps accumulate and add up
dependent on past errors; this is the discrete-timeequivalent to integration.

Applying too much impetus when the error is small and is reducing will lead to overshoot. After overshooting,
if the controller were to apply a large correction in the opposite direction and repeatedly overshoot the desired
position, the output would oscillatearound the setpoint in either a constant, growing, or decaying sinusoid. If
 the amplitude of the oscillations increase with time, the system is unstable. If they decrease, the system is
stable. If the oscillations remain at a constant magnitude, the system ismarginally stable.

In the interest of achieving a controlled arrival at the desired position (SP) in a timely and accurate way, the
controlled system needs to be critically damped. A well-tuned position control system will also apply the
necessary currents to the controlled motor so that the arm pushes and pulls as necessary to resist external
forces trying to move it away from the required position. The setpoint itself may be generated by an external
system, such as a PLC or other computer system, so that it continuously varies depending on the work that the
robotic arm is expected to do. A well-tuned PID control system will enable the arm to meet these changing
requirements to the best of its capabilities.
If a controller starts from a stable state with zero error (PV = SP), then further changes by the controller will be
in response to changes in other measured or unmeasured inputs to the process that affect the process, and
hence the PV. Variables that affect the process other than the MV are known as disturbances. Generally
controllers are used to reject disturbances and to implement setpoint changes. A change in load on the arm
constitutes a disturbance to the robot arm control process.

339. Explain PID Controller

A proportional–integral–derivative controller (PID controller) is a control loop feedback

mechanism (controller) commonly used in industrial control systems. A PID controller continuously calculates
an error value as the difference between a measured process variable and a desired setpoint. The controller
attempts to minimize the error over time by adjustment of a control variable, such as the position of a control
valve, a damper, or the power supplied to a heating element, to a new value determined by a weighted sum.

P accounts for present values of the error (e.g. if the error is large and positive, the control variable will be

large and negative),

I accounts for past values of the error (e.g. if the output is not sufficient to reduce the size of the error, the

control variable will accumulate over time, causing the controller to apply a stronger action), and

D accounts for possible future values of the error, based on its current rate of change

By tuning the three parameters of the model, a PID controller can deal with specific process requirements. The
response of the controller can be described in terms of its responsiveness to an error, the degree to which the
system overshoots a setpoint, and the degree of any system oscillation.

Some applications may require using only one or two terms to provide the appropriate system control. This is
achieved by setting the other parameters to zero. A PID controller will be called a PI, PD, P or I controller in the
absence of the respective control actions. PI controllers are fairly common, since derivative action is sensitive
to measurement noise, whereas the absence of an integral term may prevent the system from reaching its
target value.

Proportional term: The proportional term produces an output value that is proportional to the current error
value. The proportional response can be adjusted by multiplying the error by a constant Kp, called the
proportional gain constant.

The proportional term is given by:

A high proportional gain results in a large change in the output for a given change in the error. If the
proportional gain is too high, the system can become unstable . In contrast, a small gain results in a small
output response to a large input error, and a less responsive or less sensitive controller. If the proportional
gain is too low, the control action may be too small when responding to system disturbances. Tuning theory
and industrial practice indicate that the proportional term should contribute the bulk of the output change.
In a real system, proportional-only control will leave an offset error in the final steady-state condition. Integral
action is required to eliminate this error.

Integral term: The contribution from the integral term is proportional to both the magnitude of the error and the
duration of the error. The integral in a PID controller is the sum of the instantaneous error over time and gives
the accumulated offset that should have been corrected previously. The accumulated error is then multiplied
by the integral gain ( ) and added to the controller output
 The integral term accelerates the movement of the process towards setpoint and eliminates the residual
steady-state error that occurs with a pure proportional controller. However, since the integral term responds to
accumulated errors from the past, it can cause the present value to overshoot the setpoint value.

Derivative term: The derivative of the process error is calculated by determining the slope of the error over
time and multiplying this rate of change by the derivative gain Kd. The magnitude of the contribution of the
derivative term to the overall control action is termed the derivative gain.
Derivative action predicts system behavior and thus improves settling time and stability of the system.

Tuning a control loop is the adjustment of its control parameters (proportional band/gain, integral gain/reset,
derivative gain/rate) to the optimum values for the desired control response. Stability (no unbounded
oscillation) is a basic requirement, but beyond that, different systems have different behavior, different
applications have different requirements, and requirements may conflict with one another.
340. Types of controls in a Control System.

LOGIC CONTROL: Logic controllers may respond to switches, light sensors, pressure switches, etc., and can
cause the machinery to start and stop various operations. Logic systems are used to sequence mechanical
operations in many applications. PLC software can be written in many different ways – ladder diagrams, SFC –
[2]
sequential function charts or in language terms known as statement lists.
Examples include elevators, washing machines and other systems with interrelated stop-go operations.
Logic systems are quite easy to design, and can handle very complex operations. Some aspects of logic
system design make use of Boolean logic.

ON-OFF CONTROL: A thermostat is a simple negative feedback controller: when the temperature (the "process
variable" or PV) goes below a set point (SP), the heater is switched on. Another example could be a pressure
switch on an air compressor. When the pressure (PV) drops below the threshold (SP), the pump is powered.
Refrigerators and vacuum pumps contain similar mechanisms operating in reverse, but still providing negative
feedback to correct errors.
Simple on–off feedback control systems like these are cheap and effective. In some cases, like the simple
compressor example, they may represent a good design choice.

LINEAR CONTROL: Linear control systems use linear negative feedback to produce a control
signal mathematically based on other variables, with a view to maintain the controlled process within an
acceptable operating range.
The output from a linear control system into the controlled process may be in the form of a directly variable
signal, such as a valve that may be 0 or 100% open or anywhere in between.

Proportional Control, Proportional Integral Control and Proportional Integral Derivative Control.

Integral action:
The integral term magnifies the effect of long-term steady-state errors, applying ever-increasing effort until
they reduce to zero. In the example of the furnace above working at various temperatures, if the heat being
applied does not bring the furnace up to setpoint, for whatever reason, integral action increasingly moves the
proportional band relative to the setpoint until the PV error is reduced to zero and the setpoint is achieved.

Derivative action
The derivative part is concerned with the rate-of-change of the error with time: If the measured variable
approaches the setpoint rapidly, then the actuator is backed off early to allow it to coast to the required level;
conversely if the measured value begins to move rapidly away from the setpoint, extra effort is applied—in
proportion to that rapidity—to try to maintain it.
Derivative action makes a control system behave much more intelligently. On control systems like the tuning
of the temperature of a furnace, or perhaps the motion-control of a heavy item like a gun or camera on a
moving vehicle, the derivative action of a well-tuned PID controller can allow it to reach and maintain a setpoint
better than most skilled human operators could.

341. Freezing point of Electrolyte un a Lead Acid Battery

Lead-acid batteries contain a solution of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and water -- the solution is referred to as the
battery's electrolyte. Adding a solute (in this case, H2SO4) to a solvent (in this case, H2O) will lower the freezing
point of a solution. A fully charged battery has more H2SO4 than a discharged battery. The additional
H2SO4 depresses the freezing point of the batteries electrolyte to around -70 °C. However, a discharged
battery's freezing point rises to ~-10 °C.

342. What are the Safeties Protection and Maintenance on MSB?

Main Switch Board or MSB to be installed on a raised platform.

The location where Switch Board or MSB is installed should have good ventilation, illumination and affected by
minimum vibration.
No water or oil pipes should pass above the Switch Board or MSB.
There should be adequate space around allowing comfortable operation ans maintenance.
The operating floor space in front and behind the Switch Board or MSB should be covered with anti skid,
insulated rubber mats with a minimum thickness of 15 mm.
Panel doors should be in locked position.
Door opening mechanism should be interlocked with power supply.
The enclosure should be drip proof.
MSB should be dead front type. (i.e. All the live conductor should pass behind MSB)
Every equipment onboard must be properly earthed. Also MSB must be properly earthed.
Every incoming and outgoing feed must be protected by a switch fuse or circuit breaker.
Insulation resistance should not be less than 1 Mega Ohm in any case. Insulation Resistance (IR) to be
checked and records are maintained.
All meters must be calibrated periodically and records are maintained.
All the meters, switches, fuses, push button, indicating lamps, etc. should be in working condition and
identified with individual name plate or tag.
All the interlocks must be in working condition.
Operating switch gear, tools such as circuit breaker handle, fuse puller, lamp grip, etc. must be readily
available and to be used.
Red tag / name plate indicating high voltage and danger sign should be fitted
Appropriate ready to use fire extinguishers should be positioned nearby. (CO2and DCP)
Charts indicating drill procedures in case of electric shocks must be displayed near MSB.
Wiring diagram laminated or framed indicating supply system must be displayed nearby.
All the appropriate spares should be properly preserved and protected, individually packed and identified, and
should be readily available for use.
Earth fault indication should be fitted and displayed in front panel.
24 volt battery supply emergency light should be provided near MSB.

If any maintenance is planned for busbars, highest standards of safety are required as even the tiniest mistake
can lead to electrocution and even death. The busbar maintenance is therefore performed when the complete
busbar panel or Switchboard is turned ―OFF‖. Following are the precautions for safety to be carried out when
the bus bar maintenance is to be carried out:

When the bus bar maintenance should be done?

Bus bar maintenance can be done when the ship is in black out condition, i.e. ship‘s generators are not
running and no power is supplied to main or emergency switchboards
If the main switchboard busbars are to be inspected or to be work on, keep emergency generator running.
Keep in mind that there will be some portion of the main switchboard which will be fed by emergency switch
board. Hence know the complete system properly and keep away from those areas
The best time to do bus bar maintenance is when the ship is in the dry dock

Safety before doing bus bar maintenance:

Put the ―lockout‖ tag in all generators and in the emergency generator

Keep all the generator system including load dependent start stop system in manual mode

Ensure to wear rubber gloves even when the board is not in ―Live‖ condition

Wear all required personal protective equipment (PPEs) when working on switchboard
 If the ship is in complete black out situation, ensure that before cleaning the main and emergency switchboard,
the area is well lit by sufficient lights. In dry dock same can be arranged from shore workshop

343. How Busbar Inspection and maintenance is carried out?

Any maintenance on busbars should only be performed when the ship in Dry dock or Black out condition:
Open the door for main and emergency switchboards where inspection is to be performed
Carryout visual inspection of copper plate and nut bolts. Mark any missing or burn out areas
By hand or using a metal or plastic stick (where access for hand is not possible), tap the bus plates gently so
as to make out for any loose connection. Ensure to wear electrical gloves even when bus bar is not live
The busbars are mechanical supported inside the switchboard by means of insulators, which may be of rubber
or ceramic materials (bad conductors). Check for any damages in the insulator part
By using an adjustable spanner or particular size spanner, tighten the nuts in the busbar connection for main
and emergency switch boards
Check the tightness of the wire connections, which is connected to the circuit breakers
Clean the bus bar and switchboard area with the help of vacuum cleaner
If u find any loose connection or spark, black-out the particular and adjacent bus bar before tightening the nut
If u find any metal piece or nut bolts missing or inside the panel, ensure to remove it as the same can cause
short circuit or fire
The ship‘s electrical officer is required to inspect the busbar periodically for record keeping and also as stated
by the preventive maintenance system. This is done to avoid any type of accident from electrical faults on
ships. When doing such inspection the following highest safety measures are to be taken with all required
PPEs as the Bus bar is ―LIVE‖:

1. Check the load in the running generator by means of KW meter provided in the main switchboard.
2. Open the bus bar access door provided at the backside of MSB or ESB.
3. Do the visual inspection and by the help of infrared temperature gun, measure the temperature of copper
plates and bus bar connection.It should not be more than given limits depending upon the generator load.
Example if the generator load is 50%, the room temperature is 28 deg c, the bus bar temperature must be within
50 deg c, if the temperature is too high then some thing is abnormal.
4. Once the inspection and maintenance is completed:
5. Close the bus bar access doors
6. Remove the lock out tag
7. Restore the main power supply by the generators
8. Inform the Chief Engineer and the in-charge of that particular machinery regarding the same
9. Reset the main power and check if there is any abnormal sound in main switch board and emergency switch
board
10. Monitor the temperature of the busbar area with laser temperature gun
11. Keep the emergency switchboard in the auto mode

344. How does Radar determine the range?

The radar transmits a short radio pulse with very high pulse power. This pulse is focused in one direction only
by the directivity of the antenna, and propagates in this given direction with the speed of light.

If in this direction is an obstacle, for example an airplane, then a part of the energy of the pulse is scattered in
all directions. A very small portion is also reflected back to the radar. The radar antenna receives this energy
and the radar evaluates the contained information.

Since the propagation of radio waves happens at constant speed (the speed of light c0) this distance is
determined from the runtime of the high-frequency transmitted signal. The actual range of a target from the
radar is known as slant range. Slant range is the line of sight distance between the radar and the object
illuminated. While ground range is the horizontal distance between the emitter and its target and its calculation
requires knowledge of the target's elevation. Since the waves travel to a target and back, the round trip time is
dividing by two in order to obtain the time the wave took to reach the target. Therefore the following formula
arises for the slant range:

Where Co= 3·108 m/s, is the speed of light at which all electromagnetic waves propogate.
t = measured running time [s]
R = slant range antenna - aim [m]
The distances are expressed in kilometers or nautical miles (1 NM = 1.852 km).

If the respective running time t is known, then the distance R between a target and the radar set can be
calculated by using this equation.

345. In a vacuum circuit breaker, the vacuum is of the order of

 (A) 10mm Hg

-2
(B)10 mmHg

-6
(C) l0 mmHg


-9
(D)10 mmHg.
346. The insulation resistance of high voltage circuit breaker is

(A) 1k Ohm

(B) 10 k Ohm

(C) 20 Mega ohms

 (D) 2000 Mega ohm.

347. Fuse protection is used for current ratings up to

(A) 10 A

(B) 20 A

(C) 50 A

 (D) 100 A

348. Reasons for sparking of commutator

Following is a brief rundown of the more common causes of sparking, along with suggestions for their diagnosis and
treatment.

Brush Holders not equally spaced:

This condition may appear as unequal sparking on different holders. It can be determined by counting the number of
bars between holders or by putting a band of paper around the commutator, marking the positions of the brush toes,
removing the paper, and measuring the distance marks. To correct, move the brush holders so that adjacent holders
are all equally distant from one another.

Brush holders off electrical neutral:

Even though the holders are equally spaced, they may be out of their correct position and cause sparking which may
be equally severe on all brushes of the same polarity. This fault can be detected by running a field form curve. The
trouble may be corrected by shifting the brushes.

Brush Holders damaged or dirty:

Any physical damage to the holder or an accumulation of dirt on its inside may interfere with the free motion of the
brush in the holder and thus result in sparking. Since the commutator is seldom perfectly round or concentric, the
brush must movie in and out of its holder in order to maintain effective contact. Visual examination and testing the free
action of the brush with the fingers are usually sufficient to reveal this condition. Thorough cleaning or complete
replacement will improve operation.

Holders too far from commutator surface:

If the holder is too far from the surface of the commutator, it fails to support or guide the brush properly. This may
result in the brush cocking in the holder and binding, or the brush vibrating and losing contact with the
commutator. The obvious remedy is to adjust the brush holders so that their nearest point is 1/16 to 1/8 in. from the
commutator surface, depending on the type of machine.

Wrong interpole strength:

This may be caused by a flaw in the interpole winding such as a broken wipe or short circuit, or by incorrect spacing of
the pole face in relation to the armature. In either event, repair or correction may be facilitated through use of field form
and brush drop curves.

Overloads:

Excessive overloads may result in severe sparking, especially if the interpoles have passed their saturation point and
are therefore, unable to increase their strength as required. If the machine has an ammeter, compare its load with the
nameplate rating. Make any load adjustments necessary.

Defective armature windings:

And defect in the windings may show up as sparking at the brushes. It will frequently also be apparent by one or more
burned places on the commutator. Check for high-resistance connections where the risers are soldered or brazed to
the commutator or for poor connections in one or more of the equalizers. Remember, though, that any other fault in the
armature may also show up as sparking. Where other tests verify an armature fault, the winding must be replaced.

Incorrect spring pressure:

Contact drop of a brush is influenced by the pressure with which it is forced against the commutator. If the pressure
varies from brush to brush, those brushes carrying a higher pressure will have a lower contact drop and will tend to
take more than their share of the current. This can sometimes be determined by checking the temperature of the
brushes immediately after shutting down the machine. If this fault is suspected, check the spring pressure on each
brush with a scale. Adjust to the level recommended by the manufacturer.

Poor undercutting of commutator:

If the commutator has high mica or fins of mica that reach up to the brush surface, vibration and sparking may result.
Similarly, any burrs of copper left as a result of the undercutting operation will cause trouble. In some locations and
atmospheres, commutator slots may become filled with foreign material. This can cause the brushes to vibrate or
cause ring fire by permitting current to leak through from one bar to the other. Correction of these conditions is the
solution to the problem.

Foreign material on commutator surface:

 Any gummy or gritty material which sticks to the commutator surface may cause sparking. Oil may be beneficial in
extremely small quantities but frequently causes gumming when used excessively. Careful examination of the
commutator will usually disclose such conditions. Thorough cleaning is recommended.

Black commutator films:

Abnormally dark commutators may result from sulfur, excessive humidity and other gaseous materials. This condition
may cause selective action and result in sparking on the heavily-loaded brushes. Solution of the problem may be
difficult when commutator speeds are too high. A rather abrasive brush may be the answer. In other cases, frequent
polishing of the commutator may be required.

Brushes binding in holder:

When brushes are not of the correct size or when brush hardware projects too far at some point, brushes may bind in
their holders. Damage to holders may also cause binding. If the brushes are too tight in the holders, their proper motion
will be restricted so that they cannot maintain contact with the commutator and sparking may result. If they are too
small, they may wobble in the holders and thus tend to break contact with the commutator and bring about the same
result.The specific cause of binding should be determined and eliminated by repair or replacement.

Restricted brush motion:

Brush motion may be restricted because of shunt stiffness or by contact with some other member. Similarly, something
may interfere with the motion of the spring itself or with the hammer by which the spring applies its pressure to the
brush. Mechanical adjustment will usually correct these conditions.

Out-of-round commutator:

The commutator may be out-of-round of eccentric because of improper finishing. As a consequence, the brush may not
be able to follow the surface and maintain proper contact. Careful measurements, preferably made with the armature
rotated, will usually disclose this defect.

High bars or flat spots:

These conditions can usually be identified by careful examination of the commutator when it is not running. A high bar
will usually be polished and followed by several bars which look rough and pitted or burned. The high bar will usually
result in a flat spot because it lifts the brush off the commutator and the following bars may be burned so that their
height is reduced. To correct, the commutator should be ground or turned. If the trouble develops again, the
commutator probably needs tightening by an expert.

Machine vibration:

Vibration of the machine itself may cause brush sparking and eventually result in commutator damage. Such vibration
may be caused by imbalance in the armature, by poor foundations or other mechanical faults. It can also result from
defective bearings. Pinpointing the cause of vibration will indicate the corrective course to follow.

349. Explain marpol annex 5, what is your concern.

The revised Annex V now generally prohibits the discharge of all garbage into the sea, except as provided otherwise in
regulations 4, 5, and 6 of the Annex, which are related to food waste, cargo residues, cleaning agents and additives and
animal carcasses.
 Under the revised MARPOL Annex V, garbage includes all kinds of food, domestic and operational waste, all plastics,
cargo residues, incinerator ashes, cooking oil, fishing gear, and animal carcasses generated during the normal
operation of the ship and liable to be disposed of continuously or periodically. Garbage does not include fresh fish and
parts thereof generated as a result of fishing activities undertaken during the voyage, or as a result of aquaculture
activities.

The effectiveness of ships to comply with the discharge requirements of MARPOL depends largely upon the availability
of adequate port reception facilities, especially within special areas. Hence, the Annex also obliges Governments to
ensure the provision of adequate reception facilities at ports and terminals for the reception of garbage without causing
undue delay to ships, and according to the needs of the ships using them.

Special areas

The special areas established under Annex V are:

 the Mediterranean Sea area

 the Baltic Sea area
 the Black Sea area
 the Red Sea area
 the Gulfs area
 the North Sea area
 the Wider Caribbean Region and
 the Antarctic area.
These are sea areas where for recognized technical reasons relating to their oceanographic and ecological condition
and the particular character of traffic, such as heavy maritime traffic, low water exchange, extreme ice states,
endangered marine species, etc., the adoption of special mandatory methods for the prevention of marine pollution by
garbage is required.

Garbage management plans

All ships of 100 gross tonnage and above, every ship certified to carry 15 persons or more, and every fixed or floating
platform will have to carry a garbage management plan, which includes written procedures for minimizing, collecting,
storing, processing and disposing of garbage, including the use of the equipment on board (regulation 10.2). The
garbage management plan should designate the person responsible for the plan and should be in the working language
of the crew.

Garbage Record Book

Implementation and enforcement is also the focus of regulation 10.3, which requires all ships of 400 gross tonnage and
above and every ship which is certified to carry 15 persons or more engaged in voyages to ports and offshore terminals
under the jurisdiction of another Party to the Convention and every fixed or floating platform to provide a Garbage
Record Book and to record all disposal and incineration operations.

The date, time, position of the ship, description of the garbage and the estimated amount incinerated or discharged
must be logged and signed. The Garbage Record Book must be kept for a period of two years after the date of the last
entry. This regulation does not in itself impose stricter requirements - but it makes it easier to check that the
regulations on garbage are being adhered to as it means ship personnel must keep track of the garbage and what
happens to it.

An ETO’s concern is with regards to disposal of used Batteries, Bulbs and Tubelights, Cables, Packing materials.

350. Two generators on load one is drawing more current, explain n give reason.

To parallel two generators, voltages should be matched prior to closing the breaker to minimize the current surge at
breaker closing. With voltages balanced and 100 Amperes load, each generator will supply its share of the load. If G2
 voltage is increased, its output current will try to increase. This increase will cause a voltage droop, which counteracts
the voltage increase.

Voltage droop is the intentional loss in output voltage from a device as it drives a load. Employing droop in
a voltage regulation circuit increases the headroom for load transients.

G1 will see its output current decrease, resulting in a droop circuit action to increase voltage. The result is a load
balance control action that works to hold loading balanced when two or more generators are operating in parallel.

Reactive loads between generators can become unbalanced when the voltage regulator varies the excitation to the
generator exciter field due to load changes, prime mover speed variation, thermal drift, etc. This change in
excitation may cause large ―circulating currents‖ to flow between generators.

Circulating Currents This causes the generator with the higher field excitation to try and power the generator with
the lower field excitation in an effort to force the generator to have the same output voltage as the generator with
the higher excitation.

Reactive loads between generators can become unbalanced when the voltage regulator varies the excitation to the
generator exciter field due to load changes, prime mover speed variation, thermal drift, etc. This change in
excitation may cause large ―circulating currents‖ to flow between generators (Figure 20). Figure 20: Circulating
Currents This causes the generator with the higher field excitation to try and power the generator with the lower
field excitation in an effort to force the generator to have the same output voltage as the generator with the higher
excitation.

An analogy of how one generator tries to power another generator with circulating currents can be compared to
two water pipes of equal diameter feeding into one pipe. When the two water pipes have the same water pressure,
both water pipes will be supplying the same amount of water to the common water pipe (Figure 21A). If one water
pipe suddenly lost a small amount of pressure, the second water pipe would begin to supply more water to the
common pipe to help maintain the water flow (Figure 21B). Also, because the water pressure in the second water
pipe is now greater than the first water pipe, water will begin to flow from the second water pipe to the first water
pipe in effort to force the water pressure to be the same as the second pipe.

351. Role of voltage regulator during parallel operation

PARALLEL OPERATION AND THE VOLTAGE REGULATOR

An example to illustrate the effect of the voltage regulator on the generator system can be seen using two batteries
and a load. In Figure 1 below, two batteries with voltages exactly equal (open circuit) could divide load equally, with
each battery pulling its share. If the two voltages are not exactly equal, the load will not be shared equally, and the
benefit of two batteries will be lost.

Figure 1: Paralleled Batteries - Equal Voltage

In Figure 2, the battery with an output voltage of 102 (B2) will determine the load voltage, and the load sees a
proportionally higher current. Battery B1 is being charged by B2 at a 5 ampere rate because its terminal voltage is
lower. This charging current is obviously not proportional to the voltage level and results in a load current on B2 in
excess of 6 Amperes.
Figure 2: Paralleled Batteries - Unequal

Voltage In Figure 3, B1 is higher in voltage than B2 by 2 volts, causing B1 to supply the load and charge B2 for a
total load current of 6 Amperes.

Figure 3: Paralleled Batteries - Unequal Voltage

Please note that the voltage referred to in the diagrams is the open-circuit voltage. As soon as the batteries are
paralleled, the voltage at the terminals of the batteries becomes identical. Two generators operating in parallel to
supply a common load operate in a similar manner. If voltage (open-circuit) is exactly the same on both generators,
they will divide the load equally between them. See Figure 4. Any difference between generator voltages will result
in unbalanced load division and circulating current (Figure 5).

Figure 4: Paralleled Generators Figure 6: Paralleled Generators

Balanced Voltage Voltage Unbalanced

In practice, the precise matching of voltages is not possible. Some means must be provided to make load sharing
between paralleled generators simple to control. Because circulating current or load unbalance described above is
 the result of voltage mismatch, you might look to the voltage regulator for some help. The regulator can provide
this help using paralleling compensation circuits called reactive droop compensation or reactive crosscurrent
compensation.

Using a regulator designed to maintain precise voltage regulation, a circuit is added that accepts a current signal
from the generator‘s output. This current signal is combined with the generator‘s sensing voltage signal to develop
a vector summed voltage proportional to reactive load. For example, if voltage decreases from 480 volts down to
458 voltage from no load to rated reactive (kvar) load, the voltage droop is -4.3% droop. If two generators are
operated in parallel, with their droop curves set the same and their voltage setpoints adjusted to proportionally
share the reactive load, any unbalance that would increase the load on one machine and decrease the load on the
other would cause the droop circuits to change the voltage setpoints in a direction to bring the load back into
balance. With droop compensation, the bus voltage will droop with changing reactive load.

By building this characteristic into the regulator of each generator operating in parallel, sharing of the load is
controllable and uncomplicated.

With voltages balanced and 100 Amperes load, each generator will supply its share of the load. If G2 voltage is
increased, its output current will try to increase. This increase will cause a voltage droop, which counteracts the
voltage increase. G1 will see its output current decrease, resulting in a droop circuit action to increase voltage. The
result is a load balance control action that works to hold loading balanced when two or more generators are
operating in parallel.

352. What are the variables to be controlled for load sharing?

To parallel ac generators, two variables, voltage and torque must be controlled properly. Torque applied to the
generator must be controlled in order to divide real power (kilowatts); excitation to the generator must be
controlled to divide the reactive power.

Real power is work done by the electrical energy of the generator. This power is supplied by the prime mover in the
form of torque. The generator converts mechanical torque to electrical energy. This energy is supplied to a load to
be converted to the desired form of energy, such as heat, light, mechanical energy (motor), etc. Reactive power is
that power required by loads with inductance or capacitance to store energy on each half cycle.

353. What is Real power and Reactive power?

Real power is work done by the electrical energy of the generator. This power is supplied by the prime mover in the
form of torque. The generator converts mechanical torque to electrical energy. This energy is supplied to a load to
be converted to the desired form of energy, such as heat, light, mechanical energy (motor), etc. Reactive power is
that power required by loads with inductance or capacitance to store energy on each half cycle. In the example of
Figure 10, the load is purely resistive, such as a heating element. Because no reactive power is required at any
point on the sine wave, current is directly proportional to the voltage at that point. The real power can be calculated
using Ohm‘s Law.

Figure 10: Resistive Load

If an inductance is connected to the generator output, the relationship between voltage and current is different. The
inductor will not allow current to flow without first building up lines of flux in its magnetic circuit. Thus, the current
through the inductor is proportional to voltage, but the current lags the voltage by 90 electrical degrees.
 The capacitor, on the other hand, will not allow voltage across its terminals until some charge has been deposited
on its plates For this reason, the current must flow before a voltage can exist. Thus the capacitor current leads the
voltage by 90 electrical degrees.
354. What is ARC flash in high voltage equipment.

An arc flash (also called a flashover), which is distinctly different from the arc blast, is part of an arc fault, a type
of electrical explosion or discharge that results from a low-impedance connection through air to ground or another
voltage phase in an electrical system

An arc flash is the light and heat produced from an electric arc supplied with sufficient electrical energy to cause
substantial damage, harm, fire, or injury. Electrical arcs experience negative incremental resistance, which causes
the electrical resistance to decrease as the arc temperature increases. Therefore, as the arc develops and gets
hotter the resistance drops, drawing more and more current (runaway) until some part of the system melts, trips, or
[1]
evaporates, providing enough distance to break the circuit and extinguish the arc. Electrical arcs, when well
controlled and fed by limited energy, produce very bright light, and are used in arc lamps (enclosed, or with open
electrodes), for welding, plasma cutting, and other industrial applications. Welding arcs can easily turn steel into a
liquid with an average of only 24 DC volts. When an uncontrolled arc forms at high voltages, and especially where
large supply-wires or high-amperage conductors are used, arc flashes can produce deafening noises, supersonic
concussive-forces, super-heatedshrapnel, temperatures far greater than the Sun's surface, and intense, high-
energy radiation capable of vaporizing nearby materials.
[2]
Arc flash temperatures can reach or exceed 35,000 °F (19,400 °C) at the arc terminals. The massive energy
released in the fault rapidly vaporizes the metal conductors involved, blasting molten metal and
[2]
expanding plasma outward with extraordinary force. A typical arc flash incident can be inconsequential but could
conceivably easily produce a more severe explosion (see calculation below). The result of the violent event can
cause destruction of equipment involved, fire, and injury not only to an electrical worker but also to bystanders.

Arc Flash is the result of a rapid release of energy due to an arcing fault between a phase bus bar and another
phase bus bar, neutral or a ground. During an arc fault the air is the conductor. Arc faults are generally limited to
systems where the bus voltage is in excess of 120 volts. Lower voltage levels normally will not sustain an arc. An
arc fault is similar to the arc obtained during electric welding and the fault has to be manually started by something
creating the path of conduction or a failure such as a breakdown in insulation.

The cause of the short normally burns away during the initial flash and the arc fault is then sustained by the
establishment of a highly-conductive plasma. The plasma will conduct as much energy as is available and is only
limited by the impedance of the arc. This massive energy discharge burns the bus bars, vaporizing the copper and
thus causing an explosive volumetric increase, the arc blast, conservatively estimated, as an expansion of 40,000
to 1. This fiery explosion devastates everything in its path, creating deadly shrapnel as it dissipates.

The arc fault current is usually much less than the available bolted fault current and below the rating of circuit
breakers. Unless these devices have been selected to handle the arc fault condition, they will not trip and the full
force of an arc flash will occur. The electrical equation for energy is volts x current x time. The transition from arc
fault to arc flash takes a finite time, increasing in intensity as the pressure wave develops. The challenge is to
sense the arc fault current and shut off the voltage in a timely manner before it develops into a serious arc flash
condition

355. What is the Safe distance from high voltage equipment

Column 1
Voltage
Column 2
Minimum approach distance for working close to exposed electrical equipment or conductors
Phase to phase
Metres
Feet
Over 750 V to 75 kV
3
10
Over 75 kV to 250 kV
4.5
15
Over 250 kV to 550 kV
6
20

356. What should be the minimum distance between busbars in a switchboard?

 Clearance between Bare Busbars in Panels (NES408.5)

Voltage upto125V

When opposite polarity Mounted on same surface =19.1 mm

Opposite polarity where held free in air =12.7 mm

Live Parts to ground =12.7mm

Voltage 125V to250V

When opposite polarity Mounted on same surface =31.8 mm

Opposite polarity where held free in air =19.1 mm

Live Parts to ground =12.7 mm

Voltage 250V to600V

When opposite polarity Mounted on same surface =50.8 mm

Opposite polarity where held free in air =25.4 mm

Live Parts to ground =25.4mm

357. What is a DeadFront Switchboard?

DEAD-FRONT SWITCHBOARD - A switchboard which has no exposed live parts on the front.
358. MSB Survey requirements.
 The surveyor will require that main and emergency generators are clean, respond correctly to controls
and load changes, and show stable operation when required to run in parallel with other generators.
 A visual examination of circuit-breakers in main, emergency and section boards will usually precede
operational tests.
 The surveyor will particularly check the condition of main, arcing and auxiliary contacts for signs of
wear, misalignment and overheating. A similar inspection of fixed and moving isolator contacts at the
rear of a circuit-breaker will be made.
 Arc chutes must be clean, free of arc debris and correctly aligned. All internal wiring should be in good
condition and its end connections must be tight. All mechanical linkages will be checked for any signs
of wear or stress.
 Tests on a circuit-breaker will include close and trip operations while in its isolated position (i.e. not
connected in circuit). The racking mechanism for moving the breaker from the service to the isolated
position must be demonstrated to be free moving and the fixed main terminals must be seen to be
shuttered off when the breaker is withdrawn. Emergency hand charging (if fitted) of the closing spring
will be tested. Correct operation of the mechanical indicators to show whether the breaker is open,
closed or isolated, is required.
 The undervoltage release mechanism and overcurrent trip settings for level and time delay may have
to be demonstrated to the surveyor's satisfaction. An overcurrent trip for a generator breaker is
typically set for 130% of full load current (FLC) with a typical time delay of 3 s, but this has to suit the
thermal capacity of the generator and be co-ordinated with the overall protection scheme for the power
system.
 Although the overcurrent and time delay settings on the breaker can be seen to be correctly adjusted
to the desired values, only a proper current injection test will prove these settings against the
manufacturer's I/t characteristics. In this test the circuit-breaker is isolated from the busbar and a set
 of calibrated currents from a current injection set are fed directly through the closed circuit-breaker
(primary injection) or (more usually) through the overcurrent relay (secondary injection). This is
generally a specialist task for an outside contractor

1
Circuit-breaker time delay mechanisms with oil dash pots must have the pots filled to Site correct
level with clean oil of a type recommended by the manufacturer.
 An obvious survey requirement for any switchboard, section board or distribution board is that they
are clean. This includes all internal surfaces as well as the external panel surfaces, instrument faces
and control switches. A thorough cleaning job on the inside of the main switchboard can only be
safely carried out when the board is completely dead (all generators stopped and prime movers
locked-off).
 All the main bus-bar and auxiliary connections throughout the boards should be checked for tightness
during the dead period of a major internal clean up. Overheating signs at a connection junction are
probably due to a loose joint. Direct heat testing on load with an infra-red thermal camera is now a
very useful technique for locating hot-spots
 Bus-bar supports will be examined for surface tracking and damage to the insulation material. All
internal wiring within the switchboard panels must be securely fixed. Cable entries at the bottom of the
switchboard should be sealed with a non-flammable material to exclude dirt and act as a fire stop.
 The main switchboard earth bar must be securely bonded to both the frame of the board and, of
course, to the ship's hull. One secondary terminal of each current transformer (CT) and the metal
cases of instruments and relays should be wired to the main earth bar. Hinged panel doors should be
bonded with an earth strap to the main switchboard frame.

Before main switchboards are given authorisation to be energised by ACT Government electrical
inspectors, the following summary of the Wiring Rules requirements must be complied with:

The switchboard must:

 be fixed permanently in position and installed to meet the requirements of AS/NZS 3000:2007 Clause
2.9 of the Wiring Rules
 be installed in a suitable well-ventilated place
 be protected against the effects of moisture and dust
 have clear access – access must not be obstructed by contents of the building or by fittings and
fixtures within the building
 have all doors installed
 be labelled and main earth and bond locations marked
 have all labels in place as required by the Wiring Rules for safety services
 be 100% complete
 have all penetrations filled for fire sealing and vermin.
359. Earth leakage monitoring principle.
If any current leaks from any electrical installation, there must-be any insulation failure in the electrical circuit, it
must be properly detected and prevented otherwise there may be a high chance of electrical shock if-anyone
touches the installation. An earth leakage circuit breaker does it efficiently. Means it detects the earth leakage
current and makes the power supply off by opening the associated circuit breaker. There are two types of earth
leakage circuit breaker, one is voltage ELCB and other is current ELCB.

Voltage Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker

The working principle of voltage ELCB is quite simple. One terminal of the relay coil is connected to the metal body
of the equipment to be protected against earth leakage and other terminal is connected to the earth directly. If any
insulation failure occurs or live phase wire touches the metal body, of the equipment, there must be a voltage
difference appears across the terminal of the coil connected to the equipment body and earth. This voltage
difference produces a current to flow the relay coil.

If the voltage difference crosses, a predetermined limit, the current through the relay becomes sufficient to actuate
the relay for tripping the associated circuit breaker to disconnect the power supply to the equipment. The typicality
of this device is, it can detect and protect only that equipment or installation with which it is attached. It cannot
detect any leakage of insulation in other installation of the system.

Current ELCB or RCCB or Residual Current Circuit Breaker

The working principle of current earth leakage circuit breaker or RCCB is also very simple as voltage operated
ELCB but the theory is entirely different and residual current circuit breaker is more sensitive than ELCB. Actually,
ELCBs are of two kinds, but it is general practice to refer voltage based ELCB as simple ELCB. And current based
ELCB is referred as RCD or RCCB. Here one CT core is energized from both phase wise and neutral wire.

Single Phase Residual Current Circuit Breaker or Current ELCB

The polarity of the phase winding and neutral winding on the core is so chosen that, in normal condition mmf of
one winding opposes that of another. As it is assumed that, in normal operating conditions the current goes
 through the phase wire will be returned via neutral wire if there's no leakage in between. As both currents are same,
the resultant mmf produced by these two currents is also zero-ideally. The relay coil is connected with another
third winding wound on the CT core as secondary.

Three Phase Residual Current Circuit Breaker or Current ELCB

In normal operating condition there would not be any current circulating in the third winding as here is no flux in
the core due to equal phase and neutral current. When any earth leakage occurs in the equipment, there may be
part of phase current passes to the earth, through the leakage path instead of returning via neutral wire. Hence the
magnitude of the neutral current passing through the RCCB is not equal to phase current passing through it.

When this difference crosses a predetermined value, the current in the third secondary winding of the core
becomes sufficiently high to actuate the electromagnetic relay attached to it.

This relay causes tripping of the associated circuit breaker to disconnect the power supply to the equipment under
protection. Residual current circuit breaker is sometimes also referred as residual current device (RCD) when we
consider the device by disassociating the circuit breaker attached to RCCB. That means, the entire parts of RCCB
except circuit breaker are referred as RCD.

 The supply coil, the neutral coil and the search coil all wound on a common transformer core.

 On a healthy circuit the same current passes through the phase coil, the load and return back through the

neutral coil. Both the phase and the neutral coils are wound in such a way that they will produce an opposing
 magnetic flux. With the same current passing through both coils, their magnetic effect will cancel out under a

healthy circuit condition.

 In a situation when there is fault or a leakage to earth in the load circuit, or anywhere between the load circuit

and the output connection of the RCB circuit, the current returning through the neutral coil has been reduced.

Then the magnetic flux inside the transformer core is not balanced anymore. The total sum of the opposing

magnetic flux is no longer zero. This net remaining flux is what we call a residual flux.

 The periodically changing residual flux inside the transformer core crosses path with the winding of the search

coil. This action produces an electromotive force (e.m.f.) across the search coil. An electromotive force is

actually an alternating voltage. The induced voltage across the search coil produces a current inside the wiring

of the trip circuit. It is this current that operates the trip coil of the circuit breaker. Since the trip current is driven

by the residual magnetic flux (the resulting flux, the net effect between both fluxes) between the phase and the

neutral coils, it is called the residual current devise.

 With a circuit breaker incorporated as part of the circuit, the assembled system is called residual current circuit

breaker (RCCB) or residual current devise (RCD). The incoming current has to pass through the circuit breaker

first before going to the phase coil. The return neutral path passes through the second circuit breaker pole.

During tripping when a fault is detected, both the phase and neutral connection is isolated.

360. Viscosity meter working and viscosity of fuel oil

Viscosity- the resistance of a fluid to shear or tensile stress- is an indispensable measurement in fluid analysis.
Viscosity can be thought of as a resistance to flow, with highly viscous fluids being more resistant to flow.
Understanding the role of viscosity, and measuring it, is key to correctly analyzing many engineering situations.

Viscosity of fuel oil depends on the grade of oil. If the viscosity of the fuel oil and its viscosity index are on the
higher side, it would lead to more difficulty in achieving atomization state and poor combustion inside the engine
cylinder

Viscosity: In simple term, it can be defines as ‗resistance to the flow of the fluid offered by its internal layers due to
internal frictions‘. It is measured in centi-stokes (cst).
Less the viscosity, lesser the resistance to flow and the fuel can be easily atomized.

Viscosity index: It is an important factor in selecting any kind of oil, fuel or lube oil. It‘s the measure of change of
viscosity of oil with variation in temperature.

Since fuel oil is heated to achieve proper atomization, it should have proper VI. If it‘s on the higher side, it will be
difficult to alter the viscosity of oil by heater.

Atomisation
It is the process of breaking the fuel particle into fine mist spray under high pressure to improve the surface area of
contact of fuel and air for proper combustion.

The viscosity of the marine bunker HFO fuel when supplied at 50 deg C varies from 180cst to 380 cst. The fuel is
heated and the viscosity of the fuel is reduced to 13~15 cst at the time of injection in the engine by means of
electrical or steam heaters or both.

The viscosity to the high pressure fuel oil pump has to be maintained approximately at 13 cst to achieve efficient
combustion.
A viscotherm or viscometer is used to measure the viscosity of fuel oil at the fuel injection system of the engine.

Construction and Working of Viscosity meter

It consists of a capillary tube inside of which a gear pump is fitted which rotates at very slow rpm (say 40 rpm).
There is an out side casing provided for the capillary tube.

When the oil passes through the casing, some part of the oil pass through the gear pump and its capillary, and
some part of the oil passes over the capillary tube. Hence a flow difference occurs inside the casing. The oil inside
the tube maintains a laminar flow and outside the tube maintains a turbulent flow.
A continuous sample of the fuel is pumped at a constant rate through a fine capillary tube. As the flow through the
tube is laminar, pressure drop across the tube is proportional to viscosity.

The pressure difference between outside and inside of the tube is measured which is directly proportional to the
viscosity of the oil.

Viscosity Controller
The viscosity controllers acts as the controller of the 3 way valve from which steam is passed into the heater or
bypassed from the heater as per the position of the control valve.

A 3-way valve has 2 openings in which one is inlet and 2 are outlet. One outlet goes through the heater and one
outlet is connected to a bypass line of heater.
When the set value and measured values are same, no signal is given to control valve and valve position remains
same. More of the steam bypasses the heater.
When the measured value decreases, the output signal opens the control valve to steam side so that more steam is
supplied and viscosity can be brought down.
It is important to have a better grade of marine fuel oil with proper viscosity index for maintaining proper efficiency
of engine and to reduce wear down of the fuel injection parts.

A differential pressure transmitter shown below provides an analogue of viscosity to a pneumatic controller, which
regulates the supply of fuel heating steam through a control valve.
 Viscochief MKII Viscosity Control System

System working principle :The EVT20 viscosity sensor continuously monitors the viscosity of the fuel oil being fed
to the engine. This measurement is compared with a set value stored in the EPC50V control unit. The control unit
then regulates the heater to raise or lower the fuel oil temperature to maintain the required oil viscosity.

When installed with a HEATPAC EHS electric heater, the EPC50V control unit regulates the heater through
connection with the HEATPAC power unit.

In a system equipped with a steam heater, the Viscochief MKII system regulates a motor-driven valve. Remote
position indication of a steam-regulating valve is available as an option.

The Viscochief MKII system can also be equipped with a combination of the HEATPAC EHS and steam or thermal
oil heaters from Alfa Laval, where the EPC50V uses the steam/thermal heater to provide the base temperature load.

When the maximum steam capacity is reached and additional heating is required to maintain the injection
viscosity at setpoint, the EPC50V turns on the HEATPAC EHS electric heater to reach the required temperature and
viscosity.

The Viscochief MKII system can be operated in three modes:

• Marine diesel oil (MDO) mode.

• Heavy fuel oil (HFO) mode.
• Manual operation of steam/thermal heater or electric heater.

361. VFD working with Braking Resistors

Braking Resistors are used in Variable Frequency Drives to dissipate the energy released by the motor into the
power system. The Braking Resistors perform the duty of absorbing the power from the rotor when the VFD
 reduces the speed to zero and preventing rotor heating. They also prevent the rotor from exceeding the
synchronous speed set by the Variable frequency drive.

A variable Frequency drive consists of three main components - the rectfier which converts the AC supply into DC,
the DC busbars and the inverter which converts the DC supply into a variable AC supply. The VFD varies the speed
of the motor by varying the frequency of the AC supply applied at the motor terminals.

When the motor is required to be stopped suddenly, the Variable frequency drive reduces the supply frequency to 0
HZ. In this condition, the rotor is rotating at speed higher than the synchronous speed. This causes the motor to
behave like a generator and send power in the reverse direction, into the DC bus bars. During this time, the voltage
across the DC busbars can rise to very highlevels. The braking resistors absorb power in this situation and
prevent the voltage from rising beyond limit and damaging the Drive.

The value of the resistances determines the rate of fall of the motor speed (braking).

Special provision is made for cooling the resistors which can generate a huge amount of heat when in operation.

362. What is TLV. Testing of gas before entering pumproom.

The threshold limit value (TLV) is the maximum concentration of a hazardous material to which a worker can be
exposed day after day for a working lifetime without adverse health effects.

The operation of oil tankers involved numerous hazards. Prior entering in a pump room following basic preparation
should be taken into account.

Entry Permit into Enclosed Space

Whenever entering the pump room, ―Procedures for Entry into Enclosed Spaces‖ must be complied with and the
Master‘s permission must be obtained, ―Enclosed Space Entry Permit‖

he ventilation fans shall be kept running in exhaust mode for the entire duration of validity of the permit. However,
the designated responsible person (duty officer or chief officer) shall monitor such pump room entries.

Entry Control
All entries into the pump room shall be recorded, with the below ‗Notice‘ confirmations. They shall include the
names / ranks of persons and times of entry and exit. Such record shall be with the duty officer manning the Cargo
 Control Room (during operations) or on the Navigational Bridge (during Navigation)

Atmosphere Control
Prior to pump room entry the space must be tested for Oxygen (at least 21%), Explosive gases (HC LEL= less than
1% LEL) and Toxic vapors (Nil). The ventilation fans shall not be stopped until all personnel have left the pump
room.

Effective communication
Regular communication checks should be made at pre-agreed intervals and failure to respond should be a cause to
raise the alarm.

Gas Monitoring
At times where cargo movement within the pipelines is expected or regular personnel entry for routine inspections
are expected, then such portable gas measuring instruments shall be kept in a state of readiness at the entrance of
pump room, with detecting hose leading to the bottom floor. However, only if a fixed gas detection system is fitted,
is correctly calibrated and tested regularly and can provide % LEL readings to a level of accuracy equivalent to
portable gas instruments at representative locations, then such fixed equipment can be used to provide and
continuously monitor the safe entry within the pump room.

363. What are the standard pump room procedures?

Ventilation fans must be started prior to switching on the pump room lighting.

Only approved lighting shall be used in the pump room and shall be maintained in proper condition.

Steel drums containing equipment and clean rags must be stowed over suitable wooden dunnage to prevent
formation of sparks. All storage drums must be provided with suitable lids.

Keep clean / clear in Pump Room

The pump room shall be visually inspected for oil and trash (rags) regularly. Pump room bilges should be kept and
maintained clean and dry. Any oil and trash discovered in the pump room bilges must be removed and disposed
correctly, as soon as practicable and possible. Storage of oil / substances in pump room likely to spontaneously
ignite or emanate vapors should be avoided.

Maintenance Work in Pump Room

During maintenance work in the pump room including pumps, valves, strainers, etc., strict attention must be paid
to the possible presence or development of flammable or toxic vapors.

Rescue equipment shall be maintained and kept in a state of readiness.

Notice shall be posted outside Pump Room as follows:

a. ―No entry without prior permission‖

b. Prior entry, ensure:
i. Ventilation exhaust is running
ii. Proper Lighting / illumination
iii. Personal Gas Meter
iv. Communication link with duty officer
v. Atmosphere checks (Oxygen-21%, HC gas-Nil, Toxic gases-Nil)

A multi-gas personnel detector shall be carried while being in Pump Room. Any warning from such unit indicates
to evacuate immediately.
364. What are the basic Battery maintenance procedures?

The electrolyte level in the batteries should be kept just above the top of the plate.
In case of reduction in the level due to evaporation or chemical reaction, distilled water should be added.
The battery should be kept clean and dry.
There shouldn‘t be any dirt deposits on the battery neither spilled electrolyte remains on the casing.
Spilled electrolyte leads to flowing of stray currents, discharge of battery and also corrosion.
All the battery terminals should be kept clean and applied with petroleum jelly.
The small vents in the cell caps should also be cleared off.
Cell voltage reading must also be taken during discharging, at regular intervals of time.
Specific gravity should not be allowed to fall below 1.225 because sulfation starts to set in destroying the plates

Measuring charge/voltage
In order to measure the condition of a battery, normally two parameters are taken, specific gravityand voltage. The
specific gravity is measured using a hydrometer while the latter is obviously measured using a voltage meter.

This specific gravity reading is related to the charge of thebattery and must be corrected for the temperature of the
electrolyte. For example, the approximate value of a fully charged lead-acid battery is 1.280 at 15 degree Celsius.

Apart from checking the specific gravity, you also need to the check the voltage. Normally the battery would show a
voltage which is slightly above its rated voltage. E.g. a battery of 12 V should show nearly 12.6 approx in order to
indicate that it is fully charged. A value near to the actual rated value or slightly less (say 11.9 V) certainly indicates
a discharged condition.
State of Charge
Specific Gravity
Voltage

12V
6V
100%
1.265
12.7
6.3
75%
1.225
12.4
6.2
50%
1.190
12.2
6.1
25%
1.155
12.0
6.0
Discharged
1.120
11.9
6.0

365. How to check whether a maintenance free battery is fully charged?

366. Foam system. Which type of foam is used (Low or high)? Ratio of expansion.

CATEGORIES OF FOAM SYTEMS :

Low Expansion Foams • expansion ratio of 12:1 when mixed with air • effective in controlling and
extinguishing most flammable liquid (Class ―B‖) fires • typically used on tanker deck foam systems

Mid Expansion Foams • expansion ratio of between about 20:1 to 100:1 • truly three dimensional; it is measured
in length, width, height, and cubic feet

High-expansion foam • designed for fires in confined spaces • Heavier than air but lighter than oil or water.

Low-expansion foams have an expansion rate less than 20 times. Low-expansion foams such as AFFF are low-
viscosity, mobile, and able to quickly cover large areas.

Medium-expansion foams have an expansion ratio of 20–100.

High-expansion foams have an expansion ratio over 200–1000. They are suitable for enclosed spaces such as
hangars, where quick filling is needed.

High-expansion foams are used when an enclosed space, engine roomfire. Where foam must be quickly filled.
Low-expansion foams are used on burning spills for Deck fire fighting.

System Description:. All foam systems, consist of a water supply, foam liquid storage, a proportioning device
and a distribution system. The water supply pump(s) provide(s) a certain capacity of seawater to the deck foam
system, and is/are supplied by the ship‘s fire pumps. The foam liquid is stored in a tank. The tank must be
complete with vent, contents gauge, and access manhole. The foam is delivered via a high pressure foam
liquid pump to the automatic foam liquid proportionator, which will accurately proportionate foam liquid at 3%
to 6% to the seawater flow, irrespective of flow rate or pressure. For satisfactory operation of the
proportionator, foam liquid must be supplied with a minimum pressure of at least 10 metres head higher than
the inlet water pressure under all load conditions. The electrically driven foam liquid pump is provided for this
purpose. Foam solution is supplied to the deck monitors and hand lines by the deck main fitted with isolating
valves. Each monitor is isolated from the main supply pipe by means of butterfly valves, which are normally
closed. Four portable foam-making branch pipes are provided. Each branch pipe has a solution rate of 400
l/min

367. Type of electrical fittings on the deck of a Tanker.

certified intrinsically safe apparatus Ex(ib);

simple electrical apparatus and components (e.g. thermocouples, photocells, strain gauges, switching
devices), included in intrinsically safe circuits of category "ib" not capable of storing or generating electrical
power or energy in excess of limits stated in the relevant rules, and acceptable to the appropriate authority;

certified flameproof Ex(d);

certified pressurised Ex(p);

 certified increased safety Ex(e);

certified encapsulated Ex(m);

certified sand filled Ex(q);

certified specially Ex(s);

368. Safeties to be observed onboard a tanker

Restriction of Smoking, other Burning activities and Naked Lights: Smoking is prohibited except in designated
smoking areas. Safety Matches or fixed electrical cigarette lighters (car type) will be provided in authorized
smoking areas. Safety Matches or fixed electrical cigarette lighters (Car type) must not brought in private
cabins out side authorized smoking areas and shall under no circumstances be carried on the tank deck or
where petroleum gases may collect.

The Master shall designate & post suitable notice for smoking areas under the following conditions:

> While alongside a berth or at an off shore marine facility:

Officers Smoking Room, Crews Smoking Room and Cargo Control Room.

> At sea :
Officers Smoking Room, Crews Smoking Room, Chart Room, Bridge, Radio Office, Cargo Control Room and Engine Control
Room.

a) Smoking on the navigational bridge is prohibited in certain port limits, when pilot or port officials are onboard (eg. Australian
Waters, Panama Canal, etc)
b) The designated smoking areas must be provided with self extinguishing ash trays or filled with water.
c) The designated smoking areas must be provided with Automatic Gas Detection system and alarm.
d) Portholes and doors leading to the designated smoking areas must be closed at all times.
e) Shore facilities regulations must be observed at all times while transit & docked at the facility.

Prohibition of Using Fire except in Designated Areas and Control of Potential Ignition Sources:

At sea, the use of portable stoves and cooking appliances are to be effectively controlled. Ensure the portholes
and doors are closed and confirm the safety and the absence of hydrocarbon gas before the use of fire.

Galley stoves:

The use of galley stoves or other cooking appliances that employ naked flames are prohibited, while the tanker
is at berth.

The use of other portable electrical appliances are to be controlled.

Steam ranges may be used all the time while the vessel is at berth.
In this case, the galley personnel must be instructed and trained in emergency procedures in the safe
operation of galley equipment.
Oil / Fat fryers are to be fitted with thermostats to cut-off electrical power and so to prevent accidental fires.
Fire blankets are to be readily available.

Standards for Use of Private Electric Appliances and other Portable Electrical Equipment

Visitors should be cautioned about the restricted use of Non-Approved Type of portable electrical equipment in
the Dangerous Area on the Tanker.

Use of Electric appliances in private cabins, other than Entertainment systems, Calculators, Camera equipment
and Electric razors are prohibited.

Hand Held UHF / VHF portable transceivers must be of intrinsically safe type.

Other equipment, including, but not limited to Portable radios, Tape recorders, Electronic calculators, Portable
telephones or pagers, etc unless of Intrinsically Safe Type, shall not be used on the cargo tank deck, or in
areas where flammable gas may be present.

No Wiring without Permission:Only fixed receptacles, as initially fitted onboard, are to be used for connecting
electric appliances.

Closing Portholes and doors: With the exception of the designated authorized passage way(s), all portholes
 and doors leading to/from the accommodation must be closed in port.

To further minimize the possibility of gas entering the accommodation during cargo operations, as far as
possible the access to accommodation should be limited to the leeward side (opposite to the manifold
connection) entrance to accommodation, above the Main / Upper deck level.

Control of personnel in cargo tank deck areas:Personnel entering the cargo tank deck area, should be suitably
clothed with appropriate Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) and should be in all sobriety with respect to the
purpose.

Precautions when storing Spontaneously Combustible Materials: Materials which may cause spontaneous
combustion (saw dust, oily rags, especially oil of vegetable origin, etc). must be stored in a well ventilated area
to prevent the accumulation of flammable gases. They are liable to ignite without the external application of
heat, as a result of gradual heating within the material produced by oxidation.

Precautions against Sparks from Funnel: At sea, where sparks / burning soot are observed being emitted from
the funnel, measures to avoid such sparks falling on deck such as course alteration, where possible, should be
considered. Any special operations such as cargo tank cleaning, purging and gas freeing operations should be
ceased and all tank opening closed.

Boiler tubes should be soot blown prior to arrival and after departure from a port. Boiler tubes soot blowing
should not be carried out at berth. At sea, the officer of navigational watch should be consulted, prior to such
activity, and suitable measures adopted.

Duty deck personnel shall watch for sparks or soot emitting from the funnel.

If sparks from the funnel are observed, the duty engineer or Chief Engineer must be notified immediately.

Closure of Tank Openings:Ensure that all cargo oil tank hatches and access openings / ports are tightly closed
to prevent escape of oil and vapors.

Maintenance of Vent Line System:All P/V valves must be checked during ballast voyages to ensure proper and
safe operation. Record of maintenance shall be as per ―Maintenance Record of Cargo Oil Tanks (COT)
Pressure-Vacuum Valves‖

Metal wire mesh in flame arrestors must be inspected only during ballast voyages as per the planned
maintenance system, and kept clear of dirt and rust accumulation.

Avoidance of Thunder Storms:Navigating through thunderstorms should be avoided as far as practically

possible by changing of course while cargo related activities are carried out which may result in discharge of
flammable vapors.

Torches: Conventional torches may cause sparks and they can ignite flammable gases. Use only customised
torches (EEX-approved torches).

Metal tools :May produce sparks when in impact with other metal tools or in impact with other kinds of metal
falling

Power tools: Electrical equipment and power tools used during the cleaning of tanks or gas freeing may cause
sparks if they are not in line with requirements are defective When cleaning a tank or during gas freeing,
always use electrical equipment which is in line with regulations inform others of defects that you have found
in the equipment.

369. Static electricity on a tanker

In some conditions, static electricity may be generated in the tank. This is not necessarily dangerous because
electricity may be earthed to the ship‘s hull. If the charge remains in the tank, a metal object brought into the
tank may generate a spark. The discharge of a charge may cause sparking, which may result in an explosion.
It is prohibited to take any of the below equipment into a tank before earthing has been checked:

manual metal level measuring tapes

metal sample bottles

metal measuring sticks

unearthed mobile tank washing machines. Materials conducting electricity are like conductors

370. Difference between watertight and weather tight.

 “Watertight” means that water (or any other liquid) is not able to pass through the structure into or out of any
of the watertight compartments. In other words, “watertight” means prevention from the passage of water in
any direction. The vessel’s hull, main deck and bulkheads between watertight compartments must be
watertight. Watertight bulkheads must be watertight at least up to the main deck. Any openings on such
bulkheads must be equipped with watertight closing devices.
“Weathertight” means that water cannot penetrate into the vessel. Or in other words, weathertight means
prevention from the passage of water in one direction only. Hatches, windows and portholes must be equipped
with weathertight closing devices. The same applies for doors and other openings on enclosed
superstructures.

A watertight door prevents the passage of water when exposed to a head of water. A typical head of water for a
ship could range from 3-10metres.

. A weathertight door is designed to be located on the deck of a ship/boat above the waterline, where they can
be subject to the adverse weather conditions experienced offshore. Weathertight doors are also designed to
withstand brief submersion experienced from green seas. This means a weathertight door can withstand a
small head of water (generally no higher than the height of the door). Watertight doors are tested using a
pressure tank where a hydrostatic pressure can be applied to the door. The door is generally pressurised form
the inside as this is worst case scenario. A weathertight door is generally tested with a high pressure hose,
which is directed at the seal. In both cases no leakage can be present.

Watertight means designed and constructed to withstand a static head of water without any leakage". This
refers to structures that must withstand hydrostatic loading for extended periods of time, including the hull
bottom and sides, main deck plating, tanks, and "subdivision bulkheads". The latter are meant to contain the
spread of water that enters the hull as a result of hull breach due to collision, grounding, etc. All weldments
and penetrations of such structures are subject to strict testing requirements to ensure that no leakage occurs
under the particular design conditions of the vessel.
"Weathertight means that water will not penetrate in any sea condition". This refers generally to topside
structures subject to occasional and short exposure to water on deck, from boarding waves or wind driven rain
and spray. Regulations specify arrangement and height for weathertight appurtenances, as well as load and
welding specifications, which are generally less stringent than for watertight structures.

371. Motor enclosure types

1. Open Drip Proof (ODP) :

Allows air to circulate through the windings for cooling, but prevent drops of liquid from falling into motor
within a 15 degree angle from vertical. Typically used for indoor applications in relatively clean, dry
locations.

2. Totally Enclosed Fan Cooled (TEFC)

 Prevents the free exchange of air between the inside and outside of

the frame, but does not make the frame completely air tight. A fan is attached to the shaft and pushes air

over the frame during its operation to help in the cooling process.

The ribbed frame is designed to increase the surface area for cooling purposes.

The TEFC style enclosure is the most versatile of all. It is used on pumps, fans, compressors, general
industrial belt drive and direct connected equipment.

Totally Enclosed Non-Ventilated (TENV)

Similar to a TEFC, but has no cooling fan and relies on convention for cooling. No vent openings, tightly

enclosed to prevent the free exchange of air, but not airtight.

These are suitable for uses which are exposed to dirt or dampness, but not very moist or hazardous

(explosive) locations

Totally Enclosed Air Over (TEAO)

Dust-tight fan and blower duty motors designed for shaft mounted fans or belt

driven fans. The motor must be mounted within the airflow of the fan
Totally Enclosed Wash down (TEWD)

Designed to withstand high pressure wash-downs or other high humidity or wet environments. Available on TEAO,

TEFC and ENV enclosures totally enclosed, hostile and severe environment motors:

Designed for use in extremely moist or chemical environments, but not for hazardous locations.

Explosion-proof enclosures (EXPL)

The explosion proof motor is a totally enclosed machine and is designed to withstand an explosion of

specified gas or vapor inside the motor casing and prevent the ignition outside the motor by sparks, flashing

or explosion.

These motors are designed for specific hazardous purposes, such as atmospheres containing gases or

hazardous dusts. For safe operation, the maximum motor operating temperature must be below the ignition

temperature of surrounding gases or vapors.

Explosion proof motors are designed, manufactured and tested under the rigid requirements.

Hazardous Location (HAZ)

 Hazardous location motor applications are classified by the type of hazardous environment present, the

characteristics of the specific material creating the hazard, the probability of exposure to the environment,

and the maximum temperature level that is considered safe for the substance creating the hazard.

372. What are the various windlass safeties?

ELECTRIC:

a. Electromagnetic brake.

b. Motor overload protection.

c. Short circuit protection.

d. Restart delay timer.

MECHANICAL:

a. Manual brake / mech. Brake.

b. Cable stopper.

c. Slipping clutch (torque limiter).

d. Relief valve.

373. What are the steering gear motor safeties?

a. Overload alarm.
b. 200% insulation in motor.
c. High temperature alarm.
d. Self-starting after power failure.
e. Short circuit trip.
f. Phase failure alarm.
g. One of the steering motor is fed from the emergency bus

Hydraulic side there is two trips

a. Low level cutout
b. High lube oil temperature cutout.
374. What are the overhead crane safeties?

Current to motors field coils passes through solenoid coil of a brake which is magnetized and holds a brake
against spring and releases the rotor. Incase of power failure the solenoid is demagnetized and brake is
applied.

a. Limit switch on the fwd, aft, port, stbd, hoisting and lowering prevents movements more than the allowed
limits.

b. Overload trip.

c. Dead mans handle.

d. Guards over the pulley.

e. Locking device on the lifting hook.

 f. Mechanical locking (to avoid crane movement during heavy weather)

375. What Are the types of cleaners normally used?

Cleaning agents normally water solutions that might be acidic, alkaline, or neutral, depending on the use. Cleaning
agents may also be solvent-based or solvent-containing and are then called degreasers.

Acidic
Acidic cleaning agents are mainly used for removal of inorganic deposits like scaling.
Hydrochloric acid (also called muriatic acid) is a common mineral acid typically used for concrete. Vinegar can
also be used to clean hard surfaces and remove calcium deposits. Sulfuric acid is used in acidic drain
cleaners to unblock clogged pipes by dissolving greases, proteins, and even carbohydrate-containing
substances such as toilet tissue.

Alkaline
Alkaline cleaning agents contain strong bases like sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide. Bleach (pH 12)
and ammonia (pH 11) are common alkaline cleaning agents.
Alkaline cleaners can dissolve fats (including grease), oils, and protein-based substance

Neutral
Neutral washing agents are pH-neutral and based on non-ionic surfactants that disperse different types of dirt.

Degreaser
Cleaning agents specially made for removal of grease are called degreasers. These may be solvent-based or
solvent-containing and may also have surfactants as active ingredients. The solvents have a dissolving action
on grease and similar dirt. The solvent-containing degreaser may have an alkaline washing agent added to a
solvent to promote further degreasing. Degreasing agents may also be made solvent-free based on alkaline
chemicals and/or surfactants.

376. Explain stepper motor

A stepper motor is an electromechanical device which converts electrical pulses into discrete mechanical
movements. The shaft or spindle of a stepper motor rotates in discrete step increments when electrical
command pulses are applied to it in the proper sequence.

A stepper motor is a ―digital‖ version of the electric motor. The rotor moves in discrete steps as commanded,
rather than rotating continuously like a conventional motor. When stopped but energized, a stepper (short for
stepper motor) holds its load steady with a holding torque.

Application wise, the predecessor of the stepper motor was the servo motor. Today this is a higher cost
solution to high performance motion control applications. The expense and complexity of a servomotor is
due to the additional system components: position sensor and error amplifier. (Figure below) It is still the
way to position heavy loads beyond the grasp of lower power steppers. High acceleration or unusually high
accuracy still requires a servo motor. Otherwise, the default is the stepper due to low cost, simple drive
electronics, good accuracy, good torque, moderate speed, and low cost.

What exactly is a STEPPER MOTOR

Stepper motors are different from ordinary DC motors in at least four important ways.
 The first difference you notice is that they have no brushes or commutator (the parts of a DC motor that
reverse the electrical current and keep the rotor—the rotating part of a motor—constantly turning in the
same direction). In other words, stepper motors are examples of what we call brushless motors. (You'll
also find brushless motors in many electric vehicles, hidden away in the wheel hubs; used in that way,
they're called hub motors.)

The second major difference is in what rotates. Remember that in a basic DC motor, there is an outer
permanent magnet or magnets that stays static, known as the stator, and an inner coil or coils of wire that
rotates inside it, which is the rotor. In a brushless hub-motor, the coils of wire are static in the center and
the permanent magnets spin around them on the outside. A stepper motor is different again. This time, the
permanent magnets are on the inside and rotate (making up the rotor), while the coils are on the outside
and stay static (making up the stator).

The third big difference between an ordinary DC motor and a stepper motor is in the design of the stator
and the rotor. Instead of one large magnet on the outside (the stator) and one large coil rotating inside it
(the rotor), a stepper motor has an inner magnet effectively divided up into many separate sections, which
look like teeth on a gear wheel. The outer coils have corresponding teeth that provide magnetic impulses,
attracting, repelling, and making the teeth of the inner wheel rotate by small steps. This will become clear
in a moment when we look at some pictures.

The final difference is that a stepper motor can stay still, in a certain position, once it's rotated through a
particular rotated through a certain angle. That's obviously crucially important if you want a motor to
power something like a robot arm, which might have to rotate a certain amount and then remain in
precisely that spot while another part of the robot does something else. This feature is sometimes
called holding torque (torque is the rotary force something has, so "holding torque" simply means a
stepping motor's ability to stay still).

377. How does a stepper motor work?

The basic construction

The (inside) rotor of a stepper motor turns by small, discrete amounts (steps) because the
(outside) stator applies magnetic impulses that pull and push it around.

A stepper motor's rotor is made from two discs placed

together so we get a series of alternating north and south poles. I've simulated the idea by coloring my hands and putting them
on top of one another so the fingers alternate when viewed from above.
 The rotor

The rotor itself is made from two discs, a little like gears, one of which is a magnetic north pole (red) and the
other is a south pole (blue). When we put the two discs back to back, we get north and south pole teeth
alternating around the edge. If you find that hard to picture, imagine your left hand is a magnetic north pole and
is colored red, while your right hand is a magnetic south pole and colored blue. If you put one hand on top of
the other so the fingers of one hand alternate with the fingers of the other, then look down, you'll see
alternating north and south pole "teeth" (the fingers) around the edge. That's effectively what we have in the
rotor of a stepper motor.

The stator

Around the edge of the rotor, we have the stator: in this example, four electromagnets that can be switched on
and off individually. Generally the electromagnets in a stepper motor work in pairs, with each opposing pair of
magnets switching on together to make a north pole at the same time, followed by the magnets at right angles,
which also work together. I prefer to draw it a slightly different way, which I think is simpler and easier to
understand. Exactly what switches on when depends on how many rotor teeth (steps) there are and how many
electromagnet coils surround them: the geometry and alignment of a stepper motor has to be just right to
make the rotor turn.

How it rotates

378. The right electromagnet is energized and becomes a north pole (red) and the left electromagnet becomes a south pole
(blue). This pulls the rotor around by one step so a blue tooth on the rotor snaps toward the right electromagnet and a
red tooth snaps toward the left electromagnet.
379. Now the bottom electromagnet becomes a north pole, the top magnet becomes a south pole, and the two horizontal
magnets are switched off. Again, the teeth of the rotor are pulled around by one step.
380. The vertical magnets are now switched off and the horizontal magnets are switched on again, but with the opposite
polarity (pattern of magnetism) that they had before. The teeth of the rotor advance by one more step.
381. Finally, the vertical magnets are switched on again, in the opposite polarity to before, and the horizontal magnets are
switched off. The rotor mores around one more step. The whole cycle then repeats.

Remember that a stepper motor isn't really designed to keep spinning around and around: by sending as many or
as few impulses to the outer electromagnets as necessary, we can make the rotor turn through a certain number of
steps (and, therefore, by a precise angle). We can make it rotate the opposite way by reversing the electric current.

382. What are the Advantages and disadvantages of stepper motors

Photo: Inside an inkjet printer, a very common application of stepper motors. You can see two stepper motors
here: the top one moves the ink cartridge and print head from left to right by turning the black and brown belt,
while the bottom one spins the white gears, which turn the paper rollers and make the paper feed through.

The reason for using a stepper motor is to achieve precise control: you can make it move through a defined
angle. But there are drawbacks too. Stepper motors can sometimes be quite jerky, because they start and stop
each step with a sudden impulse, which isn't always what you want if you're trying to build a precision
machine. An alternative to using a stepper motor is to use a servo motor: a motor with a built-in feedback
mechanism. Typically, a servo motor has what's called an optical encoder attached to its rotor. In plain English,
that's a black-and-white patterned disc that moves in front of something like a photoelectric cell. As the disc
turns, the cell detects the black and white pattern and an electronic circuit figures out from this exactly how
much the disc has rotated. Using this feedback, the motor can be controlled more smoothly (and typically
much more precisely) than a simple stepper motor. Servo motors are much more sophisticated in design than
stepper motors and tend to be more expensive, which is why steppers are often used instead.

383. Difference between Isolator and circuit breaker.

A circuit breaker is an automatic switch, which is an on-load device, designed using electromechanical
techniques to prevent power overload damage or short circuits. A circuit breaker has a solenoid inside, and it
is kept at a certain voltage level, to keep the triggering mechanism in balance. Once a fault is observed in the
circuit, such as an overload or a short circuit, the switch is triggered, and the current flow is discontinued.
After solving the pertaining problem in the electrical system, the circuit breaker can be switched back to on
again.
Like fuses, circuit breakers also come in many different sizes and packages, specialized to the requirements of
the electrical system. At higher voltage levels, the circuit breaker mechanism may be immersed in an
insulating material, such as oil to improve the performance. More advanced circuit breakers used in industry
applications regulate interruptions by small inductive currents, capacitive switching and asynchronous
switching. They have current and a voltage rating indicating maximum allowable current and voltage.
 Contrary to the circuit breaker,Isolator is an off-load device and performs the task as the name implies. It
disconnects or Isolates the circuit from the main power supply. Isolators are most commonly found in industry
level electric systems.
Even though, Isolator is a switch, it is not used as a normal on off switch. It is used only when the electrical
system has to be disconnected from the main supply, to perform maintenance or related activities, which
involve direct contact with the current carrying components of machinery. Isolators may provide additional
safety features like, when switched off the trapped charge will be ground through a ground terminal in the
isolator. Isolators are normally placed after the circuit breaker allowing the internal circuit to be disconnected
from the main supply without affecting the breaker.
Isolators may be used in high voltage devices like transformers. Isolators are secured using a locking
mechanism on the outside or by a padlock to prevent inadvertent usage.
In electronics, the term isolator is used to denote a device which separates the internal circuits from the main
supply, but it is different from the Isolator switch discussed above. Using opto-couplers an electronics circuit
can be isolated such that overloads do not pass through the circuit.

A circuit breaker(CB) is an equipment which can open or close a circuit under normal as well as fault
conditions and it can be operated manually under normal conditions and automatically under fault
conditions.For the latter operation a relay is used with a CB.

An isolator(disconnecting switch)operates under no load condition and used for disconnecting the CB from
the live part of the maintenance.Isolators are used in addition to the CB to make and break the circuit under
normal and short circuit condition.

384. Name any 5 conventions related to shipping.

i. International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS), 1974, as amended

ii. International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973, as modified by the Protocol
of 1978 relating thereto and by the Protocol of 1997( MARPOL)
iii. International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers
iv. ( STCW ) as amended, including the 1995 and 2010 Manila Amendments

v. Convention on the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea (COLREG), 1972
vi. International Convention on Maritime Search and Rescue (SAR), 1979
vii. International Convention on Load Lines (LL), 1966
viii. International Convention on the Control of Harmful Anti-fouling Systems on Ships (AFS), 2001
ix. International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships' Ballast Water and Sediments,2004
x. International Convention on Liability and Compensation for Damage in Connection with the Carriage of
Hazardous and Noxious Substances by Sea (HNS), 1996 (and its 2010 Protocol)
xi. International Convention on Civil Liability for Bunker Oil Pollution Damage, 2001

385. Why Synchroscope is not left in circuit?

Because it, or the capacitors/resistors used with it, are not rated for continuous energising.And there is no
purpose served by leaving Synchroscope on, it will just wear out for no benefit.

386. Why is Megger used for insulation test and not a Multi meter‘?
Multimeter uses a DC source battery for measuring resistance. For very high resistances
Voltage Must be high for current to flow. Thus a megger with DC gen is used

387. If you get an earth fault alarm what will you do?
Accept alarm. Fault finding by isolating circuits.
388. What is the meaning of power factor?
Ratio of real power to apparent power
389. What is the benefit of improving power factor?
Reduction in losses due to reactive power
390. How can power factor be improved?
Use of capacitors and synchronous motors.
391. What is the difference between KW, KVA and KVAR?
Kilo watt- real power load dependent. Kvaapparent power, power supplied to do the work.
Kvar- unit of reactive power. KVA= KVAR+ KW
392. What is a synchronous motor? Where is it used?
Motor where both stator and rotor are supplied with current. Slip is zero.
Pump and fan drives, main propulsion and improvement of power factor.
393. Why is the voltage used for ignition in boilers/incinerator etc. different from that for
welding?
Welding high current, ignitor high voltage.
394. Is the ship‘s alternator Star wound or Delta wound?
Star because it has a strong neutral point.
395. Why is this reverse power used instead of reverse current in alternators?
Reversal of current flow cannot be detected in AC supply.
396. What is the meaning of residual magnetism?
Magnetism remaining in the core of the electromagnet after removal of coil current.
397. Why is an air compressor started unloaded?
Reduce starting current of the motor
398. What is a diode?
Single junction semiconductor device.
399. What is a zener diode?
Diode designed to operate in reverse bias direction with a small breakdown voltage.
400. What is a thyristor? What is an SCR?
Thyristors are solid state switching devices triggered by gate electrode. SCR are four layer semiconductor
devices
401. What is the difference between neutral and earth?
Neutral is a Common point of star connection where sum of currents is 0 Earth is a connection for passage of leakage
current to the ground. In some cases the neutral point is earthed to detect any leakage.
402. What is a synchronous condenser?
similar to synchronous motor but it does not drive anything.
403. Where and why is synchronous condenser used?
Used in electrical circuits to improve power factor by increasing or decreasing power factor. Used to generate or
absorb reactive power as required to improve power factor by increasing or decreasing field excitation.
404. What is the functions of the friction clutch mechanism used in purifiers?
Reduce starting current of purifier motor.
405. What is the regular maintenance done on batteries?
All vents clear, measure sp. Gravity, level of electrolyte, Vaseline on contacts, boost charging, all connections tight and
corrosion free.
406. What safety precautions need to be taken during maintenance on batteries?
Avoid sparks by falling tools, remove leads on batteries. Insulate leads, avoid touching to floor, non metallic jugs to be
used, instruments used to be intrinsically safe.
407. How does a Salinometer function?
Measuring flow of current through a known quantity of water.
408. What are Battery room safety.
Construction – prevent spilling, emission of spray, accessible from top and one side, crates and trays of non absorbent
insulation material, deck below acid/alkaline resistant. No smoking and no naked lights, approved elec apparatus,
location on deck, forced air circulation, no tube lights, non metallic jugs, separation of vent duct from other ducts,
explosion proof lighting, proper wattage, sealing of enrty of cables, fittings not painted, loose wires and tools not to be
kept on the batteris, tools spark proof and insulated.
409. Effects if earth faults is not rectified.
Over load, heating up, leakage current, shock, burning, fire,
410. Indication of single phasing in case of running motor.
Hunting of motor, fluctuation of motor rpm, over load protection will operate, humming noise, heating up of
motor, vibration, reduction in torque
411. How to check diode?
Fwd bias minimum resistance, reverse bias- high resistance
412. Starting procedure of synchronous motor.
1. Speeding up rotor to synchronous speed external means,
2. Use of Pony (Induction) motor to speed up.
3. Copper embedded bars on tips of rotor poles, shorted by end plates, started as induction motor, at max
speed DC excitation for synchronization
413. Checks on motor after rewinding ( and Connection)
Insulation resistance, earth fault, air gap, alignment, contactors
414. What if shore frequency is less?
Motors will run slower, stalling, vibration, overheat. Voltage should also vary in the same
proportion.
415. How explosion meter, oxygen meter, hydrocarbon meter works?

Explosimeter is device that is used to determine the content of hydrocarbon in the atmosphere of pump room
or tank spaces on ships. The scale used in the explosimeter is marked in terms of lower explosive or
flammable limit and as a percentage of the lower limit (LEL). The scale may also be marked in parts per
million (p.p.m).

Explisometer works on the principle of Wheatstone bridge. The Wheatstone bridge is supplied with
a battery and there is no flow of current through the meter when the bridge resistance is balanced. One of the
four resistances in the Wheatstone bridge is a hot filament. This resistance is enclosed in a
chamber wherein a sample is drawn with the help of flexible tube and aspirator.
 The combustion of the atmospheric sample takes place in the chamber in the presence of hot
filament. The combustion of the gas drawn from the atmosphere causes an increase in the
temperature, which further causes changes in resistance and imbalance in the Wheatstone
bridge. Due to this imbalance, current flows through the meter and the reading is
calibrated to indicate in percentage of LEL or P.P.M.

The instrument must be tested before use and should be purged enough so that there is no left
over atmosphere in the chamber of last test. The sample should be taken from as many place as
possible particularly from tank bottom to provide an accurate result.

416. What are the different equipments available on-board for the evaluation of tank atmosphere?

There are different equipments available on-board for the evaluation of tank atmosphere. Some of them are:

1. Combustible gas indicators or explosimeters

2. Tankscope or non-combustible gas indicators
3. Multi-gas analyzers
4. Oxygen analyzers

Combustible Gas Indicators or Explosimeters

An explosimeter is a device used to detect the amount of combustible gases present in a sample of the given
atmosphere. This gives the reading in terms of percentage of the LFL (lower flammable limit).

―Resistance proportional to heat" is the working principle.

The equipment consists of a Wheatstone bridge in which one of the resistances is variable. The circuit is shown
below:

It consists of four resistances in which one varies according to the amount of the gas present. A hand pump is used
to draw the gas or the atmosphere containing the gas inside the device. A filter and flash back arrestor is used to
filter the gas and also acts as a flame arrestor. The device is switched on. As the hand pump is operated to suck
a sample of gas from the cargo tank, simultaneously the filament gets heated. Any combustibles in
the sample will land on the filament in the sample chamber. The combustibles will burn as the filament
is already hot causing an increase in resistance which disturbs the Wheatstone bridge. The reading can be read from
the indicator. The instrument gives the reading in percentage of the Lower Flammable Limit or
Lower Explosive Limit which is 1%.

This type of gas meter can only be used if the gas content is very low (i.e.) this instrument should not be used if the
atmosphere contains:

 H/C + inert gas – then the gas will not burn as there is no oxygen
 H/C + oxy-acetylene – then the burning will be too violent
 H/C + oxy-hydrogen – Same as above
 Lead petroleum vapors – Lead oxide deposits on the filament cause a reduction in sensitivity
All meters require calibration. This meter requires the following before using:

 Zero check
 Span check
 Battery check
Proper working of the equipment can be achieved by regular maintenance. Clean the filters regularly and it is
advisable to have it serviced by the manufacturer once every six months.

2. Tankscope or Non-combustible Gas Indicator

A Tankscope® is a device used for measurement of hydrocarbon gas content in a sample of given
atmosphere. This instrument is meant for measuring the hydrocarbon vapor in inerted atmospheres. This
instrument is not as sensitive as the explosimeter. The reading is only in percentage of the volume of the
hydrocarbon vapor and hence used only during the gassing up operations and during inerting. This is purely
meant for measuring the volume of the hydrocarbon vapors present inside any enclosed space, and hence it
is not meant for measuring during a man-entry.

It works on the same principle as that of an explosimeter except that the gas does not burn inside
the sample chamber; there is an alteration in the temperature of the heated filament which enhances the
change in resistance.

It is always advisable to flush the sample tube with fresh air after every use. The following checks are done to
ensure the proper working of the instrument:

 Zero check
 Span check
 Voltages check (battery check)

3. Multi-Gas Analyzers
Multi-gas analyzers are used to detect only targeted gases and vapors. It is very specific to that
type of gas only, so care has to be taken to ensure that correct tubes are used for the particular
type of gas.

The multi-gas analyzer consists of a portable bellows pump and detector tubes. The detector tube is like a vial
filled with reagent that will react with the specific chemical. Both the ends of the tube are closed. In order to
use it we have to break the two ends of the tube and insert it into the pump according to the directions
mentioned on the tube. Now start pumping 3-4 times (or as specified by the manufacturer) to suck in the
particular gas from the atmosphere. If the atmosphere contains that particular gas or vapor,
then the color of the tube changes. The length of the color change can be read from the tube
and compared to obtain the level of that particular gas or vapor. Some of the gases include carbon monoxide,
chlorine, hydrogen sulphide, organic arsenic compounds, arsine, and phosphoric acid esters.

An extension hose is provided to measure the concentration of vapor present at a different

height. In a situation like this, we have to insert the hose with the pump and the tube
connected to the other end of the hose.

Oxygen Analyzers
 The oxygen analyzer is a device used to measure the concentration of oxygen in a given atmosphere. This
device plays a vital role since with the reading provided, only man-entry is done. The important checks that are
done on the oxygen analyzers are:
 Calibration with fresh air (which contains 21% of oxygen)
 Battery check
Never change the batteries in a gas dangerous zone

The main property of oxygen which helps in its detection and measurement of its percentage in the given
sample of air is that of Para-magnetism. Basically this means that oxygen gets attracted towards a magnetic
field. The set up for measuring oxygen content using this property can be understood from the image shown
below

As you can see in the sketch there are two

platinum resistance wires which are exposed to two different chambers. In the first chamber there is the air in
which the oxygen content needs to be monitored plus there is an artificially created magnetic field, while the
second chamber there is the same air but there is no magnetic field present in this chamber. The wires form a
part of the Wheatstone bridge circuit and if you remember from your study of physics, the Wheatstone bridge is
used to measure an unknown resistance by obtaining a balance between two legs of the circuit. -

417. Types of rotary of Rotary Pumps

Various types of pumps are used on board a ship, depending on requirement of pressure and flow. Apart from that,
there are several other factors that are taken into consideration while selecting a pump for a specific purpose

General concept of Rotary Positive displacement pumps.

In all these types of pumps, except the screw pump, liquid is forced to travel circumferentially when
displaced by the movement of vane or gear.
The only difference between screw pump and other rotary pumps is that the liquid displaced in screw pump moves
axially, whereas in other rotary pumps it moves in a circumferential pattern. The Main feature of these pumps is that
they continue to force liquid into the system, in spite of any type of opposition in the transfer.

-
Gear Pumps: A gear pumps rotating assembly consists of two gears, a driving gear and a driven
gear. Pumping in a gear pump takes place when the driving gear meshes with the driven gear to form
cavities that moves the fluid.The cavities are the clearances between the gears or lobes and the
body of the pump. The mating surfaces of the gears' mesh provide continuous sealing between the the inlet and outlet
ports.
 As the rotation of the pump continues, the movement of the cavities progresses, thus moving the fluid along the way.
After some time, a point is reached where the seal between the captured fluid and the outlet part of the pump is
broken. At this point of time the vanes, gears or lobes, forces the volume of the captured fluid out of the
pump. A continuous cycle takes place due to the simultaneously opening of new cavities at the inlet port.
This leads to a continuous flow of liquid though the suction and discharge ports.

Working Of Screw Pump

Screw pumps also falls in the category of rotary pumps and have the same mechanism and principle. Screw
pumps are the only type of pumps which are different from other rotary displacement pumps because of the
axial flow of the fluid through their pumping elements.The fluid in screw pumps moves between the screw
threads and is displaced axially as the screws rotate and mesh.

Due to the axial flow pattern and low internal velocities,the screw pumps have certain advantages in applications
where churning and agitation of fluid is highly objectionable or not allowed.The inter-meshing of the screw threads
on the rotors and the very fine clearances of the surrounding housing creates a seal between the pumps inlet and
outlet.

Due to the rotation of the screws and the movement of fine clearances, pockets are formed in the helices of the
screw.As the screw moves the pockets also move axially and act similar to a piston moving in one direction, while
the fluid is moved axially from inlet to outlet.

Screw-type pumps are used for high density stocks such as Paper and pump.They are also used for Chemical Transfer and
metering.

Lobe Pumps
Lobe pump also runs on the same principle as that of other rotary pumps. Lobe Pump is so named because of the
rounded shape of its rotors' radial surfaces which permit the rotors to remain continuously in contact with each other
when the rotation is going on. Lobe pump can be of two types - single or multiple lobe pumps. Both these types,
carry fluid between their rotor lobes in the same way as a gear pump does.
 Though both gear and lobe pumps are almost similar in construction, there are few differences.

Difference Between Gear and Lobe Pump

In gear pumps, the locus of the gear contacts always moves along the tooth surfaces but jumps discontinuously from tooth
to tooth as the gears mesh and un-mesh with each other.This helps the gears in moving each other.

In lobe pumps, the lobes are incapable of driving each other but the contact seal locus makes a continuous movement from
one radial surface to another. This is the main difference between the gear and lobe pumps.

418. Difference between Rotary & Centrifugal Pumps

Rotary pumps operate in a circular motion and displace a constant amount of liquid with
each revolution of the pump shaft. In general, this is accomplished by pumping elements
(e.g., gears, lobes, vanes, screws) moving in such a way as to expand volumes to allow
liquid to enter the pump. These volumes are then contained by the pump geometry until the pumping elements move in
such a way as to reduce the volumes and force liquid out of the pump. Flow from rotary PD pumps is relatively
unaffected by differential pressure and is
smooth and continuous. Rotary PD pumps have very tight internal clearances which
minimize the amount of liquid that slips back from discharge to suction side of the pump. Because of this, they are very
efficient. These pumps work well with a wide range
of viscosities, particularly high viscosities.
Centrifugal pumps differ from rotary pumps in that they rely on kinetic energy rather than mechanical means to move
liquid. Liquid enters the pump at the center of a rotating impeller and gains energy as it moves to the outer diameter of
the impeller. Liquid is forced out of the pump by the energy it obtains from the rotating
impeller. Centrifugal pumps can transfer large volumes of liquid but efficiency and flow decrease
rapidly as pressure and/or viscosity increases.
419. How do Centrifugal and Positive Displacement Pumps Work?
Nearly all pumps fall within these two categories, with centrifugal being the most common. However, positive
displacement pumps come in a wider variety such as gear, lobe, peristaltic, screw, and many other types of pumps.

The most common type among centrifugal pump is the radial flow pump. These centrifugal pumps use a rotating
impeller to create a vacuum in order to move fluid. The pump‘s impeller rotates within the housing and reduces
pressure at the inlet. This motion then drives fluid to the outside of the pump‘s housing, which increases the pressure
enough to send it out the discharge.

There is also the axial flow centrifugal pump which uses a curved propeller-shaped impeller, whereas the impeller on a
radial flow centrifugal pump looks more like a fan. Axial flow pumps move fluid by drawing fluid into their axis and using
the impeller to send fluid out on the other side of the pump.

Positive displacement pumps draw fluid into a compartment at the inlet and move it to an outlet for discharge, most
typically using a rotary, reciprocating, or diaphragm method to move fluid. The main difference between these types of
pumps and centrifugal is that positive displacement pumps will move fluid at the same speed regardless of the pressure
on the inlet end and centrifugal pumps will not.
420. How an SCR works?-Principle of Operation

The SCR is a four-layer, three-junction and a three-terminal device and is shown in fig.a. The end P-region is
the anode, the end N-region is the cathode and the inner P-region is the gate. The anode to cathode is
connected in series with the load circuit. Essentially the device is a switch. Ideally it remains off (voltage
blocking state), or appears to have an infinite impedance
until both the anode and gate terminals have suitable positive voltages with respect to the
cathode terminal. The thyristor then switches on and current flows and continues to conduct
without further gate signals. Ideally the thyristor has zero impedance in conduction state. For
switching off or reverting to the blocking state, there must be no gate signal and the anode
current must be reduced to zero. Current can flow only in one direction.
In absence of external bias voltages, the majority carrier in each layer diffuses until there is a built-in voltage
that retards further diffusion. Some majority carriers have enough energy to cross the barrier caused by the retarding
electric field at each junction. These carriers then become minority carriers and can recombine with majority carriers.
Minority carriers in each layer can be accelerated across each junction by the fixed field, but because of
absence of external circuit in this case the sum of majority and minority carrier currents must be zero.

A voltage bias, as shown in figure, and an external circuit to carry current allow internal currents which include
the following terms:

The current Ix is due to

 Majority carriers (holes) crossing junction J 1
 Minority carriers crossing junction J1
 Holes injected at junction J2 diffusing through the N-region and crossing junction J1 and
 Minority carriers from junction J2 diffusing through the N-region and crossing junction J1.
Similarly I2 is due to six terms and I3 is due to four terms.
The two simple analogues to explain the basic action for the thyristor are those of the diode and the two transistor
models.

1. 1. Diode Model. The thyristor is similar to three diodes in series as there are three P-N junctions. Without gate
bias, there is always at least one reverse biased junction to prevent conduction irrespective of the polarity of an
applied voltage between anode and cathode. If the anode is made positive and the gate is also biased positively
with respect to cathode, the P-layer at the gate is flooded by the electrons from the cathode and loses its identity
as a P-layer. Accordingly the thyristor becomes equivalent to a conducting diode.
 2. Two Transistor Model. Imagine the SCR cut along the dotted line, as shown in fig. a. Then we
can have two devices, as shown in fig.b. These two devices can be recognized as two
transistors. The upper left one is P-N-P transistor and the lower right N-P-N type. Further it can be
recognized that the base of the P-N-P transistor is joined to the collector of the N-P-N transistor while
the collector of P-N-P is joined to the base of N-P-N transistor, as illustrated in fig. c. The gate
terminal is brought out from the base of the N-P-N material. This construction has been conceived
merely to explain the working of SCR, otherwise in physical shape the SCR has four solid layers of P-
N-P-N type only.
Now we can see that the two transistors are connected in such a manner that the collector of Q 1 is
connected to the base of Q2 i.e. the output collector current of Qt becomes the base current for Q2. In
the similar way the collector of Q2 is joined to the base of Q1 which shows that the output collector
current of Q2 is fed to Q1 as input base current. These are back to back connections of
transistors in such a way that the output of one goes into as input of other transistor and
vice-versa. This gives net gain of loop circuit as β1 x β2 where β1 and β2 are current gains
of two transistors respectively.
When the gate current is zero or the gate terminal is open, the only current in circulation is the
leakage current, which is very small in case of silicon device specially and the total current is a little
higher than sum of individual leakage currents. Under these conditions P-N-P-N device is said to be
in its forward blocking or high impedance ‗off state. As soon as a small amount of gate current is
given to the base of transistor Q2 by applying forward bias to its base-emitter junction, it generates
the collector current as β2 times the base current. This collector current of Q2 is fed as input base
current to Q: which is further multiplied by β1 times as ICl which forms input base current of Q2 and
undergoes further amplification. In this way both transistors feedback each other and the collector
current of each goes on multiplying. This process is very quick and soon both the transistors drive
each other to saturation. Now the device is said to be in.on-state. The current through the on-state
SCR is controlled by external impedance only

421. Define Resistivity

Resistivity of a material is defined as the resistance of a piece of material having a length of one metre and a cross
sectional area of one square metre (i.e. a cube of material one metre square). The resistivity of the material being the
resistance across opposite faces of this standard cube.

Resistivity is given the symbol ρ. This is not a letter p but a lower case Greek letter r (called rho) and is measured in a
unit called the OHM METER, written Ω•m . (Note: this is not the same as ohms/metre or ohms per metre)
So the resistance of any conductor can be found by relating the three factors;
Length: = L Cross Sectional Area: = A Resistivity: = ρ
The following formula can be used to find the resistance of any conductor, providing that its dimensions and its
resistivity are known.

Remember that, as conductors are usually circular in section, the cross sectional area may need to be found using the
2 2
basic formula for the area of a circle. i.e. A = π r or A = π(d/2) where r and d are the given radius and given diameter,
respectively, and π = 3.142

422. What is Thermal Runaway?

It is important to keep components made from semiconductor materials, such as
transistors, cool. Otherwise an effect called thermal runaway can occur. This is when an increase in temperature
causes an increase in current, which in turn causes a further increase in temperature, leading to further increasing
current. A process that can escalate until the material passes so much current it is destroyed.

423. What is Semiconductor Doping?

Materials that have a resistivity mid-way between the conductors and insulators do conduct current, but very poorly at
normal room temperatures, and so these are called
semi-conductors.
How well or poorly any material conducts electricity depends on the atomic structure of the material.
Silicon and Germanium, as well as a number of other materials and mixtures of materials in
the semiconductor group are widely used in the manufacture of transistors and diodes, as
 well as integrated circuits such as microprocessors.

To make such semiconductor materials suitable for use in transistors and diodes, the resistivity of the

material is modified in a controlled way by first making very pure crystals of the semiconductor material.

These crystals contain only atoms of one type (for example silicon) arranged in a regular lattice formation.

This very pure material is then ‗doped‘ by adding tiny amounts of impurity atoms (about 1 impurity atom

in every 10 million).

The idea is that pure semiconductors conduct poorly, because the electrons in their lattice structure are mostly bound

very tightly to their atoms, leaving only a few electrons free to move, from atom to atom, through the

material, so forming a very weak electric current. By adding impurities with different atomic structures either more or

in other cases less, free electrons are added. This controls the ability of the semiconductor to pass current,

by effectively changing the resistivity of the material.

Some impurities such as Arsenic and Phosphorus add extra free electrons (negative charge carriers) to the material.

This is called N type semiconductor.

Other impurities such as Aluminium and Boron can be added in order to remove free electrons, so that

the resulting material has fewer free electrons than before. Each missing electron within the crystal structure is called a

"hole". As free electrons are negative charge carriers, these holes in the structure are really positive charge carriers.

Material doped in this way is called P type semiconductor. Putting P type and N type materials

next to each other in a circuit creates a PN junction, and makes a useful device that is called a diode.

When a voltage is applied across a diode a current will flow through the diode in one direction but not the other.

424. What is a Transistor?

A transistor is a device that regulates current or voltage flow and acts as a switch or gate for electronic
signals. Transistors consist of three layers of a semiconductor material, each capable of carrying a current.

The transistor was invented by three scientists at the Bell Laboratories in 1947, and it rapidly replaced the vacuum
tube as an electronic signal regulator.

A transistor regulates current orvoltage flow and acts as a switch or gate for electronic signals. A
transistor consists of three layers of a semiconductor material, each capable of carrying a current. A
semiconductor is a material such as germanium and silicon that conducts electricity in a "semi-enthusiastic"
way. It's somewhere between a real conductor such as copper and an insulator (like the plastic wrapped
around wires).

The semiconductor material is given special properties by a chemical process called doping. The doping
results in a material that either adds extra electrons to the material (which is then called N-type for
the extra negative charge carriers) or creates "holes" in the material's crystal structure (which is then called P-
type because it results in more positive charge carriers). The transistor's three-layer structure contains
an N-type semiconductor layer sandwiched between P-type layers (a PNP configuration) or a P-type layer between N-
type layers (an NPN configuration).

A small change in the current or voltage at the inner semiconductor layer (which acts as the control electrode) produces
a large, rapid change in the current passing through the entire component. The component can thus act as a switch,
opening and closing an electronic gate many times per second. Today's computers use circuitry made with
complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) technology. CMOS uses two
 complementary transistors per gate (one with N-type material; the other with P-type material).
When one transistor is maintaining a logic state, it requires almost no power.

Transistors are the basic elements in integrated circuits (IC), which consist of very large numbers of
transistors interconnected with circuitry and baked into a single silicon microchip

425. Which way does diode current flow?

conventional current flows from the positive (anode) terminal to the negative (cathode) terminal although the movement

of electrons (electron flow) is in the opposite direction, from cathode to anode

426. Silicon Diode Construction

Fig 2.0.3 Silicon Planar Diode

Modern silicon diodes are generally produced using one of various versions of the planar process, also

used for manufacturing transistors and integrated circuits. The layered construction used in Silicon Planar methods give

a number of advantages such as predictable performance and reliability as well as being advantageous

to mass production.

A simplified planar silicon diode is illustrated in Fig. 2.0.3. Using this process for silicon diodes produces

two differently doped layers of silicon, which form a ‗PN junction‘. Undoped or ‗intrinsic‘ silicon has a

lattice structure of atoms, each having four valence electrons, but P type silicon and N type silicon are doped by

adding a relatively very small amount of material having either an atomic structure with three valence electrons (e.g.

Boron or Aluminium) to make P type, or five valence electrons (e.g. Arsenic or Phosphorus) to make N type silicon.

These doped versions of silicon are known as ‗extrinsic‘ silicon. The P type silicon now has a shortage of
valence electrons in its structure, which can also be considered to be a surplus of ‗holes‘ or positive

charge carriers, whereas the N type layer is doped with atoms having five electrons in its

valence shell and therefore has a surplus of electrons which are negative charge

carriers.
427. Diode PN Junction

Fig 2.0.4 Diode Depletion Layer

When P and N type silicon are brought together during manufacture, a junction is created where

the P type and N type materials meet, and holes close to the junction in the P type silicon are attracted into negatively

charged N type material at the other side of the junction. Also, electrons close to the junction in the N type silicon are

attracted into the positively charged P type silicon. Therefore along the junction between the P and N type silicon, a

small natural potential is set up between the P and N semiconductor material with negatively charged electrons now on

the P type side of the junction, and positively charged holes on the N side of the junction. This layer of opposite polarity

charge carriers builds up until it is just sufficient to prevent the free movement of any further holes or electrons.

Because of this natural electrical potential across the junction, a very thin layer has been formed between the P and N

layers at the PN junction that is now depleted of charge carriers and so is called the Depletion Layer. When a diode is

connected into a circuit therefore, no current can flow between anode and cathode until the anode is made more

positive than the cathode by a forward potential or voltage(VF) at least sufficient to overcome the natural reverse

potential of the junction. This value depends mainly on the materials the P and N layers of the diode are made from and

the amount of doping used. Different types of diode have natural reverse potentials ranging from approximately 0.1V to

2 or 3V. Silicon PN junction diodes have a junction potential of about 0.6V to 0.7V
428. Diode Forward Conduction

Fig 2.0.5 Diode Forward

Conduction

Once the voltage applied to the anode is made more positive than the cathode by an amount greater than the depletion

layer potential, forward conduction from anode to cathode conventional current commences, as shown in

Fig. 2.0.5.

As the voltage applied between anode and cathode increases, forward current increases slowly at first, as charge

carriers begin to cross the depletion layer then increasing rapidly in an approximately exponential manner. The

resistance of the diode, when ‗turned on‘ or conducting in a ‗forward biased‘ mode is therefore not zero ohms, but is

very low. Because forward conduction increases after the depletion potential is overcome in an approximately following

exponential curve, forward resistance (V/I) varies slightly depending on the voltage applied.

429. Reverse Biased Diode

Fig 2.0.6 Diode Reverse

Biased

When the diode is reverse biased (the anode connected to a negative voltage and the cathode to a positive

voltage), as shown in Fig. 2.0.6, positive holes are attracted towards the negative voltage on the anode and away from

the junction. Likewise the negative electrons are attracted away from the junction towards the positive voltage

applied to the cathode. This action leaves a greater area at the junction without any charge carriers (either positive

holes or negative electrons) as the depletion layer widens. Because the junction area is now
depleted of charge carriers it acts as an insulator, and as higher voltages are applied in reverse polarity,

the depletion layer becomes wider still as more charge carriers away from the junction. The diode will

not conduct with a reverse voltage (a reverse bias) applied, apart from a very small ‗Reverse

Leakage Current‘(IR), which in silicon diodes is typically less than 25nA. However if the applied voltage
 reaches a value called the ‗Reverse Breakdown Voltage‘ (V RRM) current in the reverse direction increases

dramatically to a point where, if the current is not limited in some way, the diode will be destroyed.

430. What is Depletion layer (Junction) p.d.?

The depletion layer or junction p.d. is the potential difference (voltage) that is naturally set up

across the depletion layer, by the combination of holes and electrons during the manufacture of the

diode. This p.d. must be overcome before a forward biased diode will conduct. For a silicon junction the p.d is

about 0.6V.

431. Reverse leakage current (IR).

When a PN junction is reverse biased a very small leakage current (I R) will flow due mainly to thermal activity

within the semiconductor material, shaking loose free electrons. It is these free electrons that form a

small leakage current. In silicon devices this is only a few nano-Amperes (nA).

432. Maximum Repetitive Forward Current (IFRM).

This is the maximum current that a forward biased diode may pass without the device being

damaged whilst rectifying a repetitive sine wave.

433. What is The Schottky Diode

Schottky diodes, also called Hot Carrier Diodes or Schottky Barrier Diodes use a metal/semiconductor junction instead

of a P semiconductor/N semiconductor junction, The metal to silicon junction used in Schottky diodes provides

several advantages (and some disadvantages) compared with a PN silicon diode.

Low Junction Potential

The P type region of the PN diode is replaced by a metal anode, usually gold, silver, platinum, tungsten,

molybdenum or chromium. When the diode is formed during manufacture a small junction potential

occurs between the metal anode and the N type silicon. Typically this will be about 0.15V to 0.3V

depending on the metal used, and the difference between the energy levels of the electrons in the metal

and the adjoining silicon, all of these metals produce a junction potential called the Schottky Barrier.
Because this potential barrier is smaller than the 0.6V junction potential of a PN silicon junction, this

makes Schottky diodes very suitable for small signal radio frequency applications in circuits such as the

RF mixer, modulator and demodulator stages in many radio communication systems, as well as high speed switching

in digital logic circuits

434. What are the uses of schottky diodes?

Basic AM Demodulation
Schottky diodes for demodulating small amplitude AM waves. Amplitude Modulated signals are used in both
broadcasts and communictaions as they can be transmitted over much longer distances using relatively low power
transmitters than would be possible using VHF or UHF signals. When an AM signal is recieved its amplitude at the
receiver may only be a few millivolts or even microvolts. This signal is greatly amplified by the receiver but may still be
quite small (e.g. 1Vpp as shown in Fig. 2.2.4) when it is applied to the demodulator to recover the modulating signal. It
would not therefore have sufficient amplitude (0.5V) to overcome the junction voltage of a silicon PN diode (0.6V), so
 no signal would be demodulated. Using a Schottky diode with a junction potential of only 0.2V however allows the
demodulator to produce usable information from weaker signals than would be possible using a silicon PN diode.

High Speed Switching

A typical metal/N type Schottky junction works because when the junction is forward biased, the depth of

the barrier decreases, allowing majority charge carriers (electrons) from the silicon to flood into the metal

anode, where they are at a higher energy level than the electrons in the metal. Here they rapidly lose

some of their energy and add to the free electrons in the metal, creating an electron flow from

cathode to anode. When a reverse voltage is applied the junction however, the Schottky barrier

level increases and the great majority of the electrons in the metal layer do not have a high enough

energy level to re-cross the junction into the silicon, so only a very small leakage current

flows, although the leakage current is greater than in a comparable PN diode.

Because, in a Schottky diode there is no exchanging and re-exchanging of holes and
electrons across the junction, as happens in the PN diode, the switching speed is much
faster

435. Why AC & Refers R belt driven ??

Air compressors, generally have fixed load always. Hence load is calculated & directly coupled.

Air condition & Refrigeration systems will have variable loads. The suction pr will keep on varying as per the load requirement.
Some times liquid (instead of gas) start entering , some times suction pr exceeds 8 bar, during that situation the comp
will be excessively loaded , Discharge pressure will be extremely high,
There is every possibility of comp break down..
Hence it is made belt driven.
Belt will have slip or will get damaged it self in order to protect the compressor.

436. How do you do overload setting of motor?

Normally for overload relay setting depend on FLA ( Full Load Ampere ) of motor.We can see at the NAMEPLATE of
motor.Normally setting for overload is 5% until 10 % more than FLA.

But it is depend on operation and functional of motor.For more detail setting,please refer manual guide of motor from
manufacture.

We also can setting overload relay value depend on value of service factor motor.Example if service factor 1.15,we can
setting 125% from FLA and if service factor is 1.0,we can setting 115% from FLA of motor.

Basically to setting the overload value,we refer to this formula :

1) IB ≤ In ≤ IZ

IB = Anticipated operating current of the circuit

IZ = Current carrying capacity of conductor or cable or Motor
In = Rated current of protective device

Common accepted practice is to set at 125% of FLA.

The choice is really yours - it can be argued that in both cases

FLA = 6.4 with overload at 125% and set at 8
OR measured motor full load is 5 and overload is at 6.25
could be correct.

437. What are the different Annexes of Marpol?

 Annex I of MARPOL 73/78 - Regulations for the Prevention of Pollution by Oil
Annex II of MARPOL 73/78 - Regulations for the Control of Pollution by Noxious Liquid
Substances in Bulk
Annex III of MARPOL 73/78 - Regulations for the Prevention of Pollution by Harmful
Substances carried by Sea in Packaged Form
Annex IV of MARPOL 73/78 - Regulations for the Prevention of Pollution by Sewage from
Ships
Annex V of MARPOL 73/78 - Regulations for the Prevention of Pollution by Garbage from
Ships
Annex VI of MARPOL 73/78 - Regulations for the Prevention of Air Pollution from Ships
438. Explain Annexe-1 MARPOL?

Annex I: Regulations for the Prevention of Pollution by Oil

Chapter I – General
Regulation 1: Definitions
Regulation 2: Application
Regulation 3: Equivalents (any fitting, material, appliance or
apparatus to be fitted in a ship as alternative to that
required)

Regulation 4: Surveys
Regulation 5: Issue or endorsement of Certificate ( An International Oil Pollution
Prevention Certificate shall be issued,
after an initial or renewal survey in accordance with the provisions of
regulation 4 of this Annex, to any oil tanker of 150 tons gross tonnage and
above and any other ships of 400 tons gross tonnage and above

Regulation 6: Issue or endorsement of a Certificate by another Government: The

Government of a Party to the Convention may, at the request of the
Administration, cause a ship to be surveyed and, if satisfied that the
provisions of this Annex are complied with, shall issue or authorize the
issue of an International Oil Pollution Prevention Certificate to the ship

Regulation 7: Form of Certificate (The International Oil Pollution

Prevention Certificate shall be drawn up in a form
corresponding to the model given in appendix II)

Regulation 8: Duration and validity of Certificate (An International Oil Pollution Prevention
Certificate shall be issued for a period specified by the Administration,
which shall not exceed five years)

Regulation 8A : Port State control on operational requirements

(1) A ship when in a port or an offshore terminal of another Party is subject to inspection by officers duly
authorized by such Party concerning operational requirements under this
Annex, where there are clear grounds for believing that the master or
crew are not familiar with essential shipboard procedures relating to the
prevention of pollution by oil.

Chapter II – Requirements for control of operational pollution

Regulation 9 : Control of discharge of oil
Any discharge into the sea of oil or oily mixtures from ships shall be prohibited except when all the
following conditions are satisfied:
(i) the tanker is not within a special area;
(ii) the tanker is more than 50 nautical miles from the
Nearest land;
(iii) the tanker is proceeding en route;
(iv) the instantaneous rate of discharge of oil content
does not exceed 30 litres per nautical mile;
(v) the total quantity of oil discharged into the sea
does not exceed for existing tankers 1/15,000 of
the total quantity of the particular cargo of which
the residue formed a part, and for new tankers
1/30,000 of the total quantity of the particular
cargo of which the residue formed a part; and
(vi) the tanker has in operation an oil discharge
Monitoring and control system and a slop tank
arrangement as required by regulation

Regulation 10: Methods for the prevention of oil pollution from ships while operating in
special areas
(For the purpose of this Annex, the special areas are the Mediterranean Sea area, the Baltic Sea area,
the Black Sea area, the Red Sea area, the ‗‗Gulfs area‘, the Gulf of Aden
area, the Antarctic area and the North- West European waters)
 Regulation 11: Exceptions Regulations 9 and 10 of this Annex shall not apply to:
(a) the discharge into the sea of oil or oily mixture necessary for the purpose of
securing the safety of a ship or saving life at sea; or (b)
the discharge into the sea of oil or oily mixture resulting from
damage to a ship or its equipment:

Regulation 12 : Reception facilities

(1) Subject to the provisions of regulation 10 of this Annex, the
Government of each Party undertakes to ensure the provision at oil
loading terminals, repair ports, and in other ports in which ships
have oily residues to discharge, of facilities for the reception of
such residues and oily mixtures as remain from oil tankers and
other ships adequate to meet the needs of the ships using them
without causing undue delay to ships.
Regulation 13: Segregated ballast tanks, dedicated clean ballast tanks and crude oil
washing

Regulation 13A: Requirements for oil tankers with dedicated

clean ballast tanks

Regulation 13B : Requirements for crude oil washing

Every crude oil washing system required to be provided in accordance with
regulation

An An inert gas system shall be provided in every cargo tank and

slop tank in accordance with the appropriate regulations

With respect to the ballasting of cargo tanks, sufficient cargo tanks shall be crude
oil washed prior to each ballast voyage

Regulation 13E : Protective location of segregated ballast spaces

Segregated ballast tanks required to located within the cargo tank length, shall be arranged in accordance
with the requirements of paragraphs (2), (3) and (4) of this regulation to
provide a measure of protection against oil outflow in the event of
grounding or collision.
Regulation 13F: Prevention of oil pollution in the event of collision or stranding

The entire cargo tank length shall be protected by ballast tanks or spaces
other than cargo and fuel oil tanks as follows:
 Wing tanks or spaces
 Double bottom tanks or spaces
 Suction wells in cargo tanks
 Ballast and cargo piping

Regulation 13G : Prevention of oil pollution in the event of collision or stranding –

Regulation 14 : Segregation of oil and water ballast and carriage of oil in forepeak tanks
(Oil tankers of 150 tons gross tonnage and above, no ballast water shall be carried in any oil fuel
tank. If need to carry large quantities of oil fuel render it necessary to carry
ballast water which is not a clean ballast in any oil fuel tank, such ballast
water shall be discharged to reception facilities or into the sea in compliance
with regulation 9 using the equipment specified in regulation 16(2) of this
Annex, and an entry shall be made in the Oil Record Book to this effect).

Regulation 15: Retention of oil on board (Adequate means shall be provided

for cleaning the cargo tanks and transferring the dirty
ballast residue and tank washings from the cargo tanks into
a slop tank. The arrangements of the slop tank or
combination of slop tanks shall have a capacity necessary
to retain the slop generated by tank washings, oil residues
and dirty ballast residues. The total capacity of the slop
tank or tanks shall not be less than 3% of the oil
carrying capacity of the ship,

Regulation 16 : Oil discharge monitoring and control system

and oil filtering equipment (Any ship of 10,000 tons gross tonnage and above shall
be provided with oil filtering
equipment, and with arrangements for an alarm and for automatically stopping any
discharge of oily mixture when the oil content in the effluent exceeds
15 parts per million.)
 Regulation 17 : Tanks for oil residues (sludge)
(Every ship of 400 tons gross tonnage and above shall be provided with a tank or
tanks of adequate capacity, having regard to the type of machinery and
length of voyage, to
receive the oil residues (sludge) which cannot be dealt with otherwise, such as
those resulting from the purification of fuel and lubricating oils and oil
leakages in the machinery spaces.

Regulation 18 : Pumping, piping and discharge arrangements

of oil tankers . In every oil tanker, a discharge manifold
for connection to reception facilities for the discharge of dirty
ballast water or oil contaminated water shall be located on the
open deck on both sides of the ship.

Regulation 20 : Oil Record Book

o Every oil tanker of 150 tons gross tonnage and above
And every ship of 400 tons gross tonnage and above other than an oil
tanker shall be provided with an Oil Record Book Part I (Machinery
Space Operations). Every oil tanker of 150 tons gross tonnage and
above shall also be provided with an Oil Record Book Part II
(Cargo/Ballast Operations). The Oil Record Book(s), whether as a
part of the ship‘s official log-book or otherwise, shall be in the form(s)
specified in appendix III to this Annex.

(2) The Oil Record Book shall be completed on each

occasion, on a tank-to-tank basis if appropriate,
whenever any of the following operations take place in the ship:

(a) for machinery space operations (all ships):

(i) ballasting or cleaning of oil fuel tanks;
(ii) discharge of dirty ballast or cleaning water from tanks
referred to under (i) of the subparagraph;
(iii) disposal of oily residues (sludge);
(iv) discharge overboard or disposal otherwise of bilge water
which has accumulated in machinery spaces;

Chapter IV – Prevention of pollution arising from an oil pollution incident

Regulation 26 - Shipboard oil pollution emergency plan

(1) Every oil tanker of 150 tons gross tonnage and above and every ship
other than an oil tanker of 400 tons gross tonnage and above shall carry
on board a shipboard oil pollution emergency plan approved by the
Administration. In the case of ships built before 4 April 1993 this
requirement shall apply 24 months after that date.
Such a plan shall be in accordance with guidelines* developed by the
Organization and written in the working language of the master and
officers. The plan shall consist at least of:
(a) the procedure to be followed by the master or other person having
charge of the ship to report an oil pollution incident
(b) the list of authorities or persons to be contacted in the
event of an oil pollution incident;
(c) a detailed description of the action to be taken i
mmediately by persons on board to reduce or control the discharge of oil
following the incident; and
(d) the procedures and point of contact on the ship for coordinating
shipboard action with national and local authorities in
combating the pollution.
,

439. Explain Annexe-II MARPOL?

Annex II of MARPOL 73/78 - Regulations for the Control of Pollution by Noxious Liquid
Substances in Bulk

Regulation 1- Definitions of Chemical tanker, Clean ballast, Segregated ballast,

nearest land, Liquid substance, Noxious liquid substance, Special area
etc.

Regulation 2 – Application - Unless expressly provided otherwise the

provisions of this Annex Shall apply to all ships carrying
noxious liquid substances in bulk.

Regulation 3 - Categorization and listing of noxious liquid substances

1. Category A: Noxious liquid substances which if discharged into the sea from
tank cleaning or deballasting operations would present a major hazard to either
 marine resources or human health or cause serious harm to amenities or other
legitimate uses of the sea and therefore justify the application of stringent
anti-pollution measures.
2. Category B: Noxious liquid substances which if discharged into the sea from tank
cleaning or deballasting operations would present a hazard to either marine
resources or human health or cause harm to amenities or other legitimate uses of
the sea and therefore justify the application of special anti-pollution measures.
3. Category C: Noxious liquid substances which if discharged into the sea from tank
cleaning or deballasting operations would present a minor hazard to either marine
resources or human health or cause minor harm to amenities or other legitimate uses of the sea and
therefore require special operational conditions.
4. Category D: Noxious liquid substances which if discharged into the sea from tank
cleaning or deballasting operations would present a recognizable hazard to either
marine resources or human health or cause minimal harm to amenities or other
legitimate uses of the sea and therefore require some attention in operational
conditions.

Regulation 4 - Other liquid substances

The substances referred to in appendix III to this Annex have been evaluated
And found to fall outside the Category A, B, C and D, because they are at
Present considered to present no harm to human health, marine
resources,amenities or other legitimate uses of the sea, when discharged into
the sea from tank cleaning or deballasting operations.

The discharge of bilge or ballast water or other residues or mixtures

containing only substances referred to in appendix III to this Annex shall not
be subject to any requirement of this Annex.

Regulation 5 - Discharge of noxious liquid substances

Category A, B and C substances outside special areas and Category D substances
in all areas

Regulation 5A - Pumping, piping and unloading arrangements

Every ship constructed on or after 1 July 1986 shall be provided with pumping and piping
arrangements to ensure, through testing under favourable pumping conditions, that each tank
designated for the carriage of a Category B substance does not retain a quantity of residue in excess
of 0.1 m3 in the tank‘s associated piping and in the immediate vicinity of that tank‘s suction point.

Regulation 6 – Exceptions
Discharge into the sea of noxious liquid substances or mixtures containing such
substances necessary for the purpose of securing the safety of a ship or saving
life at sea; or resulting from damage to a ship or its equipment provided that all
reasonable precautions have been taken after the occurrence of the damage or
discovery of the discharge for the purpose of preventing or minimizing the discharge;

Regulation 7 - Reception facilities and cargo unloading terminal

Arrangements

Cargo loading and unloading ports and terminals shall have

facilities adequate for reception without undue delay to ships
of such residues and mixtures containing noxious liquid substances as
would remain for disposal from ships carrying
them as a consequence of application of this Annex; and

Ship repair ports undertaking repairs to chemical tankers shall

have facilities adequate for the reception of residues and
mixtures containing noxious liquid substances.

Regulation 8 - Measures of control

Regulation 9 - Cargo Record Book
(1) Every ship to which this Annex applies shall be
Provided with a Cargo Record Book, whether as part
of the ship‘s official log-book or otherwise, in the
form specified in appendix IV to this Annex.

The Cargo Record Book shall be completed, on a tank-to-

tank basis,whenever any of the following operations with
respect to a noxious liquid substance take place in the
ship:
(i) loading of cargo;
(ii) internal transfer of cargo;
(iii) unloading of cargo;
(iv) cleaning of cargo tanks;
 (v) ballasting of cargo tanks;
(vi) discharge of ballast from cargo tanks;
(vii) disposal of residues to reception facilities;
(viii) discharge into the sea or removal by ventilation of residues
in accordance with regulation 5 of this Annex
Regulation 10 – Surveys
Regulation 11- Issue or endorsement of Certificate
(1) An International Pollution Prevention Certificate for the
Carriage of Noxious Liquid Substances in Bulk shall be issued,
after an initial or renewal survey in accordance with the
provisions of regulation 10 of this Annex, to any ship carrying
noxious liquid substances in bulk and
which is engaged in voyages to ports or terminals under the
jurisdiction of other Parties to the Convention.

Regulation 12 - Duration and validity of Certificate

(1) An International Pollution Prevention Certificate for the
Carriage of Noxious Liquid Substances in Bulk shall be issued
for a period specified by the
Administration which shall not exceed 5 years.
Regulation 12A - Survey and certification of chemical tankers

Regulation 13 - Requirements for minimizing accidental pollution

Regulation 14 - Carriage and discharge of oil-like substances

Regulation 15 - Port State control on operational requirements*

A ship when in a port of another Party is subject to
inspection by officers duly authorized by such Party
concerning operational requirements under this
Annex, where there are clear grounds for believing
that the master or crew are not familiar with essential
shipboard procedures relating to the prevention of
pollution by noxious liquid substances.

Regulation 16 - Shipboard marine pollution emergency plan for

noxious liquid Substances
Every ship of 150 gross tonnage and above certified to carry noxious
liquid substances in bulk shall carry on board a shipboard marine
pollution emergency plan for noxious liquid substances

440. Explain Annexe-III MARPOL?

Annex III of MARPOL 73/78 - Regulations for the Prevention of Pollution by Harmful Substances
Carried by Sea in Packaged Form

Regulation 1- Application Unless expressly provided otherwise, the

regulations of this Annex apply to all ships
carrying harmful substances in packaged form

Regulation 2 – Packing Packages shall be adequate to minimize the

hazard to the marine environment, having regard to their
specific contents.
Regulation 3 - Marking and labelling
(1) Packages containing a harmful substance shall be durably marked with
the correct technical name (trade names alone shall not be used)
and,further, shall be durably marked or labelled to indicate that the
substance is a marine pollutant. Such identification shall be supplemented
where possible by any other means, for example, by use of the relevant
United Nations number.
(2) The method of marking the correct technical name and of affixing
labels on packages containing a harmful substance shall be such that this
information will still be identifiable on packages surviving at least three
months‘ immersion in the sea. In considering suitable marking and
labelling, account shall be taken of the durability of the materials used and
of the surface of the package.
Regulation 4
Documentation
(1) In all documents relating to the carriage of harmful
substances by sea where such substances are named,
the correct technical name of each such substance shall
be used

441. Explain SOLAS..

 The International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS), 1974, currently in force, was adopted on 1
November 1974 by the International Conference on Safety of Life at Sea, which was convened by the International
Maritime Organization (IMO), and entered into force on 25 May 1980. It has since been amended twice by means of
protocols:
 on 17 February 1978 by the International Conference on Tanker Safety and Pollution Prevention (1978 SOLAS
Protocol),
 by the Protocol adopted on 11 November 1988 by the International Conference on the Harmonized System of
Survey and Certification (1988 SOLAS Protocol), which entered into force on 3 February 2000
CHAPTER I - General provisions
 Inspection and survey
 Maintenance of conditions after survey
 Issue or endorsement of certificates*
 Duration and validity of certificates
Passenger – 12 months
Cargo ship - not exceeding 5 years
 CASUALITIES
CHAPTER II-1- Construction – Structure, subdivision and stability,
Machinery and electrical installations
CHAPTER II-2 - Construction – Fire protection, fire detection and
fire extinction
CHAPTER III - Life-saving appliances and arrangements
CHAPTER IV – Radio communications
CHAPTER V - Safety of navigation
CHAPTER VI - Carriage of cargoes
CHAPTER VII - Carriage of dangerous goods
CHAPTER VIII - Nuclear ships
CHAPTER IX - Management for the safe operation of ships
CHAPTER X - Safety measures for high-speed craft
CHAPTER XI- Special measures to enhance maritime safety
CHAPTER XII -Additional safety measures for bulk carriers

442. Which chapter in SOLAS deals sith Electrical Installations?

Chapter II-1: Construction – structure, stability, installations - Part D

443. What does SOLAS tell about Electrical Installations?

Chapter II-1 Part D (Electrical installations)

Regulation 40
General: Electrical installations shall be such that:
 all electrical auxiliary services necessary for maintaining the ship in normal
operational and habitable conditions will be ensured without recourse to the
emergency source of electrical power;
 electrical services essential for safety will be ensured under various emergency
conditions; and
3) the safety of passengers, crew and ship from electrical hazards will be ensured.

Regulation 41
Main source of electrical power and lighting systems
 A main source of electrical power shall consist of at least two generating sets to supply power to all those
services mentioned in regulation 40.

 The capacity of these generating sets shall be such that in the event of any one generating set being stopped it
will still be possible to supply those services necessary to provide normal operational conditions of propulsion
and safety. Minimum comfortable conditions of habitability shall also be ensured which include at least adequate
services for cooking, heating,domestic refrigeration, mechanical ventilation, sanitary and fresh water.

 The arrangements of the ship‘s main source of electrical power shall be such that the services can be maintained
regardless of the speed and direction of rotation of the propulsion machinery or shafting.

 The generating sets shall be such as to ensure that with any one generator or its primary source of power out of
operation, the remaining generating sets shall be capable of providing the electrical services necessary to start
the main propulsion plant from a dead ship condition. The emergency source of electrical power may be used for
the purpose of starting from a dead ship condition if its capability either alone or combined with that of any other
source of electrical power is sufficient

 A main electric lighting system which shall provide illumination throughout those parts of the ship normally
accessible to and used by passengers or crew shall be supplied from the main source of electrical power. It shall
be such that a fire or other casualty in spaces containing the main source of electrical power, associated
transforming equipment, if any, the main switchboard and the main lighting switchboard, will not render the
emergency electric lighting system inoperative
  The arrangement of the emergency electric lighting system shall be such that a fire or other casualty in spaces
containing the emergency source of electrical power, associated transforming equipment, if any, the emergency
switchboard and the emergency lighting switchboard will not render the main electric lighting system required by
this regulation inoperative.

 The main switchboard shall be so placed relative to one main generating station that, as far as is practicable, the
integrity of the normal electrical supply may be affected only by a fire or other casualty in one space. An
environmental enclosure for the main switchboard, such as may be provided by a machinery control room
situated within the main boundaries of the space

 Where the total installed electrical power of the main generating sets is in excess of 3 MW, the main busbars
shall be subdivided into at least two parts which shall normally be connected by removable links or other
approved means

Regulation 42
Emergency source of electrical power in passenger ships
 A self-contained emergency source of electrical power shall be provided. The emergency source of electrical
power, associated transforming equipment, if any, transitional source of emergency power, emergency
switchboard and emergency lighting switchboard shall be located above the uppermost continuous deck and
shall be readily accessible from the open deck. They shall not be located forward of the collision bulkhead.

 A fire or other casualty in spaces containing the main source of electrical power, associated transforming
equipment, if any, and the main switchboard or in any machinery space of category A will not interfere with the
supply, control and distribution of emergency electrical power.

 The electrical power available shall be sufficient to supply all those services that are essential for safety in an
emergency, due regard being paid to such services as may have to be operated simultaneously.

 The emergency source of electrical power shall be capable of supplying

For a period of 36 h, emergency lighting:
1. at every muster and embarkation station and over the sides as
required by regulations
2. in alleyways, stairways and exits giving access to the muster and
embarkation stations
3. in all service and accommodation alleyways, stairways and exits,
personnel lift cars;
4. in the machinery spaces and main generating stations including
their control positions;
5. in all control stations, machinery control rooms, and at each
main and emergency switchboard;
6. at all stowage positions for firemen‘s outfits;
7. at the steering gear; and
8. at the fire pump, the sprinkler pump and the emergency bilge pump and at the starting position of
their motors.

For a period of 36 h:
1. The navigation lights and other lights required by the International
Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea in force

2. the VHF radio installation required by regulation

3. the MF radio installation required by regulations
4. the ship earth station required by regulation
5. the MF/HF radio installation required by regulations

For a period of 36 h:
1. All internal communication equipment required in an emergency;
2. The shipborne navigational equipment as required by regulation
3. The fire detection and fire alarm system, and the fire door
holding and release system; and
4. for intermittent operation of the daylight signalling lamp, the
ship‘s whistle, the manually operated call points, and all internal signals that are required in an emergency;

For a period of 36 h:
1. One of the fire pumps required by regulations
2. The automatic sprinkler pump, if any; and
3. The emergency bilge pump and all the equipment essential for the operation
 of electrically powered remote controlled bilge valves.

For a period of half an hour:

Any watertight doors required by regulation to be power operated
together with their indicators and warning signals;

 The emergency source of electrical power may be either a generator or an accumulator battery, which shall
comply with the following:

Where the emergency source of electrical power is a generator, it shall

be:
1. driven by a suitable prime mover with an independent supply of fuel having a flashpoint
(closed cup test) of not less than 438C;
2. Started automatically upon failure of the electrical supply from
the main source of electrical power and shall be automatically
connected to the emergency switchboard; The automatic starting system and the
characteristic of the prime mover shall be such as to permit the emergency generator to
carry its full rated load as quickly as
is safe and practicable, subject to a maximum of 45 s; unless a
second independent means of starting the emergency generating set is
provided, the single source of stored energy shall be protected to
preclude its complete depletion by the automatic starting system;

Where the emergency source of electrical power is an accumulator

battery, it shall be capable of:
1. carrying the emergency electrical load without recharging while
maintaining the voltage of the battery throughout the discharge
period within 12% above or below its nominal voltage
2. automatically connecting to the emergency switchboard in the
event of failure of the main source of electrical power

The emergency switchboard shall be installed as near as is practicable to the emergency source of electrical
power.

Where the emergency source of electrical power is a generator, the

emergency switchboard shall be located in the same space unless the
operation of the emergency switchboard would thereby be impaired
.
No accumulator battery shall be installed in the same space as the emergency switchboard. An indicator shall
be mounted in a suitable place on the main switchboard to indicate when the batteries constituting either
the emergency source of electrical power or the transitional source of
emergency electrical power are being discharged.

The emergency switchboard shall be supplied during normal operation from the main switchboard by an
interconnector feeder which is to be adequately protected at the main switchboard against overload and short
circuit and which is to be disconnected automatically at the emergency switchboard upon failure of the main
source of electrical power.
Where the system is arranged for feedback operation, the interconnector
feeder is also to be protected at the emergency switchboard at least against
short circuit.
In order to ensure ready availability of the emergency source of
electrical power, arrangements shall be made where necessary to disconnect
automatically non-emergency circuits from the emergency switchboard to
ensure that power shall be available to the emergency circuits.

The emergency generator and its prime mover and any emergency
accumulator battery shall be so designed and arranged as to ensure that they
will function at full rated power when the ship is upright and when inclined
at any angle of list up to 22.5‘ or when inclined up to 10‘ either in the fore
or aft direction, or is in any combination of angles within those limits.

Provision shall be made for the periodic testing of the complete emergency system and shall include
the testing of automatic starting arrangement.

Regulation 43 - Emergency source of electrical power in cargo ships

The emergency source of electrical power, associated transforming
equipment, if any, transitional source of emergency power, emergency
switchboard and emergency lighting switchboard shall be located above the
uppermost continuous deck and shall be readily accessible from the open
deck.
Location of Emergency source should be such that a fire or other casualty in the space containing the
main source of electrical power, associated transforming equipment, if any, and the main
switchboard, or in any machinery space of category A will not interfere with the supply, control and
distribution of
emergency electrical power.
 The electrical power available shall be sufficient to supply all those services that are essential for
safety in an emergency.

The emergency source of electrical power shall be capable, of supplying simultaneously at least the
following services for the periods specified hereinafter:

 For a period of 3 h, emergency lighting at every muster and

embarkation station and over the sides as required by regulations

 For a period of 18 h, emergency lighting:

1. In all service and accommodation alleyways, stairways and exits,
personnel lift cars and personnel lift trunks;
2. In the machinery spaces and main generating stations including
their control positions;
3. Iin all control stations, machinery control rooms, and at each
main and emergency switchboard;
4. at all stowage positions for firemen‘s outfits;
5. at the steering gear;
6. at the fire pump referred to in paragraph 2.5, at the sprinkler
pump, if any, and at the emergency bilge pump, if any, and at
the starting positions of their motors; and
7. in all cargo pump-rooms of tankers

EQUIPMENTS SAME LIKE PASSENGER SHIPS..BUT TIME IS 18 HOURS INSTEAD OF 36 HOURS .

Regulation 44: Starting arrangements for emergency generating sets

Emergency generating sets shall be capable of being readily started in

their cold condition at a temperature of 08C. If this is impracticable, or if
lower temperatures are likely to be encountered, provision acceptable to the
Administration shall be made for the maintenance of heating arrangements,to ensure ready starting of
the generating sets.

Each emergency generating set arranged to be automatically started shall be equipped with starting
devices approved by the Administration with a stored energy capability of at least three consecutive
starts. A second source of energy shall be provided for an additional three starts within 30 min unless
manual starting can be demonstrated to be effective.

The stored energy shall be maintained at all times, as follows:

 Electrical and hydraulic starting systems shall be maintained from the
emergency switchboard;
 compressed air starting systems may be maintained by the main or auxiliary
compressed air receivers through a suitable nonreturn valve or by an emergency
air compressor which, if electrically driven, is supplied from the emergency
switchboard;
3) all of these starting, charging and energy storing devices shall be located in the
emergency generator space; these devices are not to be used for any purpose
other than the operation of the emergency generating set

Regulation 45 - Precautions against shock, fire and other hazards of electrical origin

Main and emergency switchboards shall be so arranged as to give easy access as

may be needed to apparatus and equipment, without danger to personnel. The
sides and the rear and, where necessary, the front of switchboards shall be suitably
guarded.

The hull return system of distribution shall not be used for any purpose in a tanker,
or for power, heating, or lighting in any other ship of 1,600 gross tonnage and
upwards. Not applicable to:

1. impressed current cathodic protective systems;

2. limited and locally earthed systems; or
3. insulation level monitoring devices provided the circulation
current does not exceed 30 mA under the most unfavourable conditions.

Earthed distribution systems shall not be used in a tanker. Can be permitted in a tanker the earthing of the
neutral for alternating current power networks of 3,000 V (line to line) and over, provided that any possible
resulting current does not flow directly through any of the dangerous spaces.

When a distribution system, whether primary or secondary, for power, heating or lighting, with no connection
to earth is used, a device capable of continuously monitoring the insulation level to earth and of giving an
audible or visual indication of abnormally low insulation values shall be provided

All electric cables and wiring external to equipment shall be at least of a flame-retardant type and shall be so
installed as not to impair their original
flame-retarding properties.
 Cables and wiring serving essential or emergency power, lighting, internal communications or signals shall
so far as practicable be routed clear of galleys, laundries, machinery spaces of category A and their casings
and
other high fire risk areas.

Cables connecting fire pumps to the emergency switchboard shall be of a fire-resistant type where they pass
through high fire risk areas. Where practicable all such cables should be run in such a manner as to
preclude their being rendered unserviceable by heating of the bulkheads that may be caused by a fire in an
adjacent space.

Cables and wiring shall be installed and supported in such a manner as

to avoid chafing or other damage.

Terminations and joints in all conductors shall be so made as to retain

the original electrical, mechanical, flame-retarding and, where necessary,
fire-resisting properties of the cable.

Each separate circuit shall be protected against short circuit and against
Overload.

The rating or appropriate setting of the overload protective device for

each circuit shall be permanently indicated at the location of the protective device.

Lighting fittings shall be so arranged as to prevent temperature rises

which could damage the cables and wiring, and to prevent surrounding
material from becoming excessively hot.

All lighting and power circuits terminating in a bunker or cargo space

shall be provided with a multiple-pole switch outside the space for
disconnecting such circuits.

Accumulator batteries shall be suitably housed, and compartments

used primarily for their accommodation shall be properly constructed and
efficiently ventilated. Electrical or other equipment which may constitute a source of ignition of
flammable vapours shall not be permitted in these compartments

No electrical equipment shall be installed in any space where flammable mixtures are liable to collect
including those on board tankers or in compartments assigned principally to accumulator batteries, in
paint
lockers, acetylene stores or similar spaces.

444. What does SOLAS tell about UMS?

Chapter II-1: Construction – structure, stability, installations Part E deals with

Additional requirements for periodically unattended machinery spaces

Regulation 47: Fire precautions

Means shall be provided to detect and give alarms at an early stage in
case of fires:
1. in boiler air supply casings and exhausts (uptakes); and
2. in scavenging air belts of propulsion machinery,

Internal combustion engines of 2,250 kW and above or having cylinders of more than 300 mm bore shall be provided
with crankcase oil mist detectors or engine bearing temperature monitors or equivalent devices.

Regulation 48 : Protection against flooding

Bilge wells in periodically unattended machinery spaces shall be located and monitored in such a way that the
accumulation of liquids is detected at normal angles of trim and heel, and shall be large enough to accommodate easily
the normal drainage during the unattended period.

The location of the controls of any valve serving a sea inlet, a discharge below the waterline or a bilge injection system
shall be so sited as to allow adequate time for operation in case of influx of water to the space, having regard to the
time likely to be required in order to reach and operate such controls.

Regulation 49 : Control of propulsion machinery from the navigation bridge

Under all sailing conditions, including manoeuvring, the speed, direction of thrust and, if applicable, the pitch of the
propeller shall be fully controllable from the navigation bridge.

The main propulsion machinery shall be provided with an emergency stopping device on the navigation bridge which
shall be independent of the navigation bridge control system.
Propulsion machinery orders from the navigation bridge shall be indicated in the main
machinery control room or at the propulsion machinery control position as appropriate.

Remote control of the propulsion machinery shall be possible only from one location at a
time; at such locations interconnected control positions are permitted. At each location there
shall be an indicator showing which location is in control of the propulsion machinery. The transfer of control between
the navigation bridge and machinery spaces shall be possible only in the main machinery space or in the main
machinery control room. The system shall include means to prevent the propelling thrust from altering significantly when
transferring control from one location to another.

It shall be possible for all machinery essential for the safe operation of the ship to be controlled from a local position,
even in the case of failure in any part of the automatic or remote control systems.

The design of the remote automatic control system shall be such that in case of its failure an alarm will be given.

Indicators shall be fitted on the navigation bridge for:

1. Propeller speed and direction of rotation in the case of fixed pitch propellers; or
2. Propeller speed and pitch position in the case of controllable
pitch propellers.

The number of consecutive automatic attempts which fail to produce a start shall be limited to safeguard sufficient
starting air pressure. An alarm shall be provided to indicate low starting air pressure set at a level which still permits
starting operations of the propulsion machinery.

Regulation 50 - Communication
A reliable means of vocal communication shall be provided between the main machinery control room or the propulsion
machinery control position as appropriate, the navigation bridge and the engineer officers‘ accommodation.

Regulation 51 - Alarm system

An alarm system shall be provided indicating any fault requiring attention and shall:

1. Be capable of sounding an audible alarm in the main machinery control

room or at the propulsion machinery control position, and indicate visually
each separate alarm function at a suitable position;
2. Have a connection to the engineers‘ public rooms and to each of
the engineers‘ cabins through a selector switch, to ensure connection to at
least one of those cabins.

3. Activate an audible and visual alarm on the navigation bridge for any
situation which requires action by or attention of the officer on watch;
as far as is practicable be designed on the fail-to-safety principle;
and
4. Activate the engineers‘ alarm required by regulation 38 if an alarm
function has not received attention locally within a limited time.
5. The alarm system shall be continuously powered and shall have an
automatic change-over to a stand-by power supply in case of loss of
normal power supply.
6. Failure of the normal power supply of the alarm system shall be
indicated by an alarm.
7. The alarm system shall be able to indicate at the same time more than
one fault and the acceptance of any alarm shall not inhibit another alarm

Regulation 52 : Safety systems

A safety system shall be provided to ensure that serious malfunction in machinery or boiler operations, which presents
an immediate danger, shall initiate the automatic shutdown of that part of the plant and that an alarm shall be given.
Shutdown of the propulsion system shall not be automatically activated except in cases which could lead to serious
damage,
complete breakdown, or explosion.

Regulation 53 : Special requirements for machinery, boiler and electrical

installations

Where the electrical power can normally be supplied by one generator, suitable load-shedding arrangements shall be
provided to ensure the integrity of supplies to services required for propulsion and steering as well as the safety of the
ship. In the case of loss of the generator in operation, adequate provision shall be made for automatic starting and
connecting to the main switchboard of a stand-by generator of sufficient capacity to permit
 propulsion and steering and to ensure the safety of the ship with automatic restarting of the essential auxiliaries
including, where necessary, sequential operations.

If the electrical power is normally supplied by more than one generator simultaneously in parallel operation, provision
shall be made, for instance by load shedding, to ensure that, in case of loss of one of these generating sets, the
remaining ones are kept in operation without overload to permit propulsion and steering, and to ensure the safety of the
ship.

Where stand-by machines are required for other auxiliary machinery essential to propulsion, automatic change-over
devices shall be provided.

An alarm shall be given on the automatic change-over.

An alarm system complying with regulation 51 shall be provided for all important pressures, temperatures and fluid
levels and other essential parameters.

A centralized control position shall be arranged with the necessary alarm panels and instrumentation indicating any
alarm.
Means shall be provided to keep the starting air pressure at the required level where internal combustion engines are
used for main propulsion.
445. What ―A‖ class division as per SOLAS/

‗‗A‘‘ class divisions are those divisions formed by bulkheads and decks which comply with the following criteria:
1. they are constructed of steel or other equivalent material;

2. they are suitably stiffened;

3. they are insulated with approved non-combustible materials such that the average temperature of the unexposed
side will not rise more than 140‘C above the original temperature, nor will the temperature, at any one point, including
any joint, rise more than 180‘C above the original temperature, within the time listed below:
class ‗‗A-60‘‘ 60 min
class ‗‗A-30‘‘ 30 min
class ‗‗A-15‘‘ 15 min
class ‗‗A-0‘‘ 0 min

4. They are so constructed as to be capable of preventing the passage of smoke and flame to the end of the one-
hour standard fire test;

446. What ―B‖ class division as per SOLAS/

‗‗B‘‘ class divisions are those divisions formed by bulkheads, decks,ceilings or linings which comply with the following
criteria:
1. they are constructed of approved non-combustible materials and all materials used in the construction and erection of
‗‗B‘‘ class divisions are non-combustible,
2. They have an insulation value such that the average temperature of the unexposed side will not rise more than 140‘C
above the original temperature, nor will the temperature at any one point, including any joint, rise more than 225‘C above the
original temperature, within the time listed below:

class ‗‗B-15‘‘ 15 min

class ‗‗B-0‘‘ 0 min

3. they are so constructed as to be capable of preventing the passage of flame to the end of the first half hour of the
standard fire test

447. What ―B‖ class division as per SOLAS/

‗‗C‘‘ class divisions are divisions constructed of approved noncombustible materials. They need meet neither requirements
relative to the passage of smoke and flame nor limitations relative to the temperature rise.

448. As per SOLAS what are the Limitations in the use of oils as fuel onboard ships?

The following limitations shall apply to the use of oil as fuel:

1. except as otherwise permitted by this paragraph, no oil fuel with a flashpoint of less than 60 8C shall be used;*

2. in emergency generators, oil fuel with a flashpoint of not less than 43 8 C may be used;

3. the use of oil fuel having a flashpoint of less than 60 8 C but not less than 438 C may be permitted

449. What are the regulations for Radio life-saving appliances as per SOLAS?

SOLAS Chapter III Part-B Regulation 6 deals with Radio life-saving appliances.
 VHF: At least 3 two-way VHF radiotelephone apparatus shall be provided on every passenger ship and on every cargo
ship of 500 gross tonnage and upwards. At least 2 two-way VHF radiotelephone apparatus shall be provided on every
cargo ship of 300 gross tonnage and upwards but less than 500 gross tonnage.

Radar transponders : At least one radar transponder shall be carried on each side of every
passenger ship and of every cargo ship of 500 gross tonnage and upwards. At least one radar transponder shall be
carried on every cargo ship of 300 gross tonnage and upwards but less than 500 gross tonnage.

The radar transponders { shall be stowed in such locations that they can be rapidly placed in any survival craft other
than the liferaft or liferafts required by regulation.

On ships carrying at least two radar transponders and equipped with free-fall lifeboats one of the radar transponders
shall be stowed in a free-fall lifeboat and the other located in the immediate vicinity of the navigation bridge so that it
can be utilized on board and ready for
transfer to any of the other survival craft.

Distress flares
Not less than 12 rocket parachute flares, shall be carried and be stowed on or near the navigation bridge.

On-board communications and alarm systems : An emergency means comprised of either fixed or portable equipment
or both shall be provided for two-way communications between emergency control stations, muster and embarkation
stations and strategic positions on
board.

A general emergency alarm system shall be provided and shall be used for summoning passengers and crew to muster
stations and to initiate the actions included in the muster list. The system shall be supplemented by either a public
address system
other suitable means of communication. Entertainment sound systems shall automatically be turned off when the
general emergency alarm system is activated.

Public address systems on passenger ships : all passenger ships shall be fitted with a public address system. The
public address system shall be clearly audible above the ambient
noise in all spaces. The public address systemshall be connected to the emergency source
of electrical power

450. What are the regulations for Personal life-saving appliances as per SOLAS?

SOLAS Chapter III Part-B Regulation 7 deals with Radio life-saving appliances.

Lifebuoys : Lifebuoys to be readily available on both sides of the ship and as far as practicable on all open decks
extending to the ship‘s side; at least one shall be placed in the vicinity of the stern; and so stowed as to be capable of
being rapidly cast loose, and not
permanently secured in any way.

At least one lifebuoy on each side of the ship shall be fitted with a buoyant lifeline equal in length to not less than twice
the height at which it is stowed above the waterline in the lightest seagoing condition, or 30 m, whichever is greater.

Not less than one half of the total number of lifebuoys shall be provided with lifebuoy self-igniting lights.

Not less than two of these shall also be provided with lifebuoy self-activating smoke signals and be capable of quick
release from the navigation bridge;

Each lifebuoy shall be marked in block capitals of the Roman alphabet with the name and port of registry of the ship on
which it is carried.

Lifejackets: A lifejacket shall be provided for every person on board the ship and, in
addition:
1) A number of lifejackets suitable for children equal to at least 10% of the number of passengers
on board shall be provided or such greater number as may be required to provide a lifejacket for
each child; and

2) A sufficient number of lifejackets shall be carried for persons on

watch and for use at remotely located survival craft stations. The
lifejackets carried for persons on watch should be stowed on the
bridge, in the engine control room and at any other manned watch station.

Lifejackets shall be so placed as to be readily accessible and their position shall be

plainly indicated.
 The lifejackets used in totally enclosed lifeboats, except free-fall lifeboats, shall not impede entry into the lifeboat or
seating, including operation of the seat belts in the lifeboat.

Lifejackets selected for free-fall lifeboats, and the manner in which they are carried or worn, shall not interfere with
entry into the lifeboat, occupant safety or operation of the lifeboat.

Immersion suits and anti-exposure suits : An immersion suit, complying with the requirements of section 2.3 of the
Code or an anti-exposure suit complying with section 2.4 of the Code, of an appropriate size, shall be provided for every
person assigned to crew the rescue boat.

451. What are the regulations for Survival craft and rescue boats on cargo ships as per SOLAS

SOLAS Chapter III Part-B Section III Regulation 31 deals with Survival craft and rescue boats on cargo
Ships.

Cargo ships shall carry:

1. one or more totally enclosed lifeboats of such aggregate capacity on each side of the ship as will accommodate the
total number of persons on board;
2. In addition, one or more inflatable or rigid liferafts stowed in a position providing for easy side-to-side transfer at a single
open deck level, and of such aggregate capacity as will accommodate the total number of persons on board. If the
liferaft or liferafts are not stowed in a position providing for easy side-to-side transfer at a single open deck level, the
total capacity available on each side shall be sufficient to accommodate the total number of persons onboard.

In lieu of meeting the requirements of above paragraph, cargo ships may carry:

 one or more free-fall lifeboats, capable of being free-fall launched over the stern of the ship of such aggregate
capacity as will accommodate the total number of persons on board; and
 In addition, one or more inflatable or rigid liferafts on each side of the ship, of such aggregate capacity as will
accommodate the total number of persons on board. The liferafts on at least one side of the ship shall be served
by launching appliances

Cargo ships of less than 85 m in length other than oil tankers, chemical tankers and gas carriers, may comply with the
following:

1. They shall carry on each side of the ship, one or more inflatable or rigid liferafts
of such aggregate capacity as will accommodate the total number of persons on board;

2. unless the liferafts are stowed in a position providing for easy side-to-side transfer at a single open deck level,
additional liferafts shall be provided so that the total
capacity available on each side will accommodate 150% of the total number of
persons on board;

3. if the rescue boat is also a totally enclosed lifeboat it may be included in the aggregate capacity provided that
the total capacity available on either side of the ship is at least 150% of the total number of persons on board;
and
4. In the event of any one survival craft being lost or rendered unserviceable, there shall be sufficient survival
craft available for use on each side, including any which are stowed in a position providing for easy side-to-
side transfer at a single open deck
level, to accommodate the total number of persons on board.

Cargo ships where the horizontal distance from the extreme end of the stem or stern of the ship to the nearest
end of the closest survival craft is more than 100 m shall carry, in addition to the liferafts required by
regulation, a liferaft stowed as far forward or aft, or one as far forward and another as far aft, as is reasonable
and practicable. Such liferaft or liferafts may be securely fastened so as to permit manual release and need
not be of the type which can be launched from an approved launching device.

All survival craft required to provide for abandonment by the total number of persons on board shall be capable of being launched with
their full complement of persons and equipment within a period of 10 min
from the time the abandon ship signal is given.

452. As per SOLAS Life boat should be capable of being launched by how much time after
abandon ship signal is given?
 As per SOLAS Chapter III Part-B Section III Regulation 31 All survival craft required to provide for abandonment by
the total number of persons on board shall be capable of being launched with their full complement of persons and
equipment within a period of 10 min from the time the abandon ship signal is given.

453. What are the additional requirements for Lifeboats of Oil tankers, Chemical tankers and
gas carriers as per SOLAS??

As per SOLAS Chapter III Part-B Section III

1) Oil tankers, chemical tankers and gas carriers carrying cargoes having a flashpoint not exceeding 608C
(closed-cup test) shall carry, in lieu of totally enclosed lifeboats complying with the requirements of section 4.6
of the Code, fire-protected lifeboats complying with the requirements of section 4.9 of the Code.
2) Chemical tankers and gas carriers carrying cargoes emitting toxic vapours or gases*
shall carry, in lieu of totally enclosed lifeboats complying with the requirements of
section 4.6 of the Code, lifeboats with a selfcontained air support system complying
with the requirements of section 4.8 of the Code.

454. What are the regulations for Personal life-saving appliances on cargo ships as per SOLAS?

SOLAS Chapter III Part-B Section III Regulation 32 deals with Personal life-saving appliances on cargo
Ships.

Lifebuoys
Cargo ships shall carry not less than the number of lifebuoys complying with the requirements of of the Code
prescribed in the following table:

Self-igniting lights for lifebuoys on tankers required by regulation shall be of an electric battery type.

Lifejacket lights
On cargo ships, each lifejacket shall be fitted with a lifejacket light

Immersion suits and thermal protective aids

Cargo ships shall carry for each lifeboat on the ship at least three immersion suits
One immersion suit complying with the requirements of section 2.3 of the Code for every person on board the ship;

These immersion suits and thermal protective aids

need not be required if the ship:

1. has totally enclosed lifeboats on each side of the ship of such aggregate capacity as
will accommodate the total number of persons on board; or
2. has totally enclosed lifeboats capable of being launched by free-fall over the stern of
the ship of such aggregate capacity as will accommodate the total number of
persons on board and which are boarded and launched directly from the stowed
position, together with liferafts on each side of the ship of such aggregate capacity
as will accommodate the total number of persons on board;

455. What is DSC?

Digital selective calling (DSC) means a technique using digital codes which enables a radio station to establish contact
with, and transfer information to, another station or group of stations, and complying with the relevant recommendations
of the International Radio Consultative Committee (CCIR).

456. What is NAVTEX

International NAVTEX service means the co-ordinated broadcast and automatic reception on 518 kHz of maritime
safety information by means of narrow-band direct-printing telegraphy
using the English language.

457. What is Polar orbiting satellite service ?

 Polar orbiting satellite service means a service which is based on polar orbiting satellites which receive and relay
distress alerts from satellite EPIRBs and which provides their position.

458. What is Sea area A1?

Sea area A1 means an area within the radiotelephone coverage of at least one VHF coast station in which continuous
DSC alerting is available,

459. What is Sea area A2?

Sea area A2 means an area, excluding sea area A1, within the radiotelephone coverage of at least one MF coast
station in which continuous DSC alerting is available,

460. What is Sea area A3?

Sea area A3 means an area, excluding sea areas A1 and A2, within the coverage of an Inmarsat geostationary satellite
in which continuous alerting is available.

461. What is Sea area A4?

Sea area A4 means an area outside sea areas A1, A2 and A3.

462. What is GMDSS?

Global maritime distress and safety system (GMDSS) identities means maritime mobile services identity, the ship‘s call
sign, Inmarsat identities and serial number identity which may be transmitted by the ship‘s equipment and used to
identify the ship.

463. What are the regulations for radio installations as per SOLAS?

SOLAS Chapter IV Part C Regulation 6 deals with Radio installations

Every radio installation shall:

1. be so located that no harmful interference of mechanical, electrical or other origin affects its proper use, and so as to
ensure electromagnetic compatibility and avoidance of harmful

interaction with other equipment and systems;

2. be so located as to ensure the greatest possible degree of safety and operational

availability;

3. be protected against harmful effects of water, extremes of temperature and other

adverse environmental conditions;

4. be provided with reliable, permanently arranged electrical lighting, independent of the main
and emergency sources of electrical power, for the adequate illumination of the radio
controls for operating the radio installation; and

.5 be clearly marked with the call sign, the ship station identity and other codes as applicable
for the use of the radio installation.

464. As per SOLAS what are all the radio equpt. to be available on board a ship?

1. A VHF radio installation capable of transmitting and receiving

.
 DSC on the frequency 156.525 MHz (channel 70). It shall be possible to initiate the transmission of
distress alerts on channel 70 from the position from which the ship is normally navigated;

 radiotelephony on the frequencies 156.300 MHz (channel 6), 156.650 MHz (channel 13) and 156.800
MHz (channel 16);

2. A radio installation capable of maintaining a continuous DSC watch on VHF channel 70 which may be separate
from, or combined with, that required by above.

3. A radar transponder capable of operating in the 9 GHz band, which:

shall be so stowed that it can be easily utilized; and may be used on a survival craft

4. a receiver capable of receiving international NAVTEX service broadcasts if the ship is engaged on voyages in any area
in which an international NAVTEX service is provided;
a radio facility for reception of maritime safety information by the Inmarsat enhanced group calling system if the
ship is engaged on voyages in any area of Inmarsat coverage but in which an international NAVTEX service is not
provided.
 However, ships engaged exclusively on voyages in areas where an HF direct-printing telegraphy maritime safety
information service is provided and fitted with equipment capable of receiving such service, may be exempt from
this requirement.

5. a satellite emergency position-indicating radio beacon (satellite EPIRB) which shall

be:

 capable of transmitting a distress alert either through the polar orbiting satellite service operating in the
406 MHz band or, if the ship is engaged only on voyages within Inmarsat coverage, through the Inmarsat
geostationary satellite service operating in the 1.6 GHz band;

 installed in an easily accessible position; ready to be manually released and capable of being carried by
one person into a survival craft;

 capable of floating free if the ship sinks and of being automatically activated when afloat; and

 capable of being activated manually.

465. As per SOLAS what are all the Radio equipment required for vessel on voyages in Sea
areas A1, A2 and A3?

All ships on voyages in Sea areas A1, A2 and A3 should have :

1) An Inmarsat ship earth station capable of:

 Transmitting and receiving distress and safety communications using
direct-printing telegraphy;
 initiating and receiving distress priority calls;
 maintaining watch for shore-to-ship distress alerts, including
those directed to specifically defined geographical areas;
 transmitting and receiving general radiocommunications,using either
radiotelephony or direct-printing telegraphy; and

2) An MF radio installation capable of transmitting and receiving, for distress and safety
purposes, on the frequencies:
a) 2,187.5 kHz using DSC; and
b) 2,182 kHz using radiotelephony; and
c) a radio installation capable of maintaining a continuous DSC
d) watch on the frequency 2,187.5 kHz which may be separate
e) from or combined with that required by subparagraph

3) a radio installation capable of maintaining a continuous DSC watch on the frequency

2,187.5 kHz which may be separate or combined.

4) means of initiating the transmission of ship-to-shore distress alerts by a radio service operating either:

 through the polar orbiting satellite service on 406 MHz; this requirement may be fulfilled by
the satellite EPIRB
 on HF using DSC
 through the Inmarsat geostationary satellite service, by an additional ship earth station or by
the satellite EPIRB

466. As per SOLAS what are all the Sources of energy required for radio equpt. to be available
on board a ship?

SOLAS Chapter IV Part C Regulation 13 deals with Radio installations

There shall be available at all times, while the ship is at sea, a supply of electrical energy sufficient to operate the radio
installations and to charge any batteries used as part of a reserve source or sources of energy for the radio
installations.

A reserve source or sources of energy shall be provided on every ship, to supply radio installations, for the purpose of
conducting distress and safety radiocommunications, in the event of failure of the ship‘s main and emergency sources
of electrical power.

The reserve source or sources of energy shall be capable of simultaneously operating the VHF radio installation
alongwith either the MF radio installation, MF/HF radio installation or the Inmarsat ship earth station and any of the
additional loads like two or more of the other radio installations and emergency electrical lighting for a period of at least:
1 h on ships provided with an emergency source of electrical power.

The reserve source or sources of energy shall be independent of the propelling power of the ship and the ship‘s
electrical system.
 Where a reserve source of energy consists of a rechargeable accumulator battery or batteries:

A means of automatically charging such batteries shall be provided which shall be capable of recharging them to
minimum capacity requirements within 10 h; and

The capacity of the battery or batteries shall be checked, using an appropriate method,* at
intervals not exceeding 12 months, when the ship is not at sea.

467. What is the purpose of AIS?

1. Provide automatically to appropriately equipped shore stations, other ships and aircraft information, including
the ship‘s identity, type, position, course, speed, navigational
status and other safety-related information;
2. Receive automatically such information from similarly fitted ships;
3. Monitor and track ships; and
4. Exchange data with shore-based facilities;

468. Explain Ship security alert system

It is a system when activated, shall:

1. Initiate and transmit a ship-to-shore security alert to a competent authority

Identifying the ship, its location and indicating that the security of the ship
is under threat or it has been compromised;

2. not send the ship security alert to any other ships;

3. not raise any alarm on board the ship; and
4. Continue the ship security alert until deactivated and/or reset.

The ship security alert system shall:

1. be capable of being activated from the navigation bridge and in
at least one other location; and
2. conform to performance standards not inferior to those adopted
by the Organization.
3. The ship security alert system activation points shall be designed so as
to prevent the inadvertent initiation of the ship security alert.

469. Explain GMDSS system.

The basic concept of the GMDSS (shown in figure 1) is that search and rescue authorities ashore, as well as shipping
in the immediate vicinity of the ship in distress, will be rapidly alerted to a distress incident so that they can assist in a
co-ordinated SAR operation with the minimum delay. The system also provides for urgency and safety communications
and the promulgation of maritime safety information (MSI) – navigational and meteorological
warnings and forecasts and other urgent safety information to ships. In other words, every ship is able, irrespective of
the area in which it operates, to perform those communication functions which are essential for the safety of the ship
itself and of other ships operating in the same area.
470. What are the Communications functions in the GMDSS?

ALERTING: Distress alerting is the rapid and successful reporting of a distress incident to a unit which can provide or
co-ordinate assistance, This would be a rescue co-ordination centre (RCC) or
another ship in the vicinity. When an alert is received by an RCC, normally via a coast station or coast earth station, the
RCC will relay the alert to SAR units and to ships in the vicinity of the distress incident. A distress alert should indicate
the ship‘s identification and the position of the distress and, where practicable, its nature and other information which
could be used for rescue operations.

GMDSS are designed to enable distress alerting to be performed in all three directions
ship-to-shore, ship-to-ship and shore-to-ship – in all sea areas. When the distress alert is
transmitted by DSC on VHF, MF or HF, ships within DSC range of the ship in distress will
 also be alerted (ship-to-ship alerting).

A distress alert is normally initiated manually and all distress alerts are acknowledged manually. When a ship sinks, a
float-free satellite emergency position-indicating radio beacon (EPIRB) is automatically activated.
Ships operating exclusively in sea area A1 may, in lieu of satellite EPIRBs, use VHF EPIRBs on channel 70.

The relaying of a distress alert from an RCC to ships in the vicinity of a distress incident is made by satellite
communication or by terrestrial communication, using appropriate frequencies. In either case, to avoid all ships in a
large sea area being alerted, an ‗‗area call‘‘ is normally transmitted so that only those ships in the vicinity of the distress
incident are alerted. On receipt of a relayed distress alert, ships in the area addressed are required to establish
communication with the RCC concerned to enable the assistance to be co-ordinated.

SAR co-ordinating communications: These are the communications necessary for the co-ordination of ships and
aircraft participating in a search and rescue operation following a distress alert and include communications between
RCCs and any ‗‗on-scene commander (OSC)‘‘ or ‗‗co-ordinator surface search (CSS)‘‘ in the area of the distress
incident.

For SAR operations, messages are transmitted in both directions, as distinct from ‗‗alerting‘‘, which is generally the
transmission of a specific message in one direction only, and distress and safety traffic by radiotelephony and direct-
printing telegraphy will normally be used for passing such messages.

On-scene communications: On-scene communications normally take place in the MF and VHF bands on frequencies
designated for distress and safety traffic by radiotelephony or direct-printing telegraphy. These communications
between the ship in distress and assisting units relate to the provision of assistance to the ship or the rescue of
survivors.

When aircraft are involved in on-scene communications they are normally able to use 3023,
4125 and 5680 kHz. In addition, SAR aircraft can be provided with equipment to communicate on 2182 kHz or 156.8
MHz or both, as well as on other maritime mobile frequencies.

Locating: Locating is the finding of a ship/aircraft in distress or its survival craft or survivors.
In the GMDSS this function is performed by means of 9 GHz SAR radar transponders (SARTs) carried by the ship in
distress or its survivors, whose position is indicated when the SART is interrogated by the searching unit‘s 9 GHz radar.
Use of the frequency 121.5 MHz in most satellite EPIRBs is provided for homing by aeronautical SAR units.

Promulgation of maritime safety information (MSI): Ships need to be provided with up-to-date navigational warnings
and meteorological warnings and forecasts and other urgent maritime safety information (MSI). MSI is made available
by narrow-band directprinting
telegraphy broadcasts, using forward error correction, on the frequency 518 kHz (International NAVTEX service) and,
for ships which navigate beyond the NAVTEX coverage, by broadcasts via the Inmarsat enhanced group call (EGC)
system (known as the International SafetyNET system).

General radiocommunications: General radiocommunications in the GMDSS are those communications between
ship stations and shore-based communication networks which concern the management and operation of the ship and
may have an impact on its safety. These communications can be conducted on any appropriate channel, including
those used for public correspondence. Examples are orders for pilot and tug services, chart replacement, repairs, etc.

Bridge-to-bridge communications : Bridge-to-bridge communications are inter-ship safety communications

conducted from the position from which the ship is normally navigated, normally performed by VHF radiotelephony.

471. What are the frequencies used in the GMDSS?

1.5 and 1.6 GHz : The Inmarsat system, which employs geostationary satellites and operates in the 1.5 and 1.6 GHz
band (Lband), provides ships fitted with ship earth stations with a means of distress alerting and a capability for two-way
communications using direct-printing telegraphy, data transmission and radiotelephone

406 MHz band: A polar-orbiting satellite system, operating in the 406 MHz band using satellite EPIRBs (COSPAS–
SARSAT system), provides one of the main means of distress alerting and determining the identity and position of the
ship in distress or its survivors in the GMDSS.

4, 6, 8, 12 and 16 MHz bands: Use of HF provides a long-range service in both the ship-to-shore and shore-to-ship
directions. In areas covered by Inmarsat it can be used as an alternative to satellite communications and outside these
areas it provides the only long-range communication capability.

MF radiocommunications
2187.5 kHz used for distress alerts and safety calls using DSC

2182 kHz: Used for distress and safety traffic by radiotelephony including SAR co-
ordinating and on-scene communications.

2174.5 kHz: Used for distress and safety traffic by direct-printing telegraphy.

VHF provides short-range service on the frequencies:

156.525 MHz (channel 70) for distress alerts and safety calls using DSC, and
 156.8 MHz (channel 16) for distress and safety traffic by radiotelephony, including SAR co-ordinating and on-scene
communications.

There is no short-range direct-printing telegraphy service on VHF.

518 kHz NAVTEX

472. Explain briefly the INMARSAT system.

The Inmarsat system has three major components: the space segment provided by Inmarsat, the coast earth stations
(CESs) provided by Inmarsat signatories and ship earth stations (SESs).

The nerve centre of the system is the operations control centre (OCC), located at Inmarsat‘s headquarters in the United
Kingdom. The OCC is responsible for controlling the Inmarsat system operation as a whole.
Operating 24 hours a day, it co-ordinates a wide range of activities. The OCC also arranges the commissioning of SESs
upon application by the shipowner.

Space segment: Four satellites in geostationary orbit 36,000 km above the equator cover four ocean regions, namely
AOR-E (Atlantic Ocean Region – East), AOR-W (Atlantic Ocean Region – West), IOR (Indian Ocean Region) and POR
(Pacific Ocean Region), and provide near-global coverage.

Coast earth stations:

The CESs provide the link between the satellites and terrestrial telecommunications networks. Currently, all CESs are
owned and operated by telecommunications carriers. A typical CES consists of a parabolic antenna about 11 m to 14 m
in diameter, which is used for transmission of signals to the satellite at 6 GHz and for reception from the satellite at 4
GHz for transmission of signals to the satellite at 6 GHz and for reception from the satellite at 4 GHz . The same
antenna or another dedicated antenna is used for L-band transmission (at 1.6 GHz) and reception (at 1.5 GHz) of
network control signals.
The type of communication service provided varies depending on the CES. A CES designated for each ocean area for
each communication service (i.e. telephone, direct-printing telegraph, etc.) serves as a network co-ordination station
(NCS) which assigns communication channels, on demand, to SESs and other CESs and monitors signals transmitted
by these stations.

Ship earth stations

The requirements for the SESs in the GMDSS can be met by Inmarsat SESs capable of two-way communications, such
as Inmarsat-A, Inmarsat-B and Inmarsat-C SESs.

Inmarsat-A SES
An Inmarsat-A SES consists of two parts, above-deck equipment (ADE) and below-deck equipment (BDE).
The ADE includes a parabolic antenna, about 0.85 m to 1.2 m in diameter, mounted on a platform and
stabilized so that the antenna remains pointed at the satellite regardless of ship motion. It also includes a solid-
state L-band power amplifier, an L-band low-noise amplifier, a diplexer and a low-loss protective radome. The
BDE consists of an antenna control unit; communications electronics used for transmission, reception, access
control and signalling; and telephone and telex equipment

Inmarsat-B SES
The Inmarsat-B SES is a digital complement of Inmarsat-A SES developed to replace Inmarsat-A SES
equipment in the future. It provides the same communications services as an Inmarsat-A SES.

Inmarsat-C SES
Inmarsat-C SESs are small, lightweight terminals designed for two-way message communication. Inmarsat-C
SESs cannot be used for radiotelephone communications; they operate at 600 bits/s and provide access to the
international telex/teletex networks, electronic mail services and computer databases. This low powered
terminal with its omnidirectional antenna and light weight is a practical solution for installation on the smallest
of vessels, thereby bringing the benefits of satellite communications within the reach of all mariners.

L-Band satellite EPIRBs (Inmarsat-E)

L-Band satellite EPIRBs operating through the Inmarsat system can be used as a
Means of alerting by ships operating in sea areas A1, A2 and A3 as an alternative to
406 MHz satellite EPIRBs,

The L-band satellite EPIRB provides for rapid distress alerting (in the order of 10 minutes with 1 W output
power radiated by an EPIRB), coverage up to latitude 708N and 708S, 20 simultaneous alerts within a 10-
minute time-frame and the possibility of manual or automatic entry and updating of position information to the
satellite EPIRB. The satellite EPIRB can be activated either manually or automatically, by floating free from the
sinking ship.

After activation, the satellite EPIRB transmits the distress message containing the
ship station identity,position information and additional information which could be
used to facilitate rescue. The distress message is then forwarded to an associated RCC
for appropriate action.

473. Explain the COSPAS–SARSAT system.

The COSPAS–SARSAT* system is a satellite-aided SAR system designed to locate distress

Beacons transmitting on the frequencies 121.5 MHz or 406 MHz.{ It is intended to serve all
organizations in the world with responsibility for SAR operations whether a distress occurs
at sea, in the air or on land.

The basic COSPAS–SARSAT system concept is given in figure 6. There are at present three types of satellite beacons,
namely emergency locator transmitters (ELTs) (airborne), EPIRBs (maritime) and personal locator beacons (PLBs) (on
land). These beacons transmit signals that are detected by COSPAS–SARSAT polar orbiting satellites equipped with
suitable receivers/processors.

The signals are then relayed to a ground receiving station, called a local user terminal (LUT), which processes the
signals to determine the beacon location. An alert is then relayed, together with location data and other information, via
a mission control centre (MCC), either to a national RCC, to another MCC or to the appropriate SAR authority to initiate
SAR activities.

Doppler shift (using the relative motion between the satellite and the beacon) is used to locate the beacons.
The carrier frequency transmitted by the beacon is reasonably stable during the period of mutual beacon–satellite
visibility. The frequencies currently in use are 121.5 MHz (international aeronautical emergency frequency) and 406.025
MHz. The 406 MHz beacons are more sophisticated than the 121.5 MHz beacons because of the inclusion of
identification codes in the messages.

The COSPAS–SARSAT system implements two coverage modes for the detection and location of beacons, namely the
real-time mode and the global coverage mode.

Both the 121.5 and 406 MHz systems operate in the real-time mode, while only the 406 MHz system operates
in the global coverage mode.

121.5 MHz real-time mode

In this mode, an LUT and EPIRBs must be in the same view of the satellite for the 121.5 MHz EPIRB signal
to be relayed by a repeater on board the satellite directly to the ground, where it is received and processed.
For this reason, world-wide real-time mode coverage is unlikely to be achieved.

406 MHz real-time mode

Once the satellite receives the 406 MHz satellite EPIRB signals, the Doppler shift is measured and the
beacon digital data, which include ship‘s identification, etc., are recovered from the beacon signal. This
 information is time-tagged, formatted as digital data, and transferred to the downlink repeater for real-time
transmission to any LUT in the satellite‘s view. The data are simultaneously stored in the on-board memory of
the satellite for later transmission in the global coverage mode.

406 MHz global coverage mode

The 406 MHz system provides global coverage by storing data on board for later dumping and reception by
LUTs. Each satellite EPIRB can therefore be located by all operating LUTs.

121.5 MHz satellite EPIRBs

EPIRBs operating on 121.5 MHz are already in widespread use. They are used on board light aircraft and
ships and must meet national specifications based on International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
standards.The 121.5 MHz beacon signals also provide for homing by SAR units and overflight monitoring by
aircraft.

406 MHz satellite EPIRBs

The development of 406 MHz satellite EPIRBs (figure 7) has been undertaken to overcome certain
shortcomings of the 121.5 MHz system. The new EPIRBs were specifically designed for satellite detection and
Doppler location and include the following features:

 . improved location accuracy and ambiguity resolution;

 . increased system capacity, i.e. a greater number of beacons transmitting
simultaneously in the field of view of a satellite can be processed;

 . global coverage;
 . unique identification of each beacon; and
 . inclusion of distress information.

The 406 MHz satellite EPIRBs transmit a 5 W radio-frequency (RF) burst of approximately 0.5 s duration every
50 seconds. Improved frequency stability ensures improved location accuracy, while the high peak power
increases the probability of detection. The low duty cycle provides good multiple-access capability, with a
system capacity of 90 activated beacons simultaneously in view of the satellite, and low mean power
consumption.

An important feature of the new satellite EPIRBs is the inclusion of a digitally encoded message, which may
provide such information as the country of origin of the unit in distress, identification of the vessel or aircraft,
nature of distress and, in addition, for satellite EPIRBs coded in accordance with the maritime location
protocol,the ship‘s position as determined by its navigation equipment.

474. What is the Digital selective calling (DSC) system in GMDSS?

Digital selective calling (DSC) is an integral part of the GMDSS and is used for transmitting distress alerts from ships
and for transmitting the associated acknowledgements from coast stations. It is also used by ships and coast stations
for relaying distress alerts and for other urgency and safety calls.

The content of a DSC call includes the numerical address of the station (or stations) to which the call is transmitted, the
self identification of the transmitting station and a message which contains several fields of information indicating the
purpose of the call.

The receipt of a DSC call by a receiving station is accompanied by a suitable display or print-out of the address, the
self-identification of the transmitting station and the content of the DSC message,

together with an audible or visual alarm or both for certain categories of calls (e.g. for distress- and safety-related calls).

The duration of a single DSC call varies between 6.2 and 7.2 seconds on MF and HF or 0.45 and 0.63 second on VHF,
depending o n the type of DSC call transmitted.

475. What are Search and rescue radar transponders (SARTs)?

Search and rescue radar transponders (SARTs) are the main means in the GMDSS for locating ships in distress or their
survival craft, and their carriage on board ships is mandatory.

The SART operates in the 9 GHz frequency band and generates a series of response signals on being interrogated by
any ordinary 9 GHz shipborne radar or suitable airborne radar. No modification is needed to a ship‘s radar equipment
for detecting SART signals. SARTs can be either portable, for use on board ship or carrying into any survival craft,
installed on the ship and in each survival craft, or so as to operate after floating free from the sinking
Ship.

They may also be incorporated into a float-free satellite EPIRB.

The SART can be activated manually or automatically when placed into the water so that it will thereafter respond when
interrogated.
 When activated in a distress situation, the SART responds to radar interrogation by transmitting a swept frequency
signal which generates a line of blip code on a radar screen outward from the SART‘s position along its line of bearing.{
This unique radar signal is easily recognized on the radar screen and the rescue vessel (and aircraft, if equipped with
suitable radar) can detect the survivors even in poor visibility or at night.

The SART provides a visual or audible indication of its correct operation and will also inform survivors when it is
interrogated by a radar.

The SART will have sufficient battery capacity to operate in the stand-by condition for 96 hours and will be able to
operate under ambient temperatures of –20‘C to +55‘C.

476. What is Maritime safety information (MSI) system?

The World-Wide Navigational Warning Service (WWNWS) was established by IMO and IHO for the
purpose of co-ordinating the transmission of navigational warnings to ships in co-ordinated geographical areas
(NAVAREAs*). In the GMDSS, the WWNWS was included in the systems developed for the promulgation of maritime
safety information (MSI).

Radio systems to be used internationally for the promulgation of MSI in the GMDSS and for which requirements have
been included in SOLAS chapter IV{ are:
The International NAVTEX system;
The International SafetyNET system;

477. What is The International NAVTEX system?

This system is an international direct-printing service for promulgation of MSI in the English language,pertaining to
coastal waters up to about 400 nautical miles offshore. Unlike NAVAREA warnings, which are tailored for international
sea commerce on or near main shipping lanes, NAVTEX carries information relevant to all sizes and types of vessels
within a region established for this service. It also carries routine meteorological forecasts and warnings and other
urgent safety information to ships. A selective message-rejection feature of the receiver allows the mariner to receive
only that safety information pertinent to his requirements.

NAVTEX is a single-frequency broadcast system; the frequency 518 kHz is used for this purpose.Mutual interference
will be avoided by limiting the transmitter power to that necessary for coverage of the assigned area and by co-
ordinating the broadcast schedules. MSI on the International NAVTEX service is broadcast in English. A dedicated
receiver/processor is used for the reception of NAVTEX broadcasts.

Details of the system are contained in the NAVTEX Manual.

Example of a NAVTEX receiver

478. What are the Carriage requirements for GMDSS radio equipment on board ships?

Carriage requirements for GMDSS radio equipment can be summarized as follows:

 sea area A1: ships shall carry VHF equipment and either a satellite EPIRB or a VHF
 EPIRB;
 sea area A2: ships shall carry VHF and MF equipment and a satellite EPIRB;
 sea area A3: ships shall carry VHF, MF, a satellite EPIRB and either HF or satellite communication
equipment;
 sea area A4: ships shall carry VHF, MF and HF equipment and a satellite EPIRB;
 all ships shall carry equipment NAVTEX receiver for receiving MSI broadcasts.
 all ships be fitted with a radar transponder and two-way VHF radiotelephone
 apparatus for survival craft;
 all ships to be fitted with at least one radar capable of operating in the 9 GHz band

479. Makes of ACBs?

TERASAKI, HYUNDAI etc.

480. ACB settings on ship

The settings are dependent on the setting of the base current. The base current is set at 70% of the nominal current In.
in product tankers

For a ship with generator 450 volts, 1125 KVa. the nominal current In is 2000 Amps. So the base current will be 72% of
2000 = 1443 Amps
The following are the trips set on the ACB. The pickup current is the base on which
the trips activate

LONG TIME DELAY TRIP:

Pickup current = Range X Base current

I1 = 1.1 X 1443
= 1587.3 Amps

Operating Time = 40 Secs at 120% of Pickup current

= 40 secs at 120 X 1587.3
100

= 40 secs at 1904.76 Amps

SHORT TIME DELAY TRIP:

Pickup current = Range X Base current

I2 = 3 X 1443
= 4329 Amps
Operating Time = 560 MilliSecs

INSTANTANEOUS DELAY TRIP:

Pickup current = Range X Base current

Is= 10 X 1443
= 14430 Amps
Operating Time = iNSTANTANEOUS

UNDERVOLTAGE TRIP

80% of 450 volts = 440 volts

PREFERENTIAL TRIP

Pickup current = Range X Base current

Ip= 1 X 1443

Operating Time = 10 secs at 120% of Ip

= 10 secs at 1731 Amps

REVERSE POWER TRIP

 = 10% of 900 KW
= 90 KW.

481. What are the regulations in SOLAS regarding Steering Gear?

SOLAR Chapter II-1, Part -C, machinery Installations Regulation 29 deals

With Steering gear. According to that:
Unless expressly provided otherwise, every ship shall be provided with a main steering gear and an auxiliary steering
gear to the satisfaction of the Administration. The main steering gear and the auxiliary steering gear shall be so
arranged that the failure of one of them will not render the other one inoperative.

The main steering gear and rudder stock shall be:

1) Of adequate strength and capable of steering the ship at maximum ahead service speed which shall be
demonstrated;

2) Capable of putting the rudder over from 35‘ on one side to 35‘ on the other side with the ship at its deepest seagoing
draught and running ahead at maximum ahead service speed and, under
the same conditions, from 358 on either side to 308 on the other side in not more than 28 s;

1) So designed that they will not be damaged at maximum astern speed;

The auxiliary steering gear shall be:

1) of adequate strength and capable of steering the ship at navigable speed and of being brought speedily into
action in an emergency;
2) capable of putting the rudder over from 15‘ on one side to 15‘ on the other side in not
more than 60 s with the ship at its deepest seagoing draught and running ahead at one half of the
maximum ahead service speed or 7 knots, whichever is the greater; and

Main and auxiliary steering gear power units shall be:

1) arranged to restart automatically when power is restored after a power failure; and
2) capable of being brought into operation from a position on the navigation
bridge. In the event of a power failure to any one of the steering gear power units, an audible and visual
alarm shall be given on the navigation bridge.

Steering gear control shall be provided:

1) for the main steering gear, both on the navigation bridge and in
the steering gear compartment;
2) where the main steering gear is arranged in accordance with paragraph 6, by two independent control systems, both
operable from the navigation bridge. This does not require duplication of
the steering wheel or steering lever. Where the control system consists of a hydraulic telemotor, a second independent
system need not be fitted, except in a tanker, chemical tanker or gas
carrier of 10,000 gross tonnage and upwards;
3) for the auxiliary steering gear, in the steering gear compartment and, if power-operated, it shall also be operable
from the navigation bridge and shall be independent of the control system
for the main steering gear.

The angular position of the rudder shall:

1) if the main steering gear is power-operated, be indicated on the
navigation bridge. The rudder angle indication shall be
independent of the steering gear control system;
2) be recognizable in the steering gear compartment.

Hydraulic power-operated steering gear shall be provided with the following:

1) arrangements to maintain the cleanliness of the hydraulic fluid taking into
consideration the type and design of the hydraulic system;
2) a low-level alarm for each hydraulic fluid reservoir to give the earliest practicable indication of hydraulic fluid
leakage. Audible and visual alarms shall be given on the navigation bridge and in the machinery space where they
can be readily observed; and
3) a fixed storage tank having sufficient capacity to recharge at least one power actuating system including the
reservoir, where the main steering gear is required to be power-operated. The storage tank shall be permanently
connected by piping in such a manner that the hydraulic systems can be readily recharged from a position within the
steering gear compartment and shall be provided with a contents gauge.

482. What are the Additional requirements for electric and electrohydraulic steering gear?
 Means for indicating that the motors of electric and electrohydraulic steering gear are running shall be installed on the
navigation bridge and at a suitable main machinery control position.

Each electric or electrohydraulic steering gear comprising one or more power units shall be served by at least two
exclusive circuits fed directly from the main switchboard; however, one of the circuits may be supplied through the
emergency switchboard.

Short circuit protection and an overload alarm shall be provided for such circuits and motors. Protection against excess
current, including starting current, if provided, shall be for not less than twice the full load current of the motor or circuit
so protected, and shall be arranged to permit the passage of the appropriate starting currents. Where a three-phase
supply is used an alarm shall be provided that will indicate failure of any one of the supply phases. The alarms required
in this paragraph shall be both audible and visual and shall be situated in a conspicuous position in the main machinery
space or control room from which the main machinery is normally controlled.

483. What are the steering requirements for a tanker?

The main steering gear shall be so arranged that in the event of loss of steering it
shall be regained in not more than 45 s after the loss of one power actuating system;

The main steering gear shall comprise either:

Two independent and separate power actuating systems, each capable of putting the rudder over from 35‘ on one side
to 35‘on the other side with the ship at its deepest seagoing draught and running ahead at maximum ahead service
speed and, under the same conditions, from 35‘ on either side to 30‘ on the other side in not more than 28 s;

OR

At least two identical power actuating systems which, acting simultaneously in normal operation, shall be capable of
meeting the above requirement.

Where necessary to comply with this requirement, interconnection of hydraulic power actuating systems shall be
provided. Loss of hydraulic fluid from one system shall be capable of being detected and the defective system
automatically isolated so that the other actuating system or systems shall remain fully operational;

484. What is Flash Point?

This is the lowest temperature at which a flammable mixture of air and vapour will
burn when exposed to a naked flame.

485. What is Ignition Temperature?

This is the temperature at which a flammable mixture of vapour and air will ignite spontaneously
(without being exposed to a naked flame). The operation of a diesel engine depends upon this
effect.

486. What is LEL and UEL?

The lowest proportion of petroleum vapour in air mixture, which will burn, is termed lower explosive
limit (L.E.L.) and the strongest mixture that will burn is termed upper explosive limit (U.E.L.).

The flammable mixtures between the lower and upper explosive limits are called the explosive range. A mixture of
vapour in air weaker than the L.E.L. is described as too lean or over-lean whilst a mixture of vapour in air stronger than
the U.E.L. is described as too rich or over-rich. Mixtures outside the explosive range will not burn

487. Explain Power Factor?

There are three basic ways of defining power factor.

First is the Cos of angle between voltage and current in an inductive or capacitive circuit.

Second: Ratio of resistive component to the total impedance

Third. Ratio of active power to the apparent power.

Low power factor is mainly because of the inductive loads, specially induction motors which operate at 0.2 to 0.35 at
start up or at light loads, however, reach up to 0.75 at full load.

There are many methods of improving power factor:

First: Use of capacitors in parallel with inductive loads to inject leading reactive power to the system.

Second: Use of synchronous condenser: An over excited synchronous motor at no load draws leading current.
Third: Use of phase advancers: A small exciter mounted on the same shaft to provide the exciting amperes separately
to the rotor of the induction motors.

Power factor is the ratio between the kW and the kVA drawn by an electrical load where the kW is the actual load power
and the kVA is the apparent load power.
Simply, it is a measure of how efficiently the load current is being converted into useful work output and more
particularly is a good indicator of the effect of the load current on the efficiency of the supply system.

The components of motor current are load current and magnetizing current (adding those instantaneous values yields
the total motor current). Also, because load current is in phase with voltage and magnetizing current lags voltage by 90
degrees, their sum will be a sine wave that peaks somewhere between 0 and 90 degrees lagging which is the motor
current’s offset from voltage. There are negative effects associated with increased offset and that’s part of the power
factor explanation. Anyhow, power factor represents the offset in time, or the delay, between voltage and the current
being delivered and is defined as the cosine of that offset.

power factor is a way to measure the difference between ―apparent power,‖ power that is lost through the
process of induction (the beer AND the foam), and ―real power,‖ which is usable to do work (the
beer).Something like an incandescent light bulb has a perfect power factor, converting essentially every bit of electricity
that‘s flowing into it without magnetic loss (loss of conversion to heat is another matter all together!). Reactive loads,
like motors, are a bit more complicated. They use a coil, or windings, connected to an AC power supply, and the coil
needs to be magnetized before it can begin doing useful work of turning the motor through induction, which creates an
inefficiency in the use of electricity.

1. Poor power factor could cost you dearly. Because reactive power still requires capacity on the system even
though it doesn‘t do any useful work, some utilities charge more for it (particularly if the utility serves a region with a lot
of industrial load).

Poor power factor is a sign of inefficiency that can result in additional costs associated with equipment maintenance.
When machines break, there is costly down time and the products you‘re manufacturing or the systems you‘re running
are also at risk.

. In extreme cases, if you notice a really low power factor, you could have what‘s known as three phase power
imbalance, which can be due to improper wiring. If you do have an imbalance, your very expensive equipment is
working against itself, creating a lot of wear and tear on the motors, shortening its life span, and generating a lot of heat,
which could be a safety hazard.

Poor power factor causes

1) Large Line Losses (Copper Losses)

2) Large kVA rating and Size of Electrical Equipments

3) Greater Conductor Size and Cost

4) Poor Voltage Regulation and Large Voltage Drop

5) Low Efficiency

6) Penalty from Electric Power Supply Company on Low Power factor

Following are the merits and benefits of improved Power factor;

1) Increase in efficiency of system and devices

2) Low Voltage Drop

3) Reduction in size of a conductor and cable which reduces cost of the Cooper

4) An Increase in available power

5) Line Losses (Copper Losses) I2R is reduced

6) Appropriate Size of Electrical Machines (Transformer, Generators etc)

7) Eliminate the penalty of low power factor from the Electric Supply Company

8) Low kWh (Kilo Watt per hour)

9) Saving in the power bill

488. Why is the power factor low when the load is low?

Varying Load in Power System(As we know that load on power system is varying. During low load period, supply
voltage is increased which increase the magnetizing current which cause the decreased power factor)

489. Difference between Cyclo converters and synchro converters

A cycloconverter is a device that converts alternating current, or AC, power at one frequency into AC power of an
adjustable but lower frequency without any direct current, or DC, stage in between. It can also be considered as a static
frequency changer and typically contains silicon-controlled rectifiers. The device consists of an array containing back-to-
back, parallel, connected switches, which are used to fabricate the desired output AC waveforms. It's possible to control
the frequency of these output AC waveforms by opening and closing the switches in a controlled fashion.

This converter converts single-phase or three-phase AC power to single-phase or three-phase power having a variable
frequency and magnitude. Typically, the output frequency of the AC power is lower than the input frequency. A
cycloconverter has the capacity to operate with loads of variable power factors and also allows bidirectional power flow.
They can be broadly classified into two types — phase-controlled cycloconverters and envelope cycloconverters. In the
former, control of the firing angle is accomplished through adjustable gate impulses, while in the latter, the switches
remain in an on state and conduct in consecutive half cycles.

A "Synchro Converter" is used to convert Synchro (or Resolver) "analog" shaft angle information to a "digital" angle
format. The "Synchro Converter", is often used as a generic term for a variety of similar Synchro/Resolver Conversion
functions

Synchro/Resolver to Digital Converters

Resolvers and synchros are transducers that convert the angular position and/or velocity of a rotating shaft to an
electrical signal. Both deliver signals proportional to the sine and/or cosine of the shaft angle. A resolver-to-digital or
synchro-to-digital converter converts these signals to a digital output corresponding to the shaft angle and/or velocity.
ADI‘s family of RDCs and SDCs offer solutions for these applications.

490. How will u come to know that motor is short circuited ?

Check the resistance between the windings and the body/ground using a multimeter and
then using a megger.

491. how will you find out if system is having PID controller without opening panel?

Reset time dial - integral control. Rate time dial -derivative control.Proportional dial for proportional control;

in PID you see three dials proportional dial ... reset time dial and rate time dial ..In PI controller only two dials

proportional time dial and reset time dial.

Any pid weather it's pneumatic or electronic have three main function.

I) measurement of process so for measuring there will be a sensor always to give reading about process conditions. 2)

a controller in which we set a value and here value is compared with the present value and. 3) actuator , this part

correct the process as per output from controller.

In controlller u can set p.b. Band if band is less less offset but hunting in system. U can set reset time or integral to

make system faster nd third is derivative action from this u can set controller response to make sure system will not

overshoot or undershoot.

492. Shaft Generator block diagram

493. Fresh water generator working principle.

A fresh water generator consists of mainly two parts. A condenser and an evaporator. The boiling process is done
either by a heating coil or by using the high temperature main engine jacket water. In some FWGs, heating is also done
by superheated steam. Generally water is boiled at 100 degree Celsius, but in freshwater generator it is done at around
60-70 degree Celsius. For this purpose, educators or air ejectors are use. Eductors reduces the chamber‘s pressure to
such a point that water starts boiling at a temperature of 60-70 degrees Celsius. A flow meter is used to regulate the
flow of sea water into the generator. The freshwater generated in the condenser is later collected by a distillate pump. A
salinometer is used to check the salinity in the fresh water generated.

Working of the FWG

The hot jacket water from the diesel engine is passed through the evaporator‘s heated nest. The sea water enters the
evaporator through the flow meter and due to the low pressure of the chamber; it boils and gets converted to steam.
Generally the feed of the seawater is kept half the stated quantity to facilitate adequate boiling of sea water. The steam
then passes through a steam separator, in which the water particles in the steam are separated and collected.
The steam then enters the condenser, where it cools down to form fresh water. It is then removed from the condenser
with the help of a distillate pump. The remainder sea water particles or the brine which gets collected at the bottom is
drawn out with the help of an ejector pump.
494. Advantages of high voltage.

Let us assume a ship generating 8MW of power at 440V, from 4 diesel generating sets of 2MW, 0.8 power factors each.

Each generator feeder cable and circuit breaker has to handle a full-load current of:

6
I = 2 * 10 / (√3 * 440 * 0.8)

I = 3280.4 Amps i.e. Approximately 3300 Amps.

The protection devices like circuit breaker should be rated at approximately 90kA for each feeder cable.

Let us now calculate the same if the generated voltage is 6600Volts.

6
I = 2 * 10 / (√3 * 6600 * 0.8)

I = 218.69 Amps, Approximately 220 Amps. Thus the protection devices can be rated as low as 9 k Amps.

2
Also Power Loss = I * r.

Where I is the current carried by the conductor,

R is the resistance of the conductor.

Thus power loss varies square of the current carried by the conductor. If the supply voltage is 440V, then the current
carried by the conductor is 0.002P, and if the voltage is raised to 6600V, then the current carried for the same power is
(1.515 *( 10^-4)) * P

Thus it implies that the power loss is reduced by a greater extent if the voltage is stepped up. Thus it is always efficient
to transmit power at a higher voltage.

Conversely, the power loss can be reduced by reducing the resistance of the conductor.

r = ρ * l/a.

Thus by increasing the cross-sectional area of the conductor (diameter), the resistance of the conductor can be reduced
and thus the power loss. But this involves huge increase in cost and heavy cables with supports. Thus this idea was not
used to reduce the power loss during transmission and utilization.

Also a motor (let us assume a bow thruster), may be of a smaller size if it designed to operate on 6600 Volts. For the
same power, the motor would be of a smaller size if it is designed for 6600Volts when compared to 440Volts.

Thus these are the major reasons why recent ships have shifted towards high voltage systems.

495. Uses of soft starter, it's advantages & disadvantages.

Soft Starters:

A soft starter is a device used with motors to temporarily reduce the load and torque during startup. It applies a
gradually increasing voltage to the motors resulting in smooth acceleration of the motor and coupled load. It provides a
linear power slope for smooth acceleration, which reduces in rush currents and excessive wear on mechanical driven
components. The starter has a provision to adjust the starting voltage and acceleration time. This can be chosen to suit
specific application.

High starting torque can cause damage to the mechanical system and high current can cause problems in the electrical
system. If voltage is reduced by 50% then there is 75% reduction in motor torque
 Advantages of soft starters over conventional starters

 Energy Cost Reduction (Peak Demand Charges)

 Voltage or current is applied gradually, without the voltage and current transients. Precise control over the
current limit.
 Improved power factor at all load cycles and there by reduction in kVA
 Reduced power surge
 Reduced heating of the motors and improves operating efficiency
 Possibility of increased number of starts per hour
 Increased contact life of starter contactors
 Adjustable acceleration time
 Elimination of starting mechanical shock to couplings and driven equipment
 Smooth acceleration without the torque transients
 Easy adjustment of start performance to suit the specific motor and load.
 Reliable performance even if load characteristics vary between starts (eg. loaded or unloaded starts).

Advantages of Soft Starter

Soft starters are used on high tension motors for the following advantageous features:

Smooth starting by torque control for gradual acceleration of the drive system thus preventing jerks and extending the
life of mechanical components.

Reduction in starting current to achieve break-away, and to hold back the current during acceleration, to prevent
mechanical, electrical, thermal weakening of the electrical equipment such as motors, cables, transformers & switch
gear.

Enhancement of motor starting duty by reducing the temperature rise in stator windings and supply transformer.

The microprocessor version of the Soft starter has a soft ware controlled response at full speed which economizes
energy, what ever may be the load. Because of the tendency to over specify the motor rated power, this feature has
benefits for most installations- not only those where load is variable.

The power factor improvement is a self monitoring in built feature. When the motor is running at less than full load, the
comparative reactive component of current drawn by the motor is unnecessarily high due to magnetizing and
associated losses. Hence the voltage dependent losses are minimized with the load proportional active current
component and as a result the power factor also improves simultaneously.

496. What is the specific gravity of a fully charged battery?

State of Charge Specific Gravity

100% 1.265
75% 1.225
50% 1.190
25% 1.155

497. What is PID contoller and its components.

A proportional–integral–derivative controller (PID controller) is a control loop feedback mechanism (controller)

commonly used in industrial control systems. A PID controller continuously calculates an error value as the difference
between a desired setpoint and a measured process variable.

Proportional Response
The proportional component depends only on the difference between the set point and the process variable. This
difference is referred to as the Error term. The proportional gain (Kc) determines the ratio of output response to the error
signal. For instance, if the error term has a magnitude of 10, a proportional gain of 5 would produce a proportional
response of 50. In general, increasing the proportional gain will increase the speed of the control system response.
However, if the proportional gain is too large, the process variable will begin to oscillate. If K c is increased further, the
oscillations will become larger and the system will become unstable and may even oscillate out of control.
 Integral Response
The integral component sums the error term over time. The result is that even a small error term will cause the integral
component to increase slowly. The integral response will continually increase over time unless the error is zero, so the
effect is to drive the Steady-State error to zero. Steady-State error is the final difference between the process variable
and set point. A phenomenon called integral windup results when integral action saturates a controller without the
controller driving the error signal toward zero.

Derivative Response
The derivative component causes the output to decrease if the process variable is increasing rapidly. The derivative
response is proportional to the rate of change of the process variable. Increasing the derivative time (Td) parameter will
cause the control system to react more strongly to changes in the error term and will increase the speed of the overall
control system response. Most practical control systems use very small derivative time (Td), because the Derivative
Response is highly sensitive to noise in the process variable signal. If the sensor feedback signal is noisy or if the
control loop rate is too slow, the derivative response can make the control system unstable.

Tuning
The process of setting the optimal gains for P, I and D to get an ideal response from a control system is called tuning.
There are different methods of tuning of which the ―guess and check‖ method and the Ziegler Nichols method will be
discussed.

The gains of a PID controller can be obtained by trial and error method. Once an engineer understands the significance
of each gain parameter, this method becomes relatively easy. In this method, the I and D terms are set to zero first and
the proportional gain is increased until the output of the loop oscillates. As one increases the proportional gain, the
system becomes faster, but care must be taken not make the system unstable. Once P has been set to obtain a desired
fast response, the integral term is increased to stop the oscillations. The integral term reduces the steady state error,
but increases overshoot. Some amount of overshoot is always necessary for a fast system so that it could respond to
changes immediately. The integral term is tweaked to achieve a minimal steady state error. Once the P and I have been
set to get the desired fast control system with minimal steady state error, the derivative term is increased until the loop
is acceptably quick to its set point. Increasing derivative term decreases overshoot and yields higher gain with stability
but would cause the system to be highly sensitive to noise. Often times, engineers need to tradeoff one characteristic of
a control system for another to better meet their requirements.

498. What is the range of meggers available?

Insulation testers with test voltage of 500, 1000, 2500 and 5000 V are available.

 The recommended ratings of the insulation testers are given below:

Voltage Level IR Tester

650V 500V DC
1.1KV 1KV DC
3.3KV 2.5KV DC
66Kv and Above 5KV DC

Measurement Range of Megger:

Test voltage Measurement Range

250V DC 0MΩ to 250GΩ
500V DC 0MΩ to 500GΩ
1KV DC 0MΩ to 1TΩ
2.5KV DC 0MΩ to 2.5TΩ
 5KV DC 0MΩ to 5TΩ
499. What is the minimum value of Insulation resistance required for an electrical equipment?

One Meg ohm Rule for IR Value for Equipment:

 Based upon equipment rating:

 < 1K V = 1 MΩ minimum
 >1KV = 1 MΩ /1KV

As per IE Rules-1956:

 At a pressure of 1000 V applied between each live conductor and earth for a period of one minute the
insulation resistance of HV installations shall be at least 1 Mega ohm or as specified by the Bureau of Indian
Standards.
 Medium and Low Voltage Installations- At a pressure of 500 V applied between each live conductor and earth
for a period of one minute, the insulation resistance of medium and low voltage installations shall be at least 1
Mega ohm or as specified by the Bureau of Indian Standards] from time to time.

500. How to identify fault in PCB?

Remove the cover from your equipment. Most electronic and computer covers are held on by four screws, two
on each side near the bottom. Remove the screws with the screwdriver and set them aside. Lift the cover off.

have
more, check them all. Many CB's have multi-pin edge connectors. Moving can cause them to work loose. Push
the cards gently into their connecting slots to make sure they're plugged all the way in.

-in components. Some chips, "daughter boards" or "piggy back" boards fit into their
own sockets, and can have a loose connection. Pull them out and inspect them for dirty or corroded pins, and
then reseat by pushing them gently in place so they are properly seated. The pins should be shiny and bright if
they are clean and not corroded.

circuit board can stop it from working.

-back boards may have a cable connection that

just pushes on. Some of these can work loose in moving. Pull them off, inspect them for wear or corrosion and
then replace them to ensure a snug fit.

f the printed circuit traces, the little metal lines

that connect components together on both sides of the board. Components can burn out and when they do
they can smoke. Also look for swollen or discolored components.

nents. Some components have tiny wire leads that can easily break off
right next to the circuit board or close to the component itself. Lightly jiggle larger components with wires to
see if a wire might be broken.

hairline crack may not look too damaging but it can include broken
circuit traces.

Strategy to diagnose a faulty PCB

There are three different stages of this technique.

1. Detection of fault using VI instrument. Unidentified high pin count is tested by alternating voltage.
2. Second stage is to detect location of the faults. It deals with minute analysis to pinpoint the faulty
component. But not like functionality test it performs tests only on input and output stages.
3. In third stage new functional components are placed in circuit after removing the faulty components

Analysis/Results

In an electrical circuit all the components are either in series, parallel or a mixed combination (Series-Parallel)
both so it become impossible to identify their signatures so the only suitable solution in this scenario is to take
a new PCB and compare the signatures of defective one with the signatures of functional one.

 You may also read: Design & Simulation Tools for Electrical/Electronics Engineers
 To compare the signatures, first thing is to take all signatures of defective PCB new functional PCB if available
other you must have saved signatures of components. But if you have a fully functional PCB take all its
signatures by using multimeter .Voltage resistance current and inductance of every component is computed
and then is compared with all the signatures of defective PCB (Printed Circuit Board).

1. First of all refresh all the points (remove dry or damaged solder if any) and compare signature if
signature matches fault has been removed otherwise go to next step.
2. In this step tracking is performed as there are many tracks in a PCB so there are a lot of chances for
tracks to get damaged, if any track is damaged jumper wire can be used to repair tracks.
3. This is the last step in which functionality test is performed on every pin of linear integrated circuits,
input and output on every pin of IC is checked if it matched with the original data sheet it is fine
otherwise you have to remove that IC.

501. With the aid of a block diagram describe the operation of an electronic governor fitted to a main engine

The diagram shows the main components of the electronic or digital governor.
Bridge command unit. This will indicate both the required direction, and the required speed. This speed
signal is sent to the comparator as the RPM command signal
Engine speed is measured by a toothed wheel fitted at the flywheel. The proximity probe detects the
number of teeth per second and sends this signal as the Measured RPM to the comparator.
The comparator compares the measured and desired values and its output signal is sent to the fuel actuator
to minimise this deviation.
The Fuel limiter‘s prevent damage to the engine by limiting the fuel during the following conditions
Insufficient scavenge air
Excess output torque
Operation at the critical speed
Excess fuel command request
The output from the fuel limiter filter is passed to the actuator fitted at the engine side to control the position
of the fuel rack.
The position of the fuel rack is measured and fed back to the actuator control to prevent excess fuel being
requested, which would lead to hunting and instability of the engine speed.

b) Erratic speed control could be due to

Fluctuating load, due to external weather conditions
Poor power balance between cylinder, causing the speed to fluctuate even though a stable fuel rack
position is present
Sticking fuel rack, causing the governor input to the engine to be unstable
Excess gain on the comparators, producing instability. This gain can be adjusted, but is usual a function of
speed or external switch position (calm or rough sea)
 Unstable/non-true measurement of the engine speed by the induction pick-ups
Signal faults between components due to cable damage (earth faults) causing the electrical signals to drift.
Poor electrical contacts between components due to the effects of vibration.
c) The governor of the engine is fitted to control the engine speed. To enable the engine to be shut down if the
load is suddenly removed, then some provision is required to quickly stop fuel injection. This system must be
independent of the speed governing system. To enable this to occur, then speed detection and fuel shutoff
provision must be made.
For slow speed engines the speed can be sensed from a digital pick-up similar to the induction pick-up. This
speed is measured by the overspeed control system, and if it exceeds the trip value then the fuel rack is shut
down. For NSD this is by a collapsible link fitted between the governor and the fuel rack, whereas for MAN
B&W this occurs by the puncture valves on the top of each fuel pump opening to spill the high pressure fuel oil.
For medium speed engines, offset flyweights utilising centrifugal force sense the speed. At the trip speed,
the flyweight will move out activating the stop cylinder. The stop cylinder will move the fuel racks to the no fuel
position.

502. What is droop in a governor?

Droop allows generators operating in parallel to share load in proportion to their capacity. Voltage droop is used to provide
reactive load sharing (kVAR), and frequency (speed) droop is used to provide real load (kW) sharing.

The concept of voltage droop: from a no-load voltage condition, as reactive load is added the terminal voltage of the
generator lowers due to the change in armature reaction. A voltage regulator causes the terminal voltage to lower linearly by
controlling the rotor excitation. Voltage droop is usually expressed as the percent change in voltage from no-load terminal
voltage as the reactive load varies over the full reactive load range.

The concept of frequency or speed droop: from a no-load frequency condition, as real load is added the the prime mover
slows and the frequency lowers. A speed regulator causes the frequency to lower linearly by controlling the prime mover
speed (governing). Frequency droop is usually expressed as the percent change in frequency from no-load frequency as the
real load varies over the full load range.

The generators I've worked with usually had less than 5% droop, and were fairly linear over the full load ranges.

Regulation allows load sharing by: (assume regulators for G1 and G2 are set equally as an initial condition)

As G1's voltage regulator is raised and G2's is lowered, G1 picks up more of the system's reactive load and G2 sheds
reactive load while keeping the system voltage constant.

As G1's speed regulator is raised and G2's is lowered, G1 picks up more of the system's real load and G2 sheds real load
while keeping the system frequency constant.

The load should be shared in proportion to the capacity of the generators. If G1's power rating is twice G2's, G1 should carry
two-thirds of the system's real and reactive load. This minimizes heating effects in each machine.

503. Differences between High voltage breakers and air circuit breaker

According to their arc quenching (rapid cooling) media the circuit breaker can be divided as:

 1) Air circuit breaker

 2) Oil circuit breaker
 3) Vacuum circuit breaker
 4) SF6 circuit breaker

Air circuit breakers (ACB)

The circuit breaker which operates in air at atmospheric pressure.

The working principle of this breaker is rather different from those in any other types of circuit breakers. The main aim of all
kind of circuit breaker is to prevent the reestablishment of arcing after current zero by creating a situation where the contact
gap will withstand the system recovery voltage. The air circuit breaker does the same but in different manner. For
interrupting arc it creates an arc voltage in excess of the supply voltage. Arc voltage is defined as the minimum voltage
required maintaining the arc. This circuit breaker increases the arc voltage by mainly three different ways:

 It may increase the arc voltage by cooling the arc plasma. As the temperature of arc plasma is decreased,
the mobility of the particle in arc plasma is reduced; hence more voltage gradient is required to maintain
the arc.

 It may increase the arc voltage by lengthening the arc path. As the length of arc path is increased, the
resistance of the path is increased, and hence to maintain the same arc current more voltage is required
to be applied across the arc path. That means arc voltage is increased.

 Splitting up the arc into a number of series arcs also increases the arc voltage.
 Sulfur-hexafluoride (SF6) is an excellent gaseous dielectric for high voltage power applications. SF6 is a colorless
3
non-toxic gas, with good thermal conductivity and density approximately five times that of air (6.14 kg/m .). It does not
react with materials commonly used in high voltage circuit breakers. It has been used extensively in high voltage circuit
breakers and other switchgear employed by the power industry. Applications for SF6 include gas insulated transmission
lines and gas insulated power distribution substations. The combined electrical, physical, chemical and thermal
properties offer many advantages when used in power switchgear. Some of the outstanding properties of SF6 which
make its use in power applications desirable are:

 high dielectric strength

 unique arc-quenching ability
 excellent thermal stability
 good thermal conductivity

The SF6 gas is identified as a greenhouse gas, safety regulation are being introduced in many countries in order to
prevent its release into atmosphere.

The principle of operation is similar to the air blast breakers, except that SF6 is not discharged in the atmosphere. A
closed-circuit, sealed construction is used.

During the opening operation the gas contained inside a part of the breaker is compressed by a moving cylinder that
supports the contacts or by a piston. This forces the SF6 through the interrupting nozzle. When the contacts separate,
an arc is established. If the current is not very high, it is extinguished at the first zero crossing by the pushing the SF6
through the arc by the piston. If the short circuit current is high, the arc extinction may not occur at the first zero
crossing, but the gas pressure will increase sufficiently to blow the arc out. By connecting several interrupting heads in
series, SF6 breakers can be constructed for voltages of up to 765 kV.

504. What is schematic diagram Circuit diagram wiring diagram etc.

A schematic, or schematic diagram, is a representation of the elements of a system using abstract, graphic symbols
rather than realistic pictures. A schematic usually omits all details that are not relevant to the information the
schematic is intended to convey, and may add unrealistic elements that aid comprehension.

A circuit diagram is a visual display of an electrical circuit using either basic images of parts or industry standard
symbols. A circuit diagram (electrical diagram, elementary diagram, electronic schematic) is a graphical
representation of an electrical circuit.

A wiring diagram is a simple visual representation of the physical connections and physical layout of an electrical
system or circuit. It shows how the electrical wires are interconnected and can also show where fixtures and
components may be connected to the system.

A block diagram is a diagram of a system in which the principal parts or functions are represented by blocks
connected by lines that show the relationships of the blocks. They are heavily used in engineering in hardware design,
electronic design, software design, and process flow diagrams.

A pictorial circuit diagram uses simple images of components, while a schematic diagram shows the components and
interconnections of the circuit using standardized symbolic representations. The presentation of the interconnections
between circuit components in the schematic diagram does not necessarily correspond to the physical arrangements in
[1]
the finished device.

Unlike a block diagram or layout diagram, a circuit diagram shows the actual electrical connections. A drawing meant to
depict the physical arrangement of the wires and the components they connect is called artwork or layout, physical
design, or wiring diagram.

Circuit diagrams are used for the design (circuit design), construction (such as PCB layout), and maintenance of
electrical and electronic equipment.

505. How is the protection against reverse power given?

Reverse power protection is used for anti-motoring. This function is used for protection of
prime mover not generator. It can cut-off the fuel supply and stop the prime mover.

506. How do you test reverse power trip?

When two generators are running in parallel and one generator can carry the load, reverse power trip can be tested by
load shifting using governor control. When the load has shifted sufficiently and the off loaded generator is carrying a
small percentage of load, its breaker trips and fuel supply to its prime mover cuts off. This means reverse power relay
has operated. The relay can be tested by simulation (using the test push button on the relay) to see if it initiates a trip
signal.
507. What is the purpose of the earth fault indication on the switch board?
It detects and indicates phase to earth fault on a circuit.

508. What is the benefit of improving power factor?

2
Power factor close to 1 means for the same real power in kW, the load current is less and hence the I R losses are
less. The system efficiency is higher as the losses are lower. Improved voltage regulation is achieved.

509. Why are motor ratings given in KW and that of alternator and transformer given in KVA?
kW is the output mechanical power of a motor and is expressed in kW.
kVA is the net (apparent) power input to the transformer. This input power is the output + losses.
kW = kVA x system power factor

510. Where does reactive power go?

Reactive power is not 'lost'. It is delivered to the motor where it sustains the electric field that enables the motor to
convert the real power (electrical) into mechanical torque.

511. Why is this reverse power used instead of reverse current in alternators?
It is extremely difficult to detect reverse current with an alternating current system, reverse power can be detected and
protection can be provided by reverse power relay.

512. What is the meaning of excitation in an alternator?

An electric generator or electric motor consists of a rotor spinning in a magnetic field. The magnetic field may be
produced by permanent magnets or by field coils. In the case of a machine with field coils, a current must flow in the
coils to generate the field, otherwise no power is transferred to or from the rotor. The process of generating a magnetic
field by means of an electric current is called excitation.

513. What is a brush less alternator?

A brushless alternator is composed of two sections: main alternator and the smaller exciter. The exciter has stationary
field coils and a rotating armature (power coils). The main alternator uses the opposite configuration with a rotating field
and stationary armature. A bridge rectifier, called the rotating rectifier assembly, is mounted on a plate attached to the
rotor. Neither brushes nor slip rings are used, which reduces the number of wearing parts. The main alternator has a
rotating field as described above and a stationary armature (power generation windings).

514. How is the excitation achieved in this?

Varying the amount of current through the stationary exciter field coils varies the 3-phase output from the exciter. This
output is rectified by a rotating rectifier assembly, mounted on the rotor, and the resultant DC supplies the rotating field
of the main alternator and hence alternator output. The result of all this is that a small DC exciter current indirectly
controls the output of the main alternator.

515. What is the meaning of residual magnetism?

Residual magnetism is a property in which certain amount of excitation remains back in the conductor even after the
removal of the magnets.

516. Why is an air compressor started unloaded?

The air pressure inside the compressor cylinder offers resistance to the movement of the piston. Hence started
unloaded.

517. How is the speed of a 3-phase induction motor varied?

The speed of a normal 3-phase induction motor is a function of the frequency of the supply voltage. Changing the
speed of such a motor hence requires building a 3-phase power frequency convertor. This can be realised by using
power MOSFETs (or IGBTs) capable of handling high voltages and fast switching speeds.

518. What is a shaft generator?

A shaft generator is coupled to the main engine. It uses the main engine as its prime mover and has a frequency
converter (thyristor controlled) that converts the variable engine speed to near constant speed and produces electrical
power. It can only be employed at sea speed (full speed) and not at manoeuvring speed.

519. Why earth is chosen as a place of zero electric potential??

In practice , earth is chosen as a place of zero electric potential because it Has almost constant
Potential

520. What is a photo cell?*

A cell whose resistance varies with intensity of light.

521. What are the differences between synchronous and induction motor?*
Synchronous motor : Constant speed on all loads, can be operated on a wide range of power factors, not self starting,
requires dc excitation.
Induction Motor : Speed varies with load, operates on lagging power factor, self starting, no dc excitation required.

522. What is the specific gravity of electrolyte used in lead acid battery?
1280 full charge and 1180 at discharge.
523. Compare between lead acid and nickel-cadmium batteries?
Lead acid : Dilute H2SO4, spongy and PbSO2, low efficiency, 2 volt per cell, less strong, requires more maintenance,
less efficient wrt temperature, discharges fast, low cost, problem of sulfation.
NiCd : KOH, Ni & Cd, high efficiency, 1.2V per cell, robust, less maintenance, more efficient wrt temp difference, retains
charge for longer periods, expensive, no sulfation

524. If rotating diodes are not working in alternator what are the consequnces?

Rectifier diodes mounted on the rotor of a brushless generator or motor are a common cause of faults in brushless
synchronous machines.
The diodes fail by either going open circuit or short circuit. If a rectifier shorts, a very high current flows through the
associated exciter armature winding thus causing excessive heating and probable failure of the exciter. If a rectifier
opens, the voltage regulator will substantially increase the excitation to maintain the operating level.
This constant high level of excitation could lead to failure of the regulator.

Failure Mode: One shorted diode.

(This is the most common mode of diode failure in brushless generator rotating rectifier assemblies.)
Cause:Over voltage or current. Usually due to out of phase paralleling, a lightning strike or other abnormal transient.
This mode of diode failure may also occur if a voltage is imposed upon the terminals of a brushless generator while it is
at rest.

Effects: Increased excitation. Exciter rotor and/or voltage regulator failure likely. The
exciter rotor may fail due to excessive current, which may occur within seconds depending on load level trying to be
achieved. The voltage regulator may fail due tohigh voltage ripple reflected back through the exciter field (stator). If the
voltage regulator is equipped with an over excitation trip feature, these failures may occur before the voltage regulator
trips out on over excitation. The generator may be able to maintain a light level of loading without noticing the problem.
 If the generator is shunt excited, this collapse in generator terminal voltage will result in a loss of input power to the
voltage regulator shutting off excitation. This loss of excitation may, or may not occur fast enough to prevent damage to
the exciter rotor.

 If the generator is equipped with a PM G or other form of excitation support system, the voltage regulator will go to full
forcing. If the voltage regulator is equipped with an over excitation feature, it should trip on over excitation,which may, or
may not occur fast enough to prevent damage to the exciter rotor

Failure Mode: One Open Diode.

Cause: After a diode shorts, it will burn open if no other failure occurs first. There may
actually be a broken or loose connection external to diode which will have the same effect as an open diode even
though the diode itself has not failed open.

Effects: Increased excitation. Will overload other diodes and exciter rotor winding eventually depending on load. Does
not typically cause regulator failure. If the voltage regulator is equipped with an over excitation feature, it may be
activated depending on load, regulator compatibility, and the over excitation feature set points
525. What is Insulation class of a generator?
The electrical insulation system is sometimes referred to as insulation class or thermal
Classification. The insulation rating is the maximum allowable winding (hot spot) temperature of a transformer
operating at an ambient temperature of 40°C. Insulation systems are classified by the temperature rating. The
following table summarizes the different insulation systems available.

Electrical insulation systems are rated by standard NEMA (National Electrical Manufacturers Association) classifications
according to maximum allowable operating temperature:

The service factor - SF - is a measure of periodically overload capacity at which a motor can operate without damage.
The NEMA (National Electrical Manufacturers Association) standard service factor for totally enclosed motors is 1.0.

Temperature Maximum Allowable Allowable

Tolerance Class Operation Temperature Rise Temperature Rise
o
Temperature at full load 1.15 service factor motor C
o
Allowed C 1.0 service factor
o
motor C
A 105 60 70
B 130 80 90
F 155 105 115
H 180 125 -

The Insulation class of Generators onboard our ships is ―F‖ class

 526. What all factors effect the separation in purifier?
1. temperature
2. specific gravity of fuel oil
3. viscosity of fuel oil
4. feed rate of fuel oil.
527. What are the 3 types of water in a purifier ?
sealing water:in the conventional purifier the sealing water is admitted before admitting dirty oil. have to maintain
interference.

operating water:this water used to close the bowl bottom against the bowl hood . when the purifier is in operation
operating water must be opened.

desludging water:used to desludge according to the timer i.e 5min,10min,15min..etc or it can be done manually
528. What is meant by Fish plate and floor plate?

Fish Plate: One of a pair of steel reinforcing plates bolted or welded to the sides of a beam or bulkhead joint. the long
narrow strip of steel plate projecting upwards at the edges of superstructure deck to prevent water from flowing over

Plate Floor or Floor plate - A steel plate which is welded to the floor of the hull. Plate floors run longitudinally
throughout the hull floor as shown in the figure.

529. What are rotating diodes and how are they protected?

Rotating Diodes are diodes fitted in the rotor of the synchronous machine between the excitor and the main field
winding. The function of the Rotating Diodes is to rectify the AC output of the excitor into DC which can be used to
magnetise the main field windings and poles.

These diodes are connected in the shape of a normal three phase rectifier with six diodes (sometimes twelve diodes
are used). The Diodes are called Rotating diodes as they are mounted on the rotor which is rotating. The diodes do
not rotate by themselves.

The DC output from the rectifier assembly is usually collected from two rings in the assembly. The Diodes are
protected by a Varistor against voltage spikes during sudden load fluctuations.

A varistor is an electronic component with an electrical resistance that varies with the applied voltage. Also known as a
voltage-dependent resistor (VDR), it has a nonlinear, non-ohmic current–voltage characteristic that is similar to that of a
diode.

530. Difference Between SCBA and EEBD.

EEBD is only for emergency escape from an danger area,not for fire fighting or any other purpose,but SCBA is for fire
fighting, used while handling danger cargo and for dealing with other emergencies.
EEBD is used for emergency for a time duration of 15 minutes, scba is used for lack of breathing for 30 minutes

eebd is used for escape in emergency situation. Flow of oxygen can not be controlled.SCBA flow of oxygen can be
controlled. SCBA- Its breathing device, with flow control valve.

In EEBD there is no demand valve so there is continues flow of air in to the mask which keep the "mask always under
POSITIVE PRESSURE WHICH PREVENTS ANY AIR TO GO INSIDE THE MASK EVEN IF THERE IS ANY DAMAGE
OR CRACK" . In SCBA there is a demand valve and the "THE MASK IS ALWAYS UNDER NEUTRAL PRESSURE,
WHICH MEANS, IF THERE IS ANY DAMAGE, LEAK OF CRACK IN THE MASK OUT SIDE AIR WILL DEFINITELY
GO INSIDE" So during any emergency we dont know if there is any poisonous gas leak or co2 leak, in both case its
safe to use EEBD.

if there is a continues flow of air in SCBA there will be noise inside the mask and we cant hear any other sound, when
working, entering enclosed space and fighting fire we should always keep a good listening and there should be a
continues communication. With continues pressure in side the mask its hard to concentrate the work in hand and will
cause distraction. If we need a 30 mins duration of continues air, then the cylinder should be bigger and heavier which
further makes inconvenience to the user.

531. M/E Maneuvering system

532. Checks on Life boat system

All survival craft, rescue boats and launching appliances shall be visually inspected to ensure that they are ready for
use. The inspection shall include, but is not limited to, the condition of hooks, their attachment to the lifeboat, and the
on-load release gear being properly and completely reset.
All engines in lifeboats and rescue boats shall be run for a total period of not less than 3 min. provided the ambient
temperature is above the minimum temperature required for starting and running the engine. During this period of time,
it should be demonstrated that the gear box and gear box train are engaging satisfactorily. If the special characteristics
of an outboard motor fitted to a rescue boat would not allow it to be run other than with its propeller submerged for a
period of 3 min,

Lifeboats, except free-fall lifeboats, on cargo ships shall be moved from their stowed position, without any persons on
board, to the extent necessary to demonstrate satisfactory operation of launching appliances, if weather and sea
conditions so allow for; and

The general emergency alarm system shall be tested

533. Life boat davit parts

534. Lifeboat launching procedure.

535. Explain Unipolar transistor or The Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET)

Transistors are classified as either unipolar or bipolar. In unipolar transistors such as MOSFETs and JFETs, conduction
involves only one type of carrier, typically electrons, and the blocking layer is not subject to conductivity modulation
field effect transistor (FET) is a unipolar device, conducting a current using only one kind of charge carrier. If based on
an N-type slab of semiconductor, the carriers are electrons. Conversely, a P-type based device uses only holes.

At the circuit level, field effect transistor operation is simple. A voltage applied to the gate, input element, controls the
resistance of the channel, the unipolar region between the gate regions. (Figure below) In an N-channel device, this is a
lightly doped N-type slab of silicon with terminals at the ends. The source and drain terminals are analogous to the
emitter and collector, respectively, of a BJT. In an N-channel device, a heavy P-type region on both sides of the center
of the slab serves as a control electrode, the gate. The gate is analogous to the base of a BJT.

―Cleanliness is next to godliness‖ applies to the manufacture of field effect transistors. Though it is possible to make
bipolar transistors outside of a clean room, it is a necessity for field effect transistors. Even in such an environment,
manufacture is tricky because of contamination control issues. The unipolar field effect transistor is conceptually simple,
but difficult to manufacture. Most transistors today are a metal oxide semiconductor variety (later section) of the field
effect transistor contained within integrated circuits. However, discrete JFET devices are available.

Junction field effect transistor cross-section.

A properly biased N-channel junction field effect transistor (JFET) is shown in Figure above. The gate constitutes a
diode junction to the source to drain semiconductor slab. The gate is reverse biased. If a voltage (or an ohmmeter) were
applied between the source and drain, the N-type bar would conduct in either direction because of the doping. Neither
gate nor gate bias is required for conduction. If a gate junction is formed as shown, conduction can be controlled by the
degree of reverse bias.

Figure below(a) shows the depletion region at the gate junction. This is due to diffusion of holes from the P-type gate
region into the N-type channel, giving the charge separation about the junction, with a non-conductive depletion region
at the junction. The depletion region extends more deeply into the channel side due to the heavy gate doping and light
channel doping.

N-channel JFET: (a) Depletion at gate diode. (b) Reverse biased gate diode increases depletion
region. (c) Increasing reverse bias enlarges depletion region. (d) Increasing reverse bias pinches-off the S-D channel.

The thickness of the depletion region can be increased Figure above(b) by applying moderate reverse bias. This
increases the resistance of the source to drain channel by narrowing the channel. Increasing the reverse bias at (c)
increases the depletion region, decreases the channel width, and increases the channel resistance. Increasing the
reverse bias VGS at (d) will pinch-off the channel current. The channel resistance will be very high. This V GS at which
pinch-off occurs is VP, the pinch-off voltage. It is typically a few volts. In summation, the channel resistance can be
controlled by the degree of reverse biasing on the gate.
536. Explain Bipolar Transistor.

A bipolar junction transistor (bipolar transistor or BJT) is a type of transistor that uses both electron and hole charge
carriers. In contrast, unipolar transistors, such as field-effect transistors, only use one kind of charge carrier. For their
operation, BJTs use two junctions between two semiconductor types, n-type and p-type.

BJTs are manufactured in two types, NPN and PNP, and are available as individual components, or fabricated in integrated
circuits, often in large numbers. The basic function of a BJT is to amplify current.

BJTs come in two types, or polarities, known as PNP and NPN based on the doping types of the three main terminal
regions. An NPN transistor comprises two semiconductor junctions that share a thin p-doped anode region, and a PNP
transistor comprises two semiconductor junctions that share a thin n-doped cathode region.

Charge flow in a BJT is due to diffusion of charge carriers across a junction

[note 1]
between two regions of different charge concentrations. The regions of a BJT are called emitter, collector, and base. A
discrete transistor has three leads for connection to these regions. Typically, the emitter region is heavily doped compared
to the other two layers, whereas the majority charge carrier concentrations in base and collector layers are about the same.
By design, most of the BJT collector current is due to the flow of charges injected from a high-concentration emitter into the
base where there are minority carriers that diffuse toward the collector, and so BJTs are classified as minority-carrier
devices.

In typical operation, the base–emitter junction is forward biased, which means that the p-doped side of the junction is at a
more positive potential than the n-doped side, and the base–collector junction is reverse biased. In an NPN transistor, when
positive bias is applied to the base–emitter junction, the equilibrium is disturbed between the thermally generated carriers
and the repelling electric field of the n-doped emitter depletion region. This allows thermally excited electrons to inject from
the emitter into the base region. These electrons diffuse through the base from the region of high concentration near the
emitter towards the region of low concentration near the collector. The electrons in the base are called minority carriers
because the base is doped p-type, which makes holes the majority carrier in the base.

NPN is one of the two types of bipolar transistors, consisting of a layer of P-doped semiconductor (the "base") between two
N-doped layers. A small current entering the base is amplified to produce a large collector and emitter current. That is, when
there is a positive potential difference measured from the emitter of an NPN transistor to its base (i.e., when the base is
high relative to the emitter) as well as positive potential difference measured from the base to the collector, the transistor
becomes active. In this "on" state, current flows between the collector and emitter of the transistor. Most of the current is
carried by electrons moving from emitter to collector as minority carriers in the P-type base region. To allow for greater
current and faster operation, most bipolar transistors used today are NPN because electron mobility is higher than hole
mobility.

The other type of BJT is the PNP, consisting of a layer of N-doped semiconductor between two layers of P-doped material.
A small current leaving the base is amplified in the collector output. That is, a PNP transistor is "on" when its base is pulled
low relative to the emitter. In a PNP transistor, emitter-base region is forward biased, so electric field and carriers will be
generated. They should flow towards the base junction, but the base part is very thin and has low conductivity. The reverse
biased collector base part has generated holes. Thus, due to the electric field, carriers or electrons get pulled by the holes.

The arrows in the NPN and PNP transistor symbols are on the emitter legs and point in the direction of the conventional
current flow when the device is in forward active mode.

537. Explain MOSFET

The metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET, MOS-FET, or MOS FET) is a type of transistor used for
amplifying or switching electronic signals.

Although the MOSFET is a four-terminal device with source (S), gate (G), drain (D), and body (B) terminals,the body (or
substrate) of the MOSFET is often connected to the source terminal, making it a three-terminal device like other field-effect
transistors. Because these two terminals are normally connected to each other (short-circuited) internally, only three
terminals appear in electrical diagrams. The MOSFET is by far the most common transistor in both digital and analog
circuits, though the bipolar junction transistor was at one time much more common.

The main advantage of a MOSFET over a regular transistor is that it requires very little current to turn on (less than 1mA),
while delivering a much higher current to a load (10 to 50A or more).
 The drain and source terminals are connected to the heavily doped regions. The gate terminal is connected top on the oxide
layer and the substrate or body terminal is connected to the intrinsic semiconductor.

Working Principle of MOSFET

The working principle of MOSFET depends up on the MOS capacitor. The MOS capacitor is the main part. The
semiconductor surface at below the oxide layer and between the drain and source terminal can be inverted from p-type to n-
type by applying a positive or negative gate voltages respectively. When we apply positive gate voltage the holes present
beneath the oxide layer experience repulsive force and the holes are pushed downward with the substrate. The depletion
region is populated by the bound negative charges The positive voltage also attracts electrons from the n+ source and drain
regions in to the channel. The electron reach channel is formed. Now, if a voltage is applied between the source and the
drain, current flows freely between the source and drain gate voltage controls the electrons concentration the channel.
Instead of positive if apply negative voltage a hole channel will be formed beneath the oxide layer. Now, the controlling of
source to gate voltage is responsible for the conduction of current between source and the drain. If the gate voltage exceeds
a given value, called the threshold voltage only then the conduction begins.

In enhancement mode MOSFETs, a voltage drop across the oxide induces a conducting channel between the source and
drain contacts via the field effect. The term "enhancement mode" refers to the increase of conductivity with increase in oxide
field that adds carriers to the channel, also referred to as the inversion layer. The channel can contain electrons (called an
nMOSFET or nMOS), or holes (called a pMOSFET or pMOS), opposite in type to the substrate, so nMOS is made with a p-
type substrate, and pMOS with an n-type substrate (see article on semiconductor devices). In the less common depletion
mode MOSFET, detailed later on, the channel consists of carriers in a surface impurity layer of opposite type to the
substrate, and conductivity is decreased by application of a field that depletes carriers from this surface layer.

P-Channel MOSFET

MOSFET which has p - channel region between source any gate is known as p - channel MOSFET. It is a four terminal
devices, the terminals are gate, drain, source and substrate or body. The drain and source are heavily doped p+ region and
the substrate is in n-type. The current flows due to the flow of positively charged holes that‘s why it is known as p-channel
MOSFET. When we apply negative gate voltage, the electrons present beneath the oxide layer, experiences repulsive force
and they are pushed downward in to the substrate, the depletion region is populated by the bound positive charges which
are associated with the donor atoms. The negative gate voltage also attracts holes from p+ source and drain region in to the
channel region. Thus hole which channel is formed now if a voltage between the source and the drain is applied current
flows. The gate voltage controls the hole concentration of the channel.

N-Channel MOSFET

MOSFET having n-channel region between source and drain is known as n-channel MOSFET . It is a four terminal device,
the terminals are gate, drain and source and substrate or body. The drain and source are heavily doped n+ region and the
substrate is p-type. The current flows due to flow of the negatively charged electrons, that‘s why it is known as n- channel
MOSFET. When we apply the positive gate voltage the holes present beneath the oxide layer experiences repulsive force
and the holes are pushed downwards in to the bound negative charges which are associated with the acceptor atoms. The
positive gate voltage also attracts electrons from n+ source and drain region in to the channel thus an electron reach
channel is formed, now if a voltage is applied between the source and drain. The gate voltage controls the electron
concentration in the channel n-channel MOSFET is preferred over p-channel MOSFET as the mobility of electrons are
higher than holes. The diagrams of enhancements mode and depletion mode are given below.

538. Explain Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor

The Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor also called an IGBT for short, is something of a cross between a conventional
Bipolar Junction Transistor, (BJT) and a Field Effect Transistor, (MOSFET) making it ideal as a semiconductor switching
device.
 The Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor, (IGBT) uses the insulated gate (hence the first part of its name) technology of the
MOSFET with the output performance characteristics of a conventional bipolar transistor, (hence the second part of its
name).

An N-channel IGBT is basically an N-channel power MOSFET constructed on a p-type substrate, as illustrated by the
generic IGBT cross section in Figure below.

Consequently, operation of an IGBT is very similar to a power MOSFET. A

positive voltage applied from the emitter to gate terminals causes electrons to be drawn toward the gate terminal in the body
region. If the gate-emitter voltage is at or above what is called the threshold voltage, enough electrons are drawn toward the
gate to form a conductive channel across the body region, allowing current to flow from the collector to the emitter. (To be
precise, it allows electrons to flow from the emitter to the collector.) This flow of electrons draws positive ions, or holes, from
the p-type substrate into the drift region toward the emitter.

The p-type substrate in an N-channel IGBT injects holes into the drift region. Therefore, current flow in an IGBT is composed
of both electrons and holes. This injection of holes (minority carriers) significantly reduces the effective resistance to current
flow in the drift region. Stated otherwise, hole injection significantly increases the conductivity, or the conductivity is
modulated. The resulting reduction in on state voltage is the main advantage of IGBTs over power MOSFETs.

The price for lower on state voltage is slower switching speed, especially at turn-off. The reason for this is that during turn-
off the electron flow can be stopped rather abruptly, just as in a power MOSFET, by reducing the gate-emitter voltage below
the threshold voltage. However, holes are left in the drift region, and there is no way to remove them except by voltage
gradient and recombination. The IGBT exhibits a tail current during turn-off until all the holes are swept out or recombined.
The rate of recombination can be controlled, which is the purpose of the n+ buffer layer shown in Figure 1. This buffer layer
quickly absorbs trapped holes during turn-off. Not all IGBTs incorporate an n+ buffer layer; those that do are called punch-
through (PT), those that do not are called non punch-through (NPT). PT IGBTs are sometimes referred to as asymmetrical,
and NPT as symmetrical.

539. How is boiler water level maintained?

 A three element control system is shown in Figure . The measured variables or elements are 'steam flow', 'drum level' and
'feed water flow'. Since in a balanced situation steam flow must equal feed flow, these two signals are compared in a
differential relay. The relay output is fed to a two-term controller and comparator into which the measured drum level signal
is also fed. Any deviation between the desired and actual drum level and any deviation between feed and steam flow will
result in controller action to adjust the feed water control valve. The drum level will then be returned to its correct position.

A sudden increase in steam demand would result in a deviation signal from the differential relay and an output signal to
open the feed water control valve. The swell effect would therefore not influence the correct operation of the control system.
For a reduction in steam demand, an output signal to close the feedwater control valve would result, thus avoiding shrinkage
effects. Any change in feed water pressure would result in feed water control valve movement to correct the change before
the drum level was affected.

Change to manual feed water control if required Drum level in a boiler indicates the level of water in the drum available for
steam generation. Low drum level operation leads to availability loss of the boiler. Low-level trips in a boiler must always be
responded to quickly and correctly.

 The drum level in a boiler is maintained near the previously defined normal water level, which generally is below the
geometric center of the drum. Maintaining a high drum level has its own problems like carryover of salt to superheaters etc.,
but low drum level operation has much more serious effect on the boiler tubes. Whenever this happens, the operator is
warned by alarm to take corrective action. If this is not responded to and the drum level goes further down to a dangerously
low level, the boiler trips on auto to protect the boiler. The specific causes for a drum level trip, the boiler response, and the
immediate action of the boiler control room operator and the local operator are given in outline form below.

Specific causes

 One feed pump trips

 Mal-operation of feed control auto
 Mal-operation of feed pump scoop
 Mal-operation of feed control / regulating valve
 Sudden reduction in load
 Sudden tripping of one or more mills
 Tube failure in water wall with large opening
 Mal-operation of emergency drain valve
 Mal-operation of low point drain
Plant response
 Low drum level alarm
 Very low drum level trip
Immediate boiler desk operator action
 Start reserve feed pump if needed

540. What is a Differential Pressure Transmitter?

The most common and useful industrial pressure measuring instrument is the differential pressure transmitter. This equipment
will sense the difference in pressure between two ports and produce an output signal with reference to a calibrated pressure
range.
 The industrial differential pressure transmitters are made of two housings. Pressure sensing element is
housed in the bottom half, and the electronics are housed at the top half. It will have two pressure ports marked as ―High‖ and
―Low‖. It is not compulsory that the high port will be always at high pressure and the low port always at low pressure. This
labeling has its relation to the effect of the port on the output signal.
A differential pressure transmitter has three functional parts.

Direct Pressure sensing element (located in the lower housing).

The majority of industrial DP Transmitters are fitted with diaphragm as the pressure sensing element. This diaphragm is a
mechanical device. It is placed in between the two pressure inlet ports. The diaphragm will be deflected by the applied pressure.

This deflection is converted into an electrical signal. This is normally done by the sensors. The commonly used sensors are (a)
Strain Gauge (b) Differential Capacitance (c) Vibrating wire. The sensor output is proportional to the applied pressure.

Electronic Unit: The electrical signal generated at the lower chamber by the sensor is in the range of milli-volt only.
This signal is to be amplified to 0-5V or 0-10V range or is to be converted to 4-20mA for onward transmission to a remote
instrument. This upper housing is the Transmitter portion of the DP Transmitter which houses the Electronic Unit.

2-Wire 4-20mA Current Transmitter: A DC output current is generated which is directly proportional to the pressure range of
the Differential Pressure Transmitter. The lower range is 4mA, and the upper range is 20mA. This controlled current output is not
affected by load impedance variation and supply voltage fluctuations. This 4-20mA output is superimposed with digital
communications of BRAIN or HART FSK protocol.

541. What is TRIAC?

A three-electrode semiconductor device that will conduct in either direction when triggered by a positive or negative signal at
the gate electrode.

TRIAC symbol; The circuit symbol recognises the way in which the TRIAC operates. Seen from the outside it may be viewed
as two back to back thyristors and this is what the circuit symbol indicates.

TRIAC symbol for circuit diagrams

On the TRIAC symbol there are three terminals. These are the Gate and two other terminals are often referred to as an
"Anode" or "Main Terminal". As the TRIAC has two of these they are labelled either Anode 1 and Anode 2 or Main
Terminal, MT1 and MT2.

The TRIAC is a component that is effectively based on the thyristor. It provides AC switching for electrical systems. Like
the thyristor, the TRIACs are used in many electrical switching applications. They find particular use for circuits in light
dimmers, etc., where they enable both halves of the AC cycle to be used. This makes them more efficient in terms of
the usage of the power available. While it is possible to use two thyristors back to back, this is not always cost effective
for low cost and relatively low power applications.

It is possible to view the operation of a TRIAC in terms of two thyristors placed back to back.
 TRIAC equivalent as two thyristors

One of the drawbacks of the TRIAC is that it does not switch symmetrically. It will often have an offset, switching at
different gate voltages for each half of the cycle. This creates additional harmonics which is not good for EMC
performance and also provides an imbalance in the system

In order to improve the switching of the current waveform and ensure it is more symmetrical is to use a device external
to the TRIAC to time the triggering pulse. A DIAC placed in series with the gate is the normal method of achieving this.

DIAC and TRIAC connected together

Advantages and disadvantages:When requiring to switch both halves of an AC waveform there are two options that are
normally considered. One is to use a TRIAC, and the other is to use two thyristors connected back to back - one
thyristor is used to switch one half of the cycle and the second connected in the reverse direction operates on the other
half cycle.

As there are two options the advantages and disadvantages of using a TRIAC must be weighed up.

Advantages Disadvantages

 A TRIAC does not fire symmetrically on both sides of the

waveform
 Can switch both halves of an AC  Switching gives rise to high level of harmonics due to non-
waveform symmetrical switching
 Single component can be used for full  More susceptible to EMI problems as a result of the non-
AC switching symmetrical switching
 Care must be taken to ensure the TRIAC turns off fully
when used with inductive loads

Despite what may seem like a number of disadvantages, it is still the best option for many circumstances. However
when using a TRIAC, it is necessary to be aware of its limitations so that these can be satisfactorily addressed and
overcome should they affect the operation of the overall circuit in any significant way.

Applications:TRIACs are used in a number of applications. However they tend not to be used in high power switching
applications - one of the reasons for this is the non-symmetrical switching characteristics. For high power applications
this creates a number of difficulties, especially with electromagnetic interference.
However TRIACs are still used for many electrical switching applications:

 Domestic light dimmers

 Electric fan speed controls
 Small motor controls
 Control of small AC powered domestic appliances

The TRIAC is easy to use and provides cost advantages over the use of two thyristors for many low power applications.
Where higher powers are needed, two thyristors placed in "anti-parallel" are almost always used.

The TRIAC is an electronic component that is widely used in many circuit applications, ranging from light dimmers
through to various forms of AC control. It is generally only used for lower power applications, thyristors generally being
used for the high power switching circuits. . . . . . . . .
542. How do you protect generator diodes? An
easy way to do this is to monitor the ripple content of the exciter field current. With this method we are able to detect immediately
if a diode is open or shorted and enable different clearing actions depending on the type of failure.

An electric generator with a rotating diode fault detection device built in that operates by comparing a voltage buildup across
the exciter DC supply with a preset threshold value and determining if a fault condition is present based on the comparison.

The diode failure detector is an electronic unit designed to detect the failure of a shaft mounted diode in the brush-less
generator. It ensures that the consequences of a failure are minimized and possible damage to the machine is prevented.
The detector consists of transistors, transformers, silicon diodes, resistors and capacitors. The detector is relatively
unaffected by temperature, humidity, vibration and shock.
OPERATING PRINCIPE: When one or several rotating diodes become faulty, two cases are possible:
•
Open diode : In this case the field current increases a little but the machine can continue to run quite
normally. On this type of failure, the generator is not at any immediate risk so operation during
limited time is still possible.

Short-circuit Diode : In this case it is a much more severe fault condition which requires a very large increase in
exciter‘s field current to maintain the alternator voltage. The exciter and/or the voltage regulator could be damaged if this
condition persists so the detector‘s output would be used to trip and shut down the system.
Unfortunately this case of failure is the most frequently observed.
The two cases of fault will be seen by the detector and the output contacts will be activated.

The relay RHS is used to detect the failure of a shaft mounted diode in a brushless generator or motor by measuring the
ratio between the peak value of the a.c. ripple superimposed on the exciter d.c. field current and the d.c. current itself; the
frequency and the magnitude of the a.c. ripple sensibly change in case of failure of a shaft diode.
The input signal is detected as voltage drop on a resistor in series to the exciter.

The relay by means of two trip levels distinguishes open circuit diode from short circuit diode condition.
The open circuit diode condition causes a small increase of the exciter field current needed to maintain the generator
voltage; this increase is normally within the capability of the voltage regulators. The machine can then continue to operate
without severe troubles and the relay has only to monitor the failure so that it can be removed as soon as opportune.
On the contrary with a short circuit diode, the exciter field current needed to maintain the generator voltage increases largely
with the risk of severe damage to the Automatic Voltage Regulator and to the exciter; the relay has then to trip and to shut
the machine down.
The tripping of the relay two levels is timed with an adjustable long time delay for the first one (open circuit diode) and a
fixed short time delay for the second one

A generator 300 such as the one illustrated contains a rotating

rectifier 10 which is between the main rotor windings 90 and the rotating field windings 50. Also shown in FIG. 1 is a
generator control unit 500 which is controlling the field 60 of the exciter generator. The controller has inputs 200 relating to
each of the three phases and the neutral for the main stator windings 30, and for the PMG windings 100.

The above figure illustrates in more detail the circuit for a diode fault detection and protection circuit according to one
embodiment. In this circuit the generator controller 80 has additional inputs accepting a PMG DC link voltage measured
across a voltage clamp 70. A faulty rotating diode can cause a voltage buildup across the DC link resulting in an increased
PMG DC link voltage from the nominal. It is additionally anticipated that other measurements corresponding to the voltage
buildup could be used in place of the voltage clamp 70 measurement and achieve the same result.

When the voltage buildup sensor 400 detects a voltage buildup, a signal is sent along wires 210 and 211 to the
generator controller 80 indicating the level of voltage buildup detected. The generator controller 80 then checks the
voltage buildup level against a preset threshold voltage buildup level and determines if a fault condition is present
based on that comparison. Alternatively the generator controller 80 could check the rate of increase in buildup voltage
to determine if a fault condition is present. It is also anticipated that both a voltage buildup rate and voltage buildup level
could be checked to create a more robust system.

Voltage clamps, such as the voltage clamp 70 utilized in the illustrated embodiment of FIG. 2, work by limiting the
voltage across themselves to a maximum value. The voltage clamp 70 is connected in parallel with the device that the
user desires to clamp. In this case the voltage clamp 70 is connected in parallel to the rectifier 20. Limiting the voltage
across the voltage clamp 70 has the effect of simultaneously limiting the voltage across anything that is connected to it
in parallel. Some voltage clamps can only handle a certain amount of power before they start allowing an increase in
voltage above their clamping value. This type of voltage clamp is called a limited authority voltage clamp. One
embodiment of the current design utilizes the power limit in that it allows the voltage clamp 70 to remove voltage
buildup that occurs as a result of fault conditions at or in the load, while simultaneously allowing voltage buildup as a
 result of a rotating diode fault. This use is possible because the voltage buildup across the voltage clamp in a rotating
diode fault would exceed the voltage clamp's power limit.

After the generator controller 80 receives an input signal along wires 210 and 211 containing the voltage buildup
measurements, the generator controller 80 checks those measurements against a preset threshold. In one embodiment
the threshold used is a magnitude of voltage buildup. In this embodiment if the measured voltage buildup magnitude
exceeds the preset threshold magnitude, then the generator controller 80 determines that there has been a rotating
diode fault. In an alternative embodiment the generator controller 80 checks the rate of change of the measured voltage
buildup to determine if the rate of change is above a preset threshold rate of change. In this embodiment if the rate of
change is exceeded, then the generator controller 80 determines that there has been a rotating diode fault. In still a
third embodiment the generator controller 80 checks both the measured voltage buildup magnitude and the rate of
change of the voltage buildup. In this third embodiment, as in the other two embodiments, a value exceeding the
threshold indicates that there is a diode fault in the rotating rectifier 10 component.

In addition to a voltage buildup sensor 400 measuring the voltage buildup, the measured value is transmitted to a
generator controller 80. The generator controller 80 checks for a diode fault. If a diode fault is detected, then the
software sends a signal to the exciter field driver 40 tripping the exciter field driver 40. When the exciter field driver 40 is
tripped the exciter generator is turned off. This effectively de-energizes the circuit. De-energizing the circuit prevents the
continued application of power to the faulty diode within the rotating rectifier 10. Additional attempts to apply power to
the exciter field driver 40 would fail as long as it remained tripped. This prevents the faulty diode from allowing any harm
to the generator control unit 500 or to any other component as a result of the fault condition and allows a person to
safely perform the appropriate maintenance to fix the problem.

543. What is the requirement of Inert Gas on ships?

Inert gas systems produce and distributes inert gas based on

combustion of hydrocarbon fuels. Combustion generated inert gas provides the lowest cost generators possible.

Inert gas is a gas or a mixture of gases containing insufficient oxygen to support the combustion of hydrocarbons.

Inert gas is used to prevent explosions and fires occurring onboard ships carrying crude oil, hydrocarbon gases or refined
oil products.

The standard variants are as follows:

Flue gas system (Boiler uptake)
Inert gas generator

Explosive Triangle And Inert Gas

The conditions necessary. for an explosion to occur are: -
o Source of IGNITION e.g. static electricity
o FUEL e.g. hydrocarbon gas.
o OXYGEN in correct proportion to support combustion of flammable gases.

Control or remove any ONE of the above and an explosion cannot occur.
OXYGEN is the easiest to control on a tanker having an Inert Gas System.
An INERT TANK ATMOSPHERE can be obtained by maintaining the OXYGEN content of the atmosphere below 11.5% (AS
PER ISGOT 8.0%).
A properly inerted ATMOSPHERE is therefore a SAFE ATMOSPHERE.

Under the tank atmosphere which consists of hydrocarbon gas, inert gas and fresh air, the range of mixture of oxygen and
hydrocarbon gas which can be ignited by an external ignition source is called the "Explosive Range" or "Flammable Range".
Volume percentage of hydrocarbon gas and oxygen are called "Oxygen content" and "Hydrocarbon gas content"
The highest point of hydrocarbon and oxygen mixture gas in this area is called the Upper Explosive Level (UEL) and the
lowest point is called the Lower Explosive Level (LEL).
 No ignition occurs in the area which is outside the explosive range because of inadequate mixture of hydrocarbon gas and
oxygen. This area is called the "Non-Flammable Range" or "Non-Explosive Range".

Above the upper flammable limit (UFL) the mixture of substance and air is too rich in fuel (deficient in oxygen) to burn.
This is sometimes called the upper explosive limit (UEL).

Below the lower flammable limit (LFL) the mixture of substance and air lacks sufficient fuel (substance) to burn. This is
sometimes called the lower explosive limit (LEL).
Hydrocarbon gas requires air to sustain combustion in the parameters as follows:

1% gas to 99% air = Lower explosion Limit (LEL)

10% gas to 90% air = Upper Explosion Limit (UEL)

1% LEL is 100 ppm.

AB is line which indicates presence of only HC and air ( No inner gas).

CD is the flammable range in this condition. Any thing above D and Below C is safe.

544. What is NEMA?The National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) is the association of electrical equipment and medical
imaging manufacturers. founded in 1926 and headquartered in Rosslyn, Virginia.
545. What communication protocol used in Main engine control?

For middle-speed and four-stroke marine diesel engine, a new Main Engine Remote Control System based on distributed
processing and dual-redundant CAN network communication technology was presented. It includes engine control unit,
indicating panel unit, engine safety unit, main engine interface, digital governor unit and distributed processing unit. System
data can be exchanged by dual-redundant CAN network.
 A Controller Area Network (CAN bus) is a vehicle bus standard designed to allow microcontrollers and devices to
communicate with each other in applications without a host computer. It is a message-based protocol, designed originally for
multiplex electrical wiring.

CAN is a multi-master serial bus standard for connecting Electronic Control Units [ECUs] also known as nodes. Two or more
nodes are required on the CAN network to communicate. The complexity of the node can range from a simple I/O device up
to an embedded computer with a CAN interface and sophisticated software. The node may also be a gateway allowing a
standard computer to communicate over a USB or Ethernet port to the devices on a CAN network.All nodes are connected
to each other through a two wire bus. The wires are 120 Ω nominal twisted pair.

High Speed CAN Network. ISO 11898-2

ISO 11898-2, also called high speed CAN, uses a linear bus terminated at each end with 120 Ω resistors.

546. What are the Main engine starting conditions?

Starting Of The Main Engine Procedure ! Step By Step.

 Disengage the turning gear.
 Start main lube oil pump and cam shaft pump and
observe the pressure and temperature.
 Start JCW pump and observe the pressure.
 Open the main air valve on the air bottle and open
air to the distributor.
 Check oil flow through the sight glasses in piston
cooling outlet and turbocharger.
 In Wartsila engines, additionally start crosshead
lube oil pump and check pressure
 Try out the engine on air in concern with bridge for
ahead and astern direction
 Put telegraph in "Ahead position" and give the
starting air. Check all the cylinder indicator cocks
for any sign of water.
 Repeat the above point for the "Astern direction" to
check the reversing system.
 Start fuel oil pump and auxiliary blowers.
 When bridge is ready, follow the telegraph orders
and start engine on air and fuel.
 Check all the parameters and feel the condition.
 Check firing of fuel injector by feeling the jerk on
the high pressure pipe.
 Check air starting valve for leakage by sensing the
temperature of the air pipe before the valve.
 Check exhaust valve operation and its rotation. For
Sulzer engine, sight glass is provided and for MAN
engine, indicator is provided to check rotation.
Check cylinder lubricators for proper working.
 Check flow of piston cooling oil.
 Check pressure difference in turbocharger and air
cooler.
 Check under piston and crankcase temperature.

547. Draw and explain how Thermocouple measures and indicates temperature.

A thermocouple, consists of two wires of dissimilar metals joined together at one end, called the
Measurement (―hot‖) junction. The other end, where the wires are not joined, is connected to the signal conditioning
circuitry traces, typically made of copper. This junction between the thermocouple metals and the copper traces is called
the reference (―cold‖) junction.
The voltage produced at the reference junction depends on the temperatures at both the measurement junction and the
reference junction. Since the thermocouple is a differential device rather than an absolute temperature measurement device,
the reference junction temperature must be known to get an accurate absolute temperature reading. This process is known
as reference junction compensation (cold junction compensation).
 Thermocouples have become the industry-standard method for cost-effective measurement of a wide range of
temperatures with reasonable accuracy. They are used in a variety of applications up to approximately +2500°C.

It is not easy to transform the voltage generated by a thermocouple into an accurate temperature reading for many reasons:
the voltage signal is small, the temperature-voltage relationship is nonlinear, reference junction compensation is required,
and thermocouples may pose grounding problems.

Because the voltage signal is small, the signal-conditioning circuitry typically requires gains of about 100 or so—fairly
straightforward signal conditioning. What can be more difficult is distinguishing the actual signal from the noise picked up on
the thermocouple leads. Thermocouple leads are long and often run through electrically noisy environments. The noise
picked up on the leads can easily overwhelm the tiny thermocouple signal.
Two approaches are commonly combined to extract the signal from the noise. The first is to use a differential-input amplifier,
such as an instrumentation amplifier, to amplify the signal. Because much of the noise appears on both wires (common-
mode), measuring differentially eliminates it. The second is low-pass filtering, which removes out-of-band noise. The low-
pass filter should remove both radio-frequency interference (above 1 MHz) that may cause rectification in the amplifier and
50 Hz/60 Hz (power-supply) hum
.
It is important to place the filter for radio frequency interference ahead of the amplifier (or use an amplifier with filtered
inputs).
The location of the 50-Hz/60-Hz filter is often not critical—it can be combined with the RFI filter, placed between the
amplifier and ADC, incorporated as part of a sigma-delta ADC, or it can be programmed in software as an averaging filter.
Reference junction compensation:

The temperature of the thermocouple‘s reference junction must be known to get an accurate absolute-temperature reading. When
thermocouples were first used, this was done by keeping the reference junction in an ice bath. But keeping the reference junction of the
thermocouple in an ice bath is not practical for most measurement systems. Instead most systems use a technique called reference-
junction compensation ,(also known as cold-junction compensation). The reference junction temperature is measured with another
temperature-sensitive device—typically an IC, thermistor, diode, or RTD. The thermocouple voltage reading is then compensated to
reflect the reference junction temperature. It is important that the reference junction be read as accurately as possible—with an accurate
temperature sensor kept at the same temperature as the reference junction. Any error in reading the reference junction temperature will
show up directly in the final thermocouple reading.

Thermocouple output signals are typically in the millivolt range, and generally have a very low temperature to voltage sensitivity, which
means that you must pay careful attention to the sources of errors that can impact your measurement accuracy. The primary sources of
errors for the thermocouple measurement to take into consideration are noise, offset and gain errors, cold-junction compensation (CJC)
accuracy, and thermocouple errors.
For measurement devices with a large input range, you can also improve the noise performance of your system by amplifying the low-
level thermocouple voltages near the signal source (measurement point) to match the output range of the thermocouples. Because
thermocouple output voltage levels are very low, choose a gain or input range for the device that optimizes the input limits of the analog-
to-digital converter (ADC). The output range of all thermocouple types falls between -10 mV and 80 mV.

548. What is AVR?

AVR- AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE REGULATOR

AVR is a device used to measure any difference in the generator terminal voltage and highly stabilized reference value, and
if it detects any difference, it controls the firing pulses of the thyristors connected in the system.....to change the output
voltage of the pilot exciter which in turn changes the output of the main exciter n ultimately the generator voltage........
IN SHORT, IT IS USED TO MAINTAIN THE GENERATOR TERMINAL VOLTAGE B/W THE TRANSIENT STABILITY
LIMITS so that d generator remains in synchronism

Advantages

Temperature range: Most practical temperature ranges, Depending on the metal wires used, a thermocouple is capable of
measuring temperature in the range –200°C to +2500°C.

Robust: Thermocouples are rugged devices that are immune to shock and vibration and are suitable for use in hazardous
environments.

Rapid response: Because they are small and have low thermal capacity, thermocouples respond rapidly to temperature
changes, especially if the sensing junction is exposed. They can respond to rapidly changing temperatures within a few
hundred milliseconds.

No self heating: Because thermocouples require no excitation power, they are not prone to self heating and are intrinsically
safe.
549. How does Doppler effect differ between EM -waves in Electrodynamics and Sound -waves?

With sound waves, it makes a difference whether the source or the receiver is moving, because what really matters is their
speed relative to the medium (air in this case).

With EM waves, on the other hand, it only matters what the relative speed between emitter and receiver is, i.e. it doesn't
matter whether the source is moving towards the receiver or the receiver towards the source, because EM waves don't
really have a medium to travel in.

550. What are the different types of Speed Logs?

The speed log is a marine electronic device used to measure the speed of a moving vessel. There are three types of speed
logs used on commercial vessels, using different principles of speed measuring technologies such as ―electro magnetic
induction‖, ―Doppler Effect‖ and ―Pitometer Principle‖

Electromagnetic Speed Log operates on the principle of electromagnetic induction and provides highly accurate indication
of speed though the water even at low speeds. Two pickup electrodes are mounted athwart ships and the emf (typically 50-
400 micro Volts) induced in them is proportional to the longitudinal speed of the vessel.
A typical electromagnetic system consists of a Sensor unit, preamplifier and a digital display unit. The device provides
Speed and distance date for other marine electronic navigational equipment through relays, NMEA and RS422 outputs. This
system is suitable for any type of sea going vessel including new-generation of high speed water crafts.

Doppler Speed Log operates on the principle of Doppler Effect. A sonar beam is transmitted from the bow of a moving
vessel, and its reflected echo from a target is received to display a frequency shift from the transmitted frequency. This
frequency shift is known as the ―Doppler Shift‖ and it is proportional to the speed of the vessel. This principle is employed to
calculate the speed of a moving vessel.

Sal Speed Log operates on ―Pitotmeter Principle‖ based on the pressure developed when an open-ended tube is exposed
to water movement due to a vessel‘s speed. The difference of head pressure of a Static tube and a Pitot tube is compared in
a pressure box, being applied to opposite sides of a flexible diaphragm. A mechanical arrangement employing the servo
principle converts the movements of the diaphragm and a synchro transmitter coupled to a drive motor shaft transmits the
vessel‘s speed electrically to remote synchro receivers to drive display units of speed and distance.

551. Working principle of Doppler Sonar.

The Doppler effect (or the Doppler shift) is the change in frequency of a wave (or other periodic event) for an observer
moving relative to its source. Compared to the emitted frequency, the received frequency is higher during the approach,
identical at the instant of passing by, and lower during the recession. For waves that propagate in a medium, such as sound
waves, the velocity of the observer and of the source are relative to the medium in which the waves are transmitted. The
total Doppler effect may therefore result from motion of the source, motion of the observer, or motion of the medium.

The Doppler effect is used in some types of radar, to measure the velocity of detected objects. A radar beam is fired at a
moving target — e.g. a motor car, as police use radar to detect speeding motorists — as it approaches or recedes from the
radar source. Each successive radar wave has to travel farther to reach the car, before being reflected and re-detected near
the source. As each wave has to move farther, the gap between each wave increases, increasing the wavelength. In some
situations, the radar beam is fired at the moving car as it approaches, in which case each successive wave travels a lesser
distance, decreasing the wavelength. In either situation, calculations from the Doppler effect accurately determine the car's
 velocity. Moreover, the proximity fuze, developed during World War II, relies upon Doppler radar to detonate explosives at
[
the correct time, height, distance, etc.

Because the doppler shift affects the wave incident upon the target as well as the wave reflected back to the radar, the
change in frequency observed by a radar due to a target moving at relative velocity Δ v is twice that from the same target
emitting a wave:

If observed frequency is ‗f‘ and emitted frequency is ‗fo‘ change in frequency Δf= f – fo

where ―c‖ is the velocity of waves in the medium.

552. Working principle of Electromagnetic Speed Log.

The principle of an electromagnetic speed log is simple. It is based on Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction or
Electromagnetic Flux (EMF). With speed logs, a magnetic field moves along with the ship, while the seawater - the
conductor - passes underneath it. A coil in the sensor creates this magnetic field, and as the ship moves, a pair of sensors
detects the EMF and converts it to a corresponding voltage. The computer then detects this voltage and converts it to
actual "speed through the water." Electromagnetic speed logs (unlike Doppler speed logs, which utilize sound waves) are
fundamentally not affected by the salinity, silt or aeration in the surrounding water, thus improving the system's accuracy and
overall performance in all conditions,

553. Why PT100 has three wires connected?

A PT100 normally has 3 wires.

It is in simple terms a resistance that changes with temperature. It is called a PT100 because at 0 deg C it will measure 100
ohms.At ambient it will be around 138 ohms.

Because a very small change in resistance happens with each degree in temperature the added resistance of the wires will
cause an error when connecting to a temperature controller.

In order to eliminate the effect of the wires we need at least 3 wires.

The controller will measure the wire resistance and subtract it to leave us with just the PT100 resistance.

In our sketch below we have the following resistances, Rpt, R1, R2 and R3

Mathematically the controller does the following calculation...

Rpt = ―the measurement between A and B‖ less ―the resistance measured between B and C‖

So Rpt =(R1 + Rpt + R2)– (R2 + R3)

So it is important where each wire is connected.

554. Explain the KW & KVAR LOAD SHARING IN A PARALLELED SYSTEM

LOAD SHARING : Load sharing is defined as the proportional division of the kW and kVAR total load between multiple
generator sets in a paralleled system.
Load sharing is essential to avoid overloading and stability problems on the systems‘ generator sets.

ACTIVE POWER (KW) LOAD SHARING : When generator sets operate in parallel, the engine speed governor
of each generator set determines the proportional sharing of the total active power requirements (kW) of the system.
The kW load sharing is achieved by increasing or decreasing fuel to the systems‘ engines.

As the fuel to the engine of one generator set in a group is increased it will not lead to an increase in speed and
hence frequency (as it would if it were operating alone) but it will lead to an increase in the proportion of the total
kW load that it will deliver.

As the fuel to the engine of one generator set in a group is decreased it will not lead to a decrease in speed and hence
frequency (as it would if it were operating alone) but it will lead to a decrease in the proportion of the total kW
load that it will deliver.

The control system of the generator sets (via the engine speed control system) monitors and controls the sharing of the
total kW load in proportion to the relative rating of the engines on the systems‘ generator sets.
 REACTIVE POWER (KVAR) LOAD SHARING : When generator sets operate in parallel the alternator field excitation
system of each generator set controls the proportional sharing of the total reactive power requirements(kVAR) of the
system.

The kVAR load sharing is achieved by increasing or decreasing the field excitation to the systems‘ alternators.
As the field excitation of one generator set in a group is increased i.e. over-excited it will not lead to an increase in
voltage (as it would if it were operating alone) but it will lead to an increase in the proportion of the total kVAR
load it will deliver and a decrease in its power factor.

As the field excitation of one generator set in a group is decreased i.e. under-excited it will not lead to a decrease in voltage
(as it would if it were operating alone) but it will lead to a decrease in the proportion of the total kVAR it will
deliver an increase in its power factor.

An undesirable circulating reactive current (cross current) will flow in the system if the excitation of the alternators is not
matched. The voltage control system of the generator sets (via the alternator voltage control system) monitors and controls
the sharing of the total kVAR load in proportion to the relative rating of the alternators on the systems‘ generator sets.

555. What is Isochronous and Droop Control For Generators?

In the isochronous speed control mode the speed will return to the original speed setpoint after a load has been applied
or rejected. However in parallel operation this would cause instability. Suppose that a generator is paralleled with the utility
grid. If it is considered as an infinite bus, the utility grid will determine the generator frequency (speed) and voltage. When
the speed (and frequency) setpoint is slightly lower, the speed governor will fully close the fuel supply in attempt to lower
the frequency. Is the setpoint slightly higher, the speed governor will fully open the fuel supply. For the automatic voltage
regulator and the reactive power something similar happens. To solve these problems, we use droop controls.

In the droop speed control mode the speed will decrease by a fixed percentage when the generator is loaded from no-load
to full load. This provides a stable working point for each load in case of parallel operation.

The droop slope is a fixed setting mostly between 3 and 5%. But the operator or power management system can adjust the
speed setpoint in order to:
-alone operation

Constant Voltage Control and Reactive Droop Compensation

In the constant voltage control mode the voltage will return to the original voltage setpoint after a load has been applied or
rejected. However in parallel operation this would cause instability as explained above.

In the droop voltage control or reactive droop compensation mode the voltage will decrease by a fixed percentage when the
generator is loaded from no-load to full load. This provides a stable working point for each load in case of parallel operation

The droop slope is a fixed setting mostly between 2 and 4%. But the
operator or power management system could adjust the voltage setpoint in order to:

 return to the rated voltage in stand-alone operation

 change the generator reactive power (MVAr) in parallel operation

In a nutshell, Isochronous Speed Control refers to the prime mover governor speed control mode that controls the frequency
(speed) of an AC generator (alternator) and Droop Speed Control refers to the prime mover governor speed control mode that
allows multiple AC generators (alternators) to be operated in parallel with each other to power large electrical loads, or to "share"
load.
 In Isochoronous Speed Control mode, the energy being admitted to the prime mover is regulated very tightly in response to
changes in load which would tend to cause changes in frequency (speed). Any increase in load would tend to cause the
frequency to decrease, but energy is quickly admitted to the the prime mover to maintain the frequency at the setpoint. Any
decrease in load would tend to cause the frequency to increase, but energy is quickly reduced to the prime mover to maintain the
frequency at the setpoint.

In Droop Speed Control mode, the governor of the prime mover is not attempting to control the frequency (speed) of the AC
generator. The term "share the load" causes much confusion, but just refers to the ability of the prime movers of AC generators
to smoothly control the production of torque when connected in parallel with other generators supplying an electrical load.

Droop Speed Control, in fact, refers to the fact that the energy being admitted to the prime mover of the AC generator is being
controlled in response to the difference between a speed (frequency) setpoint and the actual speed (frequency) of the prime
mover. To increase the power output of the generator, the operator increases the speed setpoint of the prime mover, but since
the speed cannot change (it's fixed by the frequency of the grid to which the generator is connected) the error, or difference, is
used to increase the energy being admitted to the prime mover. So, the actual speed is being "allowed" to "droop" below its
setpoint.

Assume that all generators on a power grid are operating in the droop mode with the same 4 percent speed regulation. Refer to
Figure 1 below. Assume also that one of the generators is rated at 50 megawatts (call it Unit #1) and is synchronized on a grid
whose total generating capacity is 8000 megawatts. The speed governor for Unit #1 will take 50 ÷ 8000 or .625% of any load
demand changes that should occur. For example, assume that Unit #1 is currently generating 37 MW. If the grid is operating at
60.00 Hz and an increase in demand of 5 MW occurs, Unit #1 will increase its power output by: (.00625) (5) = .03125 MW. Unit
#1 will then be generating 37.03125 MW. The other generators, with their own 4 % droop characteristic, will share proportionally
the remainder of the load change (that is, 5 MW minus .03125 = 4.96875).

556. Function and operation of Reverse Power Relay

A reverse power relay is a directional power relay that is used to monitor the power from a generator running in parallel with
another generator or the utility. The function of the reverse power relay is to prevent a reverse power condition in which
power flows from the bus bar into the generator. This condition can occur when there is a failure in the prime mover such as
an engine or a turbine which drives the generator.

Causes of Reverse Power

The failure can be caused to a starvation of fuel in the prime mover, a problem with the speed controller or an other
breakdown. When the prime mover of a generator running in a synchronized condition fails. There is a condition known as
motoring, where the generator draws power from the bus bar, runs as a motor and drives the prime mover. This happens as
in a synchronized condition all the generators will have the same frequency. Any drop in frequency in one generator will
cause the other power sources to pump power into the generator. The flow of power in the reverse direction is known as the
reverse power.

Another cause of reverse power can occur during synchronization. If the frequency of the machine to be synchronized is
slightly lesser than the bus bar frequency and the breaker is closed, power will flow from the bus bar to the machine. Hence,
during synchronization(forward), frequency of the incoming machine is kept slight higher than that of the bus bar i.e. the
synchroscope is made to rotate in the "Too fast" direction. This ensures that the machine takes on load as soon as the
breaker is closed.

Setting the Reverse Power Relay

The reverse power relay is usually set to 20% to 50% of the motoring power required by prime mover. By motoring power
we mean the power required by the generator to drive the prime mover at the rated rpm. This is usually obtained from the
manufacturer of the prime mover (turbine or engine).

The system consists of a lightweight non magnetic aluminium disc, which is mounted on a spindle having low friction
bearings. This disc is placed between two electromagnets made up of soft laminated iron core. The upper electromagnet
contains a voltage coil which is connected through a transformer between one phase and an artificial neutral of alternator
output. The lower electromagnet also contains a current coil which is supplied from the same phase with the help of a
transformer.

The voltage coil is particularly designed with a high inductance so that it can lag current in the coil by an angle approaching
90 degrees. Due to this lag, the magnetic field produced by the current also lags the magnetic field in lower electromagnet.
When both these field passes through the aluminium disc, production of eddy currents take place, which results in a torque
that tries to rotate the disc.

Under normal power flow, the trip contacts on the disc spindle are open and the disc bears against a stop.When reverse
power occurs , the disc rotates in other direction and moves away from the stop and moves towards the trip relay. A time
delay of 5 seconds is also provided so as to prevent tripping during synchronizing process. The general reverse power
settings are 2 to 6% for turbine power movers and 8 to 15% for diesel engines.
557. Explain Static current .
Static electricity is generated by friction which happens during relative motion. Electrostatic charges can accumulate in poor
conductors or insulated good conductors. If two such bodies with accumulated static electricity are brought close together, a
spark jumps between the bodies. Almost everybody has experienced such crackling discharge when removing a nylon shirt
from a warm body in a cold dry cabin. If this spark is incendive it could ignite a flammble atmosphere. Such discharge must
be prevented, unless the atmosphere is inert.

Static electricity can happen due to-

Charge separation (turbulent flow of a static accumulator liquid) , Whenever two dissimilar materials come into contact
charge separation occurs at the interface. The interface may be between a solid and a liquid or between two immiscible
liquids.
Charge accumulation (introduction of a non bonded object like a sampler) ,
Electrostatic discharge (the non bonded object with accumulated charge comes close to an earth and an spark will occur.
such spark is incendive ), Electrostatic discharges with sufficient energy can ignite flammable hydrocarbon gas/air mixtures.
All three of these stages are necessary for an electrostatic ignition.

The Four Conditions Required for Explosive Ignition

o Effective means of static generation.
o Accumulation of charges and maintaining a suitable difference of electrical potential.
o A spark discharge and
o The discharge must occur in an ignitable mixture.
Static generation
Two differing substances in contact with each other will often become charged
An electrical double layer is formed along the adjoining surfaces.
The separation of the two substances often causes them to remain disparately charged, an effect which is exaggerated by
increased speed of separation and increased mechanical work (friction).

Charge generation and separation occur when liquids move in contact with other materials, as in operations involving:
o Piping
o Filtering
o Mixing
o Agitating

Mechanisms which exacerbate static separation in cargo loading operations are the following:
o Turbulence and splashing
o Any mixing or filtering of the cargo
o Impurities in the cargo
o Disturbance of water "bottom"
o Pumping of entrained air or other gases

Accumulation of charge and potential

Static accumulator and non-accumulator oils
The conductivity of a liquid determines whether or not it retains the generated static charge.
A non-accumulator oil, defined by an electrical conductivity of greater than 50 (pS/m) will relax quickly
Accumulator oils are defined as having a conductivity of less than 50pS/m

The distillates from crude oil are purified to an extant that makes them accumulator oils.
The residual oils and crude itself containing the impurities are stated a non- accumulator oils.

Known causes of incendive sparks are identified below:

o Insulated conductors
o Cargo measuring devices
o Falling water slugs
o Flammable vapour Oils
o Steam cleaning
o Switch loading.
o Temperature fluctuations

Prevention of spark discharge

Bonding and grounding
The most important measure to prevent electrostatic hazard is to bond all metal objects together, eliminating risk of
discharge between objects, and to assure that all components in the cargo handling system are at the same, electrical
potential.
Grounding (or earthing) to earth is effectively accomplished by bonding to the hull, which is naturally earthed through the
water. Equipment should be designed to facilitate bonding and, in particular, to avoid the insulation of any conducting metal.

Bonding of cargo transfer piping

 Hoses used in terminal transfer operations must be continuously bonded, and grounded to the hull.
It is important to note that cargo transfer piping must be insulated from the land-side terminal since electrical potential may
differ from that of the vessel due to stray current or cathodic protection of the pier. Insulating flanges, joints, or sleeves are
sometimes used to divide the cargo hoses into electrically isolated halves - onboard and shore side. Each half is bonded
and grounded to its respective base potential.

Bonding of portable tank washing machines Bonding wires should be incorporated within all water hoses and bonding
established between water hoses, the tank washing machine and the cleaning water supply line.

558. Working Principle of ACB.

The air circuit breaker, operated within the voltage level 1 KV, does not require any arc
control device. Mainly for heavy fault current on low voltages (low voltage level above 1 KV) ABCs with appropriate arc
control device, are good choice. These breakers normally have two pairs of contacts. The main pair of contacts carries the
current at normal load and these contacts are made of copper. The additional pair is the arcing contact and is made of

carbon. When circuit breaker is being opened, the main contacts open first and during opening of main contacts the arcing
contacts are still in touch with each other. As the current gets, a parallel low resistive path through the arcing contact during
opening of main contacts, there will not be any arcing in the main contact. The arcing is only initiated when finally the arcing
contacts are separated. The each of the arc contacts is fitted with an arc runner which helps, the arc discharge to move
upward due to both thermal and electromagnetic effects as shown in the figure. As the arc is driven upward it enters in the
arc chute, consisting of splitters. The arc in chute will become colder, lengthen and split hence arc voltage becomes much
larger than system voltage at the time of operation of air circuit breaker, and therefore the arc is quenched finally during
the current zero.

559. Latching Mechanism in ACB?

Most large air circuit breakers use a closing device, known as a ―stored energy mechanism,‖ for fast, positive closing action.
Energy is stored by compressing large powerful coil springs that are attached to the contact assembly of a circuit breaker.
Once these springs are compressed, the latch may be operated to release the springs, and spring pressure will shut the
circuit breaker.

Circuit breaker closing springs may be compressed manually or by means of a small electric motor. This type of circuit
breaker can be classified as either a manually- or electrically-operated circuit breaker. When a large air circuit breaker is
closed, the operating mechanism is latched. As the circuit breaker is closed, a set of tripping springs, or coils, are
compressed, and the circuit breaker may then be tripped by means of a trip latch. The trip latch mechanism may be
operated either manually or remotely by means of a solenoid trip coil.

Circuit breakers may be operated either manually or electrically. Electrically-operated circuit breakers are used when circuit
breakers are to be operated at frequent intervals or when remote operation is required.

Electrically operated circuit breaker

When the electrically-operated stored energy circuit breaker is tripped, the spring is recharged by the spring charging motor
so that the breaker is ready for the next closing operation.

Manually operated circuit breaker

The manually-operated circuit breaker closing springs are normally compressed by a hand crank just prior to operation of
the breaker.The closing springs are compressed by pulling downward on the large operating handle on the front of the
breaker. Closing this circuit breaker is accomplished manually by depressing the small closing lever.

Tripping this circuit breaker is done by means of the tripping lever, located at the bottom front of the breaker

560. What is the normal IG deck pressure maintained in the cargo tanks ?

700 to 800 mm of Water Column

561. How to convert mm of Water Column to bar ?

 1000 mm of Water Column = 0.0980665 bar
For practical purposes we can take 1000 mm of water column = 0.1 bar

562. What is pv valve lift setting ?

Pressure vacuum valve operates at 1400 mm of Water Column and at a vacuum of -250 mm of Water Column

563. What is pv breaker lift setting ?

Pressure vacuum valve operates at 1600 to 1800 mm of Water Column and at a vacuum of -400 mm of Water Column

564. How much pressure a cargo tank can withstand ?

Cargo tank is normally tested to a positive pressure of 2500 mm of Water Column and negative pressure of -750 mm of
Water Column

565. What is the low pressure setting for IG and what happens if there is a low pressure ?

Low pressure alarm is at 200 mm of Water Column. Low low pressure trip is at 100 mm of Water Column. At this pressure
cargo pumps are tripped.

566. What is IG high pressure setting ?

When IG pressure reaches 1200 to 1300 mm of Water Column, recirculation valve for IG opens,

567. A semiconductor that decreases resistance with an increase in temperature is known as a

a)resistor
b)thermistor

c)diode

d)thermopile

568. Across-the-line starters are used with AC motors to provide

a)reduced starting current

b)regulated starting current

c)high starting torque

d)controled starting acceleration

569. Mercury filled thermometers should never be used to determine the temperature of the battery electrolyte because accidental
breakage of the thermometer can cause

a)severe sparking and explosions

b)rapid oxidation of battery plates

c)contamination of the electrolyte

d)corrosion on the battery terminals

570. The advantage of an alkali battery over a lead acid battery is—
a)it has no electrolyte loss.

b)it maintains a max voltage of 1.75

c)it has a longer life

d)all of above
571. The power factor of an induction motor operating at full load is-
 a)leading

b)lagging

c)unity

d)no change
572. A galvanometer is used to measure-

a)small voltages

b)small currents

c)large currents

d)large voltages

573. A fully charged lead acid battery SG reads from—

a)1.28 to 1.30

b)1.02 to 1.07

c)1.46 to 1.48

d)1.16 to 1.20

574. The normal cell voltage of a fully charged lead acid battery is—

a)2 to 2.2

b)1.4 to 1.8

c)1.2 to 1.4

d)5.8 to 6.0
575. What is Memory effect?
Memory effect, also known as battery effect, lazy battery effect, or battery memory, is an effect observed in nickel cadmium
and nickel–metal hydride rechargeable batteries that causes them to hold less charge
'Memory Effect' is the common term used to replace the more accurate term 'Voltage Depression.'
* Voltage Depression is more a problem with incorrect charging than a battery problem.
* Voltage Depression does not necessarily permanently damage a battery. It can most likely be corrected by fully charging
and discharging the battery.
* Voltage Depression ('Memory Effect') is often incorrectly used to explain low battery capacity that should be attributed to
other problems, such as inadequate charging, overcharge, or exposure to high temperatures.
* Voltage Depression can be affected by the discharge rate of a battery.

When rechargeable batteries are not fully discharged between charge cycles that they remember the shortened cycle and
are thus reduced in capacity (length of use per charge)

It can be corrected by using the battery completely before charging.

576. A cargo ship‘s generators are typically rated to how many Kilowatts Maximum?
A 10,000 dwt general cargo ship-----------------------------1 MW.
Tankers---------------------------------------------------------- 1.5 to 5 MW.
Containerships (10000 TEU) (3.3kV)-----------------------8 MW
A Modern LNG carrier (Q-max/Q-flex) (6.6kV)------------12 MW

577. Why is alternator star connected?

In a star connection, Line voltage= √3 x Phase voltage. Since the induced emf in the primary winding of an alternator is
directly proportional to the number of turns, a star connected alternator will require less number of turns than a delta
connected alternator for the same voltage.

For the same line voltage, a star connected alternator requires less insulation than a delta connected alternator. Due to the
above reasons three phase alternators are generally star connected.

In star connection, we get 3-phase and 4-wire system. This permits the use of two voltages (phase voltages as well as line
voltages). Single phase loads can be connected between any one lie and neutral wire while the 3-phase loads can be put
across the three lines. Such a flexibility is not available in delta connection
 In star connection, the neutral point can be earthed. Such a measure offers many advantages. For example, in case of line
1/2
to earth fault (L-G fault), the insulators have to bear 1/3 (57.7%) times the line voltage. Earthing of neutral also permits the
use of protective devices (relays) to protect the system in the case of ground faults.

578. Why are motors Delta connected?

Most of the 3-phase induction motors are delta connected for the case of unbalanced load, is the flexibility with which loads
may be added or removed on a single phase. This is difficult to do with star connected 3-wire load.

579. What is the benefit of improving power factor?

Reduction in losses due to reactive power. Power factor close to 1 means for the same real power in kW, the load current is less
2
and hence the I R losses are less. The system efficiency is higher as the losses are lower. Improved voltage regulation is
achieved.
580. What is a synchronous motor?
Motor where both stator and rotor are supplied with current. Slip is zero.

581. Where is it used?

Pump and fan drives, main propulsion and improvement of power factor.

582. What is the voltage used in welding machines and the voltage used for ignition in boilers? How do they differ?

The voltage output of welding machines varies from 12 volts DC / 40 amp/hr to 30 volts DC / 85 amp/hr depending on the
setting. The Ignition transformer takes line voltage and steps it up to the approximately 10,000 volts to create the spark that
jumps the gap between the ignition electrodes. Welding high current, ignitor high voltage.

583. How does an inverter work?

12V DC fed to Oscillator circuit- Amplifier – Primary of transformer –Secondary…

584. What is capacitance?

Ability of a body to store charge in an electric field.

585. What is the difference between neutral and earth?

Neutral is common point of star connection where sum of currents is zero.Earth is a connection for passage of leakage current to
the ground. In some cases the neutral point is earthed to detect any leakage.

586. What is a synchronous condenser?

similar to synchronous motor but it does not drive anything.

587. Where and why is it used?

Used in electrical circuits to improve power factor by increasing or decreasing power factor. Used to generate or absorb reactive
power as required to improve power factor by increasing or decreasing field excitation.

588. How is overcurrent trip tested?

Overcurrent trip is usually only done in drydock by current injection by firm who are specialized
to work on circuit breakers

589. How does the air compressor start and stop automatically?
Pressure switches in air bottle

590. What is a self-monitoring alarm circuit?

Alarm circuit which is activated due to any abnormality in working conditions or abnormality in alarm system. eg OMD

591. Even though the main engine runs at varying speeds, how does the alternator maintain constant frequency?
Frequency converter.

592. Indication of single phasing in case of running motor.

Hunting of motor, fluctuation of motor rpm, over load protection will operate, humming noise, heating up of motor, vibration,
reduction in torque

593. Why are motor ratings given in KW and that of alternator and transformer given in KVA?
kW is the output mechanical power of a motor and is expressed in kW.
kVA is the net (apparent) power input to the transformer. This input power is the output + losses.
kW = kVA x system power factor

594. Where does reactive power go?

Reactive power is not 'lost'. It is delivered to the motor where it sustains the electric field that enables the motor to convert
the real power (electrical) into mechanical torque.

595. What limits the electrical load?

 The available power is fixed and the voltage is fixed, so the setting of the breaker or fuse is the normal current of the load. If
the load exceeds the rated current, then the breaker or fuse will operate and limit the load.

596. What is the meaning of overload?

An overload is a current over and above the normal load current (over the load).
In other words greater than the original design current. This can be a momentary overload such as the starting current for a
motor which is usually ignored or it can be a sustained overload such as plugging in too many appliances at once or a motor
that has faulty bearings or gets jammed

597. What is meaning of short circuit?

A short circuit occurs when conductors are connected (shorted) together by a fault. This is normally phase to phase fault
due to failure of insulation by something cutting the wires, fires, etc.

598. What is meaning of short circuit?

A short circuit occurs when conductors are connected (shorted) together by a fault. This is normally phase to phase fault
due to failure of insulation by something cutting the wires, fires, etc.

599. What is a zener diode?

A zener diode is a special kind of diode which allows current to flow in the forward direction in the same manner as an ideal
diode, but will also permit it to flow in the reverse direction when the voltage is above a certain value known as the breakdown
voltage, "zener knee voltage" or "zener voltage."

600. After a black out the emergency generator comes on; On restoring the main supply we are closing the circuit breaker of the main
generator without bothering about synchronizing. How is this possible?
There is a power link connection breaker between the main generator and the emergency generator. During black out, this
breaker trips. The emergency generator starts and its breaker closes and feeds only the emergency loads. During
restoration, the main generator is started again and its breaker is closed. As the link breaker is still open, there is no
paralleling between main and emergency generator.
601. Why is 440 V used for motors and 110/220 V used for lighting?
Motor load currents are large. Motors are 3-phase loads. A higher 440V voltage means lesser current for the same power
and hence losses and size of cable wires is lower. Lighting is single phase loads and its load currents are small, hence
lower voltage means less insulation in the cable wires

602. Why is a capacitor used in single phase motors, fluorescent tube lights and electronic circuits.*
0
To provide a 90 phase shift to the incoming supply necessary for starting the motor.
To provide boost voltage for starting, power factor correction and to minimize
radio interference.For stabilizing voltage, filtration and coupling.

603. What is a photo cell?

A cell whose resistance varies with intensity of light.

604. What is a magnetic pick-up?

An electromagnet used as a speed or position sensor.

605. What is an electric tachometer?

A generator producing voltage proportional to speed.

606. What is an overload relay?

A safety trip for an electrical equipment which carries over-rated current

607. Compare between lead acid and nickel-cadmium batteries?

Lead acid : Dilute H2SO4, spongy and PbSO2, low efficiency, 2 volt per cell, less strong, requires more maintenance, less
efficient wrt temperature, discharges fast, low cost, problem of sulfation.
NiCd : KOH, Ni & Cd, high efficiency, 1.2V per cell, robust, less maintenance, more efficient wrt temp difference, retains
charge for longer periods, expensive, no sulfation.

608. What does different position of the synchroscope needle mean; what is the difference between 6 o clock and 12 clock?
The Synchroscope is a device to check the phase angles of the two sources during the process of synchronization. It plays
a vital role in ensuring that the two power supplies which are being synchronized are "in phase" with each other. The
Synchroscope has a dial with a pointer which can occupy different positions according to the difference in the phase angle.

The positions are usually compared with the markings on the clock. Thus a 3 'O'clock position would indicate that the
voltages are apart by an angle of 30 degrees. The 6 'O'clock position would indicate that the sources are apart by 180
degrees. When the pointer is at the 12'O'clock position, it indicates that the difference in phase angle between the two
sources is zero. The breaker connecting the two sources can now be closed.
609. What is PPE?
 Personal protective equipment (PPE) is anything used or worn by a person to minimise risk to the person's health or
safety and includes a wide range of clothing and safety equipment. PPE includes boots, face masks, hard hats, ear plugs,
respirators, gloves, safety harnesses, high visibility clothing etc.
610. What is Bow Thruster and how does it work?
Bow thrusters are type of propellers, which are smaller in size and which help in better maneuverability of the ships at lower
speeds. They are generally used for maneuvering the vessel near the coastal waters or while entering or leaving a port. Bow
thrusters help in assisting tug boats in berthing the ship without wasting time. This saves a lot of money for the shipping
company because of lesser stay of the ships in the ports. Moreover, presence of bow thrusters on a vessel eradicates the
need of two tugs while leaving and entering the port, and thus saves more money.
Generally, bow thrusters are transverse thrusters ((lying or extending across or in a cross direction) ) placed at the forward
and aft end of the ship. The thruster placed in the forward end is known as the bow thruster and the one placed in the aft is
known as the stern thruster. The requirement for the number of thrusters to be installed depends on the length of the ship

Construction and Working of Bow Thrusters:The bow and stern thrusters are placed in the through-and-through tunnels
which open at both sides of the ship. There are two such tunnels – at forward and aft ends of the ship. The thruster takes
suction from one side and throws it out at the other side of the ship, thus moving the ship in the opposite direction. This can

be operated in both the directions i.e. port to starboard and starboard to port. The bow thrusters are placed below the water
line of the ship. The
bow and the stern thrusters can be electric driven or hydraulic driven or diesel driven. However, the most commonly used
are electric driven, as in hydraulic driven thrusters there occur many leakage problems. Also, with diesel driven bow
thrusters, the amount of maintenance required is more and every time before starting someone needs to go to the thruster
room to check the thrusters.
Bow thruster consists of an electric motor which is mounted directly over the thruster using a worm gear arrangement. The
motor runs at a constant speed, and whenever there is a change required in the thrust or direction, the controllable pitch
blades are adjusted. These blades are moved and the pitch is changed with the help of hydraulic oil which moves the hub
on which the blades are mounted. As the thruster is of controllable pitch type, it can be run continuously, and when no thrust
is required the pitch can be made to zero.
The thruster is controlled from the bridge and the directions are given remotely. In case of remote failure, a manual method
for changing the pitch is provided in the thruster room and can be operated from there.

Advantages
1) Better maneuverability at low speeds of the ship.
2) Safety of the ship increases when berthing in bad weather.
3) Saves money due to reduction of stay in port and less usage of tug boats.

Disadvantages
1) A very large induction motor is required, which takes a lot of current and load, and thus large generator capacity is
required.
2) Initial investment is high.

611. Block Diagram of AVR.

612. Why are busbars flat and square in shape?

Allows heat to dissipate more efficiently due to their high surface area to cross-sectional area ratio. In electricity, there is also a
phenomenon called "skin effect" which determines the concentration of current on the conductors surface. The skin effect makes
50–60 Hz AC busbars more than about 8 millimetres (0.31 in) thickness inefficient, so hollow or flat shapes are prevalent in
higher current applications.The best conductor is therefore a flat one, such as drawn bars, in which the bar length and thickness
ratio is the highest possible.

Major Type of Busbar

 The major types are

(1) Rigid bus-bars, used at low, medium, and high voltage

The rigid bus-bar is an aluminum or copper bar, which is supported by porcelain insulators.

(2) Strain bus-bars, used mainly for high voltage

The strain bus-bar is a flexible, stranded conductor which is strung between substation metal structures and held by
suspension-type insulators.

(3) Insulated-phase bus-bars, used at medium voltage

The insulated-phase bus-bar is a rigid bar supported by insulators and covered by a grounded metal shield. The main
advantage of this system is the elimination of short circuits between adjacent phases.

(4) Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6)-insulated bus-bars, used in medium- and high-voltage systems

The sulfur hexafluoride-insulated bus-bar is a rigid aluminum tube, supported by insulators and installed in a larger metal
tube, which is filled with high-pressure sulfur hexafluoride gas.

613. What is equalization in a battery?

Equalization is the controlled overcharging of a fully charged battery. This overcharge mixes the electrolyte, evens the
charge among varying battery cells and reduces permanent sulfation of the battery plates. It is energy invested in
lengthening the life of the battery. We believe that as a rule of thumb, equalization should be done every 60 to 90 days.

Equalization will take your batteries to 15 volts or higher (30 volts on a 24-volt system), so make sure any DC loads are
disconnected before you begin. The equalization process consumes water and produces gassing. Make sure your batteries
are well ventilated during this charging. The batteries should be monitored closely during this process. Check specific gravity
of all the cells at the start, noting any low cells. Keep checking electrolyte density during the process, until you receive three
readings of 30 minutes apart that indicate no further increase of specific gravity values.

The fumes produced during Equalization can be very destructive to fabric and upholstery if the batteries are located in the
living area of a boat. The area needs to be well ventilated.

614. What is surface effect?

When a vessel with a full tank is heeled, the liquid within the tank acts like a solid mass. Its centre of gravity, being the
centre of its volume, remains constant and therefore does not cause any change in the vessel‘s centre of gravity (G) or its
metacentric height(GM) as the vessel is heeled.

But When a vessel with a partially-filled tank is heeled, the liquid will seek to remain parallel with the waterline. The centre of
gravity of the liquid, being the centre of its volume, will move with the liquid and can have a considerable effect upon the
vessel‘s stability. This effect is similar to that caused by adding weight on deck, i.e. rise of the vessel‘s centre of gravity (G)
which causes a decrease in the vessel‘s metacentric height (GM) and thereby its stability.

All liquids in partially filled tanks have a free surface, which is free to slop backwards and forward with the motion of the ship.
This free surface effect can cause a serious stability problem if the movement of the liquid is not contained.A ship first rolls
slightly to a small angle of heel as a result of the wave forces. The internal forces of the shifting water in slack tanks then
increase the list further as the liquid flows to the low side. If this F.S.E. causes the vessel to list so that its deck edge is
immersed below the waterline, it could well capsize.

Free surface effect is at a maximum in tanks which extend right across the breadth of the vessel. By partitioning the tank
longitudinally, the flow of liquids to the low side when the ship is heeled can be restricted. It is not removed completely, but
the F.S.E. can be reduced to acceptable limits. Obviously, correct loading and ballasting of the ship is also important, but
this is an operational consideration and not a design one. Practically all tanks, with the exception of the fore peak ballast
tank, are longitudinally subdivided for this reason.
 Tank subdivision is effected by a continuous watertight divider extending in a fore and aft direction to each end of the tank
and vertically from the inner bottom of the tank to the underside of the tank top.

615. What is the purpose of drums in the boiler?

Water drum is a pressure chamber of a drum type located at the lower extremity of a watertube-steam boiler convection
bank. The steam drum internals and tube sizes are arranged so that subcooled water travels down the tubes into water
drum. From water drum, water is distributed by downcomer to lower drum and then distributed again to the tubes of furnace
wall where water is partially converted to steam and returned to the steam drum .

Purpose of the boiler is to convert water to steam . In water tube boilers water goes through the tube and it gets converted to
steam. At the end all the water need not necessarily convert into steam. It might be in a mixed phase of water and steam.
Saturated water might not have got the complete latent heat to convert into steam. Here comes the drum. Drum acts a
reservoir of water and steam and it also separates water from steam. water is send back to tubes to completely shift to
steam.The tube through which the water steam mixture returns back to the furnce coils is called downcomer. No of times the
water steam mixture goes thru the tubes is generally referred as circulation ratio.

Water drum is present only in the bidrum steam boilers and play a less important role such as: a water drum acts like a large
header connecting the riser and downcomer tubes of the bank, and it feeds the downcomers to the various evaporator
sections. The water drum is always smaller than the steam drum as there are no important internals.

616. How Is Boiler Air Flow Measured?

Boiler air flow (or air flow on a forced or balanced draft furnace) may be measured with a calibrated flow restricting device
located in the duct that leads from the forced draft fan to the windbox. (The windbox is the area behind the burner throats
that supplies combustion air to the burners.)

617. Boiler firing sequence

Check that all the valves for fuel are open, and let the fuel circulate through the system until it comes to the temperature
required by the manufacturer recommendation.

Check and open the feed water valves to the boiler and fill the water inside the boiler drum to just above the low water level.
This is done because it is not possible to start the boiler below the low water level due to safety feature which prevent boiler
 from starting. Also, the level is not filled much because if filled too much, the water inside the boiler might expand and over
pressurize the boiler.

Start the boiler in automatic mode. The burner fan will start the purging cycle which will remove any gases present in the
furnace by forcing it out through the funnel.

-set purge time the pilot burner will ignite. The pilot burner consists of two electrodes, through which a large
current is passed, via the transformer, producing the spark between the electrodes. The pilot burner is supplied with diesel
oil and when the oil passes over, the former ignites.
Ÿ The main burner which is supplied by heavy oil catches fire with the help of pilot burner.
Ÿ Check the combustion chamber from the sight glass to ensure the burner has lit and the flame is satisfactory.
Ÿ Keep a close eye on the water level as the pressure increases and open the feed water when the level of water inside
the gauge glass is stable.
Ÿ Close the vent valve after the steam starts coming outside.
Ÿ Open the steam stop valve.
Ÿ Once the working steam pressure is reached, blow down the gauge glass and float chambers to check for the alarms.

618. What are your boiler settings?

The Kangrim Boiler has the following settings.

Steam production : 18000 Kg/hr

Working pressure : 7 Kg/cm2G
Design pressure : 9 Kg/cm2G
Feed water temperature : 80 ℃

Diff. pressure transmitter For water level

High water lev el +150 (Alarm)

Low water level -110 (Alarm)

Level switch For too low water level : -150 (Trip)

Pressure switch For high steam pressure trip: 8.5 Kg/cm2
High steam pressure alarm : 8.5 Kg/cm2E01
Pressure switch For low steam pressure:5 Kg/cm2
Pressure switch For F.O pump stand-by start : 12 Kg/cm2
Pressure switch For F.O low pressure: 9 Kg/cm2 (Trip)
Temperature switch For F.O high temperature: 140 ℃ (Alarm)
Temperature switch For F.O Low temperature: 85 ℃ (Trip)
Pressure switch For atomizing steam low pressure : 3.5 Kg/cm2 (Alarm /Trip)
Temperature switch For wind box high temperature: 200℃ (Trip) (Alarm /Trip)
Pressure switch For instrument air low pressure: 3 Kg/cm2 (Alarm /Trip)
Temperature switch For MGO high temperature: 55 ℃ (Alarm)
FD Fan overload
Power fail
Flame fail

619. What are the Drum Water level settings of your boiler?

Too Low Water Level: - 150 mm H20 (8.6 mA)

Low water level: -110 mm H20 (9.6 mA)
Normal Water level : 0 mm H20 (12.4 mA)
High Water level: + 150 mm H20 (16.2 mA)
620. What are the Drum level setting points on your boiler?

Boiler Low Pressure : 5 Kg/cm2

Boiler Start : 6.5 Kg/cm2
Working Pressure: 7 Kg/cm2
Boiler Stop: 7.5 Kg/cm2
Dump valve open: 8 Kg/cm2
Boiler High steam pressure Alarm/Trip: 8.5 Kg/cm2
Safety Valve open: 9 Kg/cm2

621. What is the purpose of Atomizing steam in a boiler?

Atomizing means convert (a substance) into very fine particles or droplets. If oil is to be vaporized in the combustion space
in the instant of time available, it must be broken up into many small particles to expose as much surface as possible to
the heat.

This atomization is done in three basic ways:

1. By using steam or air under pressure to break the oil into droplets
2. By forcing oil under pressure through a suitable nozzle
3. By tearing an oil film into tiny drops by centrifugal force

Steam-Atomizing and Air-Atomizing Burners:

The burners consist of a properly formed jet-mixing nozzle to which oil and steam or air is piped.
The conveying medium mixes with fine particles of fuel passing through the nozzle, and the mixture is
projected into the furnace. Nozzles may be of the external or internal mixing type, designed to project a flame that is flat
or circular and long or short. A burner should be selected to give the form of flame that is most suitable for furnace
conformation.

622. Describe an IP Convertor.

A ―current to pressure‖ converter (I/P) converts an analog signal (4 to 20 mA) to a proportional linear pneumatic output (3 to
15 psig). Its purpose is to translate the analog output from a control system into a precise, repeatable pressure value to
control pneumatic actuators/operators, pneumatic valves, dampers, vanes, etc.

Its force balance principle is a coil suspended in a magnetic field on a flexible mount. At the lower end of the coil is a flapper
valve that operates against a precision ground nozzle to create a backpressure on the servo diaphragm of a booster relay.

The input current flows in the coil and produces a force between the coil and the flapper valve, which controls the servo
pressure and the output pressure.

As shown above, the coil creates the magnetic field. There is a motor within the coil
which has a flapper which moves against a calibrated nozzle to create a backpressure on the servo diaphragm of a booster
relay. The 4 - 20 mA current flows through the coil which produces a force between the coil and flapper which controls the
servo pressure and the output pressure.

Zero adjustment is made by turning a screw which adjusts the distance between the flapper valve and nozzle. Span
adjustment is by a potentiometer which shunts the current through the coil.

623. Describe a PI Convertor.

 First Input pressure is supplied to the Flapper- Nozzle arrangement. Then it will supplied
through a pipe and that pressure is given as input to the bellows. These bellows are connected to the Core of LVDT. When
pressure is applied to bellows, they will expand thus core displaces and the voltage is induced on the secondary coils of
LVDT. As voltage is induced, current will flow through the coil. That current is proportional to the input pressure applied.
Thus Pressure is converted into equivalent current.

When compared with standard values we can covert 3-15 P.S.I of pressure can be converted to 4-20 mA of current. You
can also know about Current to Pressure Converter.

Instrument air is applied to an isolating diaphragm on one side of the Cell sensor. An oil-fill fluid transmits the app
lied pressure to one side of the sensing diaphragm in the center of the Cell sensor. In a like manner, an atmospheric
reference pressure is transmitted to the other side of the sensing diaphragm. The displacement of the sensing diaphragm,
moving a maximum of 0.004 in.(0.10 mm), is proportional to the pressure differential across it.
Fixed capacitor plates on both sides of the sensing diaphragm continuously detect the position of the sensing diaphragm.
The differential capacitance between the sensing diaphragm and the capacitor plates is converted electronically to a 2-wire,
4–20 mA dc signal.

624. Explain cyclo converters.

Cyclo converters are static frequency converters designed to produce adjustable voltage and adjustable frequency from AC
sources of fixed voltage and frequency without converting them into DC.
There are basically two types of cyclo converters.
A) The output frequency is higher than the supply frequency
B) The output frequency is lower than the supply frequency

Single Phase Cyclo convertors

Single-phase to single-phase cyclo-converters: These are rarely used in practice; however, these are required to
understand fundamental principle of cyclo-converters.
It consists of two full-wave, fully controlled bridge thyristors, where each bridge has 4 thyristors, and each bridge is
connected in opposite direction (back to back) such that both positive and negative voltages can be obtained as shown in
figure below. Both these bridges are excited by single phase, 50 Hz AC supply.
During positive half cycle of the input voltage, positive converter (bridge-1) is turned ON and it supplies the load current.
During negative half cycle of the input, negative bridge is turned ON and it supplies load current. Both converters should not
conduct together that cause short circuit at the input.
To avoid this, triggering to thyristors of bridge-2 is inhibited during positive half cycle of load current, while triggering is
applied to the thyristors of bridge-1 at their gates. During negative half cycle of load current, triggering to positive bridge is
inhibited while applying triggering to negative bridge. By controlling the switching period of thyristors, time periods of
both positive and negative half cycles are changed and hence the frequency. This frequency of fundamental output
voltage can be easily reduced in steps, i.e., 1/2, 1/3, 1/4 and so on.
 The above figure shows output waveforms of a cyclo-converter that produces one-
fourth of the input frequency. Here, for the first two cycles, the positive converter operates and supplies current to the load.

It rectifies the input voltage and produce unidirectional output voltage as we can observe four positive half cycles in the
figure. And during next two cycles, the negative converter operates and supplies load current.

Here one converter is disabled if another one operates, so there is no circulating current between two converters.

Three-phase to single-phase Cyclo-converters

Similar to the above cyclo-converter, a three-phase to single phase cyclo converter also consists of positive and negative
group thyristors.

These cyclo-converters can be half-wave or full bridge converters as shown in figure. Like single phase cyclo-converters,
these also produce a rectified voltage at the load terminals by each group of thyristors.

During positive half cycle of the input, conduction of the positive group thyristors is controlled and during negative half-cycle,
conduction of negative group of thyristors is controlled in order to produce an output voltage at desired frequency.
In a bridge type of cyclo-converter, both positive and negative converters can generate voltages at either polarity, but
negative converter only supplies negative current while positive converter supply positive current.

Three-phase to Three-phase Cyclo-converters

These are obtained by connecting 3 three-phase to single-phase cyclo-converters to the load. These converters can be
connected in star or delta. Three phase cyclo-converter of both half-wave and bridge types are shown in figure below.

Three-phase to three-phase cyclo-converter is also called as 18-thyristor cyclo-converter or 3-pulse cyclo-converter and
three-phase to three-phase bridge type cyclo-converter is called as 6-pulse cyclo-converter or 36-thyristor cyclo-converter.
 This converter consists of six groups of converter circuits where three groups are called as positive group while other three
are negative group.
During each positive half cycle, positive group carries the current and during negative half cycle, negative group carries the
current. The duration for conduction of each group of thyristor determines the desired output frequency.
Here average value of output voltage is varied by varying the firing or delay angle of SCRs conduction whereas the output
frequency can be varied by changing the sequence of firing the SCRs.

625. What are the Applications of Cyclo-converters.

Cyclo-converters are mainly used for producing low frequency AC voltage. The major advantage of cyclo-converter is that it
uses a line commutation technique for turning OFF the thyristors, thus it eliminates the need of forced commutation. And
these are also more efficient than DC link converters which require two power conversion stages.

But, the major problem with cyclo-converter is that it produces much distorted waveforms for higher frequencies. This can
produce reasonable distorted, sinusoidal waveforms up to 16 2/3 Hz, beyond this frequency the wave shapes are not very
good.
Also the power factor of the system gets affected when controlling the speed of AC motor using cyclo-converter. It requires a
large number of thyristors. In addition, these converters are more costly.
Due to these reasons, cyclo-converters have limited applications. Nowadays, most of the cyclo-converters are being
replaced with variable frequency drives.

626. Earth leakage detector working principle.

627. What is cathodic protection.

When two dissimilar metals are immersed in sea water and connected together a current will ow through the water from the
more reactive (anodic) to the less reactive (cathodic). Due to the electrochemical action the anodic metal will tend to go into
solution (ie corrode) whilst the cathodic metal will remain stable (ie protected by the anodic metal).
Similar reactions occur at numerous places on a steel structure due to the potential di erence between areas (anodic
cathodic) for a veriety of reasons eg lack of chemical uniformity of the steel, breaks in paint coating. The reaction also
occurs in the presence of a di erent (coupled) metal (eg welds;brackets). Variations in sea water ow and aeration can also
give rise to potential di erences on a plate surface causing current ow which will result in corrosion.
The principle of cathodic protection is to swamp these localised corrosion currents by applying an opposing current from an
external source. (Either the sacri cial anode system or impressed current system may be used). For the structure to be
adequate protected the potential of all areas of metal must be depressed to a value more negative than any natural anodic
area.
 This potential may be measured against a standard reference electrode in sea water.

Cathodic protection is achieved by supplying electrons to the metal structure to be protected. The addition of electrons to the
structure will tend to suppress metal dissolution and increase the rate of oxygen evolution.
In conventional electrical theory current is considered to ow from (+) to (-) and as a result a stucture is protected if current
enters it from the electrolyte (seawater). Conversely accelerated corrosion occurs if current passes from the metal to the
electrolyte (seawater). Cathodic protection of a structure can be achieved in two ways, namely:
 by application of an external power supply (impressed current)

 by application of an appropriate galvanic system (sacrificial anode

628. What is sacrificial anode cathodic protection?

Figure shows sacrificial cathode protection applied to a ship's hull. Galvanic

coupling is shown between the ship's hull and a zinc anode. The zinc is
anodic (+) with respect to the steel and corrodes preferentially when coupled
with steel.
Corrosion takes place all over submerged steel. But, if the steel has been
coated, the corrosion attack is concentrated at points of paint breakdown
and takes the form of deep pits weld grooving ore even complete penetration
of the plate.

629. What is Impressed current cathode protection system

Impressed current cathode protection systems tted in ship's consist of a number of anodes (lead or platinised titanium) tted
to the hull at selected places below the waterline, and control equipment wich automatically regulates the anode current to
the required value. Direct current is supplied to the anodes, after transformation and recti cation, from the ship's 440 V 60
Hz 3-phase a.c. distribution system. The control equipment comprises reference electrodes, an ampli er assembly and one
or more transformer rectifier units.
Current control is usually regulated by electronic thyrister controllers and the diagram outlines a typical scheme.

The control equipment automatically monitors the size of anode current required wich will vary with conditions as there are;
sea water temperature, ship's speed, condition of the coating and salinity.
The total impressed current for a hull in good condition may be as low as 20A. Maximum controller outputs may be up to
about 600 A at 8 V

630. What is the role of reference electrode in ICCP?

To determine wether complete protection of the underwater structure has been achieved it is necessary to measure the
potential di erence against a reference electrode. For adequate protection the painted steel must have a
 potential of 750 to 850mV negative with respect to a silver/silverchloride reference electrode. Below 750mV the risk of
corrosion is increased. Above 850mV there is a danger of damage to paint coating caused by hydrogen
evolution from protected surface

631. What happens to ICCP when entering brackish or fresh water?

As a ship enters a port or bay that is river-fed, the water (drydocked).resistivity of the water will change as the salinity
changes. Operation of the ICCP system will be Before the reference electrode is connected to the affected by the changing
water resistivity. The controller, check the voltage between the reference operator will notice the ICCP system operating at
electrode and the steel hull; it should be approximately higher voltage outputs and lower current outputs. The 0.6 volt dc.
The hull will be negative (-) and the lower current output is caused by the higher reference electrode will be positive (+). If
the voltage is zero, the reference electrode has an open lead, or the impedance of the water. A higher voltage output is
lead or electrode is shorted to the hull. When the required to drive the same current in the higher-voltage is 0.6 volt or
higher, the ship is receiving resistivity electrolyte.

632. When should you first have any food or water after boarding a lifeboat or liferaft?

a. After 12 hours
b. After 24 hours
c. Within 48 hours
d. Some food and water should be consumed immediately and then not until 48 hours later
Answer-B

633. Minimum number of lifebuoys that need to be carried on cargo ships of length 200 m and above is_______________

A. 24
B. 18
C. 14 (correct)
D. 12
Answer-C

634. Which is considered safest protection from static electric disharge when connecting or disconnecting cargo hoses or metal
arms??

a.insulating flange or length of non conducting hose.(correct)

b.switching off iccp
c.ship shore bonding cable use.
d.none of the above
Answer-A

635. In firefighting the term PROTECTING EXPOSURES means

A. protecting firefighters from the direct exposure to heat

B. keeping flames from burning at the tank vents
C. protecting exposed area of the superstructure from flames
D. taking measures to prevent the spread of fire from the involved compartment to an adjacent compartment(correct)
Answer-D

636. What is added to Co2 cylinder to avoid from freezing at subzero temp in an inflatable liferaft?

1)nitrogen(correct)
2)Silica Gel
3)Hydrogen
4)none of the above
Answer-A

637. Under ISM code ,who on board is responsible for reviewing and suggesting changes to SMS:

a. Chief Engg.
b.Chief Mate
c.Master
d. Designated Safety Officer(correct)
Answer-D
638. Why should ICCP be switched off in port?
To prevent Tanker-to-Shore Electric Currents
Large currents can flow in electrically conducting pipework and flexible hose systems between the tanker and shore.
The sources of these currents are:
•Cathodic protection of the jetty or the hull of the tanker provided by either an impressed current system (Impressed Cu
rrent Cathodic Protection - ICCP) or by sacrificial anodes.
 •Stray currents arising from galvanic potential differences between tanker and shore or leakage effects from electrical
power sources.
To prevent electrical flow between a tanker and a berth during connection or disconnection of the shore hose or loading
arm, the terminal operator should ensure that cargo hose strings and metal arms are fitted with an insulating flange.

Switching off cathodic protection systems of the impressed current type (required in some national and local regulations)
either ashore or on the tanker, is not in general considered to be a feasible method of minimising tanker/shore currents in
the absence of an insulating flange or hose. A jetty which is handling a succession of tankers would need to have this
cathodic protection switched off almost continuously and would therefore lose its corrosion resistance. Further, if the jetty
system remains switched on, it is probable that the difference of potential between tanker and shore will be less if the tanker
also keeps its cathodic protection system energised. In any case, the polarisation in an impressed current system takes
many hours to decay after the system has been switched off, so the tanker would have to be deprived of full protection, not
only while alongside but also for a period before arrival in port.

639. What are the Emergency generator requirements as per SOLAS?

 It should be located outside the main and auxiliary machinery space and not forward of the
collusion bulkhead. must be installed in position such that they are unlikely to be damaged or affected by any
incident, which has caused to main power.
 Have own switchboard near vicinity.

 Be provided with independent means of automatically starting (by air or battery) to ensure immediate run up
following a main power failure and repeated starts of at least 3 times, and further attempt can be made within
the 30 minutes.
 Adequate and independent supply of fuel with a flash point of not less than 43 °C
 Must be able to be started in cold condition up to zero (0 °C)
 Emergency generator shall be automatically started and connected within 45 sec
 should be capable of operating with a list of up to 22 ½ ° and a trim of up to 10 °
 Capable of supplying simultaneously at least the following services for the period of 36 hours(Passenger ships)
and 18 hours (Cargo ships)
1) Emergency lightening (at alley way, stairways and exits, muster and embarkation stations, machinery space,
control room, main and emergency switchboard, firemen‘s outfits storage positions, steering gear room)
2) Fire detecting and alarming system
3) Internal communication equipment
4) Daylight signaling lamp and ship‘s whistle
5) Navigation equipment
6) Navigation lights
7) Radio installations, (VHF, MF, MF/HF)
8) One of the fire pumps, emergency bilge pump

640. What are the requirements for navigation light panel ?

 Navigation light should be connected to a distribution board, which does not supply other services
 There should be a changeover switch, so that it can be transferred to another source or power supply
 Visual and audible alarms required for individual Navigation Light failure (duel bulb system for change over)
 Fuse protection provided

641. What are the Navigation Lights

 Fore Mast (No. 1 & 2 or Up, Down)

 Main or Aft Mast (No. 1 & 2 or Up, Down)
 Stern light (No. 1 & 2 or Up, Down)
 Port light (No. 1 & 2 or Up, Down)
 Starboard light (No. 1 & 2 or Up, Down)
642. Difference between Thermistor and Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD)

Both devices work on the same principle that a constant current flowing through the resistor, and its changing
resistance due to change in temperature, is measured as a voltage drop across it. The main difference is that the
electrical resistance of the resistor used in a thermistor varies in a non-linear manner with respect to temperature. The
sensing element used in the thermistor is made up of either a ceramic or polymer, while RTD uses pure metals as its
sensing element. Another major difference is in its operating range. Due to its high sensitivity, thermistors are used in
narrow span measurements and low temperature ranges from -20 degree Celsius to +120 degree Celsius. But RTD‘s
are used over wide and larger temperature ranges.

643. What is a Silistor?

It is a type of PTC Thermistor(Positive Temperature Coefficient) which uses a semiconductor as its base material and has a
linear characteristic. It is generally manufactured from doped silicon. It exhibits a very linear temperature/resitance
characteristic and the characteristic depends on the semiconductor and the amount of doping used.

644. What are the two forms of PTC Thermistors?

One is the Silistor and the other is Switching PTC thermistor. The switching PTC Thermistor has a highly non linear curve.It
initially exhibits a negative temperature coefficient where in the resistance falls with an increase in temperature. But as the
temperature rises and at a critical temperature the resistance increases dramatically and it then acts as a switch.

645. What are the general duties of electrical engineer or Electro-technical officers.

 He is responsible for maintenance of all the electrical motors on ship i.e. in engine room and on deck.
 He is in charge of maintenance of all switchboard including main switchboard and emergency switchboard.
 He is responsible for maintenance of fire detectors and fire alarm system.
 He has to maintain all the ship‘s alarm system.
 He is responsible for the electronic system fitted onboard ship.
 He is responsible for the ship‘s navigational lights and other navigational equipments.
 He is responsible for all the batteries that are connected to machineries onboard. It includes:
 Emergency batteries for alarm and lights
 Lifeboat batteries
 Batteries for emergency generator
 Other batteries fitted onboard
 He is responsible for maintaining refrigeration unit in the engine room
 He has to take care of air conditioning unit of the vessel.
 Electrical officer is responsible for maintaining refrigerated containers carried on container ship.
 He is responsible for cargo and engine room cranes electrical system.
 He has to carry out routine maintenance for main engine alarms and trips along with the chief engineer.
 During the time of manoeuvring, he has to be present in the engine room along with other engineers to tackle any
kind of electrical and other emergencies.
 Electrical officer can assist in watch keeping routines at desired time by the chief engineer.
 He has to assist ship‘s engineer and deck officer in all kind of electrical problems.
646. Explain ward-Leonard system.
Ward Leonard Method of Speed Control
 Under Electrical Motor
Ward Leonard control system is introduced by Henry Ward Leonard in 1891. Ward Leonard method of speed control is used
for controlling the speed of a DC motor. It is a basic armature control method. This control system is consisting of a dc motor
M_1 and powered by a DC generator G. In this method the speed of the dc motor (M_1) is controlled by applying variable
voltage across its armature. This variable voltage is obtained using a motor-generator set which consists of a motor
M_2(either ac or dc motor) directly coupled with the generator G. It is a very widely used method of speed control of DC
motor.

Principle of Ward Leonard Method

Basic connection diagram of the Ward Leonard speed control system is shown in the figure below.

The speed of motor M1 is to be controlled which is powered by the generator G. The shunt field of the motor M1 is connected
across the dc supply lines. Now, generator G is driven by the motor M2. The speed of the motor M2 is constant. When the
output voltage of the generator is fed to the motor M1 then the motor starts to rotate. When the output voltage of the
generator varies then the speed of the motor also varies. Now controlling the output voltage of the generator the speed of
motor can also be controlled. For this purpose of controlling the output voltage, a field regulator is connected across the
generator with the dc supply lines to control the field excitation. The direction of rotation of the motor M1 can be reversed by
excitation current of the generator and it can be done with the help of the reversing switch R.S. But the motor-generator set
must run in the same direction.

Advantages of Ward Leonard System

 It is a very smooth speed control system over a very wide range (from zero to normal speed of the motor).
 The speed can be controlled in both the direction of rotation of the motor easily.
 The motor can run with a uniform acceleration.
 Speed regulation of DC motor in this ward Leonard system is very good.

Disadvantages of Ward Leonard System

 The system is very costly because two extra machines (motor-generator set) are required.
 Overall efficiency of the system is not sufficient especially it is lightly loaded.

Application of Ward Leonard System

This Ward Leonard method of speed control system is used where a very wide and very sensitive speed control is of a DC
motor in both the direction of rotation is required. This speed control system is mainly used in colliery winders, cranes,
electric excavators, mine hoists, elevators, steel rolling mills and paper machines etc.

647. How does a Magnetron produce Microwaves?

It works a bit like a TV set:

1. There's a heated cathode (a solid metal rod) at the center of the magnetron. Here it's colored orange.
2. A ring-shaped anode surrounds the cathode (colored red).
 3. If you switched on a simple magnetron like this, electrons would boil off from the cathode and zip across to the anode in
straight lines (shown by the black arrow) much like the electron beam in a TV set. But there are two added extra bits in
a magnetron that change things completely.
4. First, the anode has holes or slots cut into it called cavities or resonant cavities. Second, a powerful magnet is placed
underneath the anode to generate a magnetic field along the length of the tube (parallel to the cathode and, in this
diagram, going directly into the computer screen away from you).
5. Now when the electrons try to zip from cathode to anode, they are traveling through an electric field (stretching between
the anode and cathode) and a magnetic field (produced by the magnet) at the same time. So, like any electrically
charged particles moving in a magnetic field, they feel a force and follow a curved path (blue circle) instead of a straight
one, whizzing around the space between the anode and the cathode.
6. As the electrons nip past the cavities, the cavities resonate and emit microwave radiation. Think of the electrons
passing energy to the cavities, making then resonate like someone blowing on the open end of a flute—only producing
microwaves instead of sound waves.
7. The microwave radiation that the cavities produce is collected up and channeled by a kind of funnel called a waveguide,
either into the cooking compartment of a microwave oven or beamed out into the air by an antenna or satellite dish in
radar equipment.

In reality, it's all a bit more complicated than that—of course. But think of a TV set and a flute sort of merged together to produce
microwaves instead of flute sounds or TV pictures and you'll get the basic idea!

648. Explain Autopilot system.

Auto-Pilot system is considered as one of the most advanced and technically sophisticated navigational equipment tools on
ships. An autopilot (or pilot) is a mechanical, electrical or hydraulic system which can maintain a vessel on a predetermined
course without the need for human intervention. Using a direct or indirect connection with a vessel‘s steering mechanism,
the autopilot relieves the crew from the task of manually steering the vessel.

Auto-Pilot is synchronised with the Gyro Compass to steer manually input courses, with reference to the gyro heading. Auto
Pilot steers the manually input course by controlling the steering gear to turn the rudder in the required manner.
Furthermore, modern auto-pilot systems are capable of being synchronised with the Electronic Chart system.

(ECDIS) enabling to follow the courses laid out in the Voyage plan. This feature cuts out the need of manual course
changes and alterations as the system will follow the courses and alterations as per the voyage plan.

Types of controls:

a) —PROPORTIONAL CONTROL —The effect on steering when only proportional control is applied causes the rudder to
move by an amount proportional to the off-course error from the course to steer and the ship will oscillate on either side of
the required course-line.

b) DERIVATIVE CONTROL:—The rudder is shifted by an amount proportional to the rate of change of ship‘s deviation from
the course. The ship will make good a course which is parallel to the required course and will continue to do so until the
autopilot is again caused to operate by external force acting on the ship.

c) INTEGRAL CONTROL: —There are certain errors due to design parameters of the vessel which have to be corrected.
Data signals are produced by continuously sensing heading error over a period of time and applying an appropriate degree
of permanent helm is used for this purpose. The permanent helm acts as mid-ship.

—The output of these three controls is combined and the net resultant drives the rudder. This type of autopilot is also called
as PID Auto Pilot.
 The output from a gyro or magnetic compass is coupled to the comparator, in the control unit , along with the input signal
from manual course setting control. Any difference between the two signals causes an output error signal whose magnitude
is proportional to the difference between the two signals and hence the comparator is also referred to as proportional
control. In addition to the proportional control, the control unit also consists of derivative and integral controls which analyse
the signals from the gyro or magnetic compass and the course selector

—A summing amplifier is used to obtain a resultant error signal from these controls. This error signal is fed to the error
amplifier which also gets feedback signals from the rudder, consisting of the rudder position and its movement. The output
of this error amplifier is fed via telemotors to the steering gear unit and in turn operates the rudder. The telemotor has two
units, i.e. Transmitter and Receiver situated on the bridge and steering gear compartment respectively. There will be no
output from the control unit when the difference between the two signals is zero and hence no movement of the rudder
results.

649. What is the difference between AIS and LRIT?

One of the most important differences between LRIT and AIS, however, is that AIS is a so-called broadcast system, i.e., is
public, whereas LRIT data are only available to institutions which have a (governmental) entitlement to the data and
guarantee the confidentiality of these data.

Another main difference is that AIS is a Collision avoidance system mandated by the IMO whereas LRIT is a Reporting
system mandated by the IMO

650. What is the pressure of hyper-mist pump?

High-pressure water is injected through a special nozzle working within pressure range of 4 to 10 MPa (depending upon the
design of the system), which breaks the water droplets into fine mist. The diameter of the water mist particle range from 50
to 200 µm which improves the fire extinguishing effect and efficiency of the system.

651. What is the rating of the electrical hand glove?

Class 00 - Maximum use voltage of500 volts AC/proof tested to 2500 volts AC,
Class 0 - Maximum use voltage of 1,000volts AC/proof tested to 5,000 volts AC,
Class 1 - Maximum use voltage of 7,500 voltsAC/proof tested to 10,000 volts AC,
Class 2 - Maximum use voltage of 17,000 volts AC/proof tested to 20,000 volts AC,
Class 3 - Maximum use voltage of 26,500 volts AC/proof tested to 30,000 volts AC,
Class 4 - Maximum use voltage of 36,000 volts AC/proof tested to 40,000 volts AC

652. Emergency fire pump regulation.

Not less than 25 m3 per hr. no direct acess between m/c space and fire pump, fire in m/c space should nt affect operation of
emg fire pump. Ventilation arrangement, 2 jets of water 2.8 bar for cargo ship and 3.2 bar for passenger ships, not less than 40%
of main fire pump, capable of starting at 0 deg c wether motor or engine driven. Npsh 4.5 m
653. How to test whistle of SCABA.
Open main regulator valve on bottle. Check pr as shown in the gauge. Close main regulator valve and continue breathing
through facemask. When pressure in the gauge falls below 20% whistle must sound.
654. What are the safeties fitted on air compressors?
Bursting disc/ relief valve on inter/after coolers, relief valve in line, unloader, motor overload trip, auto drains,
655. What type of feed back is oscillator.

Most oscillators consist of three basic parts:

1. An amplifier. This will usually be a voltage amplifier and may be biased in class A, B or C.

2. A wave shaping network. This consists of passive components such as filter circuits that are responsible for the shape
and frequency of the wave produced.

3. A POSITIVE feedback path. Part of the output signal is fed back to the amplifier input in such a way that the feed back
signal is regenerated, re-amplified and fed back again to maintain a constant output signal.

Commonly an oscillator is constructed from an amplifier that has part of its output signal fed back to its input. This is done in
such a way as to keep the amplifier producing a signal without the need for any external signal input as shown in Fig. It can
also be thought of as a way of converting a DC supply into an AC signal.
 Positive feedback.

The feedback in the amplifier section of an oscillator must be POSITIVE FEEDBACK. This is the condition where a fraction
of the amplifier's output signal is fed back to be in phase with the input, and by adding together the feedback and input
signals, the amplitude of the input signal is increased.

656. Why is a Relief Valve fitted on fire main?

When ship is in dry dock, fire main is supplied from shore. Shore pressure may be more than design pressure. To avoid damage relief valves are fitted

657. What is the difference between a flame screen and flame arrestor?
Flame arrestor does quenching of flame and absorption of heat by use ceramic or metallic sheets, thus stopping flame travel. Flame screen is a gauze,
whichspilts fire and thus cools down

658. Why is a sand box provided on the boiler flat?

Starving of oxygen(smothering) and to avoid spillage of flammable oil.
659. Is there any protection for a C02 cylinder is case of a fire in the C02 room itself‘?
Yes. Co2 stored @ 52 bar. Co2 room temp not to exceed 55deg C. @ 63 deg, pr is 177 bar,bursting disc lifts which discharges co2
through relief arrangement on manifold into co2space. Master valve prevents co2 to reach e/r. alarm is also provided
660. What are the tests done before enclosed space entry? O2
content, hyd carbon content,flammable vapours,
661. What is the acceptable HC level for man entry‘?
<1%
662. What action you will take if Engine room is flooding?
Inform bridge and c/e. raiseemg alarm or engineers call, start bilge pump, try to locate and contain, isolate room if psbl, close water tight door, If level is coming
up start another pump, reduce enginespeed, c/o msw to emg bilge suction, if level still coming up, try to protect motor froms/c. stop m/e if required. Start emg
gen if reqd. prepare boats if situation is bad. Noteposition of ship while starting pump
663. What will you do if CO2 alarm is sounded in your watch in Engine Room?
Life jacket and immersion suit, muster station.
664. What is humidifier and dehumidifier purpose, working and requirements?
Increase or decrease humidity of air supplied through AC system.dehumidifying by means of heating saturated air. Humidifying by injection of steam or water
spray. 40-60%humidity, comfort zone.
665. Why there are separate room for pumps in Tankers?
Pumping of fluids produces flammable vapours which are auto ignitable in hot engine room condition. So they needto be in an enclosed space readily
accessible from deck to control pumping operations.
666. How tankers differ from other ships in construction?
Tankers are designed to carry liquid cargos in bulk quantities depending on their size. The entire cargo operation will be through
pipe lines. For carrying cargo operations they have to call berths fitted with chicksen or hoses. The divisions of the tanks are
made possible by both longitudinal and transverse bulkheads with strengthened frames and corrugations to give extra strength
to the bulkheads. These bulkheads in turn reduce racking stresses and prevent fire and flooding to progress to the other part of
the vessel.

In bulk carriers during rough weathers the ballast is taken into the cargo hold so that CG comes down there by minimizing
the stresses

667. Draw dual speed starter diagram.

668. Draw & explain welding transformer working.

A welding transformer is a step down transformer that has thin primary winding with a large number of turns and its
secondary has more area of cross-section and less number of turns ensuring less voltage and very high current in the
secondary. The welding transformer reduces the voltage from the source voltage to a lower voltage that is suitable for
welding. Usually between 15 and 45 volts. The secondary current is quit high and it may be typically 200A to 600A, but it
could be much higher. The secondary may have several taps for adjusting the secondary voltage to control the welding
current. The taps are typically connected to a several high-current plug receptacles or to a high-current switch. One end of
the secondary is connected to the welding electrode, whereas the other end of the secondary is connected to the pieces to
be welded .If any high current flows, heat is produced due to the contact resistance between the electrode and the pieces to
be welded. The generated heat melts a trip of the electrode and the gap between the two pieces is filled.

The impedance of welding transformer may be higher than that of the impedance of a general purpose transformer. The
impedance of welding transformer may play a role in the process of establishing an arc and controlling the current. Large
welding transformers are most likely to be designed for three phase input. There are many smaller transformers that are
designed for single phase input.

DC welding transformer

For welding with direct current (DC) a rectifier is connected to the secondary of the transformer. There may also be a
filter choke or an inductor to smooth the DC current. the entire transformer and rectifier assembly may be called a
welding power supply. The winding used for the welding transformer is highly reactive. Otherwise, a separate reactor
may be added is series with the secondary winding.
669. What are symptoms of boiler effective working?

The Steam Drum Pressure, the Drum water level are monitored when the boiler is firing to ensure effective working.

In addition the following are checked.

Check the steam drum for corrosion, scaling, and pitting:

Feed regulator, feed check valve, water gauge fittings, and drum safety valves examined. Attention to securing arrangement
of seats in valves covers to valve chest to drum nozzles.

Check the headers. Headers : Boiler headers are the water feeders to the generating tubes in boiler. The headers are
connected in between the steam drum and the water drum. Normally the water from the water drum enters the main
headers from there and many generating tubes are connected where the steam is generated.

670. How to prevent boiler fire?

Preventive Actions

Regularly inspect boiler flame to ensure correct air fuel ratio is maintained. This makes complete combustion with clean flue
gas.
Carry out boiler burner and swirler routines as per PMS.
Regularly soot blow economisers and water wash periodically to remove soot deposits.
Use proper grade of fuel oil for boiler.
Fuel oil used for boiler to be treated well.
Avoid low load operation of boiler for long period.
Running boiler near full load periodically, helps in expelling out carbon deposits adhered in uptake passages and reduces
chances of boiler uptake fire considerably.
671. If fire occurs in boiler how to tackle it?
In case of Economizer fire:

 Inform to the bridge and chief engineer. Take the permission to stop main engine.
 Gradually slowdown the ME and then stop.
 If fire fighting equipment is fitted, it should be brought into operation.
 Shut off oil burners, draught fans, dampers & air register.
 Raise water level full and blow down continuously so as to maintain good flow of water.
 Reduce boiler pressure by easing gear.
 Cool down the economizer by means of boundary cooling. Spray water on the external casing of the uptake to cool the
affected area.
 A few times starting and stopping of main engine should be done to blow out collected soots at the uptake.
 Circulation pump must be run but, if large amount of water lost it must be stopped.
 Never do soot blow to economizer. It can cause hydrogen fire and melt down the coils stack. It can cause deformation
and tube bulking because intensive heat and high thermal stress formed at economizer coils.

672. What is the recommended distance between the electrodes in a boiler? 3–

4 mm
 1 inch = 25.4 mm

Between the electrodes: 3mm to 4mm

Above centre of nozzle: 8mm
In front of nozzle: 1.5mm

673. What is the system fitted in shaft generator which control frequency?
Frequency Convertor.

A traditional PTO/CFE shaft generator is installed with a thyristor converter and synchronous condenser. The alternator
generates a three-phase alternating current with a varying frequency that corresponds to the propeller speed. This is then
rectified and conducted to the thyristor converter system in the engine room, which produces alternating current with
constant frequency. The synchronous condenser is necessary because the DC intermediate link used by the thyrister
converter system has the effect that there will be no reactive power served to the main switchboard. A synchronous
condenser is therefore necessary to generate the reactive power needed.

A novel marine shaft-driven generator system with two PWM-pulse

width modulated converters has been introduced. With this system, one of the PWM converters is used to convert the
varying current into the DC energy. Afterwards, the other PWM converter converts the DC energy into AC energy with the
fixed frequency and voltage.

674. What are the Garbage management plan on ship?

1. These substances must not be harmful to the marine environment.

2 . Discharge shall only be allowed if: (a) both the port of departure and
the next port of destination are within the special area and the ship will not transit outside the special area between these
ports (regulation 6.1.2.2); and (b) if no adequate reception facilities are available at those ports

675. Governor system diagram n explain

676. How does the Governor of Main engine work

Governor of engine is a very nice piece of instrument and an integral part of engine working
system. Well the main function of a Governor is to control the speed or RPM of the engine in a control manner. What
happens is that when load on engines changes, engine tends to accelerate or decelerate. During increase in load, RPM of
the Engine decreases and it leads to slowing of engine. Now in this case Governor in order to maintain the speed, increases
fuel supply to engine, so that speed can be attained to the desired value. But when load on engine increases, then it tends
speed up and in this case Governor reduces the supply of fuel to maintain the desired RPM.Now how to regulate this
fuel supply is dependent on what type of governor we are using. Earlier we were using Mechanical governors, but nowadays
we have replaced them with hydraulic and electronics because of the simple reason that they are more accurate then
the mechanical governor. So, let‘s discuss about these governors in details.

What is a Mechanical Governor of engine and how it works

A pictorial representation of how a mechanical governor looks is given. Mechanical type of governor takes drive directly from
the engine. There are two balls fitted on the main spindle and they are free to move radially. A sleeve is fitted at the bottom
of these balls and it can move up and down as per the movement of balls of governor. Attached to this sleeve is a fuel
regulating valve that moves according to the movement of sleeve.

Suppose load on the engine decreases and hence speed of the engine increases. Due to increases in the speed of engine,
speed of main spindle also increases. Due to this ball starts flying more outward from the centre position. Due to this sleeve
moves upward and hence fuel valve also moves up and restrict the fuel flow. Just reverse of it happens when load
on engine increases.

What is a Hydraulic Governor of engine and how it works

One of the main disadvantages of mechanical type of governor is that the friction forces acting in the mechanical joints
are responsible for delay in response. This anomaly is replaced in the hydraulic governor. All though the whole system of
mechanical governor is present in hydraulic governor also, but the response to the fuel valve through governor is provided
with the help of oil. An arrangement of piston and barrel is made and this piston is directly attached to the sleeve of the
governor. Now according to the movement of the sleeve, piston pushes the oil forward and backward. But this is just a
simple system. Nowadays lot of machines and equipments are fitted with this hydraulic governor, so as to make it them
more reliable and accurate. Servo motors are there which are now being used in conjunction with the hydraulic governor.

What is an electric Governor of engine and how it works

Diagram of electric generator is given below
 Most reliable and accurate governor is electric governor. It
consists of rectifier, controllers, and Amplifiers. Now the thing is that an
alternator is fitted on the cam shaft of the engine. Due to revolving motion of
cam shaft a certain amount of Alternating current is developed. This
Alternating current is fed to the rectifiers that convert this current in to
Direct Current. A controlling and amplifying unit is there which senses this
signal and matches it with the set value of the engine RPM. It generates signal
as per the need like whether to increases the fuel supply or decrease the fuel
supply. The output of this control unit is feed in to a High speed alternator
which controls the fuel valve.

677. Difference between governors fitted on main propulsion engine and Generator.

All marine vessels need some sort of speed control system to control and govern the speed of marine diesel engine used for
propulsion. It would be really impractical and dangerous to have a ship without speed control mechanism fitted on it, and
can lead to accidents such as collision or grounding.
The speed control mentioned above is achieved with the help of a governor. Main role of a governor is not to increase
or decrease the speed which can be done via fuel control system ( similar to an accelerator on your car) but once the speed
of the engine has been set, the job of the governor is to maintain that despite the variations in load. In other words the
governor controls the speed variation and keeps the speed within restrained limits despite these variations.
As per IACS each main engine is to be fitted with a speed governor so adjusted that the engine speed can not exceed
the rated speed by more than 15%.

Generator on board a ship needs to maintain constant frequency. To maintain constant frequency the prime mover should
run at constant speed. So the governor fitted on this type of prime mover should be able to maintain constant speed to
maintain constant frequency. As per IACS each generator should be fitted with speed governor which will prevent transient
frequency variation in the electrical network in excess of + or - 10% of the rated frequency.

so it can be concluded that governor fitted on main engine is a constant load governor. It maintains constant load at different
speed setting set by the fuel lever. Where as a governor fitted on a generator is a constant speed governor. It maintains the
engine rated speed despite of load variations.

678. What are LSA onboard?

Emergency and life-saving equipment include things like:

lifeboats and liferafts

lifebuoys
lifejackets and attachments
buoyancy apparatus
emergency alarm systems and public address systems
marine evacuation systems
two-way VHF radiotelephone sets
fire-fighting equipment
Immersion suits, Anti-exposure suits and Thermal protective aids
Rocket parachute flares
Hand flares
Buoyant smoke signals

679. Describe ME system.

MOP- Main Operating Panel

ECU A/B are the governors - calculating the needed fuel index
EICU – Engine Interface Control Unit.
FIVA: Fuel Injection Valve Actuation Proportional valve for fuel injct. ON/OFF for exhaust operation
CCU- Cylinder Control Unit - One CCU for every cylinder
Cylinder lubricator - ON/OFF valve, Feedrate controlled by injection frequency
ACU – Auxiliary Control Units - Electrically driven pumps 1 & 2 are controlled by ACU 1 & 2

One CCU

680. What is Squat effect?

The squat effect is the hydrodynamic phenomenon by which a vessel moving quickly through shallow water creates an area of lowered
pressure that causes the ship to be closer to the seabed than would otherwise be expected. This phenomenon is caused when water that
should normally flow under the hull encounters resistance due to the close proximity of the hull to the seabed. This causes the water to
move faster, creating a low-pressure area with lowered water level surface (See Bernoulli's principle). This squat effect results from a
[1]
combination of (vertical) sinkage and a change of trim that may cause the vessel to dip towards the stern or towards the bow.

Squat effect is approximately proportional to the square of the speed of the ship. Thus, by reducing speed by half, the squat effect is
[2]
reduced by a factor of four. Squat effect is usually felt more when the depth/draft ratio is less than four or when sailing close to a bank. It
can lead to unexpected groundings and handling difficulties.

681. Draw and explain the PLC diagram of Star-Delta starter.

Rung 1 Main contactor : The main contactor depends upon the normally open input start push button (I1), normally closed stop button
(I2) and normally closed overload relay. It means that Main contactor will only be energized if start button is pressed, while stop is not
pressed and overload relay is not activated. A normally open input named (Q1) is added in parallel to the start button I1. By doing so, a
push button is created which means that once motor is started, it will be kept started even if start button is released

Programing of push button and other requirements for simple motor starter is explained in PLC Tutorial: Motor starter
Rung 2 Star contactor: Star contactor depends upon main contactor, normally close contacts of timer (T1), and normally close contacts
of output delta contactor (Q3). So star contactor will only be energized if main contactor is ON, time output is not activated and delta
contactor is not energized.

Timer T1: Timer T1 measures the time after which the winding connection of star delta starter is to be changed. It will start counting time
after main contactor is energized.

Rung 3 Delta contactor: Delta contactor will be energized when main contactor (Q1) is energized, timer T1 is activated and star
contactor (Q3) is de-energized

Material Composition:

Made of Dielectric ―Elastomer‖ which possess elastic properties and may be natural or synthetic in nature. Typically a combination of
rubber & Synthetic Polymers.

682. What is the rating of Insulation Rubber mats?

VOLTAGE RATINGS
Class Thickness Working Voltage Break Down Voltage
A 2.0 mm 3.3KV 30 KV
B 2.5 mm 11KV 45 KV
C 3.0 mm 33KV 65 KV
C 3.5 mm 66KV 110KV

683. Working of an Incinerator

Incinerators burn the food, sewage and oil waste at high temperatures,
reducing the waste to disposable ash. These wastes are present in almost every type of ship.

Incinerator is in the shape of a vertical cylindrical chamber with an inverted funnel shaped chimney at the the top. The
cylindrical chamber consists of a burning chamber just as in case of oil fired burners, which are lined with refractory
materials at the inside. An oil fired burner is provided to initiate the ignition process. It is extremely important that the
temperature inside the cylinder is controlled and for this reason thermostats are used. To provide an uninterrupted flow of air
for the combustion, forced draft fans are provided. The air supplied is directed upwards in swirls with the help of strategically
designed ports.
A rotating shaft with blades is attached at the center, which helps for a faster combustion process and also prevents
incomplete combustion. The ash and the residue thus generated due to the combustion is forced at the periphery by this
rotating shaft. The ash is pushed into an ash hopper and it gets collected there. A door is provided to dump the waste inside
the incinerator. This door pneumatically operated and when opened shuts down the fan and the burner automatically. All the
processes are controlled with the help of a control panel that is fitted on or near the incinerator.
Solid waste is put inside the incinerator through the waste door, in properly arranged stacks so that the chances of
incomplete combustion are minimized. The oily sludge or waste oil is not directly put into the combustion chamber neither it
is put through the waste door. A separate tank is made which has its outlet into the combustion chamber. The oily sludge is
first heated up to a temperature which can facilitate the difficult process of burning oily waste. Once optimum temperature is
reached, the oil is passed into the combustion chamber.

The burner then burns the mixture at a thermostatically controlled temperature so as to induce a complete combustion. The
force draught fan provides continuous supply of air and the rotating shaft creates the required swirling of air. The ash that is
created is collected in the ash slide. This ash can be disposed to the sea or stored to dispose it at the next port.
684. Explain Short circuit test on Transformers.

Generally, in case of the transformers, the short-circuit test is conducted to find out the variable losses. During the test a
lower value of voltage is applied than the rated value so that rated current should flow in the winding.
As the rated current is lesser on HV side as compared to the LV side, it is convenient to conduct the test on the HV side so
 that the meters used for the test are oflower range. Here priority is given to the current because we are trying to find out the
series parameters from the test.

SHORT CIRCUIT means huge amount of current, (it means practically maximum current flow in conductor if allowed and
can be as large as 100-1000 ampere).so to measure this huge current will need large measuring instrument such as
ammeter. so the TEST of short circuit is done in high voltage side,which euaivalently meant low current(a transformer is a
constant power device).so maximum current won't be more than some 5-50 ampere and can be easily measured. If it would
have been tested in LOW VOLTAGE SIDE, ,currect would be high and short sircuit current could be as high as 1000
ampere. We can't measure it easily nor we want to waste energy(more current more heating up ,more loss) on doing testing
(energy saving matters).

A wattmeter is connected to the primary. An ammeter is connected in series

with the primary winding. A voltmeter is optional since the applied voltage is the same as the voltmeter reading. The LV side
of the transformer is short circuited. Now with the help of variac applied voltage is slowly increased until the ammeter gives
reading equal to the rated current of the HV side. After reaching at rated current of HV side, all three instruments reading
(Voltmeter, Ammeter and Watt-meter readings) are recorded. The ammeter reading gives the primary equivalent of full load
current IL. As the voltage applied for full load current in short circuit test on transformer is quite small compared to the rated
primary voltage of the transformer, the core losses in transformer can be taken as negligible here.

Procedure to conduct a short-circuit test on power transformer:

 Isolate the power transformer from service.

 Remove HV/LV jumps and disconnect neutral from earth/ground.
 Short LV phases and connect these short circuited terminals to neutral
 Energise HV side by LV supply.
 Measure current in neutral, HV voltage and HV line currents.
 Wattmeter indicate total cu loss of the transformer

685. Explain Open circuit test of a transformer

The open-circuit test, or "no-load test", is one of the methods used in electrical engineering to determine the no-load
impedance in the excitation branch of a transformer. The secondary of the transformer is left open-circuited. A wattmeter is
connected to the primary. An ammeter is connected in series with the primary winding. A voltmeter is optional since the
applied voltage is the same as the voltmeter reading. Rated voltage is applied at primary.

If the applied voltage is normal voltage then normal flux will be set up. Since iron loss is
a function of applied voltage, normal iron loss will occur. Hence the iron loss is maximum at rated voltage. This maximum
iron loss is measured using the wattmeter. Since the impedance of the series winding of the transformer is very small
compared to that of the excitation branch, all of the input voltage is dropped across the excitation branch. Thus the
wattmeter measures only the iron loss. This test only measures the combined iron losses consisting of the hysteresis loss
and the eddy current loss. Although the hysteresis loss is less than the eddy current loss, it is not negligible. The two losses
can be separated by driving the transformer from a variable frequency source since the hysteresis loss varies linearly with
supply frequency and the eddy current loss varies with the square.

Since the secondary of the transformer is open, the primary draws only no-load current, which will have some copper loss.
This no-load current is very small and because the copper loss in the primary is proportional to the square of this current, it
is negligible. There is no copper loss in the secondary because there is no secondary current.

686. What is the difference between segregated and clean ballast tank in tanker?
Clean ballast refers to the ballast stored in a tank not permanently utilized for ballast (see segregated ballast below), but has
been cleaned prior to use so clean ballast stored in it, if discharged from a stationary ship into calm water on a clear day will
produce no evidence of oil, sludge or emulsion on or under the surface of the water or on adjoining shorelines.

Segregated ballast refers to ballast stored in tanks which are permanently utilized for the carriage of ballast, and are completely
separated from the cargo oil and oil fuel system. ballast water tank in a tanker which is completely separated from oil cargoes
 and fuel oil system and is permanently allocated to the carriage of ballast; this arrangement reduces the risk of pollution when
deballasting; commonly abbreviated as SBT
687. What is Wheatstone bridge?

A Wheatstone bridge is an electrical circuit used to measure an unknown electrical resistance by balancing two legs of a
bridge circuit, one leg of which includes the unknown component. Its operation is similar to the original potentiometer.

688. How does earth fault detector work?

RCDs (Residual current detection) operate by measuring the current balance between two conductors using a differential current
transformer. This measures the difference between the current flowing through the live conductor and that returning through the
neutral conductor. If these do not sum to zero, there is a leakage of current to somewhere else (to earth/ground, or to another
circuit), and the device will open its contacts.
Residual current detection is complementary to over-current detection. Residual current detection cannot provide protection for
overload or short-circuit currents, except for the special case of a short circuit from live to ground (not live to neutral).
For a RCD used with three-phase power, all live conductors and the neutral must pass through the current transformer.
689. What is the difference between ordinary diode and zener diode?
Diode is the uncontrolled rectifier and Zener diode is a controlled rectifier. Diode has practically no limits of voltage range to work
in, whereas zener diode works only in a voltage range(e.g. -4V to +4V).So, Zener diode is known as voltage regulator.
Both are the rectifier, diode is conducted in forward direction only,It opposes the reverse direction ,but Zenor diode will conduct
only in reverse bise, It won‘t conduct in forward bise, we can use for Voltage regulator
690. Is there any regulation about air compressors - time required to fill the Air Bottles?
Two starting compressors must be fitted, of sufficient total capacity to meet the engine requirements.
Each compressor must be able to press up Air receiver from 15 bars to 25 bars in 30 minutes.
Two air receivers must to be provided.
Total air receiver capacity is to be sufficient for Twelve (12) starts of Reversible engines and six (6) starts for non- reversible
engines.
691. WHAT ARE THE SAFETY FEATURES IN AIR COMPRESSORS?

1.Relief valve: Fitted after every stage to release excess pressure developed inside it. The setting of the lifting pressure
increases after every ascending stage.
2.copperBursting disc:A bursting disc is a copper disc provided at the airside of the compressor. It is a safety disc, which bursts
when the pressure exceeds over the pre- determined value.
3.Fusibleplug:Generally located on the discharge side of the compressor, it fuses if the air temperature is higher than the
operational temperature. The fusible plug is made up of material, which melts at high temperature.
4.Lube Oil low-pressure alarm and trip:If the lube oil pressure goes lower than the normal, the alarm is sounded followed by a cut
out trip signal to avoid damage to bearings and crank shaft.
5.Water high temperature trip:If the intercoolers are choked or the flow of water is less, then the air compressor will get over
heated. To avoid this situation high water temperature trip is activated which cut offs the compressor.
6.Water no-flow trip:If the attached pump is not working or the flow of water inside the intercooler is not enough to cool the
compressor then moving part inside the compressor will get seized due to overheating. A no flow trip is provided which
continuously monitor the flow of water and trips the compressor when there is none.
7.Motor Overload trip.
692. WHAT ARE ALL TRIPS & ALARMS ARE PRESENT IN PURIFIER?

Typical alarms and shut downs: -

The following gives a general list of alarms only some of which may be fitted.

Back Pressure shutdown- this measures the discharge oil pressure and alarms and initiates a
shut down when below a set value
oHeavy phase overflow. Oil has a much higher viscosity than water. The heavy phase outlet is led to a small catchment tank
contain a float. The outlet from the tank is restricted in such a way that water flows freely but oil tends to back up. This
initiates an
alarm and shut down
oBowl not open- this may be done in several ways, typically by a lever switch operated by the discharged sludge hitting a
striker plate. The other method is by measuring the motor current, when the bowl opens the bowl speed is dragged down
due to friction effects of the discharging sludge and water. The motor current rises until full speed is re- established. This is
detected by a current sensing relay
o Water in oil- This found on modern designs which have a detection probe mounted in the oil discharge
o High temperature alarm and shut down
oLow control/seal water pressure. Where control water is supplied via a fixed small header tanks a float switch may be fitted

693. FLOODING IN ENGINE ROOM, WHAT WILL BE YOUR ACTION?

Inform bridge & Chief engineer.

Raise engineer‘s call/emergency alarm.
Before starting bilge pump note down the position of vessel& time of starting.
 Other engineers will in between try to locate the hole or burst of pipe and repair.
If ingress of water very high, start another pump.
Reduce the engine r.p.m.
Change over main seawater suction to emergency bilge suction.
If level is still coming up try to protect the motor from short-circuiting,
If situation is not coming in control, prepare lifeboat for lowering.
694. Why fire line fitted with relief valve and drain valve?

Relief valve:- Relief valve is provided if pumps are capable of developing the pressure exceeding the design pressure of water
service pipes, hydrants & hoses. It assists to avoid any overpressure to develop in any part of the fire main.
The fire line is fitted with relief valve to prevent the damage to pipe in case , the V/L is fighting fire with the help of shore while in
dry-dock.
Drain Valve :- Drain valve is fitted to drain the fire line when not in use & also prevent the damage to pipe due to icing, while V/L
is operating in Sub-zero temperature area.Relief valve is provided mainly to protect the line when water for fire fighting is
supplied be an external source other than ship's fire pump. It can be from shore or from tug through international shore coupling.
If any hydrant is in use with a line pressure of 6-7 kg/cm2 and if valve is closed suddenly then sudden pressure nay build up in
pipe leading to rupture the pipe.relief valve acts as safety device and releases the excess pressure.
Relief valves are to be provided in conjunction with any fire pump if the pump is capable of developing a pressure exceeding the
design pressure of the water service pipes, hydrants and hoses. These valves are to be so placed and adjusted as to prevent
excessive pressure in any part of the fire main system.
695. Why PT100 has 3 wires?

A PT100 normally has 3 wires. It is in simple terms a resistance that changes with temperature.
It is called a PT100 because at 0 deg C it will measure 100 ohms.At ambient it will be around 138 ohms.
As a very small change in resistance happens with each degree in temperature the added resistance of the wires will cause
an error when connecting to a temperature controller. In order to eliminate the effect of the wires we need at least 3 wires.

The controller will measure the wire resistance and subtract it to leave us with just the PT100 resistance.
In our sketch above we have the following resistances, Rpt, R1, R2 and R3
Mathematically the controller does the following calculation...

Rpt = ―the measurement between A and B ‖less ―the resistance measured between B and C‖

So Rpt = (R1 + Rpt + R2) – (R2 + R3)

So it is important where each wire is connected.

696. Difference between deep cycle batteries and crank batteries

A deep-cycle battery is a lead-acid battery designed to be regularly deeply discharged using most of its capacity. In contrast,
starter batteries (e.g. most automotive batteries) are designed to deliver short, high-current bursts for cranking the engine,
thus frequently discharging only a small part of their capacity.
The structural difference between deep cycle batteries and cranking batteries is in the lead battery plates. Deep cycle
battery plates have thicker active plates, with higher-density active paste material and thicker separators. Alloys used for the
plates in a deep cycle battery may contain more antimony than that of starting batteries.

697. How will you identify the terminals of a Transistor?

Keep the transistor such that the flat surface facing towards you as shown in the below figure:

Now starting from left, mark like 1,2 and 3. They are respectively

1. Emitter (E), 2. Base (B), 3. Collector(C)

 The schematic symbol of the BJT is given below:

Identifying BJT Types:

Both NPN and PNP transistor looks similar in physical appearance. We can not differentiate by seeing them. We need a
multimeter to identify the type of BJT.

Remember the following points:

1. The transistor internally has two diodes (NPN ≡ N – P – N ≡ NP Junction + PN Junction and PNP ≡ P – N – P ≡
PN Junction + NP Junction).
ie,Emitter to base is one PN junction ( diode) and Base to collector another PN junction (diode).
2. In the diode mode, the multimeter will show the voltage when we keep the positive probe of the multimeter to the
anode of the diode and negative probe to the cathode.
3. If the multimeter positive probe is connected to the cathode of the diode and the negative probe to the anode, then
it will not give any voltage (showing zero).

Steps to identify the NPN type transistor:

1. Keep the Multimeter in the Diode mode.

2. Keep the positive probe to the center pin (Base) of the transistor.
3. Touch the negative probe to the pin-1 (Emitter). You will see some voltage in the multimeter.
4. Similarly touch the negative probe to the pin-3 (collector) with respect to the pin-2. You will see some voltage in the
multimeter.
5. It will ensure that it is a NPN transistor. The logic behind this is, in NPN transistor
Emitter (E) – N type material – Equivalent to cathode of the diode
Base (B) – P type material – Equivalent to anode of the diode
Collector(C) – N type material – Equivalent to cathode of the diode
6. If the multimeter positive probe is connected to anode and negative probe is connected to cathode, then it will show
voltage. If the connections are interchanged it will not show any value.

Steps to identify the PNP type transistor:

1. Keep the Multimeter in the Diode mode.

2. Keep the positive probe to the pin-1 (Emitter) of the transistor.
3. Touch the negative probe to the center pin (Base). You will see some voltage in the multimeter.
4. Similarly touch the negative probe to the center pin (Base) with respect to the pin-3 (collector). You will see some
voltage in the multimeter.
5. It will ensure that it is a PNP transistor. The logic behind this is, in PNP transistor
Emitter (E) – P type material – Equivalent to anode of the diode
Base (B) – N type material – Equivalent to cathode of the diode
Collector(C) – P type material – Equivalent to anode of the diode
6. If the multimeter positive probe is connected to anode and negative probe is connected to cathode, then it will show
voltage. If the connections are interchanged it will not show any value.

698. Capacitance type level measurement of boiler level

Capacitance probes

A simple capacitor can be made by inserting dielectric material (a substance which has little or no electrical conductivity, for
example air or PTFE), between two parallel plates of conducting material (Figure Below).
 A capacitor

The basic equation for a capacitor is shown below :

Where:

C = Capacitance (farad)
K = Dielectric constant (a function of the dielectric between the plates)
A = Area of plate (m²)
D = Distance between plates (m)

Consequently:

 The larger the area of the plates, the higher the capacitance.
 The closer the plates, the higher the capacitance.
 The higher the dielectric constant, the higher the capacitance.

Therefore if A, D or K is altered then the capacitance will vary!

A basic capacitor can be constructed by dipping two parallel conductive plates into a dielectric liquid (Figure below). If the
capacitance is measured as the plates are gradually immersed, it will be seen that the capacitance changes in proportion to
the depth by which the plates are immersed into the dielectric liquid.

A basic capacitor in a liquid Output from a capacitor in a liquid

The capacitance increases as more of the plate area is immersed in the liquid (Figure above).

The situation is somewhat different in the case of plates immersed in a conductive liquid, such as boiler water, as the liquid no
longer acts as a dielectric, but rather an extension of the plates.

The capacitance level probe therefore consists of a conducting, cylindrical probe, which acts as the first capacitor plate. This
probe is covered by a suitable dielectric material, typically PTFE. The second capacitor plate is formed by the chamber wall (in
the case of a boiler, the boiler shell) together with the water contained in the chamber. Therefore, by changing the water level,
the area of the second capacitor plate changes, which affects the overall capacitance of the system.
 The total capacitance of the system therefore has two components (illustrated in Figure 3.16.12):

 CA, the capacitance above the liquid surface - The capacitance develops between the chamber wall and the probe.
The dielectric consists of both the air between the probe and the chamber wall, and the PTFE cover.
 CB, the capacitance below the liquid surface - The capacitance develops between the water surface in contact with
the probe and the only dielectric is the PTFE cover.

Since the distance between the two capacitance plates above the water surface (the chamber wall and the probe) is
large, so the capacitance CA is small. Conversely, the distance between the plates below the water surface (the probe
and the water itself) is small and therefore, the capacitance C B will be large compared with CA. The net result is that any
rise in the water level will cause an increase in capacitance that can be measured by an appropriate device.

-12
The change in capacitance is, however, small (typically measured in pico farads, for example, 10 farads) so the probe
is used in conjunction with an amplifier circuit. The amplified change in capacitance is then signalled to a suitable
controller.

Where the capacitance probe is used in, for example, a feedtank, liquid levels can be monitored continuously with a
capacitance probe. The associated controller can be set up to modulate a control valve, and / or to provide point
functions such as a high level alarm point or a low level alarm.

The controller can also be set up to provide on / off control. Here, the 'on' and 'off' switching points are contained within
a single probe and are set via the controller, removing any need to cut the probe. Since a capacitance probe must be
wholly encased in insulating material, it must not be cut to length.

699. How does a zener diode act as a voltage regulator?

The Zener diode is like a general-purpose signal diode. When biased in the forward direction it behaves just like a normal
signal diode, but when a reverse voltage is applied to it, the voltage remains constant for a wide range of currents.

Avalanche Breakdown: There is a limit for the reverse voltage. Reverse voltage can increase until the diode breakdown
voltage reaches. This point is called Avalanche Breakdown region. At this stage maximum current will flow through the
zener diode. This breakdown point is referred as ―Zener voltage‖.

The Zener Diode is used in its "reverse bias". From the I-V Characteristics curve we can study that the zener diode has a
region in its reverse bias characteristics of almost a constant negative voltage regardless of the value of the current flowing
through the diode and remains nearly constant even with large changes in current as long as the zener diodes current
remains between the breakdown current IZ(min) and the maximum current rating IZ(max).

This ability to control itself can be used to great effect to regulate or stabilise a voltage source against supply or load
variations. The fact that the voltage across the diode in the breakdown region is almost constant turns out to be an important
application of the zener diode as a voltage regulator

Zener diode characteristic curve Characteristics

 Above Figure shows the current versus voltage curve for a Zener diode. Observe the nearly constant voltage in the breakdown
region

The forward bias region of a Zener diode is identical to that of a regular diode. The typical forward voltage at room temperature
with a current of around 1 mA is around 0.6 volts. In the reverse bias condition the Zener diode is an open circuit and only a
small leakage current is flowing as shown on the exaggerated plot. As the breakdown voltage is approached the current will
begin to avalanche. The initial transition from leakage to breakdown is soft but then the current rapidly increases as shown on
the plot. The voltage across the Zener diode in the breakdown region is very nearly constant with only a small increase in voltage
with increasing current. At some high current level the power dissipation of the diode becomes excessive and the part is
destroyed. There is a minimum Zener current, Iz(min), that places the operating point in the desired breakdown. There is a
maximum Zener current, Iz(max), at which the power dissipation drives the junction temperature to the maximum allowed. Beyond
that current the diode can be damaged.

Zener Diode as Voltage Regulators:The function of a regulator is to provide a constant output voltage to a load connected in
parallel with it in spite of the ripples in the supply voltage or the variation in the load current and the zener diode will continue to
regulate the voltage until the diodes current falls below the minimum IZ(min) value in the reverse breakdown region. It permits
current to flow in the forward direction as normal, but will also allow it to flow in the reverse direction when the voltage is above a
certain value - the breakdown voltage known as the Zener voltage. The Zener diode specially made to have a reverse voltage
breakdown at a specific voltage. Its characteristics are otherwise very similar to common diodes. In breakdown the voltage
across the Zener diode is close to constant over a wide range of currents thus making it useful as a shunt voltage regulator.

The purpose of a voltage regulator is to maintain a constant voltage across a load regardless of variations in the applied input
voltage and variations in the load current. A typical Zener diode shunt regulator is shown in Figure 3. The resistor is selected so
that when the input voltage is at VIN(min) and the load current is at IL(max) that the current through the Zener diode is at least Iz(min).
Then for all other combinations of input voltage and load current the Zener diode conducts the excess current thus maintaining a
constant voltage across the load. The Zener conducts the least current when the load current is the highest and it conducts the
most current when the load current is the lowest.

Zener diode shunt regulator

If there is no load resistance, shunt regulators can be used to dissipate total power through the series resistance and the Zener
diode. Shunt regulators have an inherent current limiting advantage under load fault conditions because the series resistor limits
excess current.

A zener diode of break down voltage Vz is reverse connected to an input voltage source Vi across a load resistance RL and a
series resistor RS. The voltage across the zener will remain steady at its break down voltage VZ for all the values of zener current
IZ as long as the current remains in the break down region. Hence a regulated DC output voltage V 0 = VZ is obtained across RL,
whenever the input voltage remains within a minimum and maximum voltage.

700. Boiler Trip CONDITIONS

A Boiler Trip will result in a fuel trip closing all the automatic safety shutoff fuel valves controlled by the BMS.
The Boiler Trip will be initiated from any of the following conditions:
Combustion Air Pressure Low
F.D Fan Failure
Instrument Air Pressure Low
Wind Box Temperature High
PLC Failure
Emergency Stop
Water Level Low Low
Flame failure
Flame Scanner Failure

701. Emergency operation of Boiler

1. Turn the EMERGENCY OPERATION switch (key-operated) to position ON.
2. Push RESET Push button switch and check visually that the BOILER TRIP lamp
is NOT illuminated
3. Turn the EMERGENCY F.O. PUMP START switch to position NO.1 or NO.2.
4. Turn the EM'CY IGN. PUMP switch to position START.
5. Turn the EM'CY F.D. FAN switch to position START. The atomizing valve will be opened.
6. On the Air Flow indicator& F.O. press indicator[TK4S] , Push ―MODE‖ button
and push push buttons manual Increase―▲‖ then Check "MAN" mode LED & "OUT1" LED
are Light visually.
 7. Put Air flow indicator MAN mode. Purge the furnace by opening the vane damper actuator fully
for at least 60seconds with more than 30% air flow.
WARNING : Insufficient Purging may cause Danger of Furnace Explosions.
8. After Furnace Purge , On the air Flow indicator push button manual decrease "▼"
and keep unit Air dampers Ignition position.
9. On the F.O. press indicator push button manual increase ―▲‖
and keep until F.O. control V/V's ignition position.
10. Press the EMERGENCY IGNITION pushbutton. When igniter is ON. (approx. 5 sec)
11. Turn the EMERGENCY OIL V/V switch to OPEN position for no more than 15 sec.
Burner is firing.
If burner is not firing a new furnace purge must be performed before a new ignition.
12. Check visually that the Ignition Flame is established before continuing.
13. In case of successful flame establishment the Burner will keep on firing and the Oil Valve
and The Flame is supervised by two Flame Scanners.

702. Two bulbs of 100w and 40w respectively connected in series across a 230v supply which bulb will glow bright and why?

The 40W bulb will glow brighter than the 60W bulb.

Any light bulb is given a wattage at the voltage at which it is going to be used(which is usually fixed at 110V or 220V
depending on the region).Its wattage depends on the resistance of the filament in the bulb as P=(V^2)/R , hence R for a
40W bulb is 1.5 times that of a 60W bulb.
The power output by a light bulb(or in fact any appliance with only resistance) is (I^2)*R . Since both the bulbs are in series,
the same current flows through them. But the resistance of the 40W bulb is higher than the 60W watt bulb, Hence the
power output by the 40W bulb will be higher than the 60W bulb in this case.
Hence the 40W bulb will glow brighter in this case.

The bulbs are in series so the amount of current flowing through each is same. The two resistances (assuming pure
resistance) are in series. So

R1= 100^2/ 60 for 60 Watt bulb

R2=100^2/40 for 40 Watt bulb

Current drawn I= V/(R1+R2)= 100/[100^2(1/60 +1/40)]=60*40/100*(60+40)

Power Consumer by bulb1= I^2R1= 60^2*40^2/100^2*(60 +40)^2 * 100^2/60

=60*40^2/(60+40)^2= 9.6 Watts

Power Consumer by bulb2= I^2R2= 40*60^2/(60 +40)^2= 14.4 Watts (this is similar to the expression above)

So 40 Watts bulb glow brighter.

703. What is the difference between Electronic regulator and ordinary rheostat regulator for fans?

The difference between the electronic and ordinary regulator is that in electronic regulator power losses are less because as
we decrease the speed the electronic regulator give the power needed for that particular speed .But in case of ordinary
rheostat type regulator the power wastage is same for every speed and no power is saved. In electronic regulator triac is
employed for speed control. by varying the firing angle speed is controlled but in rheostat control resistance is decreased by
steps to achieve speed control

704. What is the difference between synchronous generator and asynchronous generator?

In simple, synchronous generator supplies‘ both active and reactive power but asynchronous generator (induction
generator) supply‘s only active power and observe reactive power for magnetizing. This type of generators is used in
windmills.

705. What are the different types of transformers?

 Power Transformer
A power transformer is used primarily to couple electrical energy from a power supply line to a circuit system, or to one
or more components of the system. Like the 11KV to 440v step down transformers used in power stations

 Distribution Transformer
A pole-type distribution transformer is used to supply relatively small amounts of power to residences. It is used at the
end of the electrical utility's delivery system.

 Autotransformer
The autotransformer is a special type of power transformer. It consists of a single, continuous winding that is tapped on
one side to provide either a step-up or a step-down function. This is different from a conventional two-winding
transformer, which has the primary and secondary completely isolated from each other, but magnetically linked by a
common core. The autotransformer's windings are both electrically and magnetically interconnected.

 Isolation Transformer
 An isolation transformer is a very unique transformer. It has a 1:1 turn's ratio. Therefore, it does not step voltage up or
down. Instead, it serves as a safety device. It is used to isolate the grounded conductor of a power line from the chassis
or any portion of a circuit load. Using an isolation transformer does not reduce the danger or shock if contact is made
across the transformer's secondary winding.
Technically, any true transformer, whether used to transfer signals or power, is isolating, as the primary and secondary
are not connected by conductors but only by induction. However, only transformers whose primary purpose is to isolate
circuits (opposed to the more common transformer function of voltage conversion), are routinely described as isolation
transformers.

 Instrument Transformer
For measuring high values of current or voltage, it is desirable to use standard low-range measuring instruments
together with specially-constructed instrument transformers, also called accurate ratio transformers.

There are two types of instrument transformers:

1. Current - Used with an ammeter to measure current in AC voltages

2. Potential - Used with a voltmeter to measure voltage (potential difference) in AC.

Current Transformer

A current transformer has a primary coil of one or more turns of heavy wire. It is always connected in series in the circuit
in which current is to be measured. The secondary coil is made up of many turns of fine wire, which must always be
connected across the ammeter terminals. The secondary of a current transformer must never be open-circuited. This is
because the primary is not connected to a constant source. There is a wide range of possible primary voltages,
because the device can be connected to many types of conductors. The secondary must always be available (closed-
circuited) to react with the primary, to prevent the core from becoming completely magnetized. If this happens, the
instruments will no longer read accurately.

Potential Transformer

A potential transformer is a carefully designed, extremely accurate step-down transformer. It is normally used with a
standard 120-volt voltmeter. By multiplying the reading on the voltmeter (called the deflections) by the ratio of
transformation, the user can determine the voltage on the high side. Common transformation ratios are 10:1, 20:1, 40:1,
80:1, 100:1, 120:1, and even higher.
In general, a potential transformer is very similar to a standard two-winding transformer, except that it handles a very
small amount of power. Transformers for this service are always the shell type, because this construction has been
proven to provide better accuracy.

706. ACB not closing what can be the reason?What are the different ACB trips?

Undervoltage, overcurrent, short circuit, Spring not charged. Other mechanical problems.
707. What are objectives of ISM?

The objectives of the ISM Code are to:

1. Ensure safety at sea;
2. Prevent human injury or loss of life; and
3. Avoid damage to the environment with focus on the marine environment and on property The ISM Code establishes the
following safety management objectives of the company:
i. Provide safe practices in ship operation and working environment;
ii. Establish safeguards against all identified risks; and
iii. Continuously improve safety management skills of personnel ashore and onboard ships. These skills include the
preparation for emergencies related to safety and environmental protection.

708. What is ISPS AND WHEN IT CAME INTO FORCE?

The International Ship and Port Facility Security (ISPS) Code is an amendment to the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS)
Convention (1974/1988) on minimum security arrangements for ships, ports and government agencies. Having come into
force in 2004, it prescribes responsibilities to governments, shipping companies, shipboard personnel, and port/facility
personnel to "detect security threats and take preventative measures against security incidents affecting ships or port
facilities used in international trade.

The International Maritime Organization (IMO) states that "The International Ship and Port Facility Security Code (ISPS
Code) is a comprehensive set of measures to enhance the security of ships and port facilities, developed in response to the
perceived threats to ships and port facilities in the wake of the 9/11 attacks in the United States" (IMO).

Development and implementation were sped up drastically in reaction to the September 11, 2001 attacks and the bombing
of the French oil tanker Limburg. The U.S. Coast Guard, as the lead agency in the United States delegation to the IMO,
[2]
advocated for the measure. The Code was agreed at a meeting of the 108 signatories to the SOLAS convention in London
in December 2002. The measures agreed under the Code were brought into force on July 1, 2004.

709. Difference between convention, Protocol, amendment and code.

Conventions: A convention is a written agreement with several parts. Conventions form a major part of maritime affairs
governed by the IMO. Some of the major conventions by IMO are Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) 1974 convention and
International convention for prevention of pollution from Ships (MARPOL).
 International conventions are agreed when a number of countries, which are members of the IMO, feel that there is a need
for a convention. Such countries meet together, usually at the invitation of the International Maritime Organization (IMO),
and discuss about various proposals and finally come to an agreement which is recorded in the form of a Final Act of
Conference.

Regulations are generally technical provisions of the convention.

Protocols:Protocol is an important instrument used by the IMO to introduce changes to conventions, which are already
adopted but not yet entered into force.

For e.g. SOLAS convention 1973 was amended twice using protocols – by 1978 SOLAS protocol which entered into force in
st rd
1 May 1981 and by 1988 SOLAS protocol which entered into force on 3 Feb 2000. Both the protocols are now known as
SOLAS 74/78 and SOLAS 74/88.

Amendments : As mentioned, amendments are major changes that are brought into action using protocols. Amendments
are the reforms that are needed in a convention and are backed by the protocols.

Codes and guidelines can be both mandatory and non mandatory. Codes such as ISM and IBC codes are mandatory and
are a part of a parent convention or protocol.

a code refers to a collection of all the specific rules in a particular area and they are generally binding

A convention on the other hand may mean a treaty or an established practice which are generally adhered.

convention : are the set of rule which come in force after participating nation agrees..

code gives d detail specification of the rules to comply with convention..

710. What are the different types of AVR?

 Relay type auto voltage regulator has electronic circuit and relay to regulate voltages. Since there in no moving part in
main operation of stabilizer while correcting voltage, it also a solid state type auto voltage regulator. Advantage of Relay
type unit is that it has very low weight and low in cost. Disadvantage of relay type stabilizer is that, it is less durable and
can not withstand high voltage surges. In some cases relay type voltage stabilizer get burn due to high voltage.

 Servo type auto voltage stabilizer consisting of servo motor, Buck Boost transformer (BBT), Autotransformer. Output
voltage of servo stabilizer is nothing but voltage across secondary of Buck Boost transformer. One end of primary of
BBT connected to fixed tap of autotransformer and other end connected to shaft of servo motor. Whenever there is high
or low voltage observed at input then servo motor moves across winding of autotransformer in such a way that voltage
induced across secondary of BBT equals to set output voltage. Servo voltage stabilizers has rugged construction and
can sustain high fluctuation and it is more durable. for more understand auto regulator how it work, please refer our
page.

Static voltage regulator as name suggest it consists of static circuit only. Voltage regulation is achieved with help
 of static semiconductor circuit without any moving past. Static auto voltage regulator can achieve correction in output
voltage at much faster speed than servo stabilizer.

711. Working Principle of Phase failure relay.

712. What is Free wheeling diode?

This is a diode which is connected in paralled most of the relays where a coil is used. This is also called fly back diode or
suppressor diode. This is to eliminate voltage spike whenever the relay is switched off.

713. Difference between conduction, convection and radiation

Conduction:Conduction transfers heat via direct molecular collision. An area of

greater kinetic energy will transfer thermal energy to an area with lower kinetic energy. Higher-speed particles will collide with
slower speed particles. The slower-speed particles will increase in kinetic energy as a result. Conduction is the most common
form of heat transfer and occurs via physical contact. Examples would be to place your hand against a window or place metal
into an open flame.

Convection:When a fluid, such as air or a liquid, is heated and then travels away from the source, it carries the thermal energy
along. This type of heat transfer is called convection. The fluid above a hot surface expands, becomes less dense, and rises.

Radiation: Radiation occurs through a vacuum or any transparent medium (either solid or fluid). Thermal radiation generates
from the emission of electromagnetic waves. These waves carry the energy away from the emitting object. Thermal radiation is
the direct result of random movements of atoms and molecules in matter. Movement of the charged protons and electrons
results in the emission of electromagnetic radiation.
All materials radiate thermal energy based on their temperature. The hotter an object, the more it will radiate. The sun is a clear
example of heat radiation that transfers heat across the solar system.

714. Cooling Methods of a Transformer

No transformer is truly an 'ideal transformer' and hence each will incur some losses, most of which get converted into heat. If
this heat is not dissipated properly, the excess temperature in transformer may cause serious problems like insulation
failure. It is obvious that transformer needs a cooling system. Transformers can be divided in two types as (i) dry type
transformers and (ii) oil immersed transformers. Different cooling methods of transformers are -
 For dry type transformers
1. Air Natural (AN)
2. Air Blast
 For oil immersed tranformers
1. Oil Natural Air Natural (ONAN)
2. Oil Natural Air Forced (ONAF)
3. Oil Forced Air Forced (OFAF)
4. Oil Forced Water Forced (OFWF)

Air Natural or Self air cooled transformer

This method of transformer cooling is generally used in small transformers (upto 3 MVA). In this method the transformer
is allowed to cool by natural air flow surrounding it.

Air Blast
For transformers rated more than 3 MVA, cooling by natural air method is inadequate. In this method, air is forced on
the core and windings with the help of fans or blowers. The air supply must be filtered to prevent the accumulation of
dust particles in ventilation ducts. This method can be used for transformers upto 15 MVA.

Oil Natural Air Natural (ONAN):

This method is used for oil immersed transformers. In this method, the heat generated in the core and winding is
transferred to the oil. According to the principle of convection, the heated oil flows in the upward direction and then in
the radiator. The vacant place is filled up by cooled oil from the radiator. The heat from the oil will dissipate in the
atmosphere due to the natural air flow around the transformer. In this way, the oil in transformer keeps circulating due to
natural convection and dissipating heat in atmosphere due to natural conduction. This method can be used for
transformers upto about 30 MVA.

Oil Natural Air Forced (ONAF)

The heat dissipation can be improved further by applying forced air on the dissipating surface. Forced air provides
faster heat dissipation than natural air flow. In this method, fans are mounted near the radiator and may be provided
with an automatic starting arrangement, which turns on when temperature increases beyond certain value. This
transformer cooling method is generally used for large transformers upto about 60 MVA.

Oil Forced Air Forced (OFAF)

In this method, oil is circulated with the help of a pump. The oil circulation is forced through the heat exchangers. Then
compressed air is forced to flow on the heat exchanger with the help of fans. The heat exchangers may be mounted
separately from the transformer tank and connected through pipes at top and bottom as shown in the figure. This type
of cooling is provided for higher rating transformers at substations or power stations.
 Oil Forced Water Forced (OFWF)
This method is similar to OFAF method, but here forced water flow is used to dissipate hear from the heat exchangers.
The oil is forced to flow through the heat exchanger with the help of a pump, where the heat is dissipated in the water
which is also forced to flow. The heated water is taken away to cool in separate coolers. This type of cooling is used in
very large transformers having rating of several hundreds MVA.

715. Steering gear system.

The system shown consists of two sets of rams but could equally be two rotary vane units. With no power on the
solenoids are in by-pass mode with oil being allowed to pass freely from one side to the other. When an electric motor
is started the control pump supplies oil to the solenoid shutting it. High pressure oil from the main unit is now fed to the
 rams as required. The other unit remains in by-pass until the electric motor is started. Low level alarms are fitted to the
tanks. Low low changeovers may also be fitted so that in the event of oil loss from one system, the other system is
started.

Working of the Steering Gear

When the ship is required to be turned on receiving an order (say by 10° to port) from the Master or, the Duty Officer,
the helmsman turns the steering wheel towards port until the rudder has reached 10° to port as read on rudder
indicator. The mechanism of the Steering Gear works as under;

Complete Steering Gear system consists of three main parts namely

1. Telemotor
2. Control Unit
3. Power Unit.

A brief description about the construction and working of these components is as follows

Telemotor unit comprises of two parts namely, Transmitter and Receiver. The Transmitter is located on the navigation
bridge in the form of a wheel, which transmits the given order to the Receiver located in the steering gear compartment,
by turning the steering wheel. The Receiver conveys this order to the Control Unit, also located in the steering gear
compartment, via linear motion.

The Telemotor is generally hydraulic type, electric type or, as is the case with modern steering systems, it could be
electro-hydraulic type. In olden days, Telemotors were purely mechanical type consisting of linkages and chains with
sprockets. As they were operated manually, they required very healthy sailors to operate them.

Control Unit is the link between the Telemotor and the Power Unit. I receives signal from the Telemotor and operates
the Power Unit until it receives another signal, this time from the Rudder through the Hunting Gear, to stop the
operation of Power Unit.

Power Unit can be any prime mover like steam engine, diesel engine or, an electric motor, directly coupled to the
Rudder; it can be an electro-hydraulic unit or, an all- electric unit complete with the Telemotor.

716. Two generators running in parallel, increasing governor/ fuel supply to one generator, what will be the load effect on that
generator, other one running generator and on busbar.. ?.. will that effect only kw or will effect kva and kvar too..?
 When the generator
breaker is closed, the turbine speed can't change and any attempt to increase the turbine speed will just cause
additional torque to be produced, and the generator converts the torque to amps, which becomes load. when an
operator clicks on Raise Spd/Ld or increases the Pre-Selected Load Setpoint when the unit is being operated in Pre-
Selected Load Control, what's really happening is that the turbine speed reference is increasing, which results in more
fuel being admitted to the turbine, which results in extra torque which can't result in increased speed so the generator
converts the torque to amps, which results in an increase in load.

once the generator breaker is closed any increase in the amount of fuel being put increases the torque being produced
by the turbine and since the engine speed can't increase (because it's directly coupled to the (synchronous) generator
which is now connected to the grid and it's speed is being controlled by the frequency of the grid to which it's
connected) the extra torque that's being produced by the addition of the fuel gets converted into amps.

717. How does the extra torque produced due to increase in fuel gets coverted to extra amps?

The torque, amps, and load are proportional to each other. An increase in fuel results in an increase in torque which
results in an increase in load; a decrease in torque results in a decrease in amps which results in a decrease in load.

When more torque is applied to the rotor the torque angle (angular displacement between the center of the rotor and
stator poles) increases.

The rotor speed does not change, but the torque angle increases (technically some momentary delta V must exist to
cause the angle to increase).

Because of the torque angle increase the phase angle between the voltage impressed on the stator from the grid, and
the voltage impressed on the stator from the (rotor) field is also increased. The resolved sum of these voltage vectors
results in a higher net voltage. This higher 'net' voltage is what draws a greater current in the stator.

718. What is the difference between IGBT and Thyristor?

In SCR once the gate is triggered it starts conducting.If we remove the gate pulse after the SCR
starts conducting it will not stop.

but in IGBT we can control the Gate. by applying reverse voltage.

The Thyristors can not be switched beyond 1kHz where as IGBTs can be switched upto 25kHz and even to 100KHz with
few soft switching techniques.

The thyristor can carry very high currents order of 3000A

but IGBT carries less current max of 1000A.
719. What is armature reaction and how can it be countered.

In a DC machine, the main field is produced by field coils. In both the generating and motoring modes, the armature carries
current and a magnetic field is established, which is called the armature flux. The effect of armature flux on the main field is
called the armature reaction.

Armature Reaction refers to a phenomenon in DC machines where the magnetic field of the poles is distorted by the
magnetic field produced by the armature current.

In a generator operating on no load, the armature current is zero and the only field inside the machine is that produced by
the poles. When this generator is connected to a load, current starts to flow in the armature windings. This current causes
a magnetic field around the armature conductors.

This magnetic field interacts with the magnetic field caused by the generator poles. The effect of this magnetic field is both
demagnetising and cross-magnetising as reduces the net effect of the main field on the armature conductors while distorting
the magnetic field at the same time.

Overcoming Armature reaction.

There are two methods of addressing the effects caused by armature reaction. One method is through the use of
compensating winding in the field poles. Another method is the use of interpoles between the main poles to prevent
distortion of the main field.

By increasing length of air gap, the armature reaction effect is reduced.

The effect of armature reaction can be neutralized by use of compensating winding. It is always placed in series with
armature winding. The armature ampere conductors under pole shoe must be equal to compensating winding ampere
conductors which will compensate armature mmf perfectly.

The armature reaction causes shifting the magnetic neutral axis. Therefore there will be some flux density at brush axis
which produces emf in the coil undergoing commutation. This will lead to delayed commutation. Thus the armature reaction
at brush axis must be neutralized. This requires another equal and opposite mmf to that of armature mmf. This can be
applied by interpoles which are placed at geometric neutral axis at midway between the main poles.

720. What is commutation and how can it be improved?

The voltage generated in the armature, placed in a rotating magnetic field, of a DC generator is alternating in nature. The
commutation in DC machine or more specifically commutation in DC generator is the process in which generated alternating
current in the armature winding of a dc machine is converted into direct current after going through the commutator and the
stationary brushes.

To make the commutation satisfactory we have to make sure that the current flowing through the coil completely reversed
during the commutation period attains its full value. There are three main methods of improving commutation. These are

1. Resistance commutation
2. E.M.F. commutation
3. Compensating windings

Resistance Commutation: In this method of commutation we use high electrical resistance brushes for getting spark
less commutation. This can be obtained by replacing low resistance copper brushes with high resistance carbon
brushes.

E.M.F. Commutation
The main reason of the delay of the current reversing time in the short circuit coil during commutation period is the
inductive property of the coil. In this type of commutation, the reactance voltage produced by the coil due to its inductive
property, is neutralized by producing a reversing emf in the short circuit coil during commutation period. Reactance
voltage: The voltage rise in the short circuit coil due to inductive property of the coil, which opposes the current reversal
in it during the commutation period, is called the reactance voltage. We can produce reversing emf in two ways

1. By brush shifting.
2. By using inter-poles or commutating poles.
 Brush Shifting Method of Commutation

In this method of improving commutation the brushes are shifted forward direction for the DC generator and in
backward direction for the motor for producing the sufficient reversing emf for eliminating the reactance voltage. When
the brushes are given the forward or backward lead then it brings the short circuit coil under the influence of the next
pole which is of the opposite polarity. Then the sides of the coil will cut the necessary flux form the main poles of
opposite polarity for producing the sufficient reversing emf. This method is rarely used because for best result, with
every variation of load, the brushes have to be shifted.

Method Of Using Inter-Pole

In this method of commutation some small poles are fixed to the yoke and placed between the main poles. These poles
are called inter-poles. Their polarity is same as the main poles situated next to it for the generator and for the motor the
polarity is same as the main pole situated before it. The inter-poles induce an emf in the short circuit coil during the
commutation period which opposes reactance voltage and give spark-less commutation.

Compensating Windings: This is the most effective mean of eliminating the problem of armature reaction and
flashover by balancing the armature mmf. Compensating windings are placed in slots provided in pole faces parallel to
the rotor (armature) conductors. The major drawback with the compensating windings is that they very costly. Their use

is mainly for large machines subject to heavy overloads or plugging and in small motors subject to sudden reversal and
high acceleration.

721. What is percentage impedance of a transformer?

The impedance of a transformer is defined as the percentage of the drop in voltage at full load to the rated voltage of the
transformer. This drop in voltage is due to the winding resistance and leakage reactance.

One set of windings is shorted (typically the LV windings) and a three-phase voltage source is applied to the other set of
windings. The voltage is steadily increased until the rated phase current is measured.

The voltage at this point is called the impedance voltage.

The secondary of the transformer whose percentage impedance is to be

measured is shorted. The voltage on the primary is gradually increased from zero till the secondary current reaches the
transformer's rated value.

The percentage impedance of the transformer is calculated as

Z%= (Impedance Voltage/Rated Voltage)*100

Thus a transformer with a primary rating of 110V which requires a voltage of 10V to circulate the rated current in the short-
circuited secondary would have an impedance of 9%.
 The percentage impedance of a transformer a crucial parameter when operating transformers in parallel. It also determines
the fault level of a system during faults.

722. Static and Dynamic Resistance

Static Resistance is the normal ohmic resistance in accordance with Ohm's Law. It is the ratio of voltage and current and is
a constant at a given temperature.

Static Resistance = Voltage / Current

Dynamic Resistance is a concept of resistance used in PN junction in Electronics. Dynamic resistance refers to the change
in current in response to a change in voltage at a specific region of the VI curve.

Dynamic Resistance = dv/dt

When the voltage is increased, the current may not increase proportionally. In some cases, the current may actually
decrease (See Negative Resistance ).

723. What is volatile memory and non-volatile memory?

Volatile memory is computer storage that only maintains its data while the device is powered.

Most RAM (random access memory) used for primary storage in personal computers is volatile memory. RAM is much
faster to read from and write to than the other kinds of storage in a computer, such as the hard disk or removable media.
However, the data in RAM stays there only while the computer is running; when the computer is shut off, RAM loses its
data.

Volatile memory contrasts with non-volatile memory, which does not lose content when power is lost. Non-volatile memory
has a continuous source of power and does not need to have its memory content periodically refreshed.

Non-volatile data storage can be categorized in electrically addressed systems (read-only memory) and mechanically
addressed systems (hard disks, optical disc, magnetic tape, holographic memory, and such).

724. What are the precaution you should take while removing eeprom

The term EEPROM means "Electrically" "Erasable" "Programmable" "Read Only Memory". Unlike Flash devices, these
memory parts can have individual bytes changed without the need to erase the entire part. The way this works is that the
memory chip itself performs an erase on a single byte before programming the byte with the new data. The erase and
program of a single byte can take as long as 10 milliseconds.

You will need a small flathead screwdriver to pry up the EPROM chip from its socket. Take precaution against electrostatic
shock to the circuit board and EPROM chip(s) by grounding yourself before handling them.

Replacing a game ROM chip will reset all audits, adjustments, and high score information. If you need to keep any of this
information, write it down before removing the old chip.

Always remove and replace chips ONLY WITH POWER OFF, AND THE PIN UNPLUGGED.
Locate the old EPROM on the circuit board. The replacement EPROM MUST be installed with the same orientation as the
original, or it will not work properly.
NOTE the end of the chip that has the notch on it.
The notch is also painted in white outline on the circuit board to ensure proper orientation. Insert the tip of a small flathead
screwdriver in the spacing between the PROM and its socket. Avoid making any contact with the other components on the
board.
Make sure that you don't insert the removal tool between the socket and the PC board, this will pry the socket and the chip
off the board and will damage the board!

Pry the chip upward gently as you insert the screwdriver, keeping the EPROM level as it is raised from the socket. If the
screwdriver is too wide, such that fully inserting it between the EPROM and the socket would make contact with the pins,
 insert the screwdriver only partially and pry up one end of the chip slightly, then pry up the other end of the EPROM. Repeat
this process, keeping the chip level as it is raised. If you are replacing the old EPROM with a firmware update, place the old
EPROM on the anti-static foam block beside the new EPROM, for storage. Avoid damaging the old EPROM so that it can be
used again, if necessary.

725. What are the uses of a crank battery. Can you use a deep cycle battery instead?

Crank batteries are designed to deliver short, high-current bursts for cranking the engine, thus frequently discharging only a
small part of their capacity. They are generally used for starting engines. As a general rule, if you are going to use a true
deep cycle battery also as a starting battery, it should be oversized about 20% compared to the existing or recommended
starting battery group size to get the same cranking amps.

Cranking amps are the numbers of amperes a lead-acid battery at 32 degrees F (0 degrees C) can deliver for 30 seconds
and maintain at least 1.2 volts per cell. Cold cranking amperes (CCA) is the amount of current a battery can provide at 0 °F
(−18 °C).

726. Why some motors are connected in Star & Some in Delta

The speeds of Star connected motors are slow as they The speeds of Delta connected motors are high
receive 1/√3 voltage. because each phase gets the total of line voltage
In Star Connection, the phase voltage is low as 1/√3 of the
In Delta connection, The phase voltage is equal to the
line voltage, so, it needs low number of turns, hence, saving
line voltage, hence, it needs more number of turns.
in copper.

Low insulation required as phase voltage is low

Heavy insulation required as Phase voltage = Line
Voltage.

Delta-starter preferred over conventional DOL starter:

If the above winding is connected as star , the voltage per phase supplied to each winding is reduced by 0.577 i.e
(1/sqrt3).In general the voltage per phase in delta connection is Vs,the phase current in each stator winding is (Vs/Zs
),where Zs represents the impedance per phase of the motor at standstill or start.The line current or the input current to
the
motor is Ist(starting current)=(1.732*Vs)/Zs which is the current when it has to be started by DOL starter. Now, if the
stator winding is connected as star, the phase or line current drawn from supply at start (standstill) is
(Vs/Zs)/(1.732) which is 0.333= (0.577*0.577) of the starting current, if DOL starter is used. The voltage per phase in
each stator winding is now Vs/1.732.So the starting current is reduced by 33.3%.Bcoz of the reduction in starting
current starting torque reduces(proportional to the square of the current).

In a simpler version..

The starting current is reduced to approximately two-thirds. Since starting current is reduced , the voltage drops during
the starting of motor in systems are reduced. Relatively low price.

star motors don't have the torque of delta

In delta connection takes higher current but in star connection current is one-third of delta connection so to protect
motors from high starting current motor are connected in star during starting. But torque is directly porpotional to square
of the voltage so to have better performace of induction motor it needed to be connected in delta. So nomally star delta
starter is used for induction motor.

Delta is great for balanced three-phase loads and has big advantages in eliminating 3rd harmonics.
 One problem with delta is that there is no wye / star point so loads that require a neutral connnection can't be
connected. For this reason European domestic power distribution is often three-phase delta at 10 - 20 kV to the local
transformer which has a delta primary and wye / star secondary. Each home will be fed from a phase and a neutral
connected to the star point and ground.

Star delta starter is used to reduce the starting current drawn by the motor.
Start the motor in STAR and then, when the motor has gained sufficient speed, change its connections to DELTA to
allow the motor to run at its full speed and torque from then on.
The motor starts as star connected, ie, voltage reduced by root(3), current reduced by root(3) and power reduced by 3.
After the motor starts, it is switched to delta connection and runs normally.

727. When is 3phase motor used?

In general, House hold appliances are supplied with 230 v ac,50 Hz which is a single phase supply and not three phase
supply. Any where when the electrical load is more than 5KW, three force supply is given to reduce the load(in ampere) in
any single phase and to avoid the voltage drop across others appliances connected in the that phase.

728. Oily water separator working principle.

OWS consists of mainly three segments:

Separator unit

 This unit consists of catch plates which are inside a coarse separating compartment and an oil collecting
chamber.
 Here the oil having a density which is lower than that of the water, which makes the former rise into the oil
collecting compartment and the rest of the non-flowing oil mixture settle down into fine settling compartment
after passing between the catch plates.
 After a period of time more oil will separate and collect in the oil collecting chamber. The oil content of water
which passes through this unit is around 100 parts per million of oil.
 A control valve (pneumatic or electronic) releases the separated oil in to the designated OWS sludge tank.
 Heater may be incorporated in this unit for smooth flow and separation of oil and water.

 First stage helps in removing some physical impurities to achieve fine filtration in the later stage.

The Filter unit

 This is a separate unit whose input comes from the discharge of the first unit.
 This unit consists of three stages – filter stage, coalescer stage and collecting chamber.
 The impurities and particles are separated by the filter and are settled at the bottom for removal.
 In second stage, coalescer induces coalescence process in which oil droplets are joined to increase the size
by breaking down the surface tension between oil droplets in the mixture.
 These large oil molecules rise above the mixture in the collecting chamber and are removed when required.
 The output from this unit should be less than 15 ppm to fulfil legal discharge criteria.
 If the oil content in water is more than 15 ppm then maintenance work such as filter cleaning or renewal of
filters is to be done as required.

Oil Content Monitor and Control Unit

 This unit functions together in two parts – monitoring and controlling.

 The ppm of oil is continuously monitored by Oil Content Monitor (OCM); if the ppm is high it will give alarm and
feed data to the control unit.
  The control unit continuously monitors the output signal of OCM and if alarm arises, it will not allow the oily
water to go overboard by means of operating 3 way solenoid valve.
 There are normally 3 solenoid valves commanded by control unit. These are located in the first unit oil
collecting chamber, second unit oil collecting chamber and one in discharge side of the oily water separator
which is a 3 way valve.
 The 3 way valve inlet is from the OWS discharge, where one outlet is to overboard and second outlet is to
OWS sludge tank.
 When OCM gives alarm, 3 way valve discharges oily mixture in the sludge tank.

729. Functions of Turning Gear.

The turning gear or turning engine is a reversible electric motor which drives a worm gear which can be connected with the
toothed flywheel to turn a large diesel. A slow-speed drive is thus provided to enable positioning of the engine parts for
overhaul purposes. The turning gear is also used to turn the engine one or two revolutions prior to starting. This is a safety
check to ensure that the engine is free to turn and that no water has collected in the cylinders. The indicator cocks must
always be open when the turning gear is operated.

Turning gear interlock - prevents admission of air to the control lines in the event that turning gear is engaged thus
preventing attempted start.

730. BASIC AIR START SYSTEM

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Receiver stop valve - manual isolation of the whole system. Usually a slow opening valve to prevent pressure surge and
explosions.

Turning gear interlock - prevents admission of air to the control lines in the event that turning gear is engaged thus preventing
attempted start.

Master/pilot valve - operated by start air lever to allow passage of control air to operate automatic valve and load up distributor
slide valves.
 Automatic valve - opens and closes automatically to charge air start manifold as starting is required. Reduces manual effort
required and conserves air during start. Often incorporates a non return valve which prevents passage of high pressures from
start manifold to the receiver. If not included in the auto valve then a separate N.R. valve must be fitted.

Distributor - times admission of pilot air to operate cylinder air start valves in correct sequence, so that engine starts in the
desired direction.

Cylinder air start valves - admit starting air to individual cylinders when operated by distributor pilot air.

Air manifold relief valve - relieves excess pressure in manifold.

Flame trap - prevents passage of flame from cylinder to manifold in the event of a jammed cylinder air start valve.

Bursting cap - ruptures to relieve excess pressure in the event of a start air line explosion.

Operation of system

The receiver stop valve is opened and air passes to the automatic valve and to the master valve (assuming turning gear is
disengaged). Both valves remain closed at this stage.

When the start lever is moved to the start position the master valve opens allowing control air to pass to the distributor slide
valve loading chambers and to the automatic valve operating chamber.

The automatic valve is now open and air passes to each cylinder air start valve and to the distributor. Depending upon distributor
position, pilot air will pass to either one or two of the cylinder air start valve operating chambers opening the valves and allowing
start air to enter the cylinders.

As the engine rotates the distributor passes pilot air in the correct sequence to each cylinder air start valve until minimum
cranking speed is reached. At this point start air admission is ended and the fuel is put on and the engine will run.

731. Flowmeter working principle.

Using ultrasonic transducers, the flow meter can measure the average velocity along the path of an emitted beam of
ultrasound, by averaging the difference in measured transit time between the pulses of ultrasound propagating into and
against the direction of the flow or by measuring the frequency shift from the Doppler effect. Ultrasonic flow meters are
affected by the acoustic properties of the fluid and can be impacted by temperature, density, viscosity and suspended
particulates depending on the exact flow meter.

732. Why there are two radars fitted on ships?

There are two basic marine radar frequencies commonly known as "X" and "S" band. "X" band, because of its higher
frequency, 10 GHz provides a higher resolution and a crisper image while "S" band, at 3 GHz is less affected by rain and
fog. In most situations larger vessels are fitted with both "X" and "S" band radars while smaller vessels will only have an "X"
band. Vessels in excess of 300 gross tons are required to have two operational marine radars and one of those radars must
be an ARPA.

733. Electrical survey of ships.

The electrical equipment aboard ship is inspected and tested during the complete engine survey which occurs every four
years. Such a survey is prescribed under the Rules and Regulations for the Classification of the Ship.

All Classification societies have their own rules which should be consulted prior to an electrical survey.

Electrical equipment inspected and tested, during complete engine survey, at 4 years interval.
Such a survey is prescribed, under the rules and regulations for the classification of ship.
Following survey items generally apply to all ships:
1. Generators and governors.
2. Circuit breakers
3. Switchboard and fittings (main and emergency switchboard, distributor switchboard).
4. Cables
5. Insulation resistance
6. Motors and Starters
7. Emergency power equipment
8. Parts of steering gear
9. Navigation light indicator

For UMS operation:

1. Alarms associated with ME, AE, lubricating and cooling, tested for correct operation.
2. Electrical circuits from various sensors such as pressurestat, flow switch, level switch, temperature switch, tested.
3. Action of auto-shut down for ME and AE, auto-starting up of stand-by units, tested.
4. Auto-starting of emergency generator, demonstrated.
5. UMS requirements demand that a stand-by main generator should be automatically started on loss of duty generator
within 45 sec.
6. Bilge level alarm together with automatic bilge pumping, proved to correct action.
7. Main and stand-by electric power supply to overall alarms and monitoring system inspected and tested.
8. Complete inspection and test of fire detection and alarm system.
9. ME control will function correctly and tested from bridge position, main control room and emergency position
alongside the engine.

For Tankers / Gas Carrier:

– Electrical equipment in hazardous area is surveyed every year, during each Docking Survey and Annual Survey.

Alternator Survey:
Required conditions for Surveyor:

 Main and emergency generators are cleaned.

 Show stable operation when run in parallel with other generator.
 Generator windings on stator and rotor must be free of dust, rust, oil and moisture.
 Visual check made for any obvious deterioration, abrasion, and cracking of insulation around winding coils in
stator.
 The insulation test to earth and between stator phase windings is done while the machine is still hot after
running on load.
 Air gap between stator and rotor checked to ensure that pedestal bearings are in good condition.

Switchboard Survey:
1. Thorough cleaning internally and externally at switchboard, when all generators are stopped and their prime movers
locked off.
2. Main bus bar and their connections checked for tightness.
3. Bus bar supports, checked for damage due to insulation material.
4. Overheating signs at connection junctions, due to loose joint.
5. Internal wiring securely fixed.
6. Cable entries at switchboard bottom, sealed with non-flammable material.
7. Earth bar, securely bonded to both frame and to the ship‘s hull.
8. Hinged panel door bonded with an earth strap to main switchboard frame.
9. Insulation resistance of each terminal measured.
10. Voltmeters, Watt meters and Ammeters calibrated and tested.
11. All trips tested [Safety devices].
12. Synchronising test [load sharing] demonstrated.
13. Earth lamps checked.
14. Automatic circuit breaker (ACB) and Automatic voltage regulator (AVR) tested.

Emergency Power and Associated Equipment Survey:

1. Emergency generator started manually and automatically.

2. Electrical supplies from emergency switchboard, checked for their proper voltage, ampere and frequency.
3. Correct functioning of emergency lighting, fire pump, and other electrical equipment.
4. Electrical interlocking arrangement between main and emergency switchboard checked.
5. Emergency battery installation and its charging rectifier checked.
6. Keep battery environment dry and well ventilated, battery tops cleaned, electrolyte at proper level and have correct
value of specific gravity by checking with hydrometer.
7. Battery charging equipment checked for dirt, overheating, loose connection and correct functioning of indicator
instruments.
8. Battery locker ventilation arrangements should be checked.
 Insulation Resistance Survey:
1. Survey will require a list, which shows the results of recent insulation tests on all 440V and 220V main circuits.
2. The list should also indicate the test date, weather condition, hot or humid etc. together with any comment relevant to
the test conditions such as machine is hot or cold.

Navigation light indicator survey:

1. Surveyor will ensure that Navigation light indicator operates correctly and has appropriate alarm.
2. Broken wire or lamp can be simulated by pulling appropriate fuse.
3. Power source for navigation lights must be duplicated [usually alternate power supply being used from Emergency
Switchboard].
4. Changeover facility for power source, to be checked.
5. Although the actual light fitting for Navigation is part of Safety Equipment Survey, the Electrical Survey will naturally
include a check on the supply cables to the Navigation lights.

734. 15ppm alarm working principle

Optical sensors monitors the amount of light scattered and absorbed by the oil droplets in the sample stream. Sensor
signals are processed by a microprocessor to produce a corresponding oil content (ppm) output. The output is
communicated to the MASTER unit where it is processed. The MASTER unit takes action, such as alarm activation,
logging etc., depending on the oil content and the separator signal.
Zero point calibration can be re-adjusted on site whereas full sensor calibration according to IMO-requirements is
performed by manufacturer.

735. Differential Relay working principle.

Differential relays are very sensitive to the faults occurred within the zone of protection but they are least sensitive to the
faults that occur outside the protected zone. Most of the relays operate when any quantity exceeds beyond a predetermined
value for example over current relay operates when current through it exceeds predetermined value. But the principle of
differential relay is somewhat different. It operates depending upon the difference between two or more similar electrical
quantities.

Definition of Differential Relay

The differential relay is one that operates when there is a difference between two or more similar electrical quantities
exceeds a predetermined value. In differential relay scheme circuit, there are two currents come from two parts of an
electrical power circuit.

These two currents meet at a junction point where a relay coil is connected. According to Kirchhoff Current Law, the
resultant current flowing through the relay coil is nothing but summation of two currents, coming from two different parts of
the electrical power circuit. If the polarity and amplitude of both currents are so adjusted that the phasor sum of these two
currents, is zero at normal operating condition. Thereby there will be no current flowing through the relay coil at normal
operating conditions. But due to any abnormality in the power circuit, if this balance is broken, that means the phasor sum of

these two currents no longer remains zero and there will be non-zero current flowing through the relay coil thereby relay
being operated. In current differential scheme, there are two sets of current transformer each connected to either side of the
equipment protected by differential relay. The ratio of the current transformers are so chosen, the secondary currents of
both current transformers matches each other in magnitude. The polarity of current transformers are such that the
secondary currents of these CTs opposes each other. From the circuit is clear that only if any nonzero difference is created
between this to secondary currents, then only this differential current will flow through the operating coil of the relay. If this
difference is more than the peak up value of the relay, it will operate to open the circuit breakers to isolate the protected
equipment from the system. The relaying element used in differential relay is attracted armature type instantaneously relay
since differential scheme is only adapted for clearing the fault inside the protected equipment in other words differential relay
should clear only internal fault of the equipment hence the protected equipment should be isolated as soon as any fault
occurred inside the equipment itself. They need not be any time delay for coordination with other relays in the system.

736. CPR Procedure

Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is a lifesaving technique useful in many emergencies, including heart attack or near
drowning, in which someone's breathing or heartbeat has stopped.

CPR can keep oxygenated blood flowing to the brain and other vital organs until more definitive medical treatment can
restore a normal heart rhythm.When the heart stops, the lack of oxygenated blood can cause brain damage in only a few
minutes. A person may die within eight to 10 minutes.

Before starting CPR, check:

 Is the person conscious or unconscious?

 If the person appears unconscious, tap or shake his or her shoulder and ask loudly, "Are you OK?"

Use the acronym of CAB — compressions, airway, breathing — to help people remember the order to perform the steps of
CPR.
 Compressions: Restore blood circulation

1. Put the person on his or her back on a firm surface.

2. Kneel next to the person's neck and shoulders.
3. Place the heel of one hand over the center of the person's chest, between the nipples. Place your other hand on
top of the first hand. Keep your elbows straight and position your shoulders directly above your hands.
4. Use your upper body weight (not just your arms) as you push straight down on (compress) the chest at least 2
inches (approximately 5 centimeters). Push hard at a rate of about 100 compressions a minute.

If you haven't been trained in CPR, continue chest compressions until there are signs of movement or until emergency
medical personnel take over.

Airway: Clear the airway

1. If you're trained in CPR and you've performed 30 chest compressions, open the person's airway using the head-tilt,
chin-lift maneuver. Put your palm on the person's forehead and gently tilt the head back. Then with the other hand,
gently lift the chin forward to open the airway.

Check for normal breathing, taking no more than five or 10 seconds. Look for chest motion, listen for normal
breath sounds, and feel for the person's breath on your cheek and ear. Gasping is not considered to be normal
breathing. If the person isn't breathing normally and you are trained in CPR, begin mouth-to-mouth breathing.
If you believe the person is unconscious from a heart attack and you haven't been trained in emergency
procedures, skip mouth-to-mouth breathing and continue chest compressions.

Breathing: Breathe for the person

Rescue breathing can be mouth-to-mouth breathing or mouth-to-nose breathing if the mouth is seriously injured or can't be
opened.

1. With the airway open (using the head-tilt, chin-lift maneuver), pinch the nostrils shut for mouth-to-mouth breathing
and cover the person's mouth with yours, making a seal.
2. Prepare to give two rescue breaths. Give the first rescue breath — lasting one second — and watch to see if the
chest rises. If it does rise, give the second breath. If the chest doesn't rise, repeat the head-tilt, chin-lift maneuver
and then give the second breath. Thirty chest compressions followed by two rescue breaths is considered one
cycle.
3. Resume chest compressions to restore circulation.
4. If the person has not begun moving after five cycles (about two minutes) and an automated external defibrillator
(AED) is available, apply it and follow the prompts. Administer one shock, then resume CPR — starting with chest
compressions — for two more minutes before administering a second shock.

737. Types of braking of Induction motors

Braking of induction motors can be classified mainly in three types

1. Regenerative braking.
2. plugging or reverse voltage brakin
3. Dynamic braking

Whenever the speed of the rotor exceeds synchronous speed, regeneration braking occurs. That is because whenever
the rotor rotates at a speed more than synchronous speed there is a reverse field occurs which opposes the normal
rotation of the motor and therefore braking takes place. Main disadvantage of this type of braking is that the speed of
the motor has to exceed synchronous speed which may not be possible every time. To acquire regenerative braking at
a lower speed than synchronous speed, variable frequency source can be used.

Plugging of induction motors is done by interchanging any two of the supply terminals. When the terminals are reversed
the operation of the machine changes from motoring to plugging. From technical point of view and for better
understanding it can be said that the slip changes from ‗s‘ to (2-s), which indicates that due to reversal of the terminals
the torque also changes its direction and braking occurs.

The first classification of dynamic braking of induction motors is AC dynamic braking any one of the supply phase is
disconnected from the supply and then it is either kept open or connected with the other phase. The first type is known
as two lead connection and the second one is known as three lead connection. To understand this braking method
clearly we can assume the system to be a single phase system. Now the motor can be considered to be fed by positive
and negative sequence voltages. That‘s why when the rotor resistance is high the net torque is negative and braking
can be acquired.
 Sometimes capacitors are kept permanent by connected across the supply terminals of the motor. This is called self-
excited braking using capacitors of induction motors. This type of braking works mainly by the property of the capacitors
to store energy. Whenever the motor is disconnected from the supply the motor starts to work as a self-excited
induction generator, the power comes from the capacitors connected across the terminals. The values of the capacitor
are so chosen that they are sufficient to make the motor work as an induction generator after being disconnected from
the supply. When the motor works as an induction generator the produced torque opposes the normal rotation of the
motor and hence braking takes place.

Another type of dynamic braking is dc dynamic braking. In this method the stator of running induction motor drives is connected
to dc supply. The consequences of connecting a dc supply to the stator is as follow, the dc current produces a stationary
magnetic field, in the rotor keeps rotating and as a result there is a induced voltage in the rotor winding, therefore the machine
works as a generator which opposes the motion of the motor and braking is acquired

738. Braking in DC motor.

Basically, there are three types of electrical braking done in a DC Motor:-

1. Regenerative Braking
2. Dynamic Braking
3. Plugging

1. Regenerative Braking

It is a form of braking in which the kinetic energy of the motor is returned to the power supply system. This type of
braking is possible when the driven load forces the motor to run at a speed higher than its no-load speed with a
constant excitation.
 The motor back emf Eb is greater than the supply voltage V, which reverses the direction of the motor armature
current. The motor begins to operate as an electric generator. It is very interesting to note that regenerative braking
cannot be used to stop a motor but to control its speed above the no-load speed of the motor driving the
descending loads.

2. Dynamic Braking

It is also known as Rheostatic braking. In this type of braking, the DC motor is disconnected from the supply and a
braking resistor Rb is immediately connected across the armature. The motor will now work as a generator, and
produces the braking torque. During electric braking when the motor works as a generator, the kinetic energy
stored in the rotating parts of the motor and a connected load is converted into electrical energy. It is dissipated as
heat in the braking resistance Rb and armature circuit resistance Ra. Dynamic Braking is an inefficient method of
braking as all the generated energy is dissipated as heat in resistances.

3. Plugging

It is also known as reverse current braking. The armature terminals or supply polarity of a separately excited DC
motor or shunt dc motor when running are reversed. Therefore, the supply Voltage V and the induced voltage Eb
i.e. back emf will act in the same direction. The effective voltage across the armature will be V + Eb which is almost
twice the supply voltage. Thus, the armature current is reversed and a high braking torque is produced. Plugging is
a highly inefficient method of braking because, in addition to the power supplied by the load, power supplied by the
source is wasted in resistances.

It is used in elevators, printing press etc. These were the main three types of braking techniques preferred to stop a
DC motor and used widely in industrial applications.

739. Lifeboat starting circuit. Why is the negative grounded?

The life boat starter wiring diagram is like automotive wiring diagram only. The negative supply to the engine starting
motor and from the Alternator are connected to the metal body of the engine only to reduce the wiring as well as to
improve the conductivity. Only the positive supply is controlled through the starting/stopping control relays. Wherever
negative is not possible through the lifeboat boat body, separate cables are pulled for lighting circuits.

740. What is fail safe and fail secure?

Fail-safe is a device or practice that, in the event of a specific type of failure, responds or results in a way that will cause no
harm, or at least minimizes harm, to other devices or to personnel.

Fail-safe and fail-secure are similar but distinct concepts. Fail-safe means that a device will not endanger lives or property
when it fails. Fail-secure means that access or data will not fall into the wrong hands in a failure. Sometimes the approaches
suggest opposite solutions. For example, if a building catches fire, fail-safe systems would unlock doors to ensure quick
escape and allow firefighters inside, while fail-secure would lock doors to prevent unauthorized access to the building.

A system's being "fail-safe" means not that failure is impossible or improbable, but rather that the system's design prevents
or mitigates unsafe consequences of the system's failure. That is, if and when a "fail-safe" system "fails", it is "safe" or at
least no less safe than when it was operating correctly.

741. What is torsion meter? Working principle

Mechanical torsion meter is used to measure torque developed by a machine.

 Basic principle of mechanical torsion meter

When a shaft is connected between a driving engine and driven load, a twist (angular displacement) occurs on the shaft
between its ends. This angle of twist is measured and calibrated in terms of torque.

Construction of mechanical torsion meter

The main parts of the mechanical torsion meter are as follows:

1. A shaft which has two drums and two flanges mounted on its ends as shown in the diagram.
2. One drum carries a pointer and other drum has a torque calibrated scale.
3. A stroboscope is used to take readings on a rotating shaft.

742. What is torsion meter? How does it work?

A torsion meter an instrument for determining the torque on a shaft

Operation of mechanical torsion meter:

One end of the shaft of the torsion meter is connected to the driving engine and its other end to the driven load.

1. An angle of twist is experienced by the shaft along its length between the two flanges which is proportional to the torque
applied to the shaft.
2. A measure of this angle of twist becomes a measure of torque when calibrated.
3. The angular twist caused is observed on the torque calibrated scale corresponding to the position of the pointer. As the
scale on the drum is rotating, reading cannot be taken directly. Hence a stroboscope is used. The stroboscope‘s
flashing light is made to fall on the scale and the flashing frequency is adjusted till a stationary image is obtained. Then
the scale reading is noted.

Limitation of mechanical torsion meter

Poor accuracy due to small displacement of the pointer.

Sensitivity is reduced even due to small variation in speed.
It can be used only on shafts rotating at a constant speed.

Electrical Torsion Meter (Torque Measurement using slotted Discs)

Basic principle
Due to the applied torque, there is a relative displacement between the two slotted discs. Due to this relative
displacement of the slotted discs, a phase shift exists between the pulse generated by the transducers. When these
pulses are connected to an electronic unit, it will show a time lapse between the two pulses. This time lapse between
the two pulses is proportional to the twist of the shaft and the torque of the shaft.

Description of Electrical Torsion Meter

1. The main parts of an electrical torsion meter are as follows:

2. A shaft connected between a driving engine and a driven load.
3. Two slotted discs attached on either side of the shaft.
4. Transducer (magnetic or photo electric ) to count pulses from the slotted disc.
 Advantages of Electrical Torsion Meter

1. There are no signal leakage problems.

2. There is no noise creation.

Optical Torsion meter

Basic Principle : Due to torque, an angular twist (angular displacement) occurs on the shaft between its ends. This
angle of twist is measured by using optical means where in angular deflection of light rays is proportional to twist and
hence the torque.

Construction of optical torsion meter

The main parts of an optical torsion meter as follows:

A shaft is used on which two casting M and N are connected at a known distance.
A tension strip linking the two castings.
Two mirrors which are fitted and aligned on the castings.
A light beam falling on the mirrors, an optical system and a torque calibrated scale.

Operation of optical torsion meter

When the shaft is transmitting torque, a relative movement occurs between castings M and N, and due to this, the
mirrors will change position ( partial inclination between the two mirrors) since they are attached to the castings.

As the mirrors are constantly made to reflect a light beam on the torque calibrated scale, due to the changed position of
the mirrors, there will be an angular deflection of the light rays which is measured from the calibrated scale.

This angular deflection of the light rays is proportional to the twist on the shaft (relative movement of casting M and N)
and hence the torque of the shaft.

Applications of optical torsion meter

It is used in steam turbines and I.C engines

743. What are windlass safety devices ?

 Emergency stop
 Overload trip
 Over speed trip
  Mechanical break
 Slipping clutch for over load, to prevent any undesirable damage such as hull damage due to anchor and rope
brake out.

744. What is Slipping Clutch in windlass ?

1. Slipping clutch is commonly fitted between prime mover and gearing

2. It is incorporated with motor, magnetic brake and drive shaft
3. Set to slip at approximately 133% of full load torque
4. Letting go or dropping speed is controlled by friction brake
5. Hauling speed is 0.15 m/sec

745. Why Slipping Clutch is fitted in windlass ?

1. In windlass, undue stresses must not be applied to chain cable and machinery
2. Without slipping cultch, excessive stresses could be applied to cable, by armature momentum, by sudden
obstruction when heaving, or when bringing the anchor into hawsepipe.
3. Fitted also to avoid inertia of prime mover being transmitted to windlass machinery in the event of shock loading on
cable, when anchor is being housed
4. When ship is riding at anchor, bow stopper prevents the strain for windlass

746. What is the acceptable level of oxygen in an enclosed space?

The acceptable range of oxygen inside an enclosed space is between 19.5% and 23.5%. Normal air contains 21%
oxygen.
747. Explain Enclosed space entry procedure.

Before starting the work, there should be a tool box meeting wherein various risks involved and procedure of carrying
out the work is discussed.

A work permit is to be filled wherein the following should be checked.

o verify that the atmosphere throughout the tanks is safe for the intended task should entry for other purposes be
permitted. Should be checked for presence of acceptable level of oxygen and toxic gases. The space should
be well ventilated
o Access to and within the space should be adequate and well illuminated.
o No source of ignition will be taken into the space
o only equipment that is certified intrinsically safe in potentially flammable atmospheres will be used
o rescue and available resuscitation equipment should be positioned ready for use at the entrance to the space.
Rescue equipment means breathing apparatus together with fully charged spare cylinders of air, life lines and
rescue harnesses, and torches or lamps, approved for use in a flammable atmosphere.
o A means of hoisting an incapacitated person from the confined space may be required.
o The number of personnel entering the space should be limited to those who need to work in the space
o At least one attendant should be detailed to remain at the entrance to the space while it is
occupied. An agreed and tested system of communication should be established between
any person entering the space and the attendant at the entrance, and between the attendant
at the entrance to the space and the officer on watch.
o Before entry is permitted it should be established that entry with breathing apparatus is
possible. Any potential difficulty of movement in any part of the space as a result of breathing
apparatus or lifelines or rescue harnesses being used or any other problems that would
arise if an incapacitated person had to be removed from the space should be carefully
considered and the risks minimised.
o Lifelines should be long enough for the purpose and capable of being firmly attached to the
harness, but the wearer should be able to detach them easily should they become tangled.

o The personnel making the entry should be equipped with:

• an emergency escape breathing set
• personal gas detector capable of monitoring hydrocarbon and oxygen levels
• portable radio
• emergency light source (torch)
• a retrieval harness
• an alternative means of attracting attention, such as a whistle

Before entry to any enclosed space, authorisation should be given by a senior officer.
A senior officer, in this context, means the master, chief officer, or chief engineer.
Supervisor and permitting officer responsibilities
• ensure good communications exist between all parties
• ensure a risk assessment and enclosed space entry permit have been properly completed
• determine whether acceptable entry conditions are present
• authorise and oversee entry operations
• ensure adequate protection is provided to people entering by verifying adequate lockout
and tagout and that all hazards are securely isolated
• support the attendant‘s authority in controlling access to an enclosed space
• ensure that all personnel involved are briefed and aware of the hazards associated
with the space
• ensure that rescue personnel are available before entry takes place
 • the duties of entry supervisor may be passed from one individual to another during
an entry operation
• verify that all personnel have exited before closing the space
• the supervisor or permitting officer may also serve as an attendant or authorised entrant
The officer completing the enclosed space entry permit-to-work should have visited the
access point to the space and satisfied himself that the hazards have been identified and
the necessary safety precautions taken, particularly ventilation and atmosphere testing.

o Ventilation should continue while the space is occupied and during temporary breaks. In the
event of a failure of the ventilation system, any personnel in the space should leave immediately.
Good natural ventilation is acceptable if for example two accesses are open so there is a
through draft of fresh air. Care needs to be taken in large enclosed spaces without forced
ventilation as there may be pockets of poor quality air that have not been replaced by
good air.
o The atmosphere should be tested periodically while the space is occupied and personnel
should be instructed to leave the space should there be any deterioration of conditions.

o If unforeseen difficulties or hazards develop, the work should be stopped and the space
evacuated so that the situation can be reassessed. Permits should be withdrawn and only
reissued, with any appropriate revisions, after the situation has been reassessed.
o If any worker in a space feels in any way adversely affected they should give the prearranged
signal to the attendant standing by the entrance and immediately leave the space.
Should an emergency occur, the alarm should be sounded so that back-up is immediately
available to the rescue team. Under no circumstances should the attendant enter the space
before help has arrived and the situation has been evaluated to ensure the safety of
rescuers who may have to enter the space.

748. Which all gases expected in enclosed space.

Carbon dioxide
Carbon monoxide
Ammonia
Methane
Propane
Hydrogen sulfide
Sulphur dioxide
Chlorine
Hydrogen cyanide
Nitric oxide
Chlorine

749. Gas sampling System

The SW2020 Gas Sampling System is an automatically scanning Gas Sampling System permanent installed for
a number of sampling points. The gas detectors are common for all sampling points, allowing the use of high
quality gas detectors with good accuracy. A gas sample is taken from each sampling point in turn, according to the
sampling sequence, and transported through the sampling pipe to the gas detectors. The sampling time for each
point is individually adjustable corresponding to the pipe length of each sampling point. This gives an optimally
short cycle time.
The SW2020 Gas Sampling System is intended for detection of explosive and toxic gases in cofferdams, pipe
tunnels, stools, ballast tanks, slop tanks and other areas adjecent to cargo tanks. A pump room installation is
normally a separate system.

The SW2020 system consists of four parts

Control Unit
The control unit contains control functions and display for the system and is normally located in a cargo control
room.

Analysing Unit
The analysing unit contains all functions for detecting and transporting the test samples, as well as an internal
sampling point for monitoring of internal gas leakage. The analysing unit is installed in a ventilated area with controlled
temperature above main deck level, normally the Cargo Control Room.

Repeater Unit(s)
The repeater unit contains a clear text display for alarm and fault messages. One unit is normally located in the
Wheel House.

Pipe System
The pipe system transports the test samples from the sampling points to the analysing unit. The pipe system
includes shut off valves, flame traps, filters and cones (forWB tanks).Recommended pipe size: OD 8 mm, ID 6 mm.

The analysing unit contains all functions for detection and transport of the test samples. Its components comprise: gas
detectors, solenoid valves, sampling and transport pump, flame traps, flow meter, remote I/O - PCB-boards, power
supply unit and terminals for power supply, alarm outputs connection to the control unit and repeater unit as well as
connections for all piping included in the system.
 The analysing unit should be installed not less than 3 metres above the main deck in order to avoid air locks in the
pipes and ensure the correct work of the automatic flow watching function. The area should be ventilated and
temperature-controlled.

The calibration gas cylinder is mounted next to the analysing cabinet and fixed in the conventional manner for pressure
vessels. The gas cylinder can alternatively be mounted inside the cabinet.

The ST400 gas detector to measure oxygen, toxic or flammable gases consists of a chrome plated ABShousing
with transmitter print, sensor and sensor holder in stainless steel.
The transmitter print is based on the ―one man calibration‖ technology. This means that one person can
make all the necessary calibrations inside the detector head, without the necessity of a second calibration
procedure on the measurement module.

Measuring Range
CO 0-250 ppm
H2S 0-25 ppm
O2 0-25 %
NH3 0-100 ppm
ALARM IS NORMALLY SET AT 5 – 10% LEL

750. What are grades of oil burn in incinerator

Shipboard incineration of sewage sludge and sludge oil generated during the normal operation of a ship may also take
place in the main or auxiliary power plant or boilers, but in those cases, shall not take place inside ports, harbours and
estuaries.

Shipboard incineration of polyvinyl chlorides (PVCs) shall be prohibited, except in shipboard incinerators for which IMO
Type Approval Certificates have been issued.

Shipboard incineration of the following substances shall be prohibited:

(a) Annex I, II and III cargo residues of the present Convention and related contaminated packing materials;

(b) polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs);

(c) garbage, as defined in Annex V of the present Convention, containing more than traces of heavy metals; and

(d) refined petroleum products containing halogen compounds.

751. What are the six types of pollution on ship.

Pollution by Oil
Pollution by Noxious Liquid Substances in Bulk
Pollution by Harmful Substances carried by Sea in Packaged Form
Pollution by Sewage from Ships
Pollution by Garbage from Ships
Air Pollution from Ships

752. Procedure of Releasing CO2 to the Engine Room on Ships.

1. Muster and take head count.

2. Master will take decision, depending upon the situation and as per the company policy.
3. If total CO2 flooding of engine room is to be done, master will consult with chief engineer.
4. Nearest coast guard to be informed as soon as possible.
5. Ensure proper sealing of the engine room.
6. Make sure emergency generator is running and on load. Power is required for running emergency fire pump for
boundary cooling.
7. All access doors, vent flaps, blower flaps, skylights, hatches, fire flaps, to be closed.
8. Quick closing valves to be closed.
9. Emergency stops for lube oil pumps, fuel oil pumps to be operated.
10. All machinery in engine room to be stopped.
11. Ensure all personnel vacated engine room.
12. CO2 must be released by competent engineer.
13. Break the glass and take out key for CO2 release cabinet from key box. Using local CO2 release cabinet is
preferred.
14. Open the release cabinet. Audio visual alarms will sound and ventilation blower trips will activate.
15. In the CO2 release cabinet, open pilot cylinder valve first. Now open valve 1 for master valve first. Then open valve
2 for CO2 releasing mechanism. Co2 will be released after 60-90 seconds of time delay.
 16. Now the system pressure can be checked from the pressure gauge on the manifold.
17. If CO2 is not released, then follow emergency releasing procedure. Open master valve manually and open each
CO2 main bottle by manual actuation lever.

Important Notes on CO2 Flooding System

 CO2 flooding is the final course of action, used only when all else has failed. Proper sealing of the engine room is
essential for effective extinction of fire. There were incidents like CO2 is released, effective smothering did not occur
due to improper sealing of engine room and fire remained unextinguished.
 To obtain a total flooding of engine room, about 35% by volume of CO2 is required in 2 minutes. This will reduce the
oxygen content of the air in engine room to less than 15% to extinguish the fire. At this CO2 concentration human
life cannot be supported.
 Typically it takes about 15-20 seconds after release of CO2 before the concentration in engine room reaches a
dangerous level.

Safety Precautions After CO2 Release

After CO2 flooding system is operated efficiently, engine room fire will extinguish by smothering action. But before engine
room entry is made or space ventilated, it is recommended to obtain expert advice from shore. Nearest coast guard can be
contacted for getting assistance for the same.

1. The first question is, how to make sure that CO2 is actually released after the operation of CO2 flooding system.
When Co2 is released there will be a loud noise of gas escaping to the protected space. CO2 bottles can be felt cold
after releasing. Visual inspection of the operation of, pressure operated cylinder valves also can be carried out.
2. CO2 has very little cooling effect. So there is a danger of re-ignition of fire when engine room is ventilated
immediately. Keep the boundary cooling running to reduce the temperature of the engine room.
3. Ventilation of engine room should not be started until it has been definitely established that the fire has been
extinguished completely, which will take several hours.
4. Engine room to be sufficiently ventilated before entering.
5. Entry to be carried out by trained personnel wearing breathing apparatus.
6. Even after fire has been extinguished completely, never bring bare flame such as candle light or lighted cigarette
into the burnt room, other wise fire may break out again due to explosion of combustible gases, if any.
7. In order to allow persons to get away quickly and safely in case of fire, entrances and exits shall be always kept
clear.
8. Back up team or support team to be ready in case any difficulties happens in side.
9. An attendant should be instructed to remain at the entrance of the engine room.
10. An agreed and tested system of communication to be established between attendant and team inside engine room.
11. In case any emergency occur to the team inside engine room, the attendant is not supposed to enter inside before
the help has arrived.
12. In the event of ventilation system fails, the personnel in the space should leave immediately.

753. Write short note on CO2 room ventilation arrangement

 To remove the leakage CO2 from the CO2 room.

 CO2 gas is heavier than air and does not support to human life (Suffocate).
 CO2 room must be well ventilated before entry
 CO2 room is situated outside the machinery space usually at main deck and it must be a separate compartment.

 It is made by motor driven exhaust blower or fan, which suction is drown from CO2 room floor, because CO2 is
heavier than air and leakage CO2 can accumulate on the CO2 room floor.
 Fan control switch is fitted outside the CO2 room, at the entrance.

754. Explain CO2 flooding system

 CO2 flooding system floods the protected space under fire with carbon dioxide, which displaces air, thereby removing
one leg of fire triangle for the extinction of fire. CO2 flooding system consist of main CO2 bottles, common manifold,
master valve or distribution valve and distribution pipe lines with nozzles as shown in the figure above.

Main CO2 bottles contain carbon dioxide in liquid state with a pressure of 56 bar at 20 degree Celsius. Pressure of CO2
at 25 and 30 degree Celsius are 64 bar and 71 bar respectively. So it is important to keep the temperature of CO2
bottles low for limiting the pressure inside bottles. CO2 from the main bottle is released by a ‗CO2 release cabinet‘ as
shown in the figure. As soon as the release cabinet door is opened, a micro switch is activated. The micro switch will
ensure the activation of CO2 warning alarms and ventilation shut off. CO2 release cabinet or release box consist of two
pilot CO2 cylinders or bottles containing CO2 gas inside. The pressure of CO2 inside these pilot bottles is same as that
of main CO2 bottles. Only quantity of gas is different. For releasing CO2 to the protected space, one of the pilot bottle
valve is opened. Now CO2 reaches two valves marked 1 and 2. First valve 1 is to be opened. Then CO2 passes
through a non return valve and opens pneumatically operated master valve. Now master valve is opened. Next, open
valve 2 in the release cabinet, which supply CO2 to main CO2 bottle head assembly through a non return valve and
‗time delay unit‘. Function of the time delay unit is explained below. Head assembly consist of a pressure operated
cylinder valve. This pressure operated cylinder valve prevents CO2 from bottle coming to the common manifold. As
CO2 reaches the head assembly from pilot bottle, pneumatic actuator in the head moves and opens the pressure
operated cylinder valve. Then CO2 from main bottle escapes to the common manifold via non return valve as shown.
Each of the main CO2 cylinder have a head assembly and non return valve. The pilot CO2 line is connected to all these
heads. All the CO2 from the main bottles now release to common manifold. Since the master valve is already open
before, CO2 from manifold is released to the protected space through distribution pipe lines and nozzles.

As you can see in the diagram, there are two CO2 release cabinets. One is local release cabinet and is located in the
CO2 room itself. One more remote release cabinet is used, which is located in a remote place such as fire control
station. This facilitates operation of CO2 flooding system from a remote place other than CO2 room. Both release
cabinets are connected in parallel and non return valves fitted in the lines prevent back flow of CO2. Also two pilot CO2
bottles are placed in the release cabinet. Only one is sufficient for the operation of both master valve and CO2 bottle
head assembly.

CO2 flooding system explained here protects only a single space. There are systems which can protect multiple spaces
such as engine room and pump room together. In that case separate release cabinets will be there for engine room and
pump room. Main CO2 bottles are shared for engine room and pump room according to the volume of the spaces.

755. What is the Time Delay Unit in CO2 Flooding System

CO2 from the pilot bottles in release cabinet reaches main CO2 bottle head assembly through a time delay unit. Function
of this time delay unit is to delay the supply of CO2 to the head assembly for 60 – 90 seconds. In other words, when
valve 2 in the release cabinet is opened, CO2 reaches only after 60 to 90 seconds to the head assembly. Reasons for
providing such a s delay in CO2 flooding system are given below.

1. As soon as CO2 release cabinet opens, alarm is sounded in the protected space. A time delay of 60 to 90
seconds give sufficient time for any personnel in the protected space to escape, even after the operation of both
valves in the release cabinet.
2. If CO2 is released from main bottles to the common manifold before opening master valve, there may be
difficulty in opening master valve because of the bulk CO2 pressure acting on it. Because of the time delay,
positive opening of the master valve is ensured before releasing CO2.
3. Regulation per International Code for Fire Safety System (FSS Code) 2.1.3.2 says, ―The pre-discharge alarm
can be automatically activated (e. g. by opening the release cabinet door). The alarm shall operate for the
length of time needed to evacuate the space, but in no case less than 20 seconds before the medium is
released.‖

The time delay can be achieved in different ways. Out of these, two types of time delay unit is commonly used in CO2
flooding system on board ships. One is electrical type, which has an AC 220 V power supply, a pressure switch, timer
and a solenoid valve as shown in the figure below.

Power source is always available for the unit. Solenoid valve is normally in closed
position. When CO2 from pilot cylinder (CO2 release cabinet) reaches the time delay unit, the pressure acts on the
pressure switch. This closes the pressure switch. But the timer allows power supply to the solenoid only after 60-90
seconds, the timing can be adjusted as required. As soon as the specified time is reached, solenoid becomes energize
and the solenoid valve will open. This allow passage of CO2 to the pressure operated cylinder valve of main bottle.
Normally a by pass valve is also fitted across this time delay unit which can be used in case the unit goes defective.
756. What is Bursting Disc in CO2 Flooding System

The pressure of CO2 inside the bottle depends on the temperature of the surroundings. As temperature increases,
pressure also increases. Therefore to safeguard against abnormally high pressures inside the bottle, a bursting disc is
provided on the head assembly as shown in the figure above. When the CO2 pressure inside the bottle increases to
about 200 bar, bursting disc burst and releases CO2 to the CO2 room. Pressure inside the bottle build up to such a high
value means there is a fire inside CO2 room. Here, CO2 released from the bottle itself extinguishes fire inside the room.

757. Why Relief Valve is Required?

There is a relief valve fitted in the manifold of CO2 flooding system. Function of the relief valve is to release the CO2
pressure in the manifold to the atmosphere outside CO2 room. Such a situation arises when CO2 get released from the
bottle and master valve is still closed. Set pressure of relief valve is about 180 bar. Again, set pressure varies with the
system design and regulations. A relief valve is required for two purposes:

1. If the pressure of fluid in a pipe line increases beyond the designed working pressure, there must be a pressure
relief mechanism for bringing down the pressure to safe guard the system. In the case of CO2 flooding system,
CO2 will accumulate in the manifold when it is released from the bottle and master valve is closed. Pressure of
CO2 is 55 bar at 20 degree Celsius. As CO2 takes temperature from surroundings, its pressure also increases
to dangerous levels. Since these pipes are pressure tested to 190 bar only, a relief valve is necessary in the
manifold.
2. Any pressure accumulate in the manifold may release other CO2 bottles which are intact, if the non return valve
between bottle and manifold is damaged.

758. Requirements of CO2 Flooding System

1. Discharge requirement is, at least 50% of CO2 discharge to be carried out in 1 minute and at least 85%
discharge in 2 minutes.
2. Capacity of CO2 in the system to be, 1.) 30% of the gross volume of the largest protected cargo space, 2.)
40% of the gross volume of machinery space excluding engine casings, 2.) 35% of the gross volume of
machinery space including engine casings for vessels GT < 20000. Total amount of CO2 cylinders depends on
the highest gross volume out of above 1,2,3 in a particular ship.
3. Safety procedures must be there against unauthorized use of the system.
4. Machinery space to be fitted with audio-visual alarm and ventilation blower trip.
5. Alarm must trigger well before operation of CO2 flooding system.
6. Permanent piping arrangements should be made.
7. Manifold, distribution piping to be pressure tested. See Pressure Testing of CO2 Flooding System below.
8. Diameter of associated pipe lines in the system should not be less than 20 mm.
9. Copper and flexible pipes are allowed between CO2 cylinder and common manifold.
10. Distribution pipes to cargo spaces should not pass through engine room.
11. All stop valves to be checked every month to ensure their working and position.
12. The CO2 flooding system installation to be checked monthly for any leakages.
13. All control valves to be tested annually.

759. What are the safety devices on CO2 flooding system ?

 Master valve with alarm switch.

 Relief valves at manifold.
 Stop valve and pull handle are in lock release cabinet and alarm switch.
 Safety bursting disc at each CO2 bottle.

 Leakage detecting pressure switch on manifold.

 Non return discharge valves after CO2 bottles

760. What are the limitations on CO2 properties ?

1. CO2 is heavier than air

2. Less cooling effect
3. Static electricity induced
4. Heavily asphyxiating (suffocating)
5. Ineffective if > 10 ~ 12 minutes
6. ―One off‖ no reserve
7. Total evacuation required
8. Possibility of thermal shock
9. No protection of personal
10. Expands 450 times its volume in liquid to produce gas.
761. Why Only CO2?
CO2 gas mainly used for extinguishing fires because of the following properties:-
1. At normal temperature,CO2 remains in the gaseous state.Co2 is also 1.5 times denser than air.This heaviness helps
in displacing the air by making Co2 act as a blanket to cuts off the supply of oxygen to the fire.
2. CO2 is easily available and can be liquefied and bottled smoothly. It is normally contained under a pressure of
approx. 50 bars in cylinders made out of steel.

3. When the liquid CO2 is released on fire,it boils off rapidly as a gas into the atmosphere, taking away the heat from
the surrounding atmosphere and cooling down the environment.
4. CO2 is a non-flammable gas .
762. Advantages and disadvantages of using CO2 Gas
Advantages of using CO2 Gas
1. It is a non corrosive gas.
2. It is available everywhere
3. It does not conduct electricity.
4. It does not leaves any kind of residue.
5. It is non-flammable.

1. CO2 is the most toxic gas when it comes to human health. It is a highly suffocating gas, whose concentration of even
9% in the breathing air would make a person unconscious within minutes.
2. Though it provides a perfect smothering effect, the condition does not last for a long time. In case of non-continuous
supply of CO2, chances of re-ignition increases if air is re-admitted to the compartment too soon after the fire.
763. What are the six types of air pollution on ship.
Air pollution by main engine sox nox
Air pollutiom by air compressor (if piston ring not good etc )
Air poliutiom by boiler
Air pollution by incinerator due to improper air fuel ratio etc
Air pollution by Freon
764. Fire fighting in pump room
Raise alarm
Headcount during assembly
Cut of electric supply of pump room and all its equipment
Stop the blower shut vent shut door etc
On master advice if headcount satisfactory, release co2
Wait after sometime and hour or more before u enter inside to check fire
Bulkhead temp of pump room can give rough idea about condtion inside
Go with fire fighting suit and all precautions

765. what is Positive and Negative feedback.

Positive Feedback Systems

In a ―positive feedback control system‖, the set point and output values are added together by the controller as the
feedback is ―in-phase‖ with the input. The effect of positive (or regenerative) feedback is to ―increase‖ the systems gain,
ie, the overall gain with positive feedback applied will be greater than the gain without feedback. For example, if
someone praises you or gives you positive feedback about something, you feel happy about yourself and are full of
energy, you feel more positive.

Negative Feedback Systems

In a ―negative feedback control system‖, the set point and output values are subtracted from each other as the feedback
is ―out-of-phase‖ with the original input. The effect of negative (or degenerative) feedback is to ―reduce‖ the gain. For
example, if someone criticises you or gives you negative feedback about something, you feel unhappy about yourself
and therefore lack energy, you feel less positive.

Because negative feedback produces stable circuit responses, improves stability and increases the operating bandwidth
of a given system, the majority of all control and feedback systems is degenerative reducing the effects of the gain.

Positive Feedback System

 Positive feedback control of the op-amp is achieved by applying a small part of the output voltage signal at Vout back to
the non-inverting ( + ) input terminal via the feedback resistor, RF.

If the input voltage Vin is positive, the op-amp amplifies this positive signal and the output becomes more positive. Some
of this output voltage is returned back to the input by the feedback network.

Thus the input voltage becomes more positive, causing an even larger output voltage and so on. Eventually the output
becomes saturated at its positive supply rail.

Likewise, if the input voltage Vin is negative, the reverse happens and the op-amp saturates at its negative supply rail.
Then we can see that positive feedback does not allow the circuit to function as an amplifier as the output voltage quickly
saturates to one supply rail or the other, because with positive feedback loops ―more leads to more‖ and ―less leads to
less‖.

Negative Feedback System

Negative feedback control of the amplifier is achieved by applying a small part of the output voltage signal at Vout back
to the inverting ( – ) input terminal via the feedback resistor, Rf.

If the input voltage Vin is positive, the op-amp amplifies this positive signal, but because its connected to the inverting
input of the amplifier, and the output becomes more negative. Some of this output voltage is returned back to the input
by the feedback network of Rf.

Thus the input voltage is reduced by the negative feedback signal, causing an even smaller output voltage and so on.
Eventually the output will settle down and become stabilised at a value determined by the gain ratio of Rf ÷ Rin.

Likewise, if the input voltage Vin is negative, the reverse happens and the op-amps output becomes positive (inverted)
which adds to the negative input signal. Then we can see that negative feedback allows the circuit to function as an
amplifier, so long as the output is within the saturation limits.

So we can see that the output voltage is stabilised and controlled by the feedback, because with negative feedback
loops ―more leads to less‖ and ―less leads to more‖.

The use of negative feedback in amplifier and process control systems is widespread because as a rule negative
feedback systems are more stable than positive feedback systems, and a negative feedback system is said to be stable
if it does not oscillate by itself at any frequency except for a given circuit condition.

Another advantage is that negative feedback also makes control systems more immune to random variations in
component values and inputs. Of course nothing is for free, so it must be used with caution as negative feedback
significantly modifies the operating characteristics of a given system.

766. How to zero settings in 15 ppm monitor.

Add clean water in the sensing tube of fill it with clean water.
767. What are the functions of the OWS installed in your ship?

The main task of the JOWA SEAGUARD is to monitor the oil content of the effluent from a bilge water separator and
alarm if the oil content exceeds the ppm limit. The JOWA SEAGUARD also logs specific events from the separator
and the JOWA SEAGUARD. These logs are useful in connection with inspections.

Logged Data
The JOWA SEAGUARD log is controlled by a signal from the separator and is saved on a removable SD card . NOTE!
The SD card is sealed against unauthorised removal. The log updates every minute if there is no new events
occurring within the minute. The following data is logged:
o Date/GMT time
o PPM
 o Separator status.
o Sample/fresh water valve status
o Flow
o Alarm 1 and 2 status
o Start/stop of the log
o Simulation
o Failure

768. Explain transistor and it's operation, and it's advantage with other components In circuit.

Transistor is a bjt device two tupe npn and pnp it has high base to collector resistance and low base to emitter resistance.

Unlike resistors, which enforce a linear relationship between voltage and current, transistors are non-linear devices. They
have four distinct modes of operation, which describe the current flowing through them. (When we talk about current flow
through a transistor, we usually mean current flowing from collector to emitter of an NPN.)

The four transistor operation modes are:

 Saturation – The transistor acts like a short circuit. Current freely flows from collector to emitter. In this mode
base to collector and base to emitter region both are forward biased
 Cut-off – The transistor acts like an open circuit. No current flows from collector to emitter. only small current
due to minority charge carrier flow and base to collector and base to emitter is reverse biased
 Active – The current from collector to emitter is proportional to the current flowing into the base. In active
mode it base to collector to base reverse bias and base to emiter forward bias
Used as amplifier.
 Reverse-Active – Like active mode, the current is
proportional to the base current, but it flows in reverse. Current flows from emitter to collector (not, exactly, the
purpose transistors were designed for).

Advantage of transistor:
Cheap
Easy construction
Conduct in one direction
High gain

769. AD/DA convertor

Analog to Digital Convertors

3-Bit Flash Analogue to Digital Converter (ADC)

The reference voltage for each comparator is set by the resistive voltage divider network. The output of each
comparator is connected to an input of the priority encoder. The encoder is sampled by a pulse on the Enable input and
a 3-bit binary code representing the analogue input appears on the encoder output. The binary code is determined by
the highest order input having a High level.

Principle of Operation:

The flash ADC comprises an array of comparators.

Each comparator is connected to a resistive voltage divider and to the analogue input voltage.
The resistive voltage divider consists of equal valued resistors connected in series with the reference voltage V REF.
Thus each comparator compares the analogue input voltage with a slightly different voltage from the divider.
Those comparators which are connected to divider resistors where the divider voltage is lower than the analogue input voltage w
a high output
The other comparators will produce a low output.
Larger analogue input voltages will result in more comparator high outputs.
The pattern of comparator high/low outputs is applied to encoder circuits which convert the data into a binary output number whi
proportional to the ratio of the analogue input voltage to the reference voltage.

Digital to Analog Converter using Binary-Weighted Resistors

A D/A converter using binary-weighted resistors is shown in the figure below. In the circuit, the op-amp is connected in
the inverting mode. The op-amp can also be connected in the non-inverting mode. The circuit diagram represents a 4-
digit converter. Thus, the number of binary inputs is four.

As in the binary-weighted resistors method, the

binary inputs are simulated by the switches (b0-b3), and the output is proportional to the binary
inputs. Binary inputs can be either in the HIGH (+5V) or LOW (0V) state.

Working

The circuit is basically working as a current to voltage converter.

 b0 is closed

It will be connected directly to the +5V.

Thus, voltage across R = 5V

Current through R = 5V/10kohm = 0.5mA

 Current through feedback resistor, Rf = 0.5mA (Since, Input bias current, I B is negligible)

Thus, output voltage = -(1kohm)*(0.5mA) = -0.5V

 b1 is closed, b0 is open

R/2 will be connected to the positive supply of the +5V.

Current through R will become twice the value of current (1mA) to flow through Rf.

Thus, output voltage also doubles.

 b0 and b1 are closed

Current through Rf = 1.5mA

Output voltage = -(1kohm)*(1.5mA) = -1.5V

Thus, according to the position (ON/OFF) of the switches (bo-b3), the corresponding ―binary-weighted‖ currents will be
obtained in the input resistor. The current through Rf will be the sum of these currents. This overall current is then
converted to its proportional output voltage. Naturally, the output will be maximum if the switches (b0-b3) are closed

V0 = -Rf *([b0/R][b1/(R/2)][b2/(R/4)][b3/(R/8)]) – where each of the inputs b3, b2, b1, and b0 may either be HIGH (+5V)
or LOW (0V).

The graph with the analog outputs versus possible combinations of inputs is shown below.

770. STCW 1995 and 2010

The STCW refers to the International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers
that was ratified in 1978. The original convention simply standardized the international mariners' code to match that
which was used in the United States. The convention spelled out certain standards and requirements, such as the level
of experience and training required for certain licenses, certifications and endorsements

In 1995, the International Maritime Organization (the IMO) made sweeping changes to the STCW convention, including
setting forth new competency standards for all levels of mariners. The 1995 amendments to the convention, resulted in
the Seafarer's Training, Certification and Watchkeeping (STCW) Code, which spells out the minimum competencies for
mariners, the STCW Code is often referred to as STCW-95. STCW-95 training through Quality Maritime Training, LLC,
addresses these standards, in addition to other updated requirements as they are amended. Check out our STCW basic
safety training article.

Mariners who have been working aboard a vessel since before Aug. 1, 1998, should all hold STCW certificates that
indicate they have received full STCW training up to the level required for their license or merchant mariner document
(MMD). These mariners are required to have "gap closing" courses in order to receive their STCW -95. Training for these
"grandfathered" mariners was required in order for a mariner in this category to be considered in compliance with
regulations

1) Revalidation for higher and managerial level officer for certificate of competency (COC) issued by any governing
authority.

2) New and improved training guidance for crews and officer serving onboard.
 3) New requirements for MARPOL awareness which includes training in leadership and teamwork.

4) Stringent measures for preventing fraudulent certificate of competency (COC)

5)Rest hour onboard has been increased from 70 hours to 77 hours per week for decent working of seafarer onboard.

6) Introduction of Electro-technical officer with approved training and COC.

7) More facilities and better training for junior engineer and cadets to tackle the problem of shortage of officer.

8) Updated drugs and alcohol policy and stringent medical examination.

9) New requirement for Able seaman to have a certificate of competency for boarding vessel.

10) New methods of training in modern technology like electronic chart display and information system (ECDIS).

11) Stringent competency norm for ship staff serving on tanker, gas and chemical carrier.

12) New and improved requirement for ISPS trainings and also trainings to tackle the situation of piracy attack.

13) Inclusion of modern training methods introducing distance learning and web based learning.

771. Preparations before entering dry dock

Preparing of the list of electrical equipment due for overhaul and land them ashore
Main switchboard and emergency switch board cleaning preparation
Preparing extra lights and power points for use in dry dock
Stocking extra lights and batteries for use in dry dock.
Inspect the Shore connection box in the ESB and ensure that all connectors, indication lamps etc are satisfactory.
Preparation of Bonding wire/ earth wire for connecting the ship and the shore power
Sea water circulating connection for machinery spaces

Fresh water generator will be inoperable , hence sufficient water‘

Check all communication equipment are working fine

772. Types of TIMERS

A timer is a type of relay that carries out opening or closing of a contact after the elapsing of a predetermined time
interval upon receiving the signal.
773. What is MLC?

The Maritime Labour Convention (MLC) is an International Labour Organization convention established in 2006 as the
fourth pillar of international maritime law. The other "pillars are the SOLAS, STCW and MARPOL. The treaties applies to
all ships entering the harbours of parties to the treaty.

The convention entered into force on 20 August 2013, As of the June 2016, the convention has been ratified by 76 states
representing over 87 per cent of global shipping.

Although the Convention has not been ratified worldwide, it has widespread effect because vessels from non-signatory
states that attempt to enter ports of signatory states may face arrest and penalties for non-compliance with the MLC.

The convention consists of the sixteen articles containing general provisions as well as the Code. The Code consists of
five Titles in which specific provisions are grouped by standard.

 Title 1: Minimum requirements for seafarers to work on a ship

 Title 2: Conditions of employment
 Title 3: Accommodation, recreational facilities, food and catering
 Title 4: Health protection, medical care, welfare and social security protection
 Title 5: Compliance and enforcement

Title 1: Minimum requirements for seafarers to work on a ship

The minimum requirements set out in this section of the code are divided in 4 parts and are summarized below:

 Minimum age requirements: the mimimum age is 16 years (18 for night work and work in hazardous areas).
 Medical fitness: workers should be medically fit for the duties they are performing. Countries should issue
medical certificates as defined in the STCW (or use a similar standard).
 Training: Seafarers should be trained for their duties as well as have had a personal safety training.
 Recruitment/placement services located in member states or for ships flying the flag of member states should
have (amongst others) proper placement procedures, registration, complaint procedures and compensation if
the recruitment fails

Title 2: Employment conditions

The Title on employment conditions lists conditions of the contract and payments, as well as the working conditions on
ships.
  Contracts: the contract should be clear, legally enforceable and incorporate collective bargaining agreements
(if existent).
 Payments: Wages should be paid at least every month, and should be transferrable regularly to family if so
desired.
 Rest hours: rest hours should be implemented in national legislation. The maximum hours of work in that
legislation should not exceed 14 hours in any 24-hour period and 72 hours in any seven-day period, or: at least
ten hours of rest in any 24-hour period and 77 hours (rest) in any seven-day period. Furthermore, the daily
hours of rest may not be divided into more than two periods and, at least six hours of rest should be given
consecutively in one of those two periods.
 Leave: Seafarers have a right to annual leave as well as shore leave.
 Repatriation: Returning to their country of residence should be free
 Loss: If a ship is lost or foundered, the seafarers have a right to an unemployment payments.
 Manning: Every ship should have a sufficient manning level

Title 3: Accommodation, Recreational Facilities, Food and Catering

The title specifies rules detailed rules for accommodation and recreational facilities, as well as food and catering.

 Accommodation: Accommodation for living and/or working should be "promoting the seafarers' health and
well-being". Detailed provisions (in rules and guidelines) give minimum requirements for various types of
rooms (mess rooms, recreational rooms, dorms etc.).
 Food and Catering: Both food quality and quantity, including water should be regulated in the flag state.
Furthermore, cooks should have proper training

Title 4: Health Protection, Medical Care, Welfare and Social Security Protection

Title 4 consists of 5 regulations about Health, Liability, Medical care, Welfare and Social security.

 Medical care on board ship and ashore: Seafarers should be covered for and have access to medical care
while on board; in principle at no cost and of a quality comparable to the standards of health care on shore.
Countries through which territory a ship is passing should guarantee treatment on shore in serious cases.
 Shipowners' liability: Seafarers should be protected from the financial effects of "sickness, injury or death
occurring in connection with their employment". This includes at least 16 weeks of payment of wages after
start of sickness.
 Health and safety protection and accident prevention: A safe and hygienic environment should be provided to
seafarers both during working and resting hours and measures should be taken to take reasonable safety
measures.
 Access to shore-based welfare facilities: Port states should provide "welfare, cultural, recreational and
information facilities and services" and to provide easy access to these services. The access to these facilities
should be open to all seafarers irrespective of race, sex, religion or political opinion.
 Social security: Social security coverage should be available to seafarers (and in case it is customary in the
flag state: their relatives).

Title 5: Compliance and Enforcement

Title 5 sets standers to ensure compliance with the convention. The title distinguishes requirements for flag states and
port states.

 Flag states: Flag states (the state under which flag the ship operates) are responsible for ensuring
implementation of the rules on the ships that fly its flag. Detailed inspections result in the issue of a "Certificate
of Maritime Compliance", which should always be present (and valid) on a ship. Ships are required to have
decent complaints procedures in place for its crew and should institute investigations in case of casualties.
 Port States: The inspection in ports depends on whether a Certificate of Maritime Compliance is present (and
thus a flag is flown of a country which has ratified the convention). If the Certificate is present, compliance is to
be assumed in principle, and further investigations only take place if the certificate is not in order or there are
indications of non-compliance. For ships that don't have the certificate, inspections are much more detailed
and should ensure -according to a "no more favorable treatment principle" that the ship has complied with the
provisions of the convention. The convention is thus -indirectly- also valid for ships of non-member countries if
they plan to call to ports of a member state.
 Labour agencies: Agencies supplying on maritime workers to ships should also be inspected to ensure that they apply
the convention (amongst others the regulations regarding to social security).
774. Torque of an AC Motor

Where s = slip, E2=Rotor voltage, R2=Rotor Resistance, X2=Rotor Reactance,

775. Torque equation of a DC Motor

Where, P is no of poles, φ is flux per pole, Z is no. of conductors, A is no. of parallel paths, I a is armature current and N is
the speed of the D.C. motor.

776. Voltage equation of an AC generator.

E = 4.44 x f Φ Tph volts

Note : This is the basic e.m.f. equation for an induced e.m.f. per phase for full pitch, concentrated type of winding.

Where Tph = Number of turns per phase

Tph = Zph /2 ....... as 2 conductors constitute 1 turn

777. What is the recovery time of Rescue boat?

The recovery time of Rescue boat should not be more than 5 minutes with its full complement of crew and equipment

778. Difference between Power Transformers and Distribution Transformers

Main Differences
Power transformers are used in transmission network of higher voltages for step-up and step down application (400
kV, 200 kV, 110 kV, 66 kV, 33kV) and are generally rated above 200MVA.
Distribution transformers are used for lower voltage distribution networks as a means to end user connectivity. (11kV,
6.6 kV, 3.3 kV, 440V, 230V) and are generally rated less than 200 MVA.

Transformer Size / Insulation Level:

Power transformer is used for thetransmission purpose at heavy load, high voltage greater than 33 KV & 100%
efficiency. It also having a big in size as compare to distribution transformer, it used in generating station and
Transmission substation .high insulation level.
The distribution transformer is used for the distribution of electrical energy at low voltage as less than 33KV in
industrial purpose and 440v-220v in domestic purpose. It work at low efficiency at 50-70%, small size, easy in
installation, having low magnetic losses & it is not always fully loaded.

Iron Losses and Copper Losses

Power Transformers are used in Transmission network so they do not directly connect to the consumers, so load
fluctuations are very less. These are loaded fully during 24 hr‘s a day, so Cu losses & Fe losses takes place throughout
day the specific weight i.e. (iron weight)/(cu weight) is very less.
The average loads are nearer to full loaded or full load and these are designed in such a way that maximum efficiency at
full load condition. These are independent of time so in calculating the efficiency only power basis is enough.
Distribution Transformers are used in Distribution Network so directly connected to the consumer so load fluctuations
are very high. these are not loaded fully at all time so iron losses takes place 24hr a day and cu losses takes place
based on load cycle. the specific weight is more i.e. (iron weight)/(cu weight).average loads are about only 75% of full
load and these are designed in such a way that max efficiency occurs at 75% of full load.
As these are time dependent the all day efficiency is defined in order to calculate the efficiency.

779. Explain with the help of a drawing, how is the earth leakage detector working?
780. How the reverse power is detecting?

It is difficult to determine the direction of AC to make a tripping of generator during motoring. For this purpose, the
reverse power relay utilise the technique of monitoring current lagging direction to voltage. During sourcing (Generating),
the current will lag the voltage by some angle in positive way relative to the Reverse Power Relay. During motoring of
generator this positive lagging to voltage will changes to negative lagging to voltage. This change in phasor angle will
cause the aluminium disc inside the relay to rotate to the opposite direction and the same will make a contact to trip the
ACB.

781. What are the specific machineries/equipment installed on board tanker ships differing from other ships?

IGG, Fixed Gas Sampling System, ODME, Tank Cleaning Equipment, Hose Handling Crane and Cargo Discharging
System

782. What is Fixed gas Sampling System and what are the gases it is monitoring?

Fixed Gas Sampling system continuously monitoring the sample gases withdrawn from the ballast tanks, void spaces
and accommodation A/C intake for the presence of explosive gases and generate alarm in case hydrocarbon gases
present.

783. What is LEL of explosive gases?

The minimum concentration of a particular combustible gas or vapour necessary to support its combustion in air is
defined as the Lower Explosive Limit (LEL) for that gas. The maximum concentration of a gas or vapour that will burn in
air is defined as the Upper Explosive Limit (UEL) for that gas.

784. At what percentage of LEL, the alarm is set for?

The Alarm is set for 10% of LEL. Test gas is Butane and concentration of Test Gas is 35% of LEL.

785. Explain what is ―ppm‖ terminology and where is this terminology using?

PPM stands for ParticlesPer Million. Ppm is the mass of any contaminate per unit volume of water or air. Million stands
for 1 litre volume of water or airand 1 particle representing 1 millionth of that volume. 1 milligram is 1/1000 gram and 1
gram is 1/1000 Kg/litre. 1000 x 1000 is 1000000 milligram is 1 litre/kg.

786. What is TLV and where is this terminology using?

TLV stands for Threshold Limit Value. TLV is an indicator to measure the concentrations of toxic gases and many other
substances which can harm humans or animals. Sometimes TLV is referred to as Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL). It is
expressed in ppm.

787. For safe man entry to an enclosed space, what can be the LEL percentageof an HC gas inside?
As per ISGOTT requirements, LEL should be less than 1% of LEL, Oxygen content should be 21% and no Toxic gases
or other contaminant present for a man entry.
788. What is peculiarity of safety torches which is using on board tanker ships?
Safety torches are made to use in hazardous areas where explosive gases/vapour are present.

Answer: Its body is made with Robust and Antistatic Thermoplastic material which will not allow the dangerous static
charges to accumulate on its body. Moreover it is soft in nature and will not create spark in the event it falls to hard
surfaces.

789. What are the dangers of High Voltage?

Shock hazard, Arcing Hazard and Arc Blast hazard.

790. What are the advantages of High voltage system?

High voltage system giving the flexibility of transmission through lower gauge cables and lower current rated control
devices compared to Low voltage system for a given load requirement. The size of the generator as well as motors of
high voltage system for a given load will be considerably smaller than low voltage system.

791. What are the disadvantages of high voltage system?

High voltage system requires higher degree of insulation for all its control devices, transmission systems as well as
motors and generators.

792. What is the safe distance for high voltage?

793. What is Polarization component?

Every insulator is hygroscopic in nature. Some contaminant molecules and mainly moisture in insulator are very polar.
When an electric field is applied across insulator the polar molecules align themselves along the direction of electric field.
The energy required for this alignment of polar molecules, comes from voltage source in form of electric current. This
current is called polarization current. It continues until all the polar molecules aligned themselves along the direction of
electric field. It takes around 10 minutes to align the polar molecules along electric field and that is why if we take Megger
result for 10 minutes, there would be no effect of polarizing current in Megger result.

794. How to take High Voltage Motor Insulation?

To apply a Polarization Index test of a high voltage motor, a motor driven generator or an electronic convertor powered
from a local 220 V AC supply will have to use. Before applying an IR test to HV equipment, it‘s power supply must be
switched off, Isolated, confirmed dead by using an approved live line tester. Then the conductors must be earth down
for complete safety.
An EPTW should be issued.

Then connect the IR tester to the circuit/equipment under test. Disconnect the earth down cable by using an insulated
extension tool. Now the IR test voltage can be applied and note down the readings. After taking the readings, again
connect back the earth down cable by using the insulated extension tool. After earth down, disconnect the IR tester. This
safety routines must be applied for each separate IR test.

795. What is the voltage of HV Megger?

2.5 KV or 5 KV. 5000 V DC Megger can be used for 6.6KV installations. Similarly 2500 V DC Megger can be used for
3.3KV installations.

796. What are the safe work requirements for high voltage systems?
1. Person should be trained and certified for the high voltage system job safely.
2: Access to high voltage system should be strictly controlled by ―Permit To Work‖ scheme. Electrical Permit To Work
(EPTW).
3: Live line test should be done.
4: Before any work starts, ―Earthing down‖ of the high voltage conductors should be done.
5: Always two persons should be there while working on high voltage equipment.
797. What are the safety protections provided by ACB?
Adjustable Long Time Delay Trip – LTD
Adjustable Short Time Delay Trip – STD
Adjustable Instantaneous Trip – INST
Adjustable Pre Trip Alarm – PTA
Adjustable Ground Fault Trip – GFT
Under Voltage Trip- UVT

798. What will happen if a 3 phase alternator rotates in opposite to its normal direction? Assume.
If the 3 phase alternator rotates to opposite of its normal direction, the phase sequence will change and all connected 3
phase motors will run in opposite direction too. If the generator arranged to synchronise with other generators in a
common bus or multi grid network, this generator cannot synchronise with them. For a synchronism, the voltage,
frequency, phase angle and phase sequencemust be identical.

799. What are the causes of a generator for not building up voltage?
The most common reason forStatic excited compound brushless alternators for not producing voltage can be due to the
loss of residual magnetism of the field core. If the cables leading from AVR tothe exciter field (DC) breaks due to some
reason, also no voltage will be produced. The DC connection after the rotating rectifiers to the main rotor fields breaks
also, no voltage will be produced.
For Rotary excited brushless alternators (PMG Type), the reason can be wire breaks in the output from PM Generator
to AVR, DC output from the AVR to the exciter field or DC connection from the output of rotating rectifiers to the main
field rotor. If the rotary exciter is commutatortype, then the most common reason can be the failure of carbon brushes.

800. What is flashing of generators? Why it is required to disconnect AVR connections while flashing? If not removed AVR
connections, what will happen? Why?
Flashing is sometime required only in Static Excited compound generators. These type generators, the residual
magnetism left over with the exciter field pole material initialising the building up of voltage while starting. If the
generator not used for a long time or during the major repair/maintenance of alternator, heating the field winding to
improve insulation resistancemay also result in losing these residual magnetism.
In such situation, magnetising the field poles by giving external DC (12V) is required and the same is called flashing of
generators. Remove the wires F+ and F- from AVR terminals and connect a 12 volt battery to the stationary exciter field
by observing the polarity. Keep connected for about 10 minutes. After 10 minutes, disconnect the battery and connect
back the AVR leads. Start the engine and monitor the voltage building up in the generator. If not, repeat the same
procedure again until voltage starts building up.
During flashing, it is important to disconnect the leads from AVR to protect its‘ components from damage by the battery
voltage which is appearing in the AVR outputs since the flashing battery also coming in parallel.

801. What are the causes of a generator for not building up voltage?
The most common reason forStatic excited compound brushless alternators for not producing voltage can be due to the
loss of residual magnetism of the field core. If the cables leading from AVR tothe exciter field (DC) breaks due to some
reason, also no voltage will be produced. The DC connection after the rotating rectifiers to the main rotor fields breaks
also, no voltage will be produced.
For Rotary excited brushless alternators (PMG Type), the reason can be wire breaks in the output from PM Generator
to AVR, DC output from the AVR to the exciter field or DC connection from the output of rotating rectifiers to the main
field rotor. If the rotary exciter is commutatortype, then the most common reason can be the failure of carbon brushes.

802. What is flashing of generators? Why it is required to disconnect AVR connections while flashing? If not removed AVR
connections, what will happen? Why?
Flashing is sometime required only in Static Excited compound generators. These type generators, the residual
magnetism left over with the exciter field pole material initialising the building up of voltage while starting. If the
generator not used for a long time or during the major repair/maintenance of alternator, heating the field winding to
improve insulation resistancemay also result in losing these residual magnetism.
In such situation, magnetising the field poles by giving external DC (12V) is required and the same is called flashing of
generators. Remove the wires F+ and F- from AVR terminals and connect a 12 volt battery to the stationary exciter field
by observing the polarity. Keep connected for about 10 minutes. After 10 minutes, disconnect the battery and connect
back the AVR leads. Start the engine and monitor the voltage building up in the generator. If not, repeat the same
procedure again until voltage starts building up.
During flashing, it is important to disconnect the leads from AVR to protect its‘ components from damage by the battery
voltage which is appearing in the AVR outputs since the flashing battery also coming in parallel.

803. What are the equipments connected with GMDSS Battery?

MF/HF DIGITAL RADIOTELEPHONE
DSC/WATCH KEEPING RECEIVER
INMARSAT-C
SSAS ALERT UNIT
No.1 & 2 GPS
No.1 & 2 VHF

804. Where is the regulations regarding electrical installations on board ships can be found?
SOLAS Chapter II-1, Part D, Regulations 40, 41,42,43,44 and 45.
Regulation 40: General.
Regulation 41: Main Power Source.
 Regulation 42: Emergency Power Source for Passenger Ships.
Regulation 43: Emergency Power Source for Cargo Ships.
Regulation 44: Starting Arrangement for Emergency Generator.
Regulation 45: Precautions against Shock, Fire and other Hazards of Electrical origin.

805. What are the SOLAS regulation requirements for GMDSS Batteries?
SOLAS Chapter IV, Part C, Regulation 13.
1 hour if the ship is equipped with emergency generator which is fully complies with the regulations of Chapter II-1, Part
D, Regulation 42 and 43.

6 hours in case if the ship is not provided an emergency generator which is complies the regulations of Chapter II-1, Part
D, Regulations 42 and 43.

806. How the preferential trip mechanism works?

Dash Pot Mechanism were using earlier. Now the PLC or Embedded system based Power Management System (PMS) is
monitoring and controlling the entire operations of MSBD.

807. How you will determine the condition (Efficiency) of Lead Acid Batteries?
To determine the efficiency of lead acid batteries, we can use HRD Testers. High Rate Discharge Tester (HRD) Testers
are a device with a Voltmeter and a low value Shunt Resistor as dummy load connected across its terminals. This type
of tester is used to check the internal resistance of each individual cell. The voltmeter is a bidirectional type and pointer
in centre of the scale can deflect to both directions. While connecting to the cell terminals, heavy current will flow
through the tester. If the internal resistance of the cell is good, the voltage will read more than 2 Volt and if the internal
resistance is weak, then the pointer will read below 2V depends upon the internal resistance. This device should not
connect to the cell for more than 10 seconds.
Modern HRD Testers are coming for 12V and 24V batteries direct testing, not individual cells.. At the end of the test
duration, tester will calculate/indicate the efficiency of the battery under test. The dummy load will be selectable for
different discharge currents for different capacity batteries.

Another way to find out the efficiency is to allow the battery voltage to drop 80% of the output nominal voltage (Initial
Voltage at fully charged condition) under constant current discharge condition. Note down the duration of the battery
under test can supply constant current before it falls to 80% of the nominal fully charged voltage. Compare this duration
with the expected duration of the battery under test and calculate the efficiency.

808. How is the charge indicator on maintenance free batteries works?

809. What is Piezoelectric Effect

Piezoelectric Effect is the ability of certain materials to generate an electric charge in response to applied mechanical
stress. The word Piezoelectric is derived from the Greek piezein, which means to squeeze or press, and piezo, which is
Greek for ―push‖.

810. What is Viscosity and How does the viscosity controller work and what is the viscosity of Fuel oil at room temperature?

Viscosity of a liquid is the resistance of that liquid to flow. Viscosity high means that the liquid will be thicker than low
viscosity liquids. Viscosity of HFO at 50⁰ C can be 180 CST to 720 CST depends upon the quality/property of that oil.
For using this fuel on engines, we will have to heat it up to get a viscosity of 11 CST. The heating temperature can vary
from 132⁰C to 154⁰C depends on the properties of the fuels.
There are two types of Viscosity controllers used on board ships. The earlier type viscosity controllers are using
Differential Pressure Transducers to measure the viscosity and modern type Viscosity controllers are using Torsion
Pendulum Sensors for measurements.

DP Transmitter type: Viscosity of the fluid to be measured is passed through a fine fixed dimension capillary tube and
pressure drop across the capillary tube is measured. Pressure drop across the capillary is proportional to the viscosity
of fluid if the capillary dimension is fixed. The pressure drop across the capillary is send to the Differential Pressure
 transducer which will convert it to a 3 to 15 psi signal. This signal will be send to a PID controller to regulate the heater
to maintain the viscosity at set value. The difference in pressure can be converted to a 4-20 mA signal also to use with
electronic PID controllers for regulating the heating.

Torsion Pendulum Sensor Type: The sensor consists of a stainless steel driver/ sensor head attached to the base plate
by means of a tubular torsion spring will be immersed in the fluid of which viscosity is to be measured. In the head, one
pair of Piezo elements (Driver Piezos) actuates the pendulum at its torsional resonance frequency, while another pair
(Receiver Piezos) probe the actual movement of the head. In a low viscosity medium, like air, the resonance frequency
is in the range of 1600 Hz. In a high viscosity medium, the movement of the head is damped by the liquid.
Consequently, the resonance frequency slightly shifts towards lower frequencies, whilst the width of the resonance
peak increases, which is a measure for the viscosity.This shift in frequency according to the viscosity of the fluid will be
processed and converted to a corresponding 4-20 mA signal which will be sent to a PID controller to regulate the heater
to maintain the viscosity at set value.

MDO (Marine diesel oil) – A blend of heavy gasoil that may contain very small amounts of black refinery feed stocks,
0
but has a low viscosity up to 12 cSt/40

811. What is static electricity and how it is dangerous on board tanker ships
Static electricity is the imbalance of electric charges within or on the surface of a material. Static electricity produced due to the
following phenomenon.
1. Pressure induced charge separation: Piezoelectric Effect. Applied mechanical stress generates a separation of charge in
certain types of crystals and ceramics.
2. Heat induced charge separation: Pyro electric Effect. Heating generates a separation of charge in the atoms or molecules of
certain materials. (Example: Hair dryer).
3. Charge induced charge separation: Electrostatic Induction. A charged object brought into the vicinity of an electrically
neutral object, will cause a separation of charge within the conductor. Example: Computer boards and electronic components
keeping inside the antistatic packing. This packing acts as a Faraday‘s cage that surrounds the material inside and keeps charge
from entering or leaving from the material.
4. Contact Induced Charge Separation. Electrons can be exchanged between materials on contact. Materials with weakly bond
electrons tend to lose them, while material with sparsely filled outer shells tends to gain them. This is known as the triboelectric
effect and results in one material becoming positively charged and the other negatively charged. Example: Rubbing different
material together causes the static charge to accumulate on the surfaces of materials.

Static electricity presents fire and explosion hazards during the handling of petroleum and other tanker operations such as tank
cleaning, dipping, ullaging and sampling. Certain operations can give rise to accumulations of electric charge which may be
released suddenly in electrostatic discharges with sufficient energy to ignite flammable hydrocarbon gas/air mixtures. There is, of
course, no risk of ignition unless a flammable mixture is present. There are three basic stages leading up to a potential static
hazard:
1. Charge separation;
2. Charge accumulation; and
3. Electrostatic discharge.

812. What are the different types of Frequency convertors? Draw block diagram.
Mainly there are three types of Frequency Convertors. Synchro converters (AC-DC-AC), Cycloconvertors (AC-AC) and Pulse
Width Modulation Type (PWM) (AC-DC-AC).

813. Explain the working principle of OMD Sensor.

The atmosphere of the crankcase compartments are continuously drawn out by means of headers and direct through
an optical opacity measuring track. In this measuring track the opacity (Turbidity) of the drawn crankcase atmosphere is
determined by means of infrared light

814. What type of signal is used for signal processing in PLCs?

Discrete signals or discrete time signals. Both are same. Discrete means individually separate and distinct.

815. If the PLC fails in a control system, can you operate the machinery/process?
If the system is provided with redundancy scheme (Emergency operation), we can change over to this scheme and
operate the machinery/process. Critical machineries like Boiler and Framo Cargo Pumping system have different stages
of bypassing the PLC and Manual Overriding of the bypassed functions.
If the systems doesn‘t have redundancy scheme provided, then functioning of machinery/process will not be possible.

816. What is scan cycle of PLC and what is the duration of a scan cycle?
The process of sequentially reading the inputs, executing the program, and updating the outputs are known as the scan
cycle. Scanning cycles will be continuously performed as long as the PLC is in RUN mode. Each cycle starts with Input
scan first, where the CPU will check the statuses of all input field devices connected to the Input modules. This
information will be transferred to the input image memory of CPU. After the input scan, CPU will perform the Process
Scan, where it will compare the input information with the stored program instructions and prepare the new set of output
instructions. This new instructions will be transferred to the output image memory of the CPU. After the completion of
Program Scan, it will perform the Output Scan or Updating scan. This period, PLC will write off all new instructions in
the output image memory to the output modules connected and here these modules will make the necessary physical
changes to the output field devices connected. Before going to start the next scan cycle, a small duration is used for
 housekeeping scan. During this scan period, PLC will check its own internal healthiness and generate an alarm if
anything find wrong.

Scan cycle duration will be depends upon the number of instructions given in the program as well as the speed of the
processor. Generally it can be from 3 milliseconds to 100 milliseconds.

817. Two generators are running in parallel, KW is same but current is different why?

This phenomenon is due to the improper reactive load sharing. This kind of situation, the individual output voltages of
the alternators will be different. While running single, this voltage difference will not be a problem. But while running in
parallel, they will not share the reactive load equally. For to make the reactive load sharing equally, we will have to
adjust slightly one generator‘s output voltage while they are running parallel until we see the current also sharing
equally.

818. What is an optocoupler?How does it works? Where is its application?

Optocoupler is an electronic component which is coupling an input signal to its output by means of optical way. It is a
combination of an LED in the input section and a photo transistor at the output section. Basically it is electrically
isolating the input to its output, but coupling the input signal to its output. All Digital input modules and Digital output
modules in the PLC are using optocouplers. Similarly in the SMPS power supplies, for the feedback signal to the
oscillator section also done through optocouplers only.

819. Differentiate discrete signal, digital and analogue inputs of PLC.

Discrete signals or discrete time signals are the output signals from the Analogue to Digital Converters which are digital
signals only with distinct values by sampling and quantization to represent the analogue signals. The analogue input
signals cannot read or process by computers or PLCs working by Digital electronics. So the Analogue signals to be
converted to digital signals for reading and processing by a computer or PLCs. This conversion of Analogue to Digital
has been done by the A/D Converters. The A/D converters will digitise the time variable of the analogue signals, a
process called sampling and digitise the instantaneous amplitude of the analogue signal, a process called
quantization.In a discrete time signal the number of elements in the set as well as the possible values of each element
are finite, countable and can be represented with computer bits.Digital signals are the binary type signal which is having
only two states, either LOW or HIGH. Analogue signals are those signals which is having an amplitude depends upon
the measured quantity and continuous in time. It is a time varying voltage signal.

820. How is the boiler drum pressure and combustion pressure controlled?
Fuzzy logic program and Combustion curve programmed in the PLC is controlling the drum pressure. The CPU is
monitoring the steam demand, production of steam and using the fuzzy logic for regulating the combustion rate.
Actually combustion rate is regulated according to the steam consumption to maintain the set steam pressure.

821. Explain what are ODME and the working principle.

Oil Discharge Monitoring Control System (ODMCS) sometimes referred as Oil Discharge Monitoring Equipment
(ODME), is used to discharge the slop on board tanker ships to sea by controlling, monitoring and recording. The
separation of oil from water is by natural gravity only. Pump will take suction from the bottom of slop tank and oil will be
settled on the top surface of water.
This is a requirement for tanker ships by MARPOL 73/78 Annex-1, Prevention of pollution by oil from ships.
ODMCS monitoring the PPM content of oil discharged to the sea and in the event of ppm increases above 1000,
overboard valve closes and recirculation valve opens.
MARPOL 73/78 permits a total volume of 30 l/nm oil discharge to sea provided that ship should be
moving.

ODMCS utilising the light scatter technology for measuring oil content.

822. Explain a Two speed motor diagram how to connect for LOW and HIGH speed.
823. What is Electronic Governor and how it is controlling Main Engine Speed?
M/E Electronic governor is an Electronic PID controller to Control the RPM of M/E precisely at the set value. It is forming part of
the bridge manoeuvring system (BMS). Main parts of an electronic governor are,
A:Main control unit: This is the CPU based process unit which is controlling the Engine RPM. The inputs to this unit are the
speed order signal from the operator, Actual RPM Signal from the Pickups and Scavenging air pressure signal from Scavenge
Air receiver. The output signal from this section goes to the Servo controller.

B: Servo Controller: This unit receiving signal from the Control unit and giving an output voltage to the Servo Motor.

C: This servo motor is regulating the fuel rack to maintain the set RPM by the operator. A feedback signal from a Resolver
which is forming part of the actuator will be given to the servo driver to position the servo motor shaft at correct angle.

D: RPM Pickups: Which are sensing the real time RPM and giving to Main control unit for comparison with set value.

E: Pressure transducer: This pressure transducer converts the scavenge air pressure to a 4-20 mA signal and giving to Main
control unit for regulating the fuel according to the combustion curve stored in the CPU.

824. What are the advantages of Electronic governor?

1. Visible governor control conditions from Control Room Display.

2. Easy change of governor properties through the set parameters
3. Arbitrarily controllable maximum fuel supply.(Chief Limit).
4. Easy checking of governor output conditions from control room display by simulation test.
5. Fuel Rack control from control room (Direct Mode).
6. Stabilized fuel rack with no fluctuation under abnormal conditions that can affect the engine running speed.
8. Easier installation owing to downsized motor driven actuator and
9. Easier actuator maintenance owing to brushless motor adoption.

825. What is dead weight brake in life boat winch?

All types of winches using for lowering or hoisting a weight should have two types of braking system. One is stop brake and the
other is for the controlled lowering of the weight. Manual brakes shall be so arranged that the brake is always applied unless the
operator, or a mechanism activated by the operator holds the brake control in the ―OFF‖ position (Dead-Man Type). For
controlled lowering of life boats, Governor Breaks (Centrifugal Mechanism Breaks) are provided. At certain preset speed of the
motor shaft (10 meters per minute lowering speed of Life boat), the fly out mechanism will be opening and brake will be applying
with the stationary drum. This break will not be allowing the winch motor to be driven by the driving force uncontrollably.

826. Explain the Autopilot System?

Autopilot System is an Electronic, CPU based PID controller to steer a ship in the set course by the operator. The main parts of
an Auto Pilot System are Gyro compass, Automatic processing Unit, Steering wheel, Rudder Servo Amplifier, Steering Gear
Control System, Hydraulic Power Pack and Hydraulic Rudder Actuator.

827. CO₂Total flooding type Fire Extinguishing System, Nozzles are fitted in discharge side. Why?
Compressed CO₂ in the cylinders are in liquid form. While releasing to the protected space, the moment CO₂ leaves the cylinder,
it will start violently boiling and changing its state as it advances through the pipe works. This will cause the pipe lines to frozen
and moistures inside the pipe works get condense, solidify and block the flow of CO₂. By providing the nozzles at all discharge
ports, these nozzles will make sure that the pressure inside the all pipeline work will remain same and the CO₂ will remain as
liquid until it leaves the discharge Nozzles. The equal pressure inside the pipeline work will make sure that CO₂ will be
distributed and discharged evenly in all platforms of protected spaces.

828. What is open loop control and close loop control?

In open loop control system the process information is measured and passed to the controller, forwarded to the control element
which takes the corrective action. In open loop control system the controller never aware about the result of its control actions.
Examples: The speed control of a ship is an open loop control system. The speed information of the ship is never fed back to
engine.
Starting and running of fresh water generator. The production quantity of fresh water is never feed back to the generator.
In closed loop system the process value is fed back to the controller continuously and the controller will be taking corrective
action to maintain the process value at set value all the time.

829. How the Boiler DP transmitter calibrate? Explain?

The DP cell can be calibrated in place by using a pressure calibrator and Digital multimeter which can measure less than 30 mA
precisely.

Procedure: Break the current signal loop and connect the multi meter by observing the correct polarity at ammeter range,
suitable for measuring 4-20 mA precisely. Disconnect the high pressure side and low pressure side

connections after isolating the DP Cell. Now the current on the meter display should read 4 mA. Connect the pressure calibrator
to high pressure side and low pressure side to remain open to atmosphere. Slowly press up the calibrator to the DP Cell‘s
 maximum differential pressure range by taking care not to overshoot the pressure. At this pressure, the meter should read the
current as 20 mA.
Offset Adjustments: When both the sides are vented at atmospheric pressure, the meter should read 4 mA. If there is any offset,
adjust the zero adjusting potentiometer with a small screw driver. After adjusting zero, press up the calibrator to maximum range
and if the meter is reading more or less than 20 mA, then turn the span adjusting screw slowly to read this pressure as 20 mA.
Whenever span is adjusted the zero also will be shifted little. So zero checking and correction again has to perform. Similarly the
span checking and fine adjustment has to perform again. This zero, span checking and adjustments to do again until an
acceptable accuracy achieved. Once the zero and span has been set, the linearity of the transducer has to be checked in
minimum 4 steps, say at 25%,50%,75% and 100%. The linearity can be checked with more steps for better accuracy. The same
way, hysterysis of the transducer also has to be checked in steps.

830. How does the anemometer work?

The arms are attached to a vertical rod. As the wind blows, the cups rotate, making the rod spin. The stronger the wind blows,
the faster the rod spins. The anemometer counts the number of rotations, or turns, which is used to calculate wind speed.

In another design, known as optoelectronic, spinning cups turn a kind of paddle wheel inside the metal canister underneath.
Each time the paddle wheel rotates, it breaks a light beam and generates a pulse of current. An electronic circuit times the
pulses and uses them to calculate the wind speed.

The fact that a stream of air will cool a heated object (the rate of cooling being determined by the speed of the airflow) is the
principle underlying the hot-wire anemometer. An electrically heated fine wire is placed in the airflow. As the airflow increases,
the wire cools. In the most common type of hot-wire anemometer, the constant-temperature type, power is increased to maintain
a constant wire temperature. The input power to the hot wire is then a measure of airspeed, and a meter in the electrical circuit of
the hot wire can be calibrated to indicate airspeed.

831. What is Critical speed and Why? How it can overcome?

Any object, under self or induced vibration will have some natural frequency of vibration. When the induced vibration frequency
equals to the natural frequency of vibration of that object, then the amplitude of vibration will increase to infinity. This condition is
called resonance and at which speed of an engine resonance occurs is called the Critical Speed or Critical RPM of that engine.

832. What is the safety interlocks provided in boiler?

For equipment safety, the interlocks are provided as follows.

1. ATOMIZING STEAM PRESS. LOW
2. F.O TEMP. LOW
3. STEAM PRESS. HIGH
4. TOO LOW WATER LEVEL
5. EMERGENCY STOP
6. F.D FAN OVERLOAD
7. F.O PRESS LOW.
8. COMB. AIR PRESS. LOW
9. FLAME FAIL.
10. WINDBOX TEMP. HIGH
11. INSTRUMENT AIR PRESS. LOW
12. GUN NOT INSERT
13. PLC FAIL.

833. What is Proximity switch and how it is working?

Proximity switches are the sensors to detect the presence of an object without having physical contact. There are several types
of proximity sensors/switches and these are named after the technique what the sensor is employed to detect the presence of
nearby objects. The main proximity sensors are as follows.
1. Inductive proximity sensors: These type of sensors utilising the change in inductance to detect when a Ferromagnetic type
object come closure to the sensor.
2. Capacitive Proximity Sensors: These type sensors utilising the change in capacitance to detect the object nearby or its
surrounding medium. Because it can sense its surrounding medium, these type sensors are utilised to detect oil in water and
level sensing of liquids.
3. Photoelectric Sensors: These type sensors utilising a light beam to the nearby object to see whether it is there or not.
4. Infrared Type Proximity sensors: These type sensors utilising the IR Spectrum lights to transmit and detect the object by
comparing the phase of the reflected light from the object.

All the above type proximity sensors are available in PNP Transistor switching for Sinking type Input Modules and NPN
Transistor switching for Sourcing Type input Modules.
834. What is strain gauge? How it is working?
Strain gauges are resistive type sensing elements of which resistance will change according to the strain or stress applied on it.
For measuring stress or strain, this element will form part as an arm of a Wheatstone bridge circuit. Under balanced conditions,
the voltage across all resistors will be equal and no voltage difference will be at the opposite sides of bridge circuit. When a
strain or stress applied to the strain gauge, its resistance will change and this change in resistance will cause an imbalance in
the Wheatstone bridge circuit. Due to this imbalance, a voltage difference will happen across the opposite sides of the bridge
circuit and a current can flow to the monitoring circuits. This current will be a measure to the stress or strain applied to it and can
amplify, process convert into desired kind of signals.

835. How is the air fuel ratio controlled for a boiler?

Combustion ratio curve for optimum combustion is programmed into the PLC. According to the consumption of steam the fuzzy
logic will increase the combustion capacity through the curve.
The air damper controller and fuel regulator will operate according to the signal received from the PLC. The fuel regulator and air
damper controller will also give a feedback to the PLC regarding their positions to maintain the combustion curve.

836. Steering gear system auto isolation system.

Auto isolation systems in steering gears are given to provide protection from complete failure due to hydraulic leakages from
individual units and its associated lines. Since the rudder actuators are common and power packs are two independent systems,
leakages from one system can cause the healthy unit also to lose hydraulic oil through the defective unit. To prevent this from
happening, the auto isolation valves are provided which will isolate the defective unit in the event of a low level alarm condition.
In Rotary vane type Rudder actuators, the auto isolation valves are pilot operated check valves and these valves providing the
hydraulic lock to the actuators too. In Ramp Piston type actuators, auto isolations are provided by solenoid operated valves in
the P and T lines of individual units before them connecting to the actuators. Hydraulic locks to actuator are provided by the
solenoid operated direction control valves only.

On board Ships, the rudder actuator for steering the vessel will be only one unit and two units of hydraulic power packs will be
provided for 100% redundancy. If any leaks develops in the associated hydraulic piping of any individual unit, the standby unit
will start and its oil also leaks through the defective unit since the actuator is common.
To prevent these kinds of leakages, an auto isolation system is provided to isolate the defective unit from the actuator.
In piston type actuators, solenoid operated isolation systems are provided. In rotary wane type actuators, hydraulic pilot
operated check valves are provided.

837. Different security levels in ISPS. Explain?

LEVEL 1 – Normal Level

In normal level, both ships and port operations are carried out in general way.
Minimum security measures are always maintained on board and in port.
Ship and port operation are carried out as per ship and port facility security plan.
Port facility ensures to keep the ‗no access‘ areas under surveillance at all times.
Ship and port authority mutually supervise loading and unloading operation of cargo and stores, ensuring access control and
other minimum security criteria.
Minimum access in the ship is maintained at all times.

LEVEL 2- Heightened Risk

In level 2, the threat to the security is higher than the normal level.
All the routine and cargo operations are carried out with an increase in security measures in both ships and ports.
Look-outs in no access zone and waterside area are to be increased by port and ship authorities.
Access control is maintained all the time with escorting the visitors and use of security equipment like metal detector etc.
Communication between port authority and ship administration is always maintained in case of increase in security level.
Preparing a full or partial search operation of the ship.
A declaration of security is undertaken between port state and ship administration.

LEVEL 3 – Imminent danger

Level 3 is imposed when the probability of security threat to ship or port authorities are highest or imminent and specific
protective measures are to be maintained.
In level 3 all ship and port operations are stopped and frequent security rounds and duties are carried out by both ship staff and
port authorities. Boat patrol is done by port state on the water side.
Main propulsion plant is always kept ready for moving the ship out of port if require.
No personal is allowed to access the ship without the authorization of port state official.
Only one access point is maintained on board at all time.
Preparing a full search operation of ship or under water hull search operation with port facility.
Preparation for evacuation of ship by its staff.

A declaration of security is undertaken between port state and ships administration.

838. 15 ppm sensor on board calibration?

MAPOL: 4.2.5 states that, it should not be necessary to calibrate the 15 ppm alarm on board ship, but on board
testing according to manufacturers’ instruction shall be permitted.
 MARPOL 4.2.11: The accuracy of the 15 ppm bilge alarm should be checked at IOPP certificate renewal surveys
according to the manufacturers’ instructions. Alternatively the unit may be replaced by a calibrated 15 ppm bilge
alarm. He calibration certificate for the 15 ppm bilge alarm certifying the date of last calibration check should be
retained on board for inspection purposes. The accuracy checks can only be done by the manufacturer or persons
authorised by the manufacturer.

839. MSBD safeties.

Over load protection, Over/under frequency protection, under voltage protection, over voltage protection,
reverse power protection and preferential trip protection. Continuous insulation monitoring also provided.

840. Working Principle of Smoke, heat and flame detectors.

Optical type smoke detector uses the light scattering principle, i.e., the Light emitted from the light source (light emitting element)
is scattered by Smoke particles, reaching the light receiving element.

Ionisation Type Smoke Detectors using the Absorption of ions by smoke in its monitoring chamber. Normal monitoring period,
the ions produced by the radioactive material in the measuring chamber allows a constant current flows through the ionised
atmosphere between the electrodes of the detector. When smoke enters between these electrodes, it absorbs the ions and
current conduction between the terminals decreases. This reduction in current will trigger the circuit to make the alarm.

Rate of Rise Type Heat Detectors will not respond to the slow rise of ambient temperature to cause a fault alarm. One set
bimetal strip will be thermally insulated and other set will be exposed to atmosphere. These types will respond to the fast
changes in temperature due to actual fire only.

Flame Detector :Radiant intensity signals of the flame sent by a muffle burner change into relevant voltage strength signals by the photoelectric sensor.
That characteristic of a flame most useful for its detection, is the electromagnetic radiation produced by it. This radiation covers
the spectral range from infrared to far ultraviolet. Infrared and visible radiations, are functions of flame temperature and
emissivity. Since furnace and burner parts become heated by the flame, they become potential secondary sources of infrared
and visible radiation, which must be discriminated against.

This is accomplished with a reasonable degree of success by a signal processing apparatus, which ignores the averaged steady
state radiations and utilizes for signal purposes, only the repetitive minute fluctuations in radiation intensity, within the
region scanned by the sensor. This ―flicker‖ characteristic is present in varying magnitude and frequency, in all radiating bodies
in a furnace environment, but is sufficiently greater in most flames, to enable them to be distinguished from secondary
sources.

841. How to increase starting torque electrically and mechanically?

Electrically- By adding external resistance to wound rotor type motors for improving its power factor. Mechanically by making the
rotor slots skewed and thereby increasing the length to increase the rotor impedance. Note that different constructions of the
rotor bars, with different resistances are used to permanently affect the torque curves of many motors.

842. What are VCB and SF6 breakers?

Vacuum Circuit Breakers (VCB) and Sulphur Hexafluoride (SF₆) Circuit breakers are the most commonly used Medium Voltage
(3.3 kV to 11kV) Interrupters in Marine Applications.
Vacuum Circuit Breaker is the best and easy for maintenance. The contact gap required for a 15 kV system is 1 cm and for 3 kV
is only 2mm.
Vacuum integrity should be tested for any suspected leaks. For this purpose after isolating and removing the VCB out of panel,
connect a high voltage megger- 5000 V for 6.6kV rated breaker, across each poles for a period of 1 minute. After 1 minute also if
the megger reading resistance in order of Giga Ohms, means the vacuum integrity is good.
Sulphur Hexafluoride type circuit breakers are using the gas filled chamber for voltage interruption.The chamber is maintaining
about 5 kg/cm² pressure and a pressure switch is monitoring the gas pressure. If any leakages of the gas will activates the
pressure switch and thereby tripping the beaker. They are very good in arc quenching but this gas is expensive and monitoring is
required since it is a greenhouse effect gas.

843. What is Greenhouse effect?

Earth is constantly bombarded with enormous amounts of radiation, primarily from the sun. This solar radiation strikes the Earth's
atmosphere in the form of visible light, plus ultraviolet (UV), infrared (IR) and other types of radiation that are invisible to the
human eye.

UV radiation has a shorter wavelength and a higher energy level than visible light, while IR radiation has a longer wavelength
and a weaker energy level. About 30 percent of the radiation striking Earth's atmosphere is immediately reflected back out to
space by clouds, ice, snow, sand and other reflective surfaces.

The remaining 70 percent of incoming solar radiation is absorbed by the oceans, the land and the atmosphere. As they heat up,
the oceans, land and atmosphere release heat in the form of IR thermal radiation, which passes out of the atmosphere and into
space.
 It's this equilibrium of incoming and outgoing radiation that makes the Earth habitable, with an average temperature of about 59
degrees Fahrenheit (15 degrees Celsius),

Without this atmospheric equilibrium, Earth would be as cold and lifeless as its moon, or as blazing hot as Venus. The moon,
which has almost no atmosphere, is about minus 243 F (minus 153 C) on its dark side. Venus, on the other hand, has a very
dense atmosphere that traps solar radiation; the average temperature on Venus is about 864 F (462 C).

The greenhouse effect: The exchange of incoming and outgoing radiation that warms the Earth is often referred to as the
greenhouse effect because a greenhouse works in much the same way.

844. Explain ELCB, MCCB and MCB?

ELCB: Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker. Phase(line), neutral and earth wire are connected through ELCB. ELCB is a
voltage operated device and no longer in use. It has been replaced by RCCBs. RCCB is a current operated safety
device and having connection of phase and neutral only. It is monitoring the difference in current through phase
and neutral by means of an impedance transformer. Any difference in the entering current and leaving current is a
measure to leakage and RCCB will trip if the difference exceeds 30mA.
RCCB using a Core Balance Current Transformer (CBCT) to detect the difference in current and associated
electronics will activate the trip relay.
MCCB: Moulded Case Circuit Breaker. MCCBs are used for distribution boards to connect various loads. Rated
current is up to 1000A. Trip current may be adjustable. Thermal or thermal-magnetic operation.

MCB: Miniature Circuit Breaker. MCB are used to connect the light loads from local DBs. Rated current is not more
than100A. Thermal or thermal magnetic operation.
845. Ballast water regulations and why it is made?
International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships' Ballast Water and Sediments (BWM). Adoption: 13 February
2004; Entry into force: 12 months after ratification by 30 States, representing 35 per cent of world merchant shipping tonnage.
The Ballast Water Management Convention, adopted in 2004, aims to prevent the spread of harmful aquatic organisms from one
region to another, by establishing standards and procedures for the management and control of ships' ballast water and
sediments
Under the Convention, all ships in international traffic are required to manage their ballast water and sediments to a certain
standard, according to a ship-specific ballast water management plan. All ships will also have to carry a ballast water record
book and an international ballast water management certificate. The ballast water management standards will be phased in over
a period of time. As an intermediate solution, ships should exchange ballast water mid-ocean. However, eventually most ships
will need to install an on-board ballast water treatment system.
A number of guidelines have been developed to facilitate the implementation of the Convention.

The Convention will require all ships to implement a Ballast Water and Sediments Management Plan. All ships will have to carry
a Ballast Water Record Book and will be required to carry out ballast water management procedures to a given standard.
Existing ships will be required to do the same, but after a phase-in period.

846. Explain soft starter with the help of a diagram?

Soft starters are Power Electronics employed motor starters. During starting the voltage will be applied minimum and slowly
increase it until motor reaches to its rated RPM. Once the motor reached its rated speed, the electronic section will be bypassed
and direct voltage will be applied to the motor through contactors. SCRs in back to back configuration or Triacs will be used to
drive the motor during starting. Electronic circuits will be used to control the conduction angle of SCRs/Triacs. The conduction
angle will be increased slowly in a pre set time by the electronics until reaches to full cycle. By adjusting the conduction angle,
actually the average voltage appears in the motor will be varying.

847. What all the Alternator routines?

1. Cleaning/renewal of air filters.

2. Megger testing.
3. Air gap inspection.
4. Inspection of terminals for their integrity.
5. NDE bearing oil renewal.
6. General cleaning inside alternator.
7. Checking the integrity of rotating diodes.

848. What all the Transformer routines?

Visual inspection, monitoring temperature, general cleaning inside by compressed air, looking for hot spots and oil level in case
of oil cooled transformers.

849. What are all the battery room safeties?

Presence of hydrogen gas is likely very high. Ventilation should be kept open for all the time. Before starting any maintenance
work, proper ventilation should be done. Normal flash lights or static charge accumulating tools should not be used inside battery
room. While attending directly the maintenance of batteries, safety precautions should be taken like aprons, safety goggles
preferably helmet with wiser and chemical resistant gloves. While fastening or loosening battery terminals, always use insulated
spanners to avoid short circuit of terminals. Battery room light fittings will be the type of Exd class fittings. All electrical safety
procedures should be followed while attending maintenance/repair of these light fittings. The flame path of the enclosures should
not be blocked after the maintenance/repair.
850. What is the life boat regulation and launching procedure?
SOLAS Chapter III is dealing with lifesaving appliances and stowing arrangements on board ships.
Regulation 13: Stowage of survival craft
1 Each survival craft shall be stowed:
1. So that neither the survival craft nor its stowage arrangements will interfere with the operation of any other survival craft or
rescue boat at any other launching station;
2. As near the water surface as is safe and practicable and, in the case of a survival craft other than a life raft intended for throw
over board launching, in such a position that the survival craft in the embarkation position is not less than 2 m above the
waterline with the ship in the fully loaded condition under unfavourable conditions of trim of up to 10° and listed up to 20° either
way, or to the angle at which the ship's weather deck edge becomes submerged, whichever is less;
3. In a state of continuous readiness so that two crew members can carry out preparations for embarkation and launching in less
than 5 min;
4. Fully equipped as required by this chapter and the Code; and
5. As far as practicable, in a secure and sheltered position and protected from damage by fire and explosion. In particular,
survival craft on tankers, other than the life rafts required by regulation 31.1.4, shall not be stowed on or above a cargo tank, slop
tank, or other tank containing explosive or hazardous cargoes.

Regulation 19
Emergency training and drills
3 Drills
3.1 Drills shall, as far as practicable, be conducted as if there were an actual emergency.
 3.2 Every crew member shall participate in at least one abandon ship drill and one fire drill every month. The drills of the crew
shall take place within 24 h of the ship leaving a port if more than 25% of the crew have not participated in abandon ship and fire
drills on board that particular ship in the previous month. When a ship enters service for the first time, after modification of a
major character or when a new crew is engaged, these drills shall be held before sailing. The Administration may accept other
arrangements that are at least equivalent for those classes of ships for which this is impracticable.

851. What all the precautions will take before working on Main Engine overhead crane?

1. Working Aloft permit should be prepared.

2. Electrical isolation certificate should be prepared.
3. Lock out and tag out of circuits to be done.
4. Duty engineers should be informed.
5. All safety gears should be used.
6. Crane should be arrested for free movements.

852. Why kw/kva rating used in transformers?

Since Iron losses depend upon the voltage and copper losses on current so we can infer that the total loss of a transformer is
dependent on 2 values that are voltage and current but not on the phase angle between voltage and current which is also known
as ‗power factor‘. KVA does not include the term power factor in it while KW does. So since the total loses are dependent only on
Voltage and Current values (not on power factor), the ratings of the transformers are also given in terms of VA or KVA.

853. What all the precautions will take while doing maintenance/repair on explosion proof fittings?
Explosion Proof fittings will be fitted in atmosphere where chances of having the presence of hazardous gases are likely very
high. Before opening for maintenance/Repair of these fittings the power should be isolated and an electrical isolation certificate
should be prepared. A risk assessment is also to be carried out.
While doing repair, original spares from the maker only to be used. No modifications or temporary repairs are allowed. While
boxing up the fittings, the controlled flame pathshould not to be obstructed. The grease using for threads must be a type
approved by the maker. Tightening torque of the cover/bolts also should be as per the manufacturer‘s recommendations. If
doubtful about the integrity of the fitting replace with new one.

854. All gas checking methods in tankers?

Presence of Hydrocarbons (HC) can be tested by Explosimeter, Tankscope, Inferometer or Infrared Instruments.
Presence of H2S like toxic gases can be tested by Chemical Indicator Tubes and Electrochemical Sensors. For different type
toxic gases, separate type indicator tubes are available.

855. RPM pick up sensors working and explanation?

Induction proximity sensors and Hall effect sensors.

856. UMS alarms and explain 3 monthly alarm checking?

SOLAS Chapter 2-1, Part E
Regulation 46: General.
Regulation 47: Fire Precautions. Fire detection system is to be fitted. Main Engine should be fitted with Oil Mist Detector.
Regulation 48: Protection against flooding to be provided. Bilge alarms and sufficient capacity of bilge well for the normal
unmanned period duration.
Regulation 49: Control of propulsion machinery form navigation bridge should be possible.
Regulation 50: Communication. Telephone facility between control room, navigation bridge and engineers‘ cabins.
Regulation 51: Alarm System should be provided for all vital parameters of the safe functioning of Engine room.
Regulation 52: Safety System. Shutdown, slowdown of M/E and boiler in cases of very serious fault conditions.
Regulation 53: Special requirements for Machinery, Boiler and Electrical Installation. Automaticstandby starting of generators
and sequential starting of ancillary propulsion systems. Centralised M/E control position and alarm monitoring location should be
provided. Alarm repeater panels should be fitted all engineers‘ cabins. Audible and visual alarms should be available on
navigating Bridge.
Regulation 54: Special consideration in respect of passenger ships.
All machinery alarms connected to the Alarm Monitoring System should be tested once in three months intervals. These
testing can be segregated in machinery basis to cover all alarms in 3 months .

857. What is the Gyro voltage and Frequency?

100V, 400 Hz. The ship‘s standard power supply 110V/220V, 50/60 Hz will be rectified to DC 24 V. Back up emergency DC 24 V
also will be provided to the power supply. The invertor section of the gyro power supply, convert it into 100V, 400 Hz AC to apply
for the Gyro rotor.
858. Precautions while doing maintenance on radar?
1. Electrical Isolation Certificate should be issued.
2. Risk assessment to be carried out. Static charge should be discharged.
3. While handling Magnetron care to be taken not to bring close to metal objects.
4. While working aloft, PTW to be obtained from C/O.
5. Safety harness should be wearing.
 6. Scanner should be secured by means of rope to prevent from rotation during rolling.
7. Preferably, the isolation switch on the radar pedestal should be kept OFF.

859. What all PTW are there using on board?

Enclosed space entry permit, Working aloft permit, Hot work permit, Cold work permit, Electrical Isolation and
Work Permit.

860. Explain Life boat launching procedure?

1. Remove the toggle pin at the break lever.

2. Remove the harbour safety pin/cradle stopper.
3. Remove the gripes/lashing device (This will release automatically too when removing the Harbour safety Pin)
4. Release the brake slowly to bring out the boat from securing position to embarkation deck.
5. Embark all the crew inside life boat.
6. Close the hatch door.
7. All crew to seat and fasten the seat belts.
8. The boat commander to release the break slowly by pulling the remote control wire and bring the boat up to
water level.
9. Once the boat is water bone release the boat hook.
10. Start the engine.
11. Release the forward painter and move away from the ship.

However, for training and drills no people will be boarding the life boat during lowering in order to avoid the risk
of accidents. The boat will be lowered to sea water and then people will be boarding through embarkation ladder
that is also by wearing safety harness and safety line attached to it.
Recovery of the lifeboat is performed by operating the boat winch with the push-button switch box. When the
davit arm reaches a prescribed position, the boat winch is automatically stopped by the limit switch. After the
activation of the limit switch, the boat winch is operated manually to wind up the lifeboat to its stowage position.
The boat winch is provided with a safety device to prevent the reverse operation of the manual handle. The
lifeboat is equipped with on-load/off-load release gear which complies with the requirements of the IMO Life-
Saving Appliance (LSA) Code. The release gear system is equipped with a hydrostatic interlock system so that it will
normally not release the hooks until the boat is waterborne.
Purpose of on-load release, the IMO LSA Code requires, among other things, that the lifeboat be fitted with “on-
load release capability which will release the lifeboat with a load on the hooks. The release mechanism shall be so
designed that crew members in the lifeboat can clearly observe when the release mechanism is properly and
completely reset and ready for lifting….”
On-load release is needed for launching when there is a current, when the ship is making way, or potentially if
there are waves which cause the hydrostatic interlock to only release intermittently. On-load release also allows
an empty or fully loaded boat to drop from any height, which can kill or seriously injure the occupants. Therefore
it is critical to know that the release gear is properly reset and the release handle secured.

861. Fire safety items of life boat, explain?

Hull and rigid cover of lifeboats shall be constructed of approved fire-retardant or non-combustible materials. (LSA
4.4.1.4.+ MSC/Circ.1006).
A fire-protected lifeboat will normally be a totally enclosed lifeboat with self-contained air support system. When
waterborne, the lifeboat shall be capable of protecting the number of persons it is permitted to accommodate
when subjected to a continuous oil fire that envelops the lifeboat for a period of not less than 8 minutes. (LSA
4.9.1) A lifeboat with a self-contained air support system shall be so arranged that, when proceeding with all
entrances and openings closed, the air in the lifeboat remains safe and breathable and the engine runs normally
for a period of not less than 10 minutes. During this period the atmospheric pressure inside the lifeboat shall
never fall below the outside atmospheric pressure nor shall exceed it more than 20 mbar. The system shall have
visual indicators to indicate the pressure of the air supply at all times. (LSA 4.8)
Fire-protected lifeboats shall have a water spray fire protection system complying with the following:
1. Water for the system shall be drawn from the sea by a self-priming motor pump. It shall be possible to turn “on”
and turn “off” the flow of water over the exterior of the lifeboat. (LSA 4.9.2.1)
 2. The seawater intake shall be so arranged as to prevent the intake of flammable liquids from the sea surface.
(LSA 4.9.2.2)
3. The system shall be arranged for flushing with fresh water and allowing complete drainage. (LSA 4.9.2.3)
4. The starting and stopping of the water pump and of the water flow over the exterior of the lifeboat shall be
easily possible for one person, preferably from near the steering position. The pump for the drenching system
shall be capable for dry running.

A portable fire extinguisher is there inside the lifeboat.

The following items will be there inside the life boat.
1. Oars.
2. Boat hooks
3. Buoyant bailer
4. Buckets
5. Survival manual
6. Compass
7. Sea-anchor
8. Painters
9. Hatchets
10. Watertight receptacle and fresh water
11. Dipper with lanyard
12. Graduated drinking vessel
13. Food ration in watertight container
14. Rocket parachute flare
15. Hand flare
16. Buoyant smoke signal
17. Waterproof electric torch
18. One daylight signalling mirror
19. One copy of life-saving signals
20. One whistle
21. A first-aid kit
22. Anti-seasickness medicine
23. One seasickness bag for each person
24. A jack knife
25. Three tin openers
26. Two buoyant rescue quoits
27. A manual pump
28. One set of fishing tackle.
29. Portable fire-extinguishing equipment.
30. A radar reflector.
31. Thermal protective aids.
32. A means for collecting rainwater.
33. A boarding ladder.
34. Water resistant instructions.

862. Types of Explosion protection:

There are different constructional techniques employed in preventing electrical equipment causing explosions in hazardous area.
Some techniques such as Flameproof Enclosures (Exd), Intrinsic Safety (Exi) and Increased Safety (Exe) are common.
―Explosion Proof‖ (Exd) terminology used to indicate the ability of an apparatus which is designed to use in hazardous area to
withstand an explosion inside this apparatus. An explosion inside this apparatus will not be transmitted to the external flammable
atmosphere. The external surface temperature of the enclosure must remain below the ignition temperature of the surrounding
gas under all operating conditions.
 Intrinsically safe (Exi) means, that particular equipment is low power operated, less than 30V and less than 50mA. At this voltage
and current a fault in the system cannot cause an explosion.

Increased safety equipment is based primarily on the elimination of open sparking as at relay and switch contacts or on the
commutators or slip-rings of motors and generators, and on the close control of surface temperatures. Also, the construction of
the equipment is to a very high standard to prevent faults developing. Extra insulation is used, creepage distances between bare
terminals are made longer and special enclosures to protect against damage due to entry of moisture and mechanical damage
are also specified. The enclosure is made to withstand impact and to prevent ingress of solids and liquids. Applications include
cage-rotor induction motors, luminaires and connection boxes. Special Exe cable glands, metal or plastic, are used with Exe
apparatus.

863. Hazardous Zones.

1. Zone 0: An explosive gas-air mixture is always present or present for longer periods. Example: Inside Cargo Tanks, cargo
pipes and cargo pumps etc.
2. Zone 1: An explosive gas-air mixture is likely to occur in normal operation. Example- Enclosed or semi enclosed spaces on
the deck of a Tanker.
3. Zone 2: An explosive gas air mixture not likely to occur in normal operation. If it occurs will exist only for a short time.
Example: Open spaces on the deck of a Tanker.

864. Lead Acid battery discharging and charging, why specific gravity drops?
In a lead acid battery, Anode plate is Lead Peroxide PbO₂ and Cathode Plate is Spongy Lead Pb. Electrolyte is H₂SO4 diluted
with water in a ratio of 3:1. (3 part water and 1 part H₂SO4). PbO₂ is dark Chocolate Brown in colour and Pb is Slate grey in
colour. When it is completely discharged, both the plates will become PbSO4 which is whitish in colour.
Discharging: When the cell is discharging, the H₂SO4 dissociated into positive H₂ ions and Negative SO4 ions As the current
within the cell is Cathode to Anode, the +H₂ ions move to Anode and –SO4 ions move to Cathode.
Discharging, at Anode: PbO₂ + H₂ + H₂SO4 > PbSO4 + 2H₂O.
At Cathode: Pb+SO4 > PbSO4.
After discharging both the electrodes become PbSO4 and whitish in colour. As a part of H₂SO4 is converted into water while
electrodes changed to PbSO4, the specific gravity of electrolyte decreases.
Charging, at Anode: PbSO4+ SO4 + 2H₂O >PbO₂ + 2H₂SO4
At Cathode: PbSO4 + H₂ >Pb + H₂SO4
Since the chemical reaction is reversible, other way of Chemical expression is as follows.
PbO₂ + Pb + H₂SO4 >< PbSO4 + 2H₂O + PbSO4.

865. GMDSS battery test procedure as per SOLAS?

SOLAS Chapter IV, Regulation 13, 6.2 states that,
1. 6: Where a reserve source of energy consists of a rechargeable accumulator battery or batteries:
2. 1: a means of automatically charging such batteries shall be provided which shall be capable of recharging them to minimum
capacity requirements within 10 h; and
3. 2: the capacity of the battery or batteries shall be checked, using an appropriate method, at intervals not exceeding 12
months, when the ship is not at sea.

One method of checking the capacity of an accumulator battery is to fully discharge and recharge the battery, using
normaloperating current and period (e.g. 10 h). Assessment of the charge condition can be made at any time, but it should be
done without significant discharge of the battery when the ship is at sea.

866. Networking protocols used on board?

Ethernet over twisted pair cabling and Wi-Fi are the two most common transmission technologies in use for local area networks.
In some situations, a wireless LAN, or Wi-Fi, may be preferable to a wired LAN because of its flexibility and cost. Companies are
assessing WLANs as a replacement for their wired infrastructures as the number of smartphones, tablets and other mobile
devices proliferates
In telecommunications, RS-232 is a standard for serial communication transmission of data. It formally defines the signals
connecting between a DTE (data terminal equipment) such as a computer terminal, and a DCE (data circuit-terminating
equipment or data communication equipment), such as a modem. The RS-232 standard is commonly used in computer serial
ports.

867. Different types of cable insulations used on board, skin effect? Why PVC is not used, explain?
Butyl Rubber is the most commonly used cable insulations on board. It is tough and resilient, has good heat, moisture and ozone
resistance. They have good electrical insulation properties but not mechanically strong or resistant to oil. That is why a sheath of
PCP (Poly Chloroprene) or CSP (ChloroSulphonatedPolyethelene).

EPR (Ethylene Propylene Rubber) insulation is now replacing Butyl Rubber. EPR also having the same electrical and physical
properties of Butyl Rubber but with moisture and ozone better resistance. It also should not be exposed to oil and grease.
PVC is not used on board cable insulations though it is very common for shore wirings. PVC tends to soften and flows at higher
temperature (Melts at 150⁰ C) and hardens and cracks at lower temperature (-8⁰C). Even at normal temperatures PVC tends to
flow and distorted under mechanical stress. Example: Necking occurs at cable glands and loses its water tight integrity.
Skin effect is a tendency for alternating current (AC) to flow mostly near the outer surface of an electrical conductor, such as
metal wire. The effect becomes more and more apparent as the frequency increases. To reduce the skin effect for AC multi
strand cables will use for transmission.
868. PARALLELING DIFFERENT SIZE GENERATORS
When generators of different KVA are paralleled, each generator will have a different line current. To share the load according to
their respective capacity, each generators‘ droop charecteristic should be identical. For droop operation, the droop adjustment is
used so that each generator droops are like amount at its rated load. Then, the generators can be paralleled and each generator
can be adjusted to carry its proportional share of the active load.

869. Why most of analog o/p devices having o/p range 4 to 20 mA and not 0 to 20 mA?
4-20 mA is a standard range used to indicate measured values for any process. The reason that 4ma is chosen instead of 0 mA
is for fail safe operation.
For example: A pressure instrument gives output 4mA to indicate 0 psi up to 20 mA to indicate 100 psi or full scale. Due to any
problem in instrument (i.e) broken wire, its output reduces to 0 mA. So if range is 0-20 mA then we can differentiate whether it is
due to broken wire or due to 0 psi.
870. What happen if we give 220 volts dc supply to bulb or tube light?
Bulbs or devices for AC are designed to operate such that it offers high impedance to AC supply. Normally they have low
resistance. When DC supply is applied, due to low resistance, the current through lamp would be so high that it may damage the
bulb element.
871. Why link is provided in neutral of an ac circuit and fuse in phase of ac circuit?
Link is provided at a Neutral common point in the circuit from which various connections are taken for the individual control circuit
and so it is given in a link form to withstand high Amps.
But in the case of Fuse in the Phase of AC circuit it is designed such that the fuse rating is calculated for the particular circuit (i.e
load) only. So if any malfunction happens the fuse connected in the particular control circuit alone will blow off.
If Fuse is provided in Neutral and if the fuse blows out and at the same time Supply is on then due to break of Neutral there is a
possibility of Voltage increase resulting in damage to equipment.

872. What is the difference between Electronic regulator and ordinary rheostat regulator for fans?
The difference between the electronic and ordinary regulator is that in electronic regulator power losses are less because as we
decrease the speed the electronic regulator give the power needed for that particular speed .But in case of ordinary rheostat type
regulator the power wastage is same for every speed and no power is saved. In electronic regulator triac is employed for speed
control. by varying the firing angle speed is controlled but in rheostat control resistance is decreased by steps to achieve speed
control.

873. What will happen when power factor is leading in distribution of power?
If there is high power factor, i.e if the power factor is close to one:
Losses in form of heat will be reduced,
Cable becomes less bulky and easy to carry, and very cheap to afford.
It also reduces over heating of transformers
874. Why Delta Star Transformers are used for Lighting Loads?
For lighting loads, neutral conductor is must and hence the secondary must be star winding. and this lighting load is always
unbalanced in all three phases.
To minimize the current unbalance in the primary we use delta winding in the primary. So delta / star transformer is used for
lighting loads.
875. What is impedance of a transformer?
If you mean the percentage impedance of the transformed it means the ratio of the voltage( that if you applied it to one side of
the transformer while the other side of the transformer is short cuitcuted, a full load current shall flow in the short circuits side), to
the full load current.
876. Why the secondary of CT never open when burden is connected on the CT.?
secondary of CT is never opened as because CT is always connected to the line so opening the secondary will mean there will
be no counter mmf to balance the primary current as a result of which a very high induced emf may appear in the secondary as
flux is very high and no counter mmf and this will be dangerous for the personnel in the secondary side and for pt if it is shorted
then with full voltage applied to the primary.
If we short the secondary then much high current will circulate in the secondary due to high induced emf much higher than the
actual full load current as a result of which the transformer‘s secondary winding may burn out.
877. What is different between resistance grounding system and resistance earthing system?

Resistance grounding system means connecting the neutral point of the load to the ground to carry the residual current in case
of unbalanced conditions through the neutral to the ground whereas resistance earthing system is done in an electric equipment
in order to protect the equipment in occurrence of fault in the system.

SOLAS is a International Convantion for the Safety of Life at Sea .1974

It contains XII Chapter
# steering Gear requirements as for Chapter II PART- C Regulation 30
# Emergency generator requirements as for chapter II Part -D Regulation 43
# Fire detection and Alarm system requirements Chapter II PART -C Regulations 7
# Radio batteries load test requirements Chapter IV PART- C REGULATIONS 13
SOLAS requirement of navigation lights
Steering Gear Working Principle
FET….MOSFET……IGBT…..SOLAS….MARPOL
LB brake/lowering procedurecentrifugal brake, dead mans handle, roller ratchet.Lowering pro-muster, one person enters and
passes toggle painter, check all life linesand falls are clear. Put drain plugs in place. Make fast painter on strong point.
Removefwd and aft gripes, stand by for passing bowsing tackle and tricing pendant. Removeharbor safety pin. One person lifts dead
man handle and starts lowering to embarkationdeck. Pull tricing pendant to bring boat alongside, pass bowsing tackles. Remove
tricing
 2. or drydocking. The system must be reactivated within
3. HULL POTENTIAL SETTING OF SHIPS
4. 2 hours after the activity is completed. You must
5.

KNEE EXERCISES

Straight Leg Raises

If your knee‘s not at its best, start with an easy strengthening exercise for your quadriceps, the muscles in the front of the thigh.
This move puts little to no strain on the knee: Lie on your back on the floor or another flat surface. Bend one knee and place
your foot flat on the floor. Keeping the other leg straight, raise it to the height of the opposite knee. Repeat 10-15 times for three
sets.

Hamstring Curls

Your hamstrings are the muscles along the back of your thigh. Lie flat on your stomach. Slowly bring your heels as close to
your buttocks as you can, and hold that position. Do three sets of 15. You can also do this exercise standing while holding on to
a chair. If this becomes easy, you can add ankle weights, slowly increasing the weight from 1 to 3 to 5 pounds.

Lie on your stomach with your legs straight. Tighten the muscles in your bottom and the hamstring of one leg, and lift toward
the ceiling. Hold 3-5 seconds, lower, and repeat. Do 10-15 lifts and switch sides. You can add ankle weights as you gain
strength. You should not feel back pain. If you do, limit how high you lift up. If it‘s still painful, stop and talk to your doctor.
 Calf Raises

Stand facing the back of a sturdy chair, other support such as the back of a couch, or a wall bar at the gym. You can also do
this on the stairs, holding on to the banister with your heels hanging off the edge of the step. Slowly raise the heels as high as
you can, then lower. Do three sets of 10-15. If this move becomes easy, lift one foot slightly off the floor, placing all your weight
on the other foot

Hip Abduction

Lie on one side with legs stacked. Bend the bottom leg for support. Straighten the top leg (without locking the knee), and raise it
to 45 degrees. Hold for 5 seconds, lower and relax briefly, then repeat 10-15 times. Switch sides and repeat. Vary the exercise by
pointing the toe of your upper leg slightly toward the floor as you raise it.

Explain the Logic gates with their Truth Tables.

Life of bearing. In hours. What is mean by zz. Motor over hauling. Dry dock. ..what happen in dry dock. ..have u
went in work shop of dry dock. ..how they over haul motor. ...explain step by step. How the thermal over load
work. Are u make requisition. ...how many types of stores. Bearing comes in which category of stores. What
are the safety in Msb excluding circuit breaker. PSC inspection is in next port. ....what u will do.
Safety and cut out of crane, grab. Rating of crane motor. Maker and type. You went for round and you found
hydraulic oil leakage. ....then what will you do?
Lead acid battery equition. Maintenance and safety measures. Are you talking round in bridge. ...what are the
things u r checking. What is GMDSS. Are testing it. ...how. Steering gear : safety. What are the communications
in steering for bridge. How the auto pilot work. Alternator principle. how AVR work. What is the function of
compoter in AVR. Reverse power trip with drawing. What is it's setting. What is power factors. How its effect
.what will happen if cos angle increased from 30 degree to 60 degree. What are the loss in the alternator.
...where these energy goes. How the induction motor work. Why synchronous motor not self start. Soft stater.
How it works. What is power factors in it. PLC leader logic diagram, gates and truth table. PID what PID. How it
works. Explain with graph and give one example. Bearing 6308. ..explain it. cmsec@tn.gov.in, cmcell@tn.gov.in