Original

Puberty Paper
effect on fitness in girls Biol. Sport 2010;27:11-15

SEXUAL MATURATION EFFECT ON PHYSICAL Accepted

for publication
FITNESS IN GIRLS: A LONGITUDINAL STUDY 15.02.2006

AUTHORS: Volver A., Viru A., Viru M. Reprint request to: Anne Volver,
Institute of Sports Pedagogy and
Coaching Science,
Institute of Sports Pedagogy and Coaching Science, Institute of Exercise Biology, University of Tartu, Estonia Ylikooli 18, 51014, Tartu, Estonia
Phone: 372 5210 355
Fax: 372 7375 362
ABSTRACT: The purpose of the present longitudinal study was to find associations between sexual maturation
e-mail: anne.volver@mail.ee
dynamics and improvement in performance of fitness tests. 34 11- to 13- year-old girls performed standing
long jump, 20 m dash, shuttle run 4 x is related to 9 m, trunk forward flexion, squats in 30 s, sit-ups in 30 s,
and Cooper 12-min running test at the beginning of observation, a year later, and two years later. Sexual
maturation was assessed with the aid of breast development stages. When during a year girls transferred
from the sexual maturation stage 2 to the stage 3, standing long jump results improved significantly. Transfer
from the stage 4 to the stage 5 associated with the improvement of the trunk forward flexion.

KEY WORDS: flexibility, motor development, sprint velocity, standing long jump

INTRODUCTION
The ontogenetic development involves so-called “critical” periods
[13]. During these periods ontogenetic development reaches
a qualitatively new level which open opportunities for the further
improvement of an organ, tissue or function. At the same time, the
periods are ‘sensitive’ since the action stimulating development or
causing vulnerable effects are highly effective [4]. A generalization
of results of studies on motor abilities in childhood and adolescen-
ce indicated that preadolescent and the adolescent accelerations
characterize their improvement[16]. Plausibly these accelerations
are related to ontogenetic critical/sensitive periods. The age range
for the preadolescent acceleration is 5 to 9 years. The adolescent
acceleration appears in the age range of 12 to 16 years for boys,
-
have pointed on links between sexual maturation stages, evaluated
by the Tanner’s scale [15], and the rate of motor improvements
[10,14,17,18]. However, to make this relationship more convincing
longitudinal studies are necessary because the cross-sectional
comparison depends not only on the influence of the investigated
factor but also on inherent differences between members of com-
pared groups. An Australian longitudinal study showed an inten-
sive improvement in muscle strength and endurance from
the stage 3 to the stage 5 both in boys and girls [1]. Essential may
also the previous dynamics of sexual maturation. Therefore,
to make the connection between sexual maturation stage and the
specificity of fitness improvement convincing in girls, a two-year

and 11 to 15 for girls [16]. These age ranges suggest that the longitudinal study was conducted. The participants were divided
adolescent acceleration should be related to changes induced by indo cohorts according to their sexual maturation stage at
-

puberty. Accordingly, a hypothesis arised that the puberty creates the onset of the study. The main attention was focused on stages
a critical period for development of motor functions. of sexual maturation which were related to significant improvement
-

Significance of the puberty in the development of motor abilities of motor abilities.

can be explored by comparison of the dynamics of sexual matura-
-

tion and the improvement of motor abilities. Cross-sectional studies

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 Volver A. et al.

MATERIALS AND METHODS
Sample. Study persons were randomly selected 34 Estonian girls of
age 11 to 14 years. With the aid of interviews it was established
that the girls were from families a medium socio-economic status.
When the observation began, girls were either at the sexual matu-
ration stage 2 (cohort 1) or at the stage 3 (cohort 2). Girls, their
parents, and their school principal provided informed consent for
voluntary participation. The school physician did not find symptoms
of chronic diseases in any participant. When symptoms of any acu-
te disease appeared at the testing days or immediately before, the
girl was excluded from the cohort. The Commission of Ethics of the
Medical Faculty approved the design of the study.
Procedure. Girls were tested three times during a two-year period:
at the beginning of the observation period, after a year had elapsed,
and at the end of the period. In order to avoid seasonal influences,
all three trials of tests took place during the first half of October.
The testing time was between 9 to 12 o’clock.
The testing program consisted of measurement of height and body
mass, assessment of the breast development stage by the Tanner’s
scale [15] and physical fitness tests: 20 dash (standing start), shut-
tle run 4 x 9 m, standing long jump, squats in 30 s, sit-ups in 30 s,
trunk forward flexion, and Cooper 12-min running test. Before testing
standardized warm-up exercises were performed for 10 min.
The fitness tests were selected considering the results of a qu-
estionnaire for European fitness experts [2]. Girls performed twice
20 m dash and 4 x 9 m shuttle run (the best result was considered).
The time of 20 m dash and 4 x 9 m shuttle run was measured
manually with the aid of a stopwatch (precision 0.1 s). Three attempts
of the standing long jump were recorded and the best result was
considered. The result was determined with the aid of a plastic tape
measure (precision 1 cm). The measure was taken from the closest
body part to the start line after landing. Squats and sit-ups were
performed for the highest possible number of repetitions during 30s.
An investigator accounted the number of repetitions, taking into
account only correctly performed movements. The trunk forward
flexion was performed from the standing position on a gymnastic
bench. The person performing the flexion tried to reach the lowest
possible point with the fingertip below the support level of feet. Knee
flexion was not allowed. The difference from the support level up to
the point reached by the fingertip was recorded. The Cooper test was
conducted in the original manner [5]. One week prior to the testing,
the girls were taught to perform the tests and they could familiarize
themselves with the procedure.
Measurements were made in three days. The first day was for the
evaluation of the breast development stage and for anthropometrical
measurements. On the second day 20 m dash, standing long jump,
squats in 30 s and Cooper test, and on the third day 4 x 9 m shut-
tle run, sit-ups in 30 s and trunk forward flexion were performed.
Tests were always performed in the same order.
During the observation period, the girls had twice a week single
sex physical education class lasting for 40 min (12 to 17 girls per
class). The teacher of physical education was a trained specialist.
The program of physical education consisted of exercises for impro-
ving endurance, general skills, coordination, flexibility, muscle power,
speed and agility. Aerobic gymnastics, games, running, skiing and
jumping exercises were used. Aerobic exercises and sports games
accounted for 50%, anaerobic cyclic exercises - 15%, strength and
jumping activities - 35% of the total active time in the physical
education classes during the period of observation. In each term
a trained person recorded the activity time (time for actual perfor-
mance of exercises) in 3 to 5 classes with the aid of a stopwatch.
The activity time constituted 65 to 80% of the total time of
the classes.
Reproducibility of tests. 27 girls of age 11 to 14 years performed
the test battery twice with the time interval of a month. The results
published elsewhere [18] showed that the test – retest correlation
coefficient (Pearson product-moment analysis) was for 20 m dash,
4 x 9m shuttle run, standing long jump, squats in 30 s, and trunk
forward flexion was between r=0.842 and r=0.938. Correlations
r=0.770 for the Cooper test and r=0.637 for the sit-ups were es-

TABLE 1. SEXUAL MATURATION STAGE (Sms) AND INCREASES OF BODY MEASURES DURING THE TWO-YEAR PERIOD
(MEAN ± SD)
Height (cm) Body mass (kg)
n
At the onset After 1 year After 2 years At the onset After 1 year After 2 years
Cohort 1
144±5 148±5* 156±6* 33.7±3.4 36.3±2.4* 43.7±2.9*
Group 2-2-3 6
Sms 2 Sms 2 Sms 3 Sms 2 Sms 2 Sms 3
150±6 156±4* 164±5* 37.1±4.6 41.2±5.2* 49.4±5.6*
Group 2-3-3 7
Sms 2 Sms 3 Sms 3 Sms 2 Sms 3 Sms 3
-

151±7 156±6* 160±5* 42.7±6.6 47.7±7.3* 52.9±9.1*

Group 2-3-4 7
Sms 2 Sms 3 Sms 4 Sms 2 Sms 3 Sms 4
-

Cohort 2
158±7 162±7* 163±6* 46.3±4.8 50.0±3.2* 56.8±3.6*
-

Group 3-3-4 7
Sms 3 Sms 3 Sms 4 Sms 3 Sms 3 Sms 4
165±4 167±4 171±3* 52.4±5.3 56.3±2.4* 64.3±3.9*
-

Group 3-4-5 7
Sms 3 Sms 4 Sms 5 Sms 3 Sms 4 Sms 5
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 Puberty effect on fitness in girls

tablished. All correlations were significant (p<0.001). The coefficient

Standing long jump
of variation between individual test and the retest values was within
180
1.1 to 2.1% for 20 m dash, 4 x 9 m shuttle run, standing long jump
175
and Cooper test. Variability was greater for sit-ups in 30 s (3%),
squats in 30 s (4.1% ) and trunk forward flexion (7.5 %). 170

cm
Data analysis. According to the dynamics of sexual maturation 165

the cohort 1 was divided into three and cohort 2 into two groups, 160

respectively Groups 2-2-3, 2-3-3, 2-3-4 (the first cohort) and Groups 155

3-3-4, 3-4-5 (the second cohort, see Table 1). The significant an- 150
Stage 2 Stage 2 Stage 3
nual change was established with the aid of ANOVA for repeated
measurements and using the paired t-test. The 0.05 probability level
was designated as significant.

180
RESULTS
175
In all groups height and body mass increased significantly during *
the two-year period of study (Table 1). 170

cm
Cohort 1. The two-year dynamics indicated that achieving 165

the sexual maturation stage 3 associated with significant improvement 160

in performance in standing long jump (Fig. 1). Significant improve- 155

ments were not found during a stay for a year either at stage 2 150
(group 2-2-3) or at stage 3 (group 2-3-3). Individual curves of im- Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 3

provements in standing long jump demonstrated (except for one girl)

that transfer to the stage 3 associated with more pronounced annu-
al changes compared to the transfer to the stage 4 during the second 180
year (Fig. 2). In groups 2-3-3 and 2-3-4 reaching the maturation 175 *
stage 3 associated also with the improvement of sprinting perfor-
170
mance but not in the group 2-2-3 (Fig. 3). Sprinting velocity impaired
cm

during a stay for a year at the stage 3 (Group 2-3-3). Number of
sit-ups increased in association with the reaching of the stage 3 in
groups 2-2-3 and 2-3-4. However, in the group 2-3-3 sit-ups per-
formance did not improve when girls reached the stage 3 but a year
later (Table 2). Paired t-test showed improvements of squat test
results in the group 2-2-3 (3.5% and 3.4%, respectively during the
first and second year). However, these changes were less than the
variation coefficient determined in the reproducibility experiment
(4.1%). Trunk forward flexibility improved significantly during a stay
at the stage 2 as well as with reaching the stage 4 (Table 2). Chan-
ges were not found in shuttle run and Cooper test.
165
160
155
150
Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4
FIG. 1. RESULTS OF STANDING LONG JUMPS AT THE ONSET OF THE
LONGITUDINAL OBSERVATION ( THE FIRST COLUMN ON EACH ROW),
AFTER A YEAR (THE SECOND COLUMN) AND AFTER TWO YEARS (THE
THIRD COLUMN) IN THE COHORT 1. THE SEXUAL MATURATION STAGE
IS INDICATED UNDER THE COLUMN. ASTERISKS DENOTE SIGNIFICANT
DIFFERENCE FROM THE RESULT OF A YEAR BEFORE BY THE PAIRED
T-TEST (P<0.05). THE FIRST ROW – GROUP 2-2-3; THE SECOND ROW-
GROUP 2-3-3; THE THIRD ROW-GROUP 2-3-4.

TABLE 2. RESULT OF SHUTTLE RUN (4X9M) SIT-UPS AND SQUATS TESTS IN RELATIONS TO ANNUAL CHANGES IN SEXUAL
MATURATION STATUS (MEAN ± SD)

Trunk forward flexion (cm) Sit ups in 30 s Squats in 30 s

n At the After 1 After 2 At the After 1 After 2 At the After 1 After 2
onset year years onset year years onset year years
-

Cohort 1
Group 2-2-3 6 10±6 13±6* 14±5 21±4 20±1 23±2* 28±4 29±4* 30+4*
-

Group 2-3-3 7 11±6 9 ±4 11±3 21±4 22±3 24±3* 30±3 29±2 30±2
Group 2-3-4 7 9 ±6 12±6 14±6 * 18±3 22±4* 24±2 26±1 23±1 30±1
-

Cohort 2
Group 3-3-4 7 16± 4 14±3 15 ±3 22±3 24±5 25±4 30±2 27±2 28±2
-

Group 3-4-5 7 11± 5 13±2 17±.3* 18±5 19±5* 22±4* 28±3 28±6 29±5
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 Volver A. et al.

35 4,5
4,4
30
4,3
25 4,2
4,1
20
4

s
15
3,9

10 3,8
3,7
5
3,6
0 3,5
Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4 Stage 3 Stage 3 Stage 4

FIG. 2. INDIVIDUAL DYNAMICS OF RESULTS IN STANDING LONG JUMP 4,5

DURING THE LONGITUDINAL OBSERVATION.
20 m dash DIFFERENCES OF RESULTS 4,4
FROM THE INITIAL VALUES (THE 0 LEVEL). COHORT 1, GROUP 2-3-4. 4,3
4,5 4,2
4,4
4,1
4,3
4

s
4,2
4,1 3,9
4 3,8
s

3,9 3,7
3,8
3,6
3,7
3,5
3,6
Stage 3 Stage 4 Stage 5
3,5
Stage 2 Stage 2 Stage 3 FIG. 5. RESULTS OF THE 20 M DASH IN COHORT 2.
THE FIRST ROW - GROUP 3-3-, THE SECOND ROW - GROUP 3-4-5.
4,5 FURTHER EXPLANATIONS SEE FIG.1
4,4
4,3
Cohort 2. Results in standing long jump did not improve when
4,2
4,1
the sexual maturation stage 4 (Fig. 4, groups and 3-4-5) or the
*
4 stage 5 (Fig. 4, group3-4-5) were achieved. The stay for a year at
s

3,9 * the stage 3 did not associate with an improvement of results in

3,8
3,7
standing long jump but in 20 m dash (Fig. 5, group3-3-4). Number
3,6 of sit-ups (Table 1) and trunk forward flexion increased with reaching
3,5
the stage 5 the (Table 2).
Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 3

FIG. 3. RESULTS OF 20 M DASH IN THE COHORT 1.

FOR EXPLANATIONS SEE FIG.1. DISCUSSION
The obtained results evidenced that reaching the sexual maturation
180
stage 3 associated with a significant improvement in standing long
175
jump in girls. Reaching any other stages of sexual maturation failed
170 to show a common improvement of results in standing long jump.
A stay for a year neither in the stage 2 nor in the stage 3 reprodu-
cm

165
ced this change. Most results showed that reaching the stage 3
160
favored improvement in sprint running. However, reaching
155
the stage 3 after a stay for a year in the stage 2 did not associate
150 with better results in 20 m dash. Transfer from the stage 2
Stage 3 Stage 3 Stage 4
to the stage 3 associated also with improvement in sit-up test in
185
the groups 2-2-3 and 2-3-4. However, in the group 2-3-3
180
the number of sit-ups increased after a stay for a year in the stage
175
3 but not in association with reaching the stage 3. Thus, the spe-
170
cific link between reaching the stage 3 and improved sprinting or
cm
-

165 sit-up performances was not persuasive.

160 The obtained results indicated that the sexual maturation may be
-

155 either intensive (after each year of a transfer to the next stage) or
150 delayed (a stay for a year at a stage). Dynamics of standing long
-

Stage 3 Stage 4 Stage 5

jump performance (Fig.1) confirmed that the individual rates of se-
FIG. 4. RESULTS OF THE STANDING LONG JUMP IN COHORT 2.
xual maturation may be interrelated to improvement in physical fit-
-

THE FIRST ROW - GROUP3-3-4. THE SECOND ROW - GROUP 3-4-5.

FOR OTHER EXPLANATIONS SEE FIG.1. ness. This question waits for a special study. Results of 20 m dash
-

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 Puberty effect on fitness in girls

indicated that a pronounced improvement of sprint running velocity formance on percentage of fast twitch fibres in leg extension mu-
may follow by opposite change (Fig. 4, group 2-3-3). scles has been demonstrated in adults [3]. Therefore, the signifi-
In accordance with the obtained results, cross-sectional studies cance of reaching the sexual maturation stage 3 for improvement
showed that jumping performance was different when girls at of jumping performance as well as results of some other tests are
the sexual maturation stages 2 and 3 were compared [17]. For plausibly related to development of fast twitch fibres and/or neurons
sprint velocity superior performance was observed in girls either at of fast motor units. Thus, the present result support the hypothe-
the stage 3 [17] or at the stage 4 [14]. By results of the present sis on essential contribution of that sexual maturation for the de-
study, the improved performance in jumping and in part also in velopment of motor function, at lease for the improvement of
sprinting appeared when breast development began to indicated muscle power.
the stage 3 but not during a stay for a year in the stage 3. The obtained results pointed also sexual maturation effect on
The results of the present longitudinal study are in principal accor- improved flexibility with achieving the stage 5. Since the number of
dance with the outcome of a comprehensive polish study. The results subjects those reached the stage 5 was small (only 7 persons), our
and comparison of them with material collected in Denmark, Nor- results do not enable to consider the link convincing. Reaching
thern Ireland, Italy, Turkey, Scotland and Belgium showed that in the maturation stages 4 and 5 associated with the improvement in
girls the main improvement in standing long jump and sit-up test sit-up test performance. This functional strength test measures
take place in age from 10 to 12, in shuttle run from 10 to 13 [9]. a combination of several factors. The muscle strength should be one
The stage 3 has been considered as the stage of intensive sexual of them. Improved performance in strength tests has been found in
maturation. This stage is characterized by an intensive increase of girls from the sexual maturation stage 3 up to the stage 5 [1].
blood concentrations of estradiol, lutropin and follitropin [11].
In most cases this stage is related to the adrenarche (onset of CONCLUSIONS
production of androgens by the adrenal cortex), associates with In conclusion, the results of the present longitudinal study eviden-
peak height velocity and follows by menarche [8,19]. Obviously, ce that reaching the sexual maturation stage 3 associates with
increased secretion of androgenic steroids after the adrenarche and an improvement of jumping performance and has also significan-
the estraadiol dependent increase of tissue sensitivity to androgen ce for sprint velocity. An improvement of trunk forward flexion may
anabolic action [6] stimulates the pubertal development of fast appear at advanced sexual maturation in girls.performance and
twitch muscle fibres [7]. Muscle fibres of this type are responsible has also significance for sprint velocity. An improvement of trunk
for the explosive power output [12]. Dependence of jumping per- forward flexion may appear at advanced sexual maturation in girls.
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