Sei sulla pagina 1di 36

Section A

Answer ALL Questions, in the space provided in this book.

A1
What are the main differences between Igneous, Metamorphic and
Sedimentary rocks?
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A2
Arrange the following chronostratigraphic terms in order of time (from
oldest to youngest) and also state which hierarchical rank each term
belongs to (Era, Period or Epoch).
Cenozoic, Pliocene, Silurian, Permian, Jurassic, Quaternary, Paleozoic,
Cambrian
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1
A3
Draw a diagram of a normal fault, indicating the location of the hanging
wall and the footwall. How are these defined?.
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A4
Draw diagrams to illustrate the differences between divergent plate
margins in continental and oceanic crust. List the features that might be
expected to occur in the vicinity of this type of plate boundary.
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A5
Draw a diagram illustrating a plunging anticline and briefly describe
what features make it an anticline and what features make it plunging.
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A6
Name four secondary sedimentary structures (those sedimentary
structures produced after initial deposition of the sediments)?
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A7
List four of the golden rules of contour mapping.
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A8
What lithologies, shapes, arrangements or structures are required to
create a stratigraphic trap? Draw some diagrams to illustrate your
answer.
(2 marks)

4
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5
A9
Define the frequency and wavelength of seismic waves, and state the
formula by which they are related to each other. Draw a diagram to help
illustrate your answer.
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A10
List four rules or laws of stratigraphy.
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A11
What kinds of architecture or depositional environments are likely to
result in the highest recovery factors?
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A12
Draw a diagram illustrating current ripples and their resulting
sedimentary structures. State what criteria distinguish current ripples
from other bedforms.
(2 marks)

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A13
What potential reservoir facies would be deposited in a shallow marine
depositional environment, and what would be their geometry? Draw
diagrams to illustrate your answer.
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A14
What is the ‘thin bed’ or ‘wedge’ effect in seismic reflection surveys?
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8
A15
What is the difference between permeability heterogeneity and
anisotropy?
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A16
What is biostratigraphy and how is it used in correlation?
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A17
What processes can occur to create secondary porosity in both clastic
and carbonate sedimentary rocks?
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A18
A composite log is being created for a well. A formation top has been
encountered at 2449 m TVDSS. Sonic logs suggest that the velocity of the
unit between this formation top and the seabed is 1980 m/s. Given that
the velocity of sea water is 1400 m/s, and the seabed was encountered
at 890 m or 1.271 secs TWT in this well, at what TWT would the reflector
corresponding to the formation top appear in a seismic line through this
well location (construct a small table to complete this answer)?
(2 marks)
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A19
Name four reasons why rocks may be anisotropic?
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A20
The following two successions have been studied at outcrop. What
depositional environment do you think each has been deposited in?
1) Laterally extensive sheet-like thick layers of red sandstone, large
scale cross-bedding subdivided by a complex hierarchy of erosion
surfaces and changes in foreset orientation. Individual foresets
well sorted, well rounded fine to medium sand. Cross-bedded
layers are separated by thinner more poorly sorted sheets of
sandstone containing adhesion ripples, lag deposits and rootlets.
2) Repeated sheet-like coarsening upwards successions, each on a
scale of ~120 m thick. Each succession comprises (1) basal
mudstone containing marine fossils, overlain by (2) sandy
mudstone interrupted by thin layers of fine sandstone with
hummocky cross-stratification, (3) by swaley cross-stratified fine
to medium sandstone, (4) by laminated to cross-bedded medium
to coarse sandstone.
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A21
Draw diagrams to illustrate the concepts of spill point and lowest known
oil in a simple anticlinal reservoir.
(2 marks)

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A22
What architecture or arrangement of strata is likely to have an effective
permeability close to the harmonic average of core plug measurement
data?
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A23
Describe how hydrocarbons are created during burial of sediments.
(2 marks)
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A24
Draw a diagram to illustrate the relationship between true stratigraphic
thickness and true vertical thickness. What are the contour maps of
these values called?.
(2 marks)

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A25
What are carbonate sedimentary rocks?
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14
Section B
B1

You have been given interpreted lithology, as well as gamma and


resistivity wireline logs for five wells (Attachment B1). The wells have
been hung from a regional lithostratigraphic marker – the base of a
volcanic ash layer. Fossil samples from the locations marked 1, 3, 4, 5, 7,
8, 9, and 11 were found to contain marine fossils. The sample 2
contained palynomorphs consistent with a temperate non-marine
environment, while the samples 6 and 10 contained pollen characteristic
of an arid non-marine environment. Dipmeter logs combined with initial
analysis of the biostratigraphy of the succession has identified a major
angular unconformity (change in dip) in the middle of the succession
(marked by a bold wiggly line in the logs), and two further
unconformities not associated with changes in dip (marked by wiggly
lines in the logs) in the succession underlying the angular unconformity.
Assume that there is no faulting disrupting the sedimentary packages.

a) On the attachment, correlate the various lithologies present. Is


this correlation a cross-section or a correlation panel, and why?

(11 Marks)

b) Explain your choice of correlation, specifically mentioning your


interpretation of the depositional environments.

(6 Marks)

c) Explain the geological history of the area, starting with the oldest
depositional event. Specifically explain the changes in depositional
environment and then post-depositional deformation that has
affected the succession.

(6 Marks)

d) Identify a potential trap on your correlation. Is this a stratigraphic


or a structural trap?

(2 Marks)

15
ATTACHMENT B1

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B2

You have been provided with a map of a field and an example log of a
well from the same field (Attachments B2-1 and B2-2). .

a) Estimate the area covered by the OWC on the map, and then
calculate the GRV, assuming that the OWC is within the reservoir
thickness. Draw a graph of area versus height to illustrate your
working, and state clearly the derivation of your values. Show
your working on the map.
(6 Marks)

b) Given the information in the table below, calculate the STOOIP in


the reservoir formation. Show all your working and justify your
method.
(8 Marks)

Unit Thickness (ft) Porosity % Water Net-to-


Saturation % Gross
Sc 25 1 1.0 0
Sh 25 2 0.95 0.10
N a-d 100 12 0.3 0.50
E 65 18 0.15 0.88
R a-b 184 15 0.45 0.78
D 250 5 0.95 0.12
Conversion ft to m = 0.3048
Conversion m3 to barrels = 6.285
B0 = 1.22 STB/RB

c) Draw a sketch showing your interpretation of the reservoir


structure and internal layers from NW to SE across the map
(accuracy is not required for this question).
(6 Marks)

d) Given that the units R, E and N form a prograding delta system,


explain why the different units have different reservoir properties,
and what differences in production efficiency may we expect from
them?
(5 Marks)

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ATTACHMENT B2-1

22
ATTACHMENT B2-2

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27
B3

An old set of paper 2D seismic lines has been made available over a
potential field, along with a depth conversion algorithm based on well
data. Based on the initial interpretation of these lines, the top reservoir
surface has been identified and some normal faults have also been
located. Depth data in feet for discrete points along the lines and the
fault locations have been plotted on the attached base map (Attachment
B3). The OWC in the field has been identified as occurring at 9200 feet.

a) On the attachment, contour the depth data provided using a


contour interval of 100 feet. What type of map is this? Label the
OWC, and shade in the area within which oil occurs.

(12 Marks)

b) Draw a cross-section of the reservoir top surface on a west-east


alignment – carefully plotting the location of your cross-section on
the map. Do NOT use any vertical exaggeration.

(8 Marks)

c) Describe the structure represented in your map and cross-


section.

(5 Marks)

28
ATTACHMENT B3

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31
B4

The following core plug permeability measurements have been made


available for a well in a sandstone reservoir:

Depth (m) Permeability (mD)


3210.00 56.00
3210.30 302.00
3210.60 294.00
3210.90 167.00
3211.20 61.00
3211.50 301.00
3211.80 286.00
3212.10 252.00
3212.40 167.00
3212.70 66.00
3213.00 315.00
3213.30 252.00
3213.60 167.00
3213.90 132.00
3214.20 72.00

a) Calculate the arithmetic, geometric and harmonic averages, the


median and the mode for this data.
(10 Marks)

b) The variance for the data is 9782, and the Cv is 0.51. Is the data
homogeneous, heterogeneous or very heterogeneous?

(2 Marks)

c) The following table contains a partial variogram calculation. Given


the formula for the variogram function given below, calculate the
normalised gamma for the lags 4 and 5 and complete the graph.

(6 Marks)

32
Lag Distance
Perm (mD) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
56.00
302.00 60516
294.00 64 56644
167.00 16129 18225 12321
61.00 11236 54289 58081
301.00 57600 17956 49
286.00 225 50625 14161 52900
252.00 1156 2401 36481 2500 38416
167.00 7225 14161 17956 16129 18225 12321
66.00 10201 34596 48400 10201 51984 55696
315.00 62001 21904 3969 64516 21904 441
252.00 3969 34596 7225 2401 36481 7225
167.00 7225 21904 10201 14161 17956 11236
132.00 1225 14400 33489 14400 23716 28561
72.00 3600 9025 32400 9025 32400 45796
Count 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7
SUM 242372 350726 274733 186233 241082 161276
Gamma 8656 13489 11447 10346 15068 11520
Normalised 0.88 1.38 1.17 1.06 1.54 1.18
Gamma

  k ( x)  k ( x  h)
1 2
Variogram function (gamma):  (h) 
2N

1.4

1.2
Normalised gamma

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Lag distance

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d) On the variogram plot, identify SILL, RANGE, NUGGET, and HOLE.

(4 marks)

e) What does the presence of a hole imply about the data being
plotted? At what scale in meters is this feature (state ‘lag distance’
and then translate into meters distance)?

(3 Marks)
END OF PAPER

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