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The History of Fitness
Lance C. Dalleck, M.S. and Len Kravitz, Ph.D.

Introduction
As we enter the 21st century, one of the greatest accomplishments to be celebrated
is the continuous pursuit of fitness since the beginning of man’s existence.
Throughout prehistoric time, man's quest for fitness has been driven by a desire to
survive through hunting and gathering. Today, though no longer driven by
subsistence requirements, fitness remains paramount to health and well-being. This
article will highlight historical events and influential individuals who have shaped
the history of fitness beginning with primitive man up to the foundation of the
modern fitness movement.

Primitive man and fitness (pre-10,000 B.C)

Primitive nomadic lifestyles required the continual task of hunting and gathering
food for survival (1). Tribes commonly went on one- or two- day hunting journeys
for food and water. Regular physical activity apart from that necessary for hunting
and gathering was also a principal component of life. Following successful hunting
and gathering excursions, celebration events included trips of six to 20 miles to
neighboring tribes to visit friends and family, where dancing and cultural games
could often last several hours. This Paleolithic pattern of subsistence pursuit and
celebration, demanding a high level of fitness and consisting of various forms of
physical activity, defined human life (2).

The Neolithic Agricultural Revolution (10,000-8,000 B.C.)

The Neolithic Agricultural Revolution marked the conclusion of primitive lifestyle
and signified the dawn of civilization. This historic period was defined by
important agricultural developments including animal and plant domestication, and
the invention of the plow. These human advancements made it possible for
hunting-gathering tribes to obtain vast amounts of food while remaining in the
same area, thus transforming primitive man into an agrarian (agriculture and
farming) society (3). This era in history symbolizes the beginning of a more
sedentary lifestyle, as man began to alleviate some hardships of life while.
simultaneously decreasing daily physical activity.
Ancient civilizations - China and India (2500-250 B.C.)
China
In China, the philosophical teachings of Confucius encouraged participation in
regular physical activity (4). It was recognized that physical inactivity was
associated with certain diseases (referred to as organ malfunctions and internal
stoppages, which sound similar to heart disease and diabetes) were preventable
with regular exercise for fitness. Consequently, Cong Fu gymnastics was
developed to keep the body in good, working condition. Cong Fu exercise
programs consisted of various stances and movements, characterized by separate
foot positions and imitations of different animal fighting styles (5). In addition to
Cong Fu gymnastics, other forms of physical activity existed throughout ancient
China including archery, badminton, dancing, fencing, and wrestling.
India
In India, individual pursuit of fitness was discouraged as the religious beliefs of
Buddhism and Hinduism emphasized spirituality and tended to neglect
development of the body. Consequently, the importance of fitness within society in
general was relatively low. However, an exercise program similar to Chinese Cong
Fu gymnastics developed, while still conforming to religious beliefs, known as
Yoga. Though its exact origin has yet to be identified, Yoga has existed for at least
the past 5000 years. Translated, Yoga means union, and refers to one of the classic
systems of Hindu philosophy that strives to bring together and personally develop
the body, mind, and spirit. Yoga was originally developed by Hindu priests who
lived frugal lifestyles characterized by discipline and meditation. Through
observing and mimicking the movement and patterns of animals, priests hoped to
achieve the same balance with nature that animals seemed to possess. This aspect
of Yoga, known as Hatha Yoga, is the form with which Westerners are most
familiar and is defined by a series of exercises in physical posture and breathing
patterns (5). Bedsides balance with nature, ancient Indian philosophers recognized
health benefits of Yoga including proper organ functioning and whole well-being.
These health benefits have also been acknowledged in the modern-day United
States, with an estimated 12 million individuals regularly participating in Yoga.

The Near East (4000-250 B.C.)

Early political and military leaders within the civilizations of Assyria, Babylonia,
Egypt, Palestine, Persia, and Syria, realizing the importance of fitness to the
efficiency and performance of military forces, encouraged fitness throughout
society (6). Perhaps the best example of a civilization utilizing fitness for political
and military purposes is the Persian Empire. Persian leaders demanded strict
physical fitness from its people, which was accomplished through the
implementation of rigid training programs. At the age of six, boys became property
of the Empire and underwent training which included hunting, marching, riding,
and javelin throwing. Fitness training to improve strength and stamina was not
intended for health benefits, but rather to create more able soldiers to help expand
the Empire (5). The Persian Empire during its height, with its policy and emphasis
on high fitness, eventually encompassed all of the Near East. However, emphasis
on fitness levels throughout the Persian civilization decreased as affluence and
corruption entangled political and military leaders. The downfall and collapse of
the Persian Empire occurred at a time when society could largely be characterized
by an overall lack of fitness.

Ancient Greek Civilization (2500-200 B.C.)

Athens
Perhaps no other civilization has held fitness in such high regard as ancient Greece.
The idealism of physical perfection was one that embodied ancient Greek
civilization. The appreciation for beauty of the body and importance of health and
fitness throughout society is one that is unparalleled in history. The Greeks
believed development of the body was equally as important as development of the
mind. Physical well-being was necessary for mental well-being, with the need for a
strong, healthy body to harbor a sound mind. Many founding medical practitioners
facilitated the growth of fitness throughout ancient Greece, including the likes of
Herodicus, Hippocrates, and Galen (7).

Gymnastics, along with music, was considered to be the most important classroom
topic. A common saying in ancient Greek times was "exercise for the body and
music for the soul (5) ". Gymnastics took place in palaestras, which were sites of
physical education for young boys. The palaestra consisted of an indoor facility for
gymnastics, in addition to an outdoor area for running, jumping, and wrestling.
When adulthood was reached, typically between the ages of 14 and 16, the site for
fitness training switched from palaestras to gymnasiums (8). Exercise in the
palaestra and gymnasium was supervised by the paidotribe, who is similar to the
modern fitness trainer. This idealistic fitness situation existed most strongly within
Athens, which has been characterized as a democratic society most similar to the
United States.
Sparta
The Spartans of Northern Greece valued fitness even more than the Athenians.
However, the heightened interest in fitness within Spartan culture was primarily for
military purposes. During this era, Greek states were frequently at war with each
other. Fighting skills were highly correlated with physical fitness levels, making it
imperative for individuals to maintain high fitness levels. Spartan society required
males to enter special fitness programs at the age of six. From this point until
adulthood, the government was responsible for the child’s upbringing and training.
This upbringing consisted of rigorous training programs that ensured all boys
would grow into highly fit adult soldiers. Females were also required to maintain
good physical condition for the purpose of being able to have strong offspring who
could serve the state (9). The military-dominated culture of Sparta resulted in one
of the most physically fit societies in the history of mankind.

Roman Civilization (200 B.C.-476 A.D.)

The Roman Empire was the antithesis of the ancient Greek civilization with the
overall physical fitness condition of the Roman civilization highest during its time
of conquest and expansion. During this period, all Roman citizens between the ages
of 17 and 60 were eligible for the military draft. Therefore, it was imperative for all
citizens to maintain good physical condition and be prepared for service. Military
training consisted of activities such as running, marching, jumping, and discus and
javelin throwing (10). This lifestyle resulted in strong, fit people who conquered
nearly all of the Western World. However, the fitness levels of the general Roman
population declined as individuals became enamored with wealth and
entertainment, such as the gladiator battles. Materialistic acquisition and excess
became higher priorities than physical condition. The lavish lifestyle and physical
decay eventually took its toll as the Roman civilization fell to the physically
superior Barbarian tribes from Northern Europe (11).

The Dark (476-1000) and Middle Ages (900-1400)

The crumbling of the Roman Empire, which was conquered by Barbarians from
Northern Europe, symbolized the beginning of a millennium of intellectual
standstill. However, these occurrences were beneficial with respect to fitness. The
lavish lifestyles of the Romans had resulted in the complete deterioration of the
society's fitness level. The barbaric tribes from Northern Europe possessed similar
characteristics to primitive people. Their lifestyle consisted of hunting and
gathering food, and tending to cattle (12). Physical activity and fitness were
prerequisites for survival. Therefore, despite the cultural setbacks that occurred
with the fall of the Roman Empire, fitness experienced a revival during the Dark
and Middle Ages.

The Renaissance (1400-1600)

Following the Dark and Middle Ages, the rebirth of cultural learning from the
ancient Greek and Roman civilizations gave rise to the Renaissance.
Accompanying this time period was a renewed interest in the human body. Once
again, the ancient Greek ideals, which glorified the human body, gained
widespread acceptance. Many individuals, including Martin Luther (religious
leader), John Locke (philosopher), Vittorino da Feltra, John Comenius, and
Richard Mulcaster (physical educators) maintained that high fitness levels
enhanced intellectual learning (13, 14).

Civilizations that recognized the importance of fitness needed an avenue to convey

this knowledge to their people. Therefore, fitness and physical education share a
common bond. Physical education became the tool used to spread the value and
benefits of fitness throughout society. School programs, primarily in ancient
Greece, had previously recognized the necessity for curriculums involving physical
education. The renewed appreciation for human life, which evolved during the
Renaissance, created an environment which was ready for the widespread
development of physical education throughout Europe.

National Period in Europe (1700-1850)

Continental Europe underwent numerous cultural changes following the
Renaissance. Fitness remained important and continued to follow trends initiated
during the Renaissance. Physical education programs expanded within emerging
nations of Europe. Intense feelings for nationalism and independence created the
atmosphere for the first modern fitness movement, which came in the form of
gymnastics programs. Gymnastics enjoyed immense popularity during this era,
becoming especially prevalent in Germany, Denmark, Sweden, and Great Britain.
Germany
The growth of gymnastics in Germany can be primarily attributed to the work of
two physical educators: Johann Guts Muths and Friedrich Jahn. Guts Muths is
generally referred to as the "Grandfather of German Gymnastics." He invented
numerous exercise programs and the equipment upon which they were performed.
His lifetime works and achievements are found in two books - Gymnastics for the
Young and Games.
Friedrich Jahn earned the title of "Father of German Gymnastics" for his long-lived
work. It was early during Jahn's lifetime that Napoleon conquered much of Europe,
including Germany. With its downfall to France, Germany was subsequently
divided into separate states. Jahn's passion for German nationalism and
independence became the driving force behind his creation of gymnastic programs.
He believed future susceptibility to foreign invasion could be prevented through
physical development of the German people. Shortly thereafter, exercise facilities
that housed apparatuses designed for running, jumping, balancing, climbing, and
vaulting called Turnvereins developed throughout Germany (4).
Sweden
Per Henrik Ling developed and introduced his own gymnastics program to Sweden
which consisted of three different areas: 1) educational gymnastics, 2) military
gymnastics, and 3) medical gymnastics. Ling, who had a strong medical
background, recognized that exercise was necessary for all persons. He maintained
that exercise programs should be devised based on individual differences. Ling also
believed physical educators must possess knowledge of the effects of exercise on
the human body. Ling used science and physiology to better understand the
importance of fitness (4).
Denmark
Frank Nachtegall, who initially started teaching out of his home, introduced and
helped popularize gymnastic programs throughout Denmark. He was especially
concerned with development of gymnastic programs within school systems.
Childhood interest in physical activity sparked Nachtegall’s fascination with
fitness. Eventually he taught in a private facility, which was devoted entirely to
physical training and later became director of a program designed to prepare future
fitness instructors called Training Teachers of Gymnastics (4).
England
Within Great Britain, medical student Archibald Maclaren spread the word on the
benefits of fitness and regular exercise. Marclaren, like Per Henrik Ling of
Sweden, was fascinated in the scientific components of fitness. His lifetime works
in these areas are recorded in National Systems of Bodily Exercise and Training in
Theory and Practice. Marclaren made several observations based on his work,
which are remarkably similar to present-day exercise recommendations. Firstly,
Marclaren believed the cure for weariness and stress was physical action.
Secondly, he noted recreational exercise found in games and sport was not
sufficient for attaining adequate fitness levels. Finally, Marclaren realized both
growing boys and girls required regular physical exercise. In agreement with Ling,
Marclaren also recognized the need for individual variation in fitness training
programs. Furthermore, he documented the importance of progression of exercise
(15).

America – Colonial Period (1700-1776)

Hardships of colonial life ensured that regular physical activity continued to be a
lifestyle priority, however during this period no organized exercise or fitness
programs existed. Colonial America remained an undeveloped country
characterized by much unexplored land and wilderness. Lifestyles during this era
consisted largely of plowing the land for crops, hunting for food, and herding cattle
(16). This lifestyle provided sufficient levels of physical activity with no additional
need or demand for exercise to maintain fitness levels.

United States - National Period (1776 to 1860)

Fitness in the United States during the National Period was influenced by European
cultures. Immigrants brought many aspects of their heritage to the United States,
including German and Swedish gymnastics. Constant threats to independence and
nationalism from foreign invasion were dynamics prevalent in Europe and not the
United States. German and Swedish gymnastic programs failed to attain the same
levels of popularity as in Europe (9).
However, early leaders in the United States were conscious of the need for exercise
and fitness. Benjamin Franklin recommended regular physical activity, including
running, swimming, and basic forms of resistance training for health purposes (17).
President Thomas Jefferson acknowledged the necessity for fitness, although
maybe to a somewhat extreme measure: “Not less than two hours a day should be
devoted to exercise, and the weather shall be little regarded. If the body is feeble,
the mind will not be strong" (18).
Early Physical Education in the United States
Within Europe, schools had been an important medium for spreading the need for
fitness to society through physical education programs. However, in the United
States, the educational process focused primarily on intellectual matters. Schools
concentrated on teaching traditional subjects including reading, writing, and
arithmetic. Physical education remained missing from the public education system
for the better part of the nineteenth century (15). Despite the relative lack of
interest in fitness existing during this era, J.C. Warren and Catherine Beecher made
significant contributions to the future of fitness in America.
Dr. J.C. Warren, a medical professor at Harvard University, was a major proponent
of physical activity. Warren’s medical background gave him a clear understanding
of the necessity for regular exercise, with his recommendations including exercises
such as gymnastics and calisthenics. Furthermore, Warren began devising exercises
for females (5). Catherine Beecher specifically devised fitness programs to meet
the needs of women. Among her many different programs was a system of
calisthenics performed to music (9). Though not formally recognized in name,
Beecher's programs of the mid-nineteenth century bear remarkable similarities to
modern-day aerobics.

United States – post-Civil War (1865-1900)

One of the most important events with respect to modern fitness in the United
States was the Industrial Revolution, which resulted in widespread cultural changes
throughout the country. Advancement in industrial and mechanical technologies
replaced labor-intensive jobs. Rural life changed to an urban lifestyle. The new city
life generally required less movement and work compared to rural life,
consequently decreasing levels of physical activity.
At the turn of the century, the most common causes of death were from influenza,
polio, rubella, and other infectious diseases. Risk of disease and mortality from
infectious diseases were alleviated with the discovery of Penicillin. The cost of
industrialization and urbanization became glaringly apparent starting in the 1950s
and 1960s. An epidemic of hypokinetic diseases including cardiovascular disease,
cancer, and Type II diabetes, never before prevalent, began to be recognized as the
leading causes of disease and death (19). The lifestyle improvements brought in
part by the Industrial Revolution had apparently come with an unwanted and
alarming cost to health.
Physical Education
Following the end of the Civil War in 1865, Swedish and German Gymnastics
enjoyed a moderate growth in popularity. However, the most popular form of
gymnastics during this time period was “The New Gymnastics,” introduced by
Dioclesian Lewis (20). Individuals who played important roles in the development
of fitness during this time period were Edward Hitchcock, William Anderson, and
Dudley Sargent.
Hitchcock recognized the desired outcome of his fitness programs (combination of
gymnastics and calisthenics) was improved health. He also introduced the concept
of utilizing anthropometric measurements to assess fitness progress. Sargent added
scientific research to fitness instruction and developed organized instructor
teaching methodologies. The lifetime work of Anderson focused on physical
education instruction, with his greatest contribution being its development into a
professional organization (5,9,20).
An interesting argument developed during the post-Civil War period that still exists
today. Many physical education instructors believed firmly in the value of
incorporating exercise programs that would improve health-related fitness.
However, sports were also gaining popularity in the United States during this era.
Consequently, the majority of physical education programs focused on sports and
games. The debate between health-related fitness and skill-related fitness physical
education programs continues to exist (9).

The 20th Century

The 20th century symbolized the beginning of a new era of fitness leaders: the
Presidents of the United States. Theodore Roosevelt, perhaps the most physically
fit President to occupy the oval office, also led the nation into the new century. He
recognized the importance of exercise and physical activity, and had the power to
encourage the citizens of America to be physically active. President Roosevelt held
an infatuation for fitness similar to the ideology of ancient Greece. His desire for
physical fitness evolved out of his childhood battle with asthma, which he
overcame with a rigorous exercise program. As President, he engaged in multiple
forms of physical activity including hiking, horseback riding, and other outdoor
endeavors. Although not all the presidents following Roosevelt have held fitness in
the same high regard, they recognized that the position required a commitment to
the fitness of the citizens of the United States (17).
World War I
In Europe, the First World War started in August of 1914, with the entrance of the
United States occurring three years later in 1917. With the United States' entry into
the battle, hundreds of thousands of military personnel were drafted and trained for
combat. After the war was fought and won, statistics were released from the draft
with disturbing data regarding fitness levels. It was found that one out of every
three drafted individuals was unfit for combat and many of those drafted were
highly unfit prior to military training (5,9). Government legislation was passed that
ordered the improvement of physical education programs within the public schools.
However, the heightened interest and concern for low fitness levels would be short-
lived as the United States entered the 1920s and the Depression.

The Roaring Twenties and Great Depression

Heightened interest in fitness dissipated throughout the decade. A pattern that had
been familiar throughout history is that after a war is fought and won, the tendency
is for society to relax, enjoy life, and exercise less. The Roaring Twenties earned
the label for a reason, as society lived more frivolously than at any other time in
history. Priorities centered on eating, drinking, partying, and other forms of
entertainment (21).
In October of 1929, the stock market crashed, signaling the beginning of what
would be a decade of economic depression. The economy failed to recover until the
United States entered World War II in 1941. Along with many other aspects of life,
fitness levels declined during the Depression. The gains that physical education
programs made through the passage of legislation following the WW I were short-
lived. Funding for these programs became limited and eventually was exhausted as
emphasis in the poor economy was forced to shift elsewhere (15,20).
Despite the setbacks which fitness suffered during the Great Depression, Jack
LaLanne, who would eventually be recognized as a guiding pioneer of fitness,
began his lifetime career as a media fitness instructor. Throughout his life,
LaLanne preached the value of preventive lifestyle habits. In the 1950s, The Jack
LaLanne Show began airing on television, preceding the appearance of Richard
Simmons and Jane Fonda by 25 years. LaLanne developed fitness programs
including aerobics, water aerobics, and resistance exercise. He also introduced
numerous pieces of exercise equipment including the first cable-pulley machine,
the safety system for doing squats called the Smith machine, and the first leg
extension machine. Although LaLanne is often referred to as the originator of the
"jumping jack movement", history suggests the real inventor was John “Black
Jack” Pershing, a tactical officer from West Point in World War I. Though
LaLanne preceded the modern fitness movement by some three decades, his fitness
ideology and exercise programs were correct in approach when judged by modern
research.

World War II
Throughout world history, military conflicts have had major impacts on the state of
fitness. The Second World War and its aftermath in the United States would be no
different. Essentially, the modern fitness movement evolved out of the influence of
World War II and subsequent development of the Cold War.
The United States entered World War II with the bombing of Pearl Harbor on
December 7, 1941. With the declaration of war came the necessity to draft military
personnel. However, as more men were drafted, it became embarrassingly clear
that many of them were not fit for combat. When the war was over, it was reported
that nearly half of all draftees needed to be rejected or were given non-combat
positions (20). These disturbing statistics helped gain the attention of the country
with regards to the importance of fitness.
Important contributions to fitness came during the 1940s, specifically from Dr.
Thomas K. Cureton at the University of Illinois. Cureton introduced the application
of research to fitness, which improved exercise recommendations to individuals.
Cureton not only recognized the numerous benefits of regular exercise, he strived
to expand the body of knowledge regarding physical fitness. He wanted to answer
questions such as how much exercise was healthy and what types of exercise were
most effective. More importantly, Cureton wanted to know how physical fitness
could best be measured within an individual. Among his most important
contributions were developing fitness tests for cardiorespiratory endurance,
muscular strength, and flexibility. His research resulted in multiple
recommendations for the improvement of cardiorespiratory fitness, including the
identification of exercise intensity guidelines necessary for improved fitness levels.
His suggestions became the fundamental basis behind future exercise programs
(23).
1950s - United States
The Cold War, Baby Boomer era was marked by the development of an important
factor influencing the modern fitness movement known as the "Minimum Muscular
Fitness Tests in Children" by Kraus-Hirschland (24). This study utilized the Kraus-
Weber tests to measure muscular strength and flexibility in the trunk and leg
muscles. It was reported that close to 60 percent of American children failed at
least one of the tests. In comparison, only nine percent of children from European
countries failed one of the tests. During the Cold War, these startling numbers
launched political leaders into action to promote health and fitness.
When results of the Kraus-Hirschland studies were reported to President
Eisenhower by Senators James Kelly and James Duff, he responded by holding a
White House Conference in June of 1956. Out of these meetings came two
important results: 1) the formation of the President's Council on Youth Fitness and
2) the appointment of the President's Citizens Advisory Committee on the Fitness
of American Youth (25). This was an important first step in helping to gain the
nation’s attention concerning her fitness levels.
During the 1950s, numerous organizations took initiative in educating the general
public about the consequences of low fitness levels. Several agencies that have
been involved in fitness promotion since the mid-1950s include the American
Health Association (AHA), the American Medical Association (AMA), the
American Association for Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance
(AAPHERD), and the President's Council on Youth Fitness (9). These
organizations would provide merit and legitimacy to the coming fitness movement.
The American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) was formed in 1954, and has
proved to be one of the premier organizations in the promotion of health and fitness
to American society and worldwide. Throughout its history, ACSM has established
position stands on various exercise-related issues based on scientific research.
1960s - United States
President John F. Kennedy was a major proponent of fitness and its health-related
benefits to the American people. He furthered the development of the Presidents
Council on Youth Fitness, appointing Bud Wilkinson as head of the council. The
name was also changed to the President's Council on Physical Fitness. Kennedy
spoke openly about the need for American citizens to improve their fitness levels,
including writing an article in Sports Illustrated entitled "The Soft American." He
said, "We are under-exercised as a nation; we look instead of play; we ride instead
of walk" (27). Kennedy prompted the federal government to become more
involved in national fitness promotion and started youth pilot fitness programs.
Kennedy's commitment to fitness can best be summarized when he said, "Physical
fitness is the basis for all other forms of excellence." (28)
Dr. Ken H. Cooper, widely recognized as "The Father of the Modern Fitness
Movement", is generally credited with encouraging more individuals to exercise
than any other individual in history. Cooper advocated a philosophy that shifted
away from disease treatment to one of disease prevention. "It is easier to maintain
good health through proper exercise, diet, and emotional balance than it is to regain
it once it is lost" he said. Early in his career, Cooper stressed the necessity for
providing epidemiological data to support the benefits of regular exercise and
health. Data from thousands of individuals became the foundation for his aerobic
concepts. Aerobics, released in 1968, sent a powerful message to the American
people - to prevent the development of chronic diseases, exercise regularly and
maintain high fitness levels throughout life (29). Dr. Cooper’s message, programs
and ideas established the model from which fitness has proliferated up to modern
time.

Lessons From History

The history of fitness portrays some fascinating themes that relate closely to the
21st century. One commonality is the strong association of military and political
might with physical fitness throughout mankind’s advancement. In many ways, this
shows how impacting our world leaders can be on health and fitness.
The mind-body concept has had a tenuous development. At times, some cultures
prescribed spirituality at the expense of the body where as others, such as Greek
society, upheld the ideal a sound mind can only be found in a healthy body.
Another interesting development from history is the concept of exercise for the
body and music for the soul. Present day fitness programs have evolved this
concept harmoniously, with music being a distinctive component to the exercise
experience.
It appears that as societies become too enamored with wealth, prosperity and self-
entertatinment that fitness levels drop. In addition, as technology has advanced
with man, the levels of physical fitness have decreased. History offers little insight
how to prevent or turnaround these recourses. Thus, this is a resolution we are
challenged with in today’s society. Perhaps utilizing all of the extensive research
completed on health and fitness in combination with the creative minds now in the
fitness industry, we now can solve this part of the fitness puzzle.
Fitness, as we know it today, seems to be a relatively modern invention – something that started
vaguely in the 70s with jogging and Jazzercise. But physical exercise obviously goes back much further
than that, to a time where people wouldn’t have thought of it as working out, but rather a way of life.
Centuries and millennia ago, they did not have all the machines and weights and gyms that we have
today, and yet they were in better shape than we are. To understand why this is, how we got to our
modern fitness culture, and what we have lost along the way, it’s helpful to take a look at the history of
exercise.

In a previous article on the philosophy of “MovNat,” I briefly talked about the history of physical training
before there were modern gyms and workout programs. This article is a more detailed overview of
exercise throughout time, from its ancestral origins, to the early history of physical education in Europe
and America, to today’s plethora of fitness modalities, sports, and activities.

Primal Times: Move For Your Life!

From the dawn of humankind to around 10,000 BC, men had a constant voice in the back of their head
saying, “Run for your life!” Physical development followed a natural path that was determined by the
practical demands of life in a wild landscape as well as the vital need to avoid threats and seize
opportunities for survival.

One’s movement demands consisted of locomotion, the manipulation of tools and natural objects
(rocks, tree limbs, etc.), and defense. To survive in a harsh environment full of natural and human
obstacles and enemies, early man had to know not only how to run, but also walk, balance, jump, crawl,
climb, lift, carry, throw and catch things, and fight. We can also safely assume that playful or creative
moves like early forms of dancing were performed when bellies were full and predators weren’t around.

cavemen hunting giant rhino illustration

“Any idea how many calories we’ve burned?”

The strength and mobility of early man was not developed through structured programs, methods, or
schedules, but rather was forged by the daily, instinctive, necessity-driven practice of highly practical
and adaptable movement skills. Today, the few hunter-gatherer tribes which still exist around the world
would have no idea what “primal fitness” or a “caveman workout” is, as this kind of “exercise” remains
deeply ingrained in their everyday lives.

vintage gatherer women in jungle carrying children

In hunter-gatherer tribes, everyone had to be strong — men, women, and children alike. Here we see
walking, balancing, and carrying — all at once. It doesn’t get any more “functional” than this.

Neolithic Times: Crop Culture

ancient man neolithic farmer illustration

Starting between 10,000 and 8,000 BC, the Agricultural Revolution is often considered to be the dawn of
civilization.

Man’s transition from nomadic hunter-gatherer to farmer led to dramatic changes in his physical
activity. The numerous demands of growing food and raising cattle meant a lot of chores and a lot of
daily labor for farmers. But these tasks were largely repetitive, and required a very limited range of
movement. At the same time, the need for performing a variety of complex movements — running,
balancing, jumping, crawling, climbing — greatly diminished. Such movements were rarely performed in
a farm environment, or were performed in much simpler ways; for example, climbing a ladder is safer
and more constrained and predictable than climbing trees.

Ancient Times: Prepared for War

statue ancient greek warrior with spear shield battle helmet

Between 4,000 BC and the fall of the Roman Empire in 476 AD, civilizations rose and fell through war
and conquest. Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Persians, and later on, the Greeks and Romans all
imposed physical training on boys and young men. The purpose? Preparing for battle.

Ancient military training had similarities to the movements performed in nature by our cavemen
brethren, but with more structure and a different end goal. Young men practiced fundamental skills
such as walking and running on uneven terrains, jumping, crawling, climbing, lifting and carrying heavy
things, throwing and catching, unarmed fighting, and weapons training.

Civilized populations valued physical culture for sports as well. Records of athletic competitions exist
from ancient Egypt, and of course, the ancient Greeks famously created the first Olympic games. Not
surprisingly, these early sports were all based on practical, natural movement skills and were
fundamentally related to the preparedness needed for war — the Greeks strove to best each other in
running (sometimes with armor and shield), jumping, throwing (javelin or discus), and fighting (striking
and wrestling).

ancient greek pottery artwork men running

ancient greek artwork man throwing spear

ancient greek artwork man throwing disc

ancient greek marble engraving men wrestling grappling

ancient greek artwork men boxing training

The images above demonstrate the sports the Greeks trained for and competed in during their Olympics
games. The events concentrated on natural movements, like running, and martial skills, like fighting.
Outside of military training and sports, Greeks, and later the Romans, celebrated the body’s beauty and
strength and embraced physical training as a philosophical ideal and an essential part of a complete
education. They celebrated the idea of having a sound mind, in a sound body. Physical culture started to
rise beyond practical necessities to become a means to an end — an “art de vivre.”

ancient greek remains of a gym

Remains of a “gymnasia,” an early version of our modern gyms.

ancient greek sculpture naked man with muscular physique

Antique sculpture representing ideal athleticism.

The Dark Ages: The Rejection of the Body

Lasting from the 5th to the 15th century, the Middle Ages were a chaotic period with a succession of
kingdoms and empires, waves of barbarian invasions, and devastating plagues. The teachings of
Christianity spread the belief that the primary concern of one’s lifetime was preparing for the afterlife.
The body was seen as sinful and unimportant — it was a man’s soul that was his true essence. Education
was overwhelmingly connected to the Church, and focused on cultivating the mind rather than training
the body.

ancient christian art soldiers knights on horseback with swords

Under feudalism, the dominant social system in medieval Europe, only nobles and mercenaries
underwent physical training for military service. Similarly to ancient times, their training centered on
natural movements and martial skills.

The rest of the population were mostly peasants obliged to live on their lord’s land and work extremely
hard in fields using rudimentary tools. Their “exercise” came through hard labor.

The Renaissance: A Fresh Start

vitruvian man on parchment paper illustration

The Renaissance Era (from around 1400 to 1600) prompted a much greater and open interest in the
body, anatomy, biology, health, and physical education.

In 1420, Vittorino da Feltre, an Italian humanist and one of the first modern educators, opened a very
popular school where, beyond the humanist subjects, a special emphasis was placed on physical
education.

Cristobal Mendez painting reading pointing at book

Cristobal Mendez
In 1553, El Libro del Ejercicio Corporal y Sus Provechos, by Spaniard Cristobal Mendez, was the first book
to exclusively address physical exercise and its benefits. In the book, exercises, games, and sports are
classified, analyzed, and described from a medical standpoint, and advice is offered on how to prevent
and recover from injuries resulting from these physical pursuits. Several chapters even provide specific
advice on particular drills and games for women, children, and the elderly.

16 years later, Mercurialis, an Italian physician, published De Arte Gymnastica. It was the culmination of
his studies of classical and medical literature, particularly the ancient Greeks’ and Romans’ approach to
hygiene, diet, and exercise, and their use of natural methods for the treatment of disease. Laying out
the principles of physical therapy for the first time, and accompanied with beautiful illustrations (even
though they were largely creative speculations), it is considered the first book on sports medicine, and
strongly influenced the wave of physical education and training methods that started to emerge in
Europe two centuries later.

ancient greek illustration climbing ropes

Climbing and balancing practice as depicted in De Arte Gymnastica.

The Old Times: Fit for the Homeland

The Industrial Revolution, marking the transition from manual production methods to machine-based
manufacturing processes, began around 1760 and quickly generated social, economic, and cultural
trends that changed the way people lived, worked, and of course, moved. As people became more
sedentary, a new movement towards intentional physical exercise arose. This movement was given a
boost in the 19th century from the rise of a nationalistic fervor in many counties in Europe. Staying
healthy, fit, and ready to serve in battle became a point of civic duty and pride.

In Europe

In 1774, Johann Bernard Basedow, influenced by Rousseau’s ideas of the “Natural Human,” opened the
Philanthropinum in Germany, with an emphasis on physical exercise and games, including wrestling,
running, riding, fencing, vaulting, and dancing. Even the school’s uniforms, which were often heavy and
constricting during this time period, were made more comfortable to allow students greater freedom of
movement. This model inspired the founding of many similar institutions, and physical training began to
become more systemized and included as an integral part of the educational curriculum.

Some of the apparatuses designed by Muths. Found in Gymnastik für die Jugend.

Climbing vertical pole or rope. In Gymnastik für die Jugend.

Twenty years later, Guts Muths, another German teacher and educator, developed the basic principles
of artistic gymnastics, for which he is regarded as the “Great Grandfather of Gymnastics.” His Gymnastik
für die Jugend (Gymnastics For the Youth), the first systematic textbook in gymnastics, was published in
1800 and became a standard reference for physical education in the English-speaking world.
Friedrich Jahn (1778-1852), known as “The father of gymnastics.”

In 1810 Friedrich Jahn came on the physical culture scene. Known as “The Father of Gymnastics,” he was
an essential pioneer of physical education, and his ideas spread throughout Europe and America. A
German gymnastics educator and ardent nationalist who had lived through Napoleon’s invasion of his
country, he felt the best way to prevent another such incursion was to help his people develop their
bodies and minds. To this end, he led young men on fresh-air expeditions and taught them gymnastics
and calisthenics to restore their physical and moral strength.

In 1811, Jahn opened the first Turnplatz, or open-air gymnasium, in Berlin. His gymnastics movement,
then called the Turnverein, spread rapidly throughout the country, and in 1816 he published Die
Deutsche Turnkunst (The German Gymnastics) dedicated to his gymnastics system.

In addition to these contributions to physical culture, Jahn invented the pommel horse and horizontal
and parallel bars, and promoted the use of gymnastic rings. The physical culture festivals he sponsored
attracted as many as 30,000 enthusiasts, but the essence and end goal of his gymnastics and calisthenics
methods were above all practical and functional, not artistic. He advocated the practice of the
traditional natural movements like running, balancing, jumping, climbing, and so on.

An early gymnastics festival in Germany.

Well-informed of this German model, as well as the ancient tradition of athletics, Swede Pehr Henrik
Ling developed principles of physical development, emphasizing the integration of perfect bodily
development with muscular beauty. By contrast with the German system, this Swedish system
promoted “light gymnastics,” employing little, if any apparatuses (Ling invented wall bars) and focusing
on calisthenics, breathing, and stretching exercises as well as massage.

Swedish gymnastics had four categories: pedagogic, military, medical, and aesthetic. All movements had
to be performed correctly and collectively in a freestanding fashion under a leader’s direction, which
differed from the predominant, more mobile, strenuous, and practical German approach. Aspects of this
method can still be traced in some modern programs of physical training.

Around the exact same time, Spaniard Francisco Amoros founded a military gymnastics school in
Madrid, then moved to Paris and established the Normal Gymnastic Civil and Military School in 1819. In
1830 he published A Guide to Physical, Gymnastic and Moral Education.

gymnastiqueetmorale

After being removed from his position as leader of the army’s physical training program, he opened a
popular civilian gymnastics hall in Paris and became the initiator of physical education in France and
Spain.
In 1847, French physical culture pioneer and strongman Hippolyte Triat founded a huge gymnasium in
Paris where the bourgeois, aristocrats, and spirited youth joined in an enthusiastic pursuit of fitness.

In the 1870s after the loss of Alsace-Lorraine to the Germans, the already budding nationalistic mood in
France exploded. Physical education became a principal focus in French schools, as battalions of young
men were trained to avenge the country.

In Scotland, the Highland Games began during the Romantic trend of the 1830s, and included traditional
physical challenges distinctive to Scottish culture such as caber tossing, hammer throwing, and the stone
shot put, along with running, wrestling, and jumping.

The exercise methods developed by German physical culturists influenced English physical education.

In England, Charles Darwin’s concept of “survival of the fittest” gave that country’s nascent physical
culture movement a boost. Englishmen wanted to be strong enough to rise to the top of nature’s
hierarchy. In 1849 the first English athletic competition was conducted at the Royal Military Academy.
Scot Archibald MacLaren opened a well-equipped gymnasium at the University of Oxford in 1858, where
he trained 12 army officers who then implemented his physical training regimen into the British Army.

University of Oxford gymnasium.

It is also worth mentioning the Czech Sokol movement. Founded in 1862, this youth sports and
gymnastics organization was inspired by the German Turnverein (Gymnastic Movement) and provided
physical, moral, and intellectual training for the nation through fitness programs (mostly centered on
marching drills, fencing, and various forms of weightlifting), lectures, group outings, and massive
gymnastics festivals. This training extended to men of all economic classes, eventually to women, and
ultimately to the entire Slavic world.

The Polish Falcons (1867) had similar aspirations. In addition to physical training and athletic contests,
such cultural groups often sponsored national or traditional dances, songs, and language revivals.
Everywhere in Europe people seemed to develop a fitness culture rooted in their ethnic or national
identity.

As Europe entered the 20th century, French navy officer and physical educator Georges Hebert played a
prominent role in moving physical culture forward – and did so by taking a cue from the cultures of the
past. Having studied the principles espoused by his predecessors, including Jahn and Amoros, he
pioneered his own “natural method.” His method was entirely based on natural movement skills such as
walking, running, balancing, jumping, crawling, climbing, manipulative skills (lifting, throwing, etc.), and
self-defense – all of which were often practiced on obstacle courses. Hebert was responsible for the
physical training of all sailors in the French navy, and then opened the largest and most modern
indoor/outdoor training center in Reims in 1913.
An excerpt from one of Hebert’s books.

Hebert published his first book, L’Education Physique ou l’Entrainement Complet par la Methode
Naturelle (Physical Education or Complete Training by the Natural Method), in 1912, followed by many
other works on the same subject. The insights modern man can glean from these seminal works will be
the subject of my next post.

In the USA

Since the threat of foreign invasion was never as great in the United States as it was in Europe, the need
to prepare for war was not as acute, and thus an emphasis on physical culture came later to this
country.

Catharine Beecher was one of the first pioneers to create an awareness of fitness in America. As a strong
advocate for the inclusion of physical education in schools as well as daily exercises for both sexes, she
developed a program of calisthenics that were performed to music. When Beecher established the
Hartford Female Seminary in 1823, it was the first major U.S. educational institution for women to
implement physical education courses as part of the program.

At the same time, European physical culture traditions started to take root in America. Many “Turners”
(German practitioners of Jahn’s gymnastic system) emigrated to the US, and in 1824, German scholar
Charles Beck opened an outdoors gymnasium in Massachusetts that was similar to Jahn’s Turnplatz. It
was the first gym in the nation and hosted the first school gymnastics program in the country.

Many other Turners became active in the American public education system and strongly influenced it
by opening clubs and teaching gymnastics in various states. One of the most notable practitioners of this
European tradition was Dudley Allen Sargent, who is considered to be the founder of physical education
in the United States. From 1879 until his retirement in 1919, he was director of the Hemenway
Gymnasium at Harvard University, where he taught the German and Swedish systems that he had
learned as a young man. Sargent also challenged the Victorian view of females as feeble and prone to
fainting, and encouraged freedom of dress and vigorous activity for girls and women.

Sargent invented multiple gymnasium apparatuses, created a Universal Test for Strength, Speed and
Endurance in 1902, wrote numerous articles and books on physical education, and warned that “without
solid physical education programs, people would become fat, deformed, and clumsy.”

Practical and cooperative physical training. Your great-grandma was training for the Spartan Race,
before there was a Spartan Race.

The big takeaway from tracing the development of physical culture both in Europe and the US during
this period is that these gymnastics systems were all very similar, and mostly based on a practical
approach. “Gymnastics” or “calisthenics” at that time did not primarily convey the idea of acrobatics,
but more utilitarian movement skills and the strength training that was essential to military
preparedness and real-life situations.
The exception to this trend was the introduction of apparatuses like the Gymnasticon. Invented in 1796,
it was the forerunner of modern machine-based fitness.

Gymnasticon

The use of fitness equipment would pick up in the 20th century, as would the weights-based, strength-
oriented strongman approach to physical culture. These two trends would lead to the modern fitness
industry as we know it.

The Rise of the Modern Fitness Industry

The 20th century marked the rise of specialized, competitive sports, as well as the emergence of a well-
organized and thriving “fitness” market and industry.

At the very beginning of the 20th century, at the same time Georges Hebert developed and promoted
his “Natural Method,” another Frenchman, Professor Edmond Desbonnet, managed to make physical
exercise and strength training fashionable through the publication of fitness journals (he used
photography to capture male and female athletes) and by opening a chain of exercise clubs. This laid a
strong foundation for physical culture in Europe, but also for “fitness” as an industry.

Desbonnet’s system was a reaction against the decadence of the Belle Epoque, during which people
lived without thinking on their physical condition and health. At the height of his popularity, he had
more than 200 fitness centers, and several of the famous early strongmen and bodybuilders were
proponents of the Desbonnet method.

Being rather expensive, his fitness centers were frequented by the high class of French and European
society before World War I. After the war, the working class also started to gain access to the physical
culture movement.

During the same period in the USA, Bernarr Macfadden came to prominence as an American physical
culture guru and healthy living advocate. He recommended a minimalist lifestyle based on time spent in
nature, daily vigorous physical exercise, and the elimination of alcohol, tea, coffee, and white bread
from one’s diet.

Macfadden started to market a wall-mounted muscle developer that he had created, and founded one
of the first muscle magazines, Physical Culture, in 1899. He staged the first physique contest in America
in 1903, and similar competitions in 1921 and 1922 fostered the rise of physical culture’s greatest icon,
Charles Atlas. By 1935, Macfadden’s publishing empire had a total of 35 million readers, and he died a
multimillionaire in 1955.

The “old school” gym that emerged in the 20th century…is not so old school after all when looked at as
part of a much longer history of physical fitness.

Desbonnet and Macfadden can be seen as the precursors of the health and fitness industry as we know
it. From there, we enter the age of confusion — the age of fitness-as-business and its many fads, with its
current aesthetics-driven, body-building approach, the use of increasingly sophisticated exercise
machines in gyms, home equipment, the huge supplement business, countless magazines, books, DVDs,
an even now the emergence of tech-based exercise with numerous fitness apps.

Over the course of a century, thousands of methods and programs have emerged, all promising to get
you in the best shape of your life in the quickest amount of time possible (with results generally being
limited to improvements in your physical appearance).

belt

This short list is but a sampling of those methods and devices that people have given millions of dollars
to in the past century: the vibrating belt, Jack LaLanne’s TV tips and juicing, Jane Fonda’s aerobics,
Simmons’s “Sweatin’ to the Oldies” videos, the Bowflex home gyms, Thighmasters, 8 Minute Abs and Ab
Rollers, Tae Bo, Pilates, Spinning, P90X, Wii Fit, Power Plates, Sauna Suits, Power Wristbands, and many
more.

If unregulated gimmicks sit on one side of the modern fitness dichotomy, on the other resides the study
of exercise as a science. Exercise has been analyzed and quantified in laboratories, and enormous
amounts of data have been amassed on the effect of movement on the human body. The professionals
who make a career out of sifting through this data, and making recommendations based on it, are
regulated through numerous organizations, associations, councils, federations, and commissions,
including:

Academy of Applied Personal Training Education

American College of Sports Medicine

American Council on Exercise

International Fitness Professionals Association

National Academy of Sports Medicine

Any many more…

The Current State of Physical Culture: Lost in Fitness

As we reflect on the evolution of fitness over the centuries, and the different facets present in our
modern physical culture, it is well to ask ourselves: what have we lost, and what have we gained?

Obviously, much good has come out of these recent developments: there’s widespread awareness of
the importance of regular exercise, nearly every community has a gym where people can work out, and
we understand more about how the human body works and responds to physical training than we ever
have before.

Yet despite the plethora of health and fitness methods, programs, and resources, the general population
has never been so physically sedentary and out-of-shape.
A recent World Health Organization report indicates that life expectancy in the U.S. dropped for first
time since 1993. The health of modern people is declining, despite highly advanced medical
technologies, and in spite of the thriving health and fitness industry. How could that be?

change

Even though we have tons more devices and information about health and fitness than our ancestors
did, we are in worse shape.

A large part of it is motivation. People are simply not as motivated to move their body and get healthy
as they were in the past. We live in a society where the inability to operate one’s body in a practical and
effective manner is no longer an embarrassing condition.

In my opinion, the health and fitness industry as whole, no matter how “cutting-edge” or
“revolutionary” each new program claims to be, has failed to get the majority of people to value,
practice, and enjoy physical exercise. Aside from a few exceptions, I believe that the industry has widely
contributed to spreading a limited perception of what health and fitness are, and to people turning their
back on it.

Overwhelmingly, the most common perception of what it means to be fit, and the primary motivation
for exercising, is to look fit. It is no longer about having a healthy body that can actually do stuff that is
practical to real life.

Overwhelmingly, the most common view on how to exercise is that you need machines for cardio and to
build muscle and strength so you look good, and maybe add a bit of stretching to the mix (there is
equipment for that too). Throw in some vitamins and supplements, and you’re healthy and fit!

Overwhelmingly, exercise is a mere chore, not a pleasure; it’s something people have to force
themselves to do, not a natural expression of who they are.

Last but not least, many who try to address their fitness needs are confused as to what modality to
choose. We have lost clarity and simplicity. We have lost a sense of practicality. We have lost
naturalness.

On the one hand, we’re entering the age of ever-more advanced exercise machines that remove people
from real life, nature, and what their bodies are naturally designed to do. I see the age of fitness tech,
with connected gadgets and their apps, sensors, and wires. The age of “bio-hacking” and exercise
efficiency, offering promises like: “Get fit in 3 minutes of exercise a week!” The era of ubiquitous self-
quantification where people obsessively check out data curves on a screen, trying to manage their
health and fitness in the most scientific way possible. What I see starts to resemble a technological,
trans-humanistic approach to the body’s health. Is this really where we should be headed?

Despite everything that the health and fitness industry provides, people have never been so physically
inactive. So should we expect the answer to this predicament to come from even more varied, or more
technologically advanced programs and equipment? Or will the solution come from a different mindset,
a simpler approach and practice, and overall a new culture?

My friend and functional movement expert Gray Cook once said, “We are meant to grow strong and to
age gracefully. Reclamation of authentic movement is the starting point.”

First grade physical education in America in the 50s: walking, running, balancing, jumping, crawling,
rolling, climbing. Simple, effective, practical, enjoyable.

To become (and stay) strong and healthy, the average Joe and Jane, which most of us are, simply need
to move naturally, like all humans used to do not so long ago. We need to practice fundamental
movement skills to develop a baseline of physical competence that is useful in real-life, tangible ways.
We also need to employ a down-to-earth approach that is practical in both its practice and objectives,
which people find enjoyable, that is scalable and progressive, that doesn’t compulsorily require very
expensive custom-made equipment, and that can be done in groups.

So let me present you with the alternative paradigm that I envision for the future of physical exercise.
For thousands of years, physical development followed a natural path; we used to move naturally with
the demands of life. Tigers, bears, wild horses, gorillas, dolphins, eagles, etc. still do the same. We are
still designed to follow evolution and nature. For hundreds of years, our predecessors have trusted in a
design that provided immediate usefulness and practical benefits to their lives.

Natural movement, or practical physical performance, was at the core of exercise for centuries. It was
probably at the core of your own childhood years and play. While daddy was working out his guns with
dumbbells in the backyard, the little guy that you once were used to run, jump, balance, crawl, climb,
carry, throw, and wrestle. Did you need machines or smartphone apps? Did you need to track anything?
Were you thinking of what muscles you were exercising? The answer to all of these is no, and yet
weren’t you having an absolute blast?

Just because modern conveniences have obliterated the necessity to move (if you’re hungry, just click
and order a pizza online, right?) and just because the fitness industry has led us to believe that fitness
happens only indoors with equipment, doesn’t mean that our biological nature — our natural,
evolutionary potential and need for complex and adaptable movements — has changed.

We don’t have to accept our sedentary lifestyle and be hemmed in by the machines we have created in
order to become fit. We don’t have to maintain a false dichotomy between strength and cardio,
between the body and the mind, between fitness and health, or between exercise as something we do,
and movement and physical activity as an expression of who we are.

I believe that it is not only a biological duty, but also a moral duty for everyone to be equipped with the
movement skills, strength, conditioning, and mental fortitude that are required to respond effectively to
the physical demands of real life. I also believe that nature is what we all need — the nature outside of
us, and just as importantly, the physical nature within. Author Richard Louv puts it beautifully:

“The future will belong to the nature-smart. The more high-tech we become, the more nature we need.”
Alejandro Jodorowsky once said that “Birds born in a cage think flying is a sickness.” We have learned to
neglect, distrust, and even fear our own natural movements. The truth is, we still have a real, natural
potential for powerful, graceful, and useful movement. Move so you can be strong, and be strong so you
can be free.

The sport of gymnastics, which derives its name from the ancient Greek word for
disciplinary exercises, combines physical skills such as body control, coordination,
dexterity, gracefulness, and strength with tumbling and acrobatic skills, all performed in
an artistic manner. Gymnastics is performed by both men and women at many levels,
from local clubs and schools to colleges and universities, and in elite national and
international competitions.
History
Gymnastics was introduced in early Greek civilization to facilitate bodily development
through a series of exercises that included running, jumping, swimming, throwing,
wrestling, and weight lifting. Many basic gymnastic events were practiced in some form
before the introduction by the Greeks of gymnazein, literally, "to exercise naked."
Physical fitness was a highly valued attribute in ancient Greece, and both men and
women participated in vigorous gymnastic exercises. The Romans, after conquering
Greece, developed the activities into a more formal sport, and they used the
gymnasiums to physically prepare their legions for warfare. With the decline of Rome,
however, interest in gymnastics dwindled, with tumbling remaining as a form of
entertainment.
Modern Gymnastics
In 1774, a Prussian, Johann Bernhard Basedow, included physical exercises with other
forms of instruction at his school in Dessau, Saxony. With this action began the
modernization of gymnastics, and also thrust the Germanic countries into the forefront
in the sport. In the late 1700s, Friedrich Ludwig Jahn of Germany developed the side
bar, the horizontal bar, the parallel bars, the balance beam, and jumping events. He,
more than anyone else, is considered the "father of modern gymnastics." Gymnastics
flourished in Germany in the 1800s, while in Sweden a more graceful form of the sport,
stressing rhythmic movement, was developed by Guts Muth. The opening (1811) of
Jahn's school in Berlin, to promote his version of the sport, was followed by the
formation of many clubs in Europe and later in England. The sport was introduced to the
United States by Dr. Dudley Allen Sargent, who taught gymnastics in several U.S.
universities about the time of the Civil War, and who is credited with inventing more than
30 pieces of apparatus. Most of the growth of gymnastics in the United States centered
on the activities of European immigrants, who introduced the sport in their new cities in
the 1880s. Clubs were formed as Turnverein and Sokol groups, and gymnasts were
often referred to as "turners." Modern gymnastics excluded some traditional events,
such as weight lifting and wrestling, and emphasized form rather than personal rivalry.
Modern Competition
Men's gymnastics was on the schedule of the first modern Olympic Games in 1896, and
it has been on the Olympic agenda continually since 1924. Olympic gymnastic
competition for women began in 1936 with an all-around competition, and in 1952
competition for the separate events was added. In the early Olympic competitions the
dominant male gymnasts were from Germany, Sweden, Italy, and Switzerland, the
countries where the sport first developed. But by the 1950s, Japan, the Soviet Union,
and the Eastern European countries began to produce the leading male and female
gymnasts.
Modern gymnastics gained considerable popularity because of the performances of
Olga Korbut of the Soviet Union in the 1972 Olympics, and Nadia Comaneci of Romania
in the 1976 Olympics. The widespread television coverage of these dramatic
performances gave the sport the publicity that it lacked in the past. Many countries other
than the traditional mainstays at the time — the USSR, Japan, East and West Germany,
and other Eastern European nations — began to promote gymnastics, particularly for
women; among these countries were China and the United States.
Modern international competition has six events for men and four events for women.
The men's events are the rings, parallel bars, horizontal bar, side or pommel-horse, long
or vaulting horse, and floor (or free) exercise. These events emphasize upper body
strength and flexibility along with acrobatics. The women's events are the vaulting
horse, balance beam, uneven bars, and floor exercise, which is performed with musical
accompaniment. These events combine graceful, dancelike movements with strength
and acrobatic skills. In the United States, tumbling and trampoline exercises are also
included in many competitions.
Teams for international competitions are made up of six gymnasts. In the team
competition each gymnast performs on every piece of equipment, and the team with the
highest number of points wins. There is also a separate competition for the all-around
title, which goes to the gymnast with the highest point total after performing on each
piece of equipment, and a competition to determine the highest score for each individual
apparatus.
Another type of competitive gymnastics for women is called rhythmic gymnastics, an
Olympic sport since 1984. Acrobatic skills are not used. The rhythmic gymnast performs
graceful, dancelike movements while holding and moving items such as a ball, hoop,
rope, ribbon, or Indian clubs, with musical accompaniment. Routines are performed
individually or in group performances for six gymnasts.
Scoring
Gymnastic competitions are judged and scored on both an individual and a team basis.
Each competitor must accomplish a required number of specific types of moves on each
piece of equipment. Judges award points to each participant in each event on a 0-to-10
scale, 10 being perfect. Judging is strictly subjective; however, guidelines are provided
for judges so that they can arrive at relatively unbiased scores.
Usually there are four judges, and the highest and lowest scores are dropped to provide
a more objective evaluation. Gymnasts try to perform the most difficult routines in the
most graceful way, thus impressing the judges with their mastery of the sport.