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Collocation

Collocation
November 12, 2016 | Author: Alexandra Pascu | Category: N/A
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract ..............................................................................................................5
Glossary………………………………………………………………………....6
INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………...9 CHAPTER I- The collocation as a type
of multiword unit……………… 13 1.1.1. Idioms…………………………………………………………………. .14
1.1.2. Phrasesiological units……………………………..………………… .

15

1.1.3. Compound words………………………………………………………. 21 1.1.4.

Phrases…………………………………………………………………..22

1.2. Defining the collocations………………………………………….. 25 1.2.1. Defying the

collocations………………………………………… 25 1.2.2. The problem of collocations
………………………………………31 1.2.3. The use of collocations…………………………………………… 35 1.2.4.
Types of collocations………………………………………………38 1.2.5. The importance of
collocations…………………………………… 40 CHAPTER II - Structural classification of
collocations…………………. 43 2.1.1Structural classification based on their types………………….……43
2.1.2.Structural classification based on number of elements………..… 45 2.1.3.Structural
classification based on parts of speech...……………... 51 2.1.4.The analyze of translating
techniques… ……………………….. 54 CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………86
Summary…………………………………………………………………… .89

Bibliography………………………………………………………………… 90
Appendices……………………………………………………………………93

ABSTRACT The main purpose of this research paper is to distinguish the collocation from other
word groups’ like- phrases, idioms, compound words and phraseological units which make
difficulties in learning the collocation as a single word group. In addition, in this research are
made some analyses based on five types of collocations; these types of collocations will be
analyzed according to: number of elements, parts of speech and translation techniques in order
to have a better view of collocations. Altogether, it is hoped that the result of this research has
not only produced a usable on line collocational aid, but also to demonstrate a simple and
efficient way of understanding better the collocations.

GLOSSARY 1. Adverb- a word like tomorrow, once, badly, there, also to say, for

example, when, where, or how something happens .There are many kinds: adverb participle –
words like up, out, off, used as part of phrasal verb – clean up, sold out, tell off. 2. Adjective – a
word like green, hungry, impossible, which is used to describe people, things, events, etc,
adjectives are used in connection with nouns or pronouns –a green apple, she is hungry. 3.
Article – a, an, and the, are called articles, a, an, are called the infinitive

article, the- is called the definite article. 4. Attribute – adjective placed before nouns are in
attributive position, a green shirt, and my noisy sun. 5. Compound words – a noun, an adjective
etc, composed of two or more words, or parts of words, written as one or more words or joined
by a hyphen – armchair, living-room, afternoon. 6. Conjunction – a word like and, but, although,
because, when, if, can be used to join clauses, together, example I rang because I was worried
about you. 7. Idioms – a) the language or a dialect of a group of people or a country. b) a phrase
or sentence whose meaning is not clear from the meaning of its individual words and which
must be learned as a whole unit ,e.g. give way, a change of heart. 8. Noun – a word like, oil,
memory, arm, which can be used with an article, nouns are most often names of people or
things, personal names e.g. George, and place, e.g. Moldova, are called proper nouns, they are
usually used without articles. 6

9. Number – the way in which differences between singular and plural are shown grammatically.
The difference between nose and noses, house and houses, this and these are differences of
number. 10.Phrases – two or more words that function together as a group or more words that
function together as a group, e.g. dead tired, the silly old woman, in the country. 11.Phrasal verb
– a verb that is made up of two parts; a base verb followed by an adverb particle e.g. fill up, run
over, take in, go on. 12. Phraseology – the choice or arrangement of words; the wording, e.g.
tried

hard, could do better. 13.Preposition – a word like, off, of, on, in, into, to, at, normally followed
by a noun or pronoun. 14. Pronoun – a word like it, yourself, their, my, his, her, which is used

instead of a more precise noun or noun phrase (like the cat, Peter, the family).The word pronoun
can also be used for a determiner when this includes the meaning of a following noun which has
been left out, which bottle would you like, I will take both, (both stands for both bottles, and we
can say that it is used as pronoun). 15. Verb – a word like – ask, wake, play, be, can, draw, which
can be used

with a subject o form the basis of clause; most verbs refer to actions or states.

Abbreviations used in this research

1. ADV.-Adverb 2. ADJ. – Adjective 3. N – Noun 4. V – Verb 5. PREP – Preposition 6. ART – Article

7. CONJ – Conjunction 8. PR – Pronoun

INTRODUCTION “We scientists are fast learners but we are desperately short of time, we want
from you language is advice, tell us what we need to learn “ Jonathan Lipjochn This research
paper deals with:” The problem of collocations in English language”. Although many people
consider that to know a language the most important is to learn words, there has recently been
an increasing awareness that the way of combining the words is the important key of speaking,
writing and understanding a language. Words are our tools of expressing our ideas, thoughts,
feelings, and reactions. Sometimes it is difficult even in our mother language to find words that
are precise enough to render our exact message across to others. When we use English we are
faced with a language that deals with a lot of word-groups which can be hard distinguished
among them and also hard to understand their meaning. It can be said that English is a language
full of traps which are easy to fall into, for example word groups like phrases, idioms,
phraseological units, compound words and collocations. Although there is a growing recognition
of collocation in language teaching, there seems to be a lack of understanding of its true
significance. Linguists and teachers have concentrated their attention on the extreme ends of
the spectrum: free combinations and idioms, giving learners the impression that there are two
distinct models of construction: the unfettered application of

generative rules to lexis in free combinations, on the one hand, and complete frozenness in
idioms, on the other. Although the term collocation is increasingly used by writers in a number of
languages – related fields, it has perhaps not yet achieved wide recognition in applied linguistics,
nor are the implications of research within the field fully understood or made available to
language teachers. This is partly the result of interest in the phenomenon of word combination
being developed independently in variety of disciplines, and few linguists have attempted an
overview. It is not possible within a scope of a single article to give an account of whole field,
and the focus of this paper is restricted to those aspects of the subject that have to define the
collocations as a single word unit. That is why this research paper is based on the problem of
collocations in order to define and distinguish it as a single unit from other word groups
mentioned above, to analyze its classification structure and translation techniques. This research
paper “The problem of collocation in English language “, consists of two chapters and
subchapters. First chapter, “The collocation as a type of multiword unit”, is focused on defining
the other word groups: idioms, compound words, phraseological units and phrases in order to
understand better the collocation and not to have problems in distinguishing it from these word
groups because they have a lot of peculiarities which make them to be wrong understood as a
single unit. The second sub chapter is based on defying the collocation and distinguishing it,
after briefly presentation of the word groups which mix up the understanding of collocation,
here is presented largely the collocation as a single unit, its importance and its use in English
language. After defying the collocation and its importance in learning a language, follows the
second chapter: Structural classification of collocations based on structural classification of
collocations. The examples of collocations were taken from Charlotte Bronte novels – Jane Eire-
230 examples, and were analyzed 10

according to five types of collocations, adjective +noun, noun+verb, verb + noun, adverb + verb,
adverb + adjective. According to these types, there were made the structural analysis based on:
number of elements, (for example the collocation can be formed from two, three, four
elements); parts of speech, and the last one is based on translations techniques (literal
translation, enlargement, reduction, modulation, contextual synonym and word by word
translation). For all types of classification were made up statistics and percentage in order to
have a better view of collocations’ structure and analysis. The objectives of this research paper
are: -

To define the collocation as a single unit.

To distinguish it from other word groups.

To classify the collocation.

To translate 230 examples of collocations from English into Romanian

language -
To analyze the collocations according to: -five types of collocations, -number of its elements,
-parts of speech, -translations techniques. -

To make percentage for all the classifications.

The methods of investigation are: - Investigation, based on 230 examples of collocations from
Jane Eire novel. - Analysis, based on five types of collocations, parts of speech, number of
elements and translation techniques. - Comparison, based on translation of 230 examples from
English into Romanian language

11

This theme is an actual one and it is studied now by many linguists because it had been
neglected in the past. Now, the problem of collocations is studied by linguists in order to be
understood better, by translators in order to translate the words correctly, by teachers in order
to teach others about this language feature, and also by lexicographers in making dictionaries.
Studying the collocation it can be see its importance in learning English language in order to
understand it and speak fluently like a native one.

12

CHAPTER I - THE COLLOCATION AS A TYPE OF MULTIWORD UNIT Words put together make
phrases or word groups. It will be recalled that lexicology deals with words, word –forming and
word groups’ it can be said that the word is the basic lexical unit .The smallest two facet unit to
be found the word is the morpheme. The largest two facet lexical unit comprising more than one
word is the word –group observed on the systematic level of analysis ,E.g. in the analysis of
various the words are joined together to inseparable .such word groups are usually described as
phrases ,idioms parasitological units ,compound words and collocations

which are traditionally regarded as the branch of

lexicological science . The component members in other word groups e.g. a week ago, man of
wisdom, take place, take lessons kind to people, seem to posses greater semantic and structural
independence .Word groups of this type make up single self contained lexical units. The degree
of structural and semantic cohesion of words-groups may vary .Some word groups, e g. at least,
point of view, by means, take place, seem to be functionally and semantically are defined as free
word groups or phrases. Here, however, it can proceed from the assumption that before on the
problem of collocation it is essential to briefly outline the features common and uncommon to
various word groups. To get a better insight into the essentials of structure and meaning of word
groups we must begin with a brief survey of the main factors active in uniting words into word
groups as-phrases, idioms, phrasiological units compound words and our main pattern
collocations. The two main linguistic factors to be considered in this connection are the lexical
and grammatical valency of words.

13

§1.1.1

IDIOMS In order to have a better understanding of collocation firstly it will

discussed its common and uncommon features with idioms. The definition from oxford
dictionary says that an idiom is 1)

“The Language or dialect of a group of people or a country, e.g.: have an

ear for Irish idiom” 2)

“A phrase or sentence whose meaning is not clear from the meaning of its

individual words and which must be learnt as a whole unit, e.g. – give way, a change of heart, be
hard to put it.” When used in a broad sense, the term idiom will not denote the “language
peculiar to a people, community or district”, as it is frequently done, because for this notion
there is another term which is appropriate: Dialect. The wealth of idioms of English is a
reflection of the many sources, cultural and linguistic that have fed into the mainstream of the
language, e.g.: Military (spike someone’s guns), Naval (know the ropes), Sporting (saved by the
bell), Musical (run the gamut) and many others technical vocabularies have all contributed vivid
forms of words to the rich mix. By idiom in a broad sense is a form of expression, construction or
phrase peculiar to a language and approved by the usage of that language and it often has a
signification other than its grammatical or logical one. In practical terms this includes a wide
range of expression that has become in a sense fossilized within the language and is used in a
fixed or semi-fixed way without any reference to the literal meaning of their component word.
Idioms are those elements in a language that are often the most difficult to translation – that’s
way they cause most difficulty to foreign learners. Idiom in the narrow sense consist of proverbs
and sayings that reflect the thought patterns of the English people and their folk wisdom, also
idiom in a broad sense can also include collocations, phrases, e.g.: airbus industry, a man

14

of letters, be a delicate procedure, etc., as these words also collocate, that is they can be put side
by side.

§1.1.2. PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS For a better defying and understanding the collocations,
Phraseological unit is the second pattern analyzed in this research paper. The definition of
phrasiological units says thatThere are different combinations of words. Some of them are free,
e. g. to read books (newspapers, a letter, etc.), others are fixed, limited in their combinative
power, e. g. to go to bed, to make a report. The combinations of words which are fixed (s e t -e x
p r e s s i o n s) are called phraseological units. A free combination is a syntactical unit, which
consists of notional and form words, and in which notional words have the function of
independent parts of the sentence. In a phraseological unit words are not independent. They
form setexpressions, in which neither words nor the order of words can be changed. Free
combinations are created by the speaker. Phraseological units are used by one speaker in a ready
form, without any changes. The whole phraseological unit has a-meaning which may be quite
different form the meanings of its components, and therefore the whole unit and not separate
words, has the function of a part of the sentence. Phraseological

units consist

of separate words and

therefore they are

different from words, even from compounds. Word's have several structural forms, but in
phraseological units only one of the components has all the forms of the paradigm of the part of
speech it belongs to, e. g. to go to bed, goes to bed, went to bed, gone to bed, going to bed etc.,
the rest of the components do not change their form. By the classification of V.Vinogradov some
phraseological units are divided into three units logically for the combination of particular words.
It 15

can be explained only on the basis of tradition, e. g. to deliver a lecture (but not to read a
lecture). In phraseological combinations words retain their full semantic independence although
they are limited in their combinative, power, e. g. to wage war (but not to lead war), to render
assistance, to render services (but not to render pleasure). Phraseological combination is the
least idiomatic of all the kinds of phraseological units. In other words, in phraseological
combinations the meaning of the whole can be inferred from the meaning of the components, e.
g. To draw a conclusion To lend assistance To make money To pay attention to In phraseological
combinations one of the components (generally the component which is used figuratively) can
be combined with different words, e. g. to talk sports, politics, business (but to speak about life),
leading worker, leading article (but the main problem), deadly enemy, deadly shot (but a mortal
wound), keen interest, keen curiosity, keen sense of humour (but great surprise). Words of wide
meaning, as to make, to take, to do, to give, etc. Form many phraseological units, e. g. to take an
examination to take a trip, to take a chance, to take interest, to make fun of, to make inquiries, to
make a statement, to make friends. Sometimes traditional combination are synonyms of words
e. g. to make inquiries=to inquire, to make haste=to hurry. Some traditional combination is
equivalents in propositions e. g. by means of, in connection with. Some phraseological
combinations have nearly become compounds, e. g. brown bread 16
Traditional combinations often have synonymous expressions, e. g. to make a report=to deliver a
report. Phraseological combinations are not equivalents of words. Though the components of
phraseological combinations are limited in their combinative power, that is, they can be
combined only with certain words and cannot be combined with any other words, they preserve
not only their meaning but all their structural forms, e. g. nice distinction is phraseological
combination and it is possible to say nice distinctions, nicer distinction, etc., or to clench one's
fist (clenched his fists, was clenching his fists, etc.). In prof. A. Smirnitsky opinion traditional
combinations are not phraseological units, as he considered only those word combinations to be
units which are equivalents of words. In phraseological unities the meaning of the whole word
combination the

is not

sum of the meanings of its components, but it is based on them and the

meaning of the whole can be inferred from the image that underlies the whole expression, e. g.
to get on one's nerves, to cut somebody short, to show one's teeth, to be at daggers drawn.
Phraseological unities are often synonyms of words, e. g. to make a clean breast of=to confess; to
get on one's nerves—to-irritate. Phraseological unities are equivalents of words as 1) only one of
the components of a phraseological unity has structural forms, e. g. to play (played, is playing,
etc.) the first fiddle (but not played the first fiddles); to turn (turned, will turn, etc.), a new leaf
but not to turn newer leaf, or new leaves); (2) the whole unity and not its components are parts
of the sentence in syntactical analysis, e. g. in the sentence He took the bull by the horns
(attached a problem boldly) there are only two parts: he—the subject, and took the bull by the
horns—the predicate. In phraseological fusions the meaning of the whole word combination
cannot be derived from the meaning of its component’s, e. g. to pull one's leg 17

(to deceive); at sixes and sevens un confusion;; a mare's nest (a discovery which turns out to be
false or worthless); to show the white feather (to show cowardice); to rule the high horse (to put
on airs). Phraseological fusions are the most idiomatic of all the kinds of phraseological units.
Phraseological fusions are equivalents of words: fusions as well as unities form a syntactical
whole in analysis. Phraseological units have some important peculiaritiesThe first feature is the
incompleteness of the paradigm. In a phraseological unit al least one of the components has an
incomplete paradigm, e.g. to go to the dogs (to be ruined). The verb to go may have different
forms, but the noun dogs can be used only in this

form. (He has gone, is going, went, will go, etc., the dogs).

If the combination is considered a free combination, then all the words will acquire complete
paradigms (he went to the (a) dog). 1) The second distinctive as compared with free word
combinations is that
auxiliary words cannot be changed in phraseological units, e.g. at a glance, on the dot, to fall in
love. In to go to the dogs only the definite article can be used. Generally in phraseological units
there is only one form of the article that can be used. 2) The last morphological feature of
phraseological units as distinguished

from free combinations is archaic word forms no longer in actual use, e.g. In olden days, in
bouden duty, in bended knees. Also phrasiological units have two semantic peculiarities-.
Phraseological units have non-motivated meaning as compared with free word combinations,
e.g. at sixes and sevens (in confusion). 1) In phraseological units there occur unique meanings,
that is the meanings of elements which they have only in a concrete given combination, e. g. the
meaning of the word salt in the phraseological unit an old salt has a 18

unique meaning. A unique meaning occurs only in one combination. It is a meaning which is not
productive, i.e. no derivates or compounds are created from the word in the unique meaning.
Free word combinations can never be polysynaptic, while there are polysemantic phraseological
units, e. g. to be on the go, to be busy and active, to be leaving, to be tipsy, to be near one's end
Have done with make an end of, give up, reach the end of Two types of synonymy are typical of
phraseological units: 1. Synonymy of phraseological units that do not contain any synonymous
words and are based on different images, e. g. to leave no stone unturned=to move, heaven and
earth to haul down colors=to ground arms In free word combinations synonymy is based on the
synonymy of particular words (an old man—an elderly man}. 2.

Phraseological

units

have

word

synonym

to make up one's mind=to decide to haul down colors—to surrender There is a lot of dispute
going on about the nature of such expressions as to take a look, to have a look, to have a fall, to
get a glance, etc. Such expressions may form an intermediate group between phraseological
units and free combinations. Another difficult question to decide is whether such combinations
as to give up, to give in, to' take off, to come round are phraseological units or compound verbs.
As there are two words in the combinations and they lack the unity or the inseparability of form
which is characteristic of words, we prefer to regard them as a special group of phraseological
units which for the absence of a better name we may call v e r b-a d v e r b (or v e r b-p o s t-
position) combinations. Sometimes a phraseological verb-adverb combination can be
distinguished from a free combination only by the context, e. g. 19
He put on his coat (ph.) and went out (free). He put the book on the table (free). The difference
between a phraseological verb-adverb combination and free verb-adverb combinations may be
seen in the impossibility of inversion in phraseological units. It is possible to say the boy ran in or
in ran the boy, the prices went up or up went the prices, but it is quite impossible to invert the
order of words in the phraseological verb-adverb combination / gave it up (up gave I it — is
impossible). Phraseological units are formed from free word combinations. Word combinations
become set expressions and come to be used with a

figurative

meaning. Their origin may be different. Some phraseological units are connected with some
historical events, e. g. to burn one's boats (some commanders burned their ships after the
landing of the troops, so that there should be no possibility of retreat), to bury the hatchet
(Indians in America buried

a hatchet when they made peace). Often phraseological units are

expressions taken from some literary work, e. g. much ado about nothing" (Shakespeare). .Many
phraseological

units are professional expressions, e.

g. to put the finishing touches (used by artists), to feel one’s pulse (medical), to be in chancery
(sport),to have all the trumps in one's hand (gambling), to see rocks

ahead

sailors), to die in units are

translated

(used

the last

by

ditch (used by soldiers). Many phraseological

from foreign languages, e. g. the apple

of

discord -

(from Greek). Sometimes phraseological units are formed as a result of shortening proverbs, e. g.
To catch at a straw (from a drowning man will catch at a straw); To cry over spilt milk (from there
is no use crying over' spilt milk). P r o v e r b s is considered by some linguists to be a kind of
phraseological units. Proverbs are not equivalents of words, but of sentences, e. g. 20

All is not gold that glitters. A friend in need is a friend indeed.

§1.1.3. COMPOUND WORDS .Another pattern studied here is compound word and its similarities
and differences toward the collocations .The definition of compound word says that - compound
word consist of two or even more units, as toothbrush ,upstairs .The most common compound
word are two nouns combined to create a meaning which differs from that of each of its parts
,as in sleeping peel ,picture book ice cream ,etc. However, compounds can be quite lengthy, e.g.
absolute money- back guarantee. One would think that there must be some cut off point where
the length of the compound makes processing difficult. However, it is not uncommon to find
three, four or five part compounds, e.g. Garbage can collector, map making geography class.
Some linguists have tackled the problem of defining a compound in English. One test has been
that if word stress falls on the first part of the compound, then it is truly a compound word. This
would make armchair and working paper compounds whereas chocolate cake would be
classified as phrases made up of nouns modified by adjectives. However, chocolate cake, cherry
pie the stress falls on the final noun are recognized as meaningful objects, so for us , these will
be considered compounds, too. While we have noted that many compounds are made up of
pairs of nouns, all types of combination are possible eg. Kill joy- combines a verb and a noun,
green house- combines an adjective and a noun, windbreak -combines a noun and a verb, make
believe- combines two verbs downpour-combines a verb and an adverb, red hot-combines two
adjectives. It appears that almost any combination is possible to make compound words, but
they vary in ports of speech.

21

Somebody might wander why we need to create compounds words when it is possible to say the
some thing without the compound. We can say “I like cakes that are chocolate” We don’t have to
use “chocolate cake “to convey that information. Compounds are useful ways of condensing
information and they add variation to the way we refer to concepts in discourse. Compounds
provide us new ways to refer to the some information, as well as condense the information. They
are for that reason often used for different types of writing
§ 1.1.4. PHRASES Other pattern which make us wrongly define and understanding the collocation
are phrases. Its definition says that -From the strictly grammatical point of view, a phrase is a
word combination standing for a part of speech those grammatical functions it discharges. It
must necessarily contain a noun, a verb a modifying adjective or adverb in its structure e.g. One
or more words of full lexical value, e.g. In the middle of (prepositional-phrase) to do ones utmost
(verbal phrase), in the distance (adverbial phrase), no matter how (conjunctional phrase) etc. In
lexicology there is no such category as “complex words” and the term “phrase” has another
meaning than it has in grammar, including all the word combinations that are not compounds,
which they, however, resemble in that they imply a more or less marked unity of meaning.
Complex verbs are sometimes referred to us “compound words” and sometimes as phrases;
though it seems more adequate to call compounds only complex verbs formed with the help of
adverbial particles. Consequently a lexical phrase may be expressed even by a whole sentence,
provided the latter is a phraseological unit enjoying structural stability, as are proverbs,
conversational formulas, etc. e.g. No news is good news, how do you do? Etc. Phrases may be
classified as stable (or fixed) and unstable. 22

They are said to be stable when no change of the component elements is possible. Thus, in the
proverb quoted above “no news is good news”, not one word can be changed in point of form
e.g. (of case, tense,) or replaced by a synonym. On the contrary, an unstable phrase is liable to
change of form or partial replacement. Thus, the verb in to play a trick on somebody can be used
in various tenses (I played a trick on him, he thought he would play a trick on us ), The order of
words can be changed (to play somebody a trick); at the some time to put and to serve are apt
to be used as connotatational synonyms for to pay (to put a trick on somebody, to serve
somebody a trick) in as toll as a maypole, only the replacement of maypole is possible, (as toll as
a steeple). In to have all the time in the world, it is only the verb that is apt to change (in point of
tense). (I have or had etc. all the time in the world). The interpretation of the term phrase in
various works by English authors is far from unitary, e.g. An idiomatic expression, small group of
words usually without predicate, especially preposition with the word it governs, equivalent a
finite verb forming part of a sentence. Phrases have some important classificationSemantically,
phrases may be roughly divided into two: A) those which are used in a direct meaning; B) Those
which, partly or whole express figurative meanings.

The phrase “to have a rare fun time” belongs to type: a) For all the verbs of which it is made up
are used in a direct meaning: to

have rare, fun time-with the connotation (of good excellent, merry etc.) As to the meaning of the
phrase as a whole, it is the sum of the meanings of the component elements. Other examples: to
set at liberty, in other words, to be of good cheer, safe and sound, to come in to view, silence
gives consent.

23
As to the meaning of the phrase as a whole, it is the sum of the meanings of the component
elements. Other examples: to set at liberty, in other words, to be of good cheer, safe and sound
to come into view, silence give consent. Phrases of the: b) Type is, partly or wholly, based on
figures of speech chiefly on

metaphors, whose role in the semantic development of a language is very active. In to give
somebody a lesson all the words are used in the direct meaning, but the whole, meaning of the
phrase is metaphorical. The same may be said about to carry coals to Newcastle, the cat in the
gloves catches no mice, to put a spoke in somebody’s wheel, make hay while the sun shines and
strike the iron while it is hot, to give somebody the needle. On the other hand, in to break the
silence as a result of its association with silence, to break assumes a figurative metaphorical
meaning, though, owing to the frequent use of the phrase, the metaphor is of the fading or
degraded, not of the live type. Other examples of metaphoric words in phrases: to pay in to pay
one’s addresses to, to lose one’s temper, depth in the depth of the forest, to cut in to cut one’s
teeth stress in under the stress of circumstances. Many phrases are built on similes: Ex:

- As red as a rose, to run like a deer, on hyperboles - A thousand thanks, to be o shadow on of

one’s former self. Sometimes it is difficult enough to establish whether this or that word in

a phrase has a direct or a figurative meaning. Language is permanently on the run and what was
new yesterday may be trite and today. The problem is all the more complicated as even big sized
dictionaries do not clearly discriminate between direct and figurative meanings of words, to say
nothing of words in phrases. There are phrases connected with trades -To bring grist to the mill, -
To have too many irons in the fire, 24

-Between hammer and anvil in, - Full blast a chip of the old block, -One nail drives another. Also
there are phrases connected with medicine-To swallow the pill, -To take the temperature, -A
dose of one’s own medicine, -A fly in the ointment. Also there are phrases connected with rivers,
etc -To shiver on the drink, -To go at the deep end, -To make a splash, -On thin ice, Phrases are
also monosemantic and polysemantic. In full blast is a monsemantic phrase, but to be in
abeyance is polysemantic for it has more meaning than one.

1.2. DEFINING THE COLLOCATION §1.2.1. DEFINING THE COLLOCATIONS The word collocation
appeared from the verb “collocate» which means –place side by side ,e.g. beautiful girl
,handsome boy, (concise dictionary of English Etymology.) The “oxford dictionary” gives the
following definition for the verb “collocate”-to be used regularly together in a language, to
combine e.g. weak collocates with tea,-weak tea The following definitions of collocation will
make understand better the term of Collocation:

25

1 A combination of words in a language that happens very often and more frequently than
would happen by change: e.g. of collocation: crying shame, resounding success. (from oxford
dictionaries) 2

A term introduced in linguistic (though in much earlier use us a general word)

by J.K. Firth, to refer to the habitual co-occurrence of individual words .Thus tweedledum goes
with tweedledee and spike with span. (The new followers, Modern English usage, R.W
Burchfield.) 3

A relation within a syntactic unit between individual lexical elements ,e.g.

computers collocates with hate ‘my computers hates me’ Used especially where words
specifically collocate with other, e.g. blond collocates with hair ‘the hair is blond’, drunk collocate
with lord as ‘Drunk as a lord ‘, Run with riot-Run riot ‘(Concise Dictionary of linguistic, Ph, A.
Matthews.) 4

Collocations may be a set of expressions, they can not be divided, also its

elements can not be replaced by others elements without changing the meaning of the
remaining elements.(Oxford dictionary of English collocations ) 5

The phenomenon whereby certain words co-occur with other words in natural

,in statistically significant ways .Collocations do not always occur as immediately adjacent ,e.g.
He kept his money in his pocket.(Haria Hulban –Syntheses in English lexicology and semantic) 6

Collocations –the actions of collocating regular combination of words ,e.g.

strong collocates with wind ,’strong wind ‘,’heavy rain.(Concise dictionary of English linguistic) 7

Learning a new language students often learns lists of new words , but it is also

important to learn words that go together ,For e.g. when you learn a word like ‘effort ‘ it is useful
to know that the verb that goes with it is ‘make ‘and not ‘do’,’ make an effort ‘. Words that go
together are called collocations, e.g. By the way.(English language ,Life and culture, Anne
Fraemal, Richard Haill.) Most of the researchers who defined the collocation agree that it is a
lexical unit consisting of a cluster of two or more words formed from different parts of speech.
26

Most of the definitions are perhaps based on Firth’s definition that collocations are ‘ words in
habitual company ‘.For the purpose of this study the collocations can be defined as- two words
that combining with each other and its elements cannot be replaced because the meaning of
other elements can change and also their elements cannot be divided . It must be learned as a
single unit, also the collocation is the way of combine the words in a language in order to sound
more natural. It is an indisputable fact that words are connected according to the collocation hey
share .Words are used in certain lexical contexts, e.g. in combination with other words .The noun
question is often combined with such adjectives- vital ,pressing ,urgent, disputable, delicate, etc.
This noun is a component of a number of other word groups, e.g. question at issue, to raise a
question, a question of great importance, a question on the agenda of the day, and many others.
The aptness of a word to appear in various combinations is described as its lexical valency or
collocability. The range of the lexical valency is linguistically delimited by the inner structure of
the English word stock .This can be easily observed in the choice of synonyms found in different
word groups .Though the verbs lift and rise ,e.g. are usually treated as synonyms ,it is only the
latter that is collocated with the noun question .The verb take may be synonymically interpreted
as- grasp, seize , catch, lay, hold of,etc.,but it is only take that is found in collocation with nouns
examination ,measures, precautions, etc., only catch in catch somebody napping and grasp in
grasp the truth. There is a certain norm of lexical valency of each word and any departure from
this norm is left as a literary or rather stylistic device. Such word group as for example bitter and
sweet, shove question and the like are illustrative of the point under discussion. It is because we
recognize that bitter and sweet are not normally collocable that the junction of them can be
effective. Words habitually collocated in speech tend to constitute a cliché .It can be observed
,for example ,that the verb put forward and the noun question are habitually collocated and
when we hear the verb put forward or see it written on paper it is natural 27

that we should anticipate the word question. So we may conclude that put forward a question
constitutes a habitual word-group, a kind of cliché. This is also true of a number of other word-
groups, e.g. to win (or gain) a victory, keen sight (or hearing), etc. Some linguists hold tat most of
the English in ordinary use is thoroughly saturated with clichés. The lexical valency of correlated
words in different languages is not identical. This is only natural since the inner structure of the
language. Both the English word flower and its Russian counterparts –floare, for example, may
be combined with a number of other words all of which denote the place where the flowers are
grown, e.g. garden flowers, hot-house flowers, etc. The English word, however, cannot enter into
combination with the word room to denote flowers growing in the rooms (e.g. pot flowers-flori
de cameră) One more point of importance should be discussed in connection with the problem
of lexical valency-the interrelation of lexical valency and polysemy as found in wordgroups.
Firstly, the restriction of lexical valency of words may manifest themselves in the choice of the
lexical meaning of the polysemantic members of word-groups. The adjective heavy, e.g., is
combined with words food, meals, supper, etc. in the meaning rich and difficult to digest. But not
all the words with more or less the same denominator of meaning can be combined with this
adjective. One cannot say, for instance, heavy cheese or heavy sausage implying that cheese or
sausage is difficult to digest. Secondly, it is observed that different meanings of a word may be
described through the possible types of lexical context, through the lexical valency of the word,
for example the different meanings of the adjective heavy may be described through the word-
groups heavy, weight (book, table), heavy snow (storm, rain, etc.) heavy drinker (eater, etc.).
Collocation is basic to language, its subtleties must be learned, and failure to get the collocation
of English right is a major indicator of foreignness: e.g. toll king about 28

‘rotten ‘rather than ‘rancid butter’. The British linguist J.R.Firth encouraged the use of the term
as one of a constructive pair: collocations for semantic association, collation for syntactic
association. In current usage, however, collocation generally covers both types of association.
Cohesiveness in semantics and syntax is a matter of degree. Idioms are usually fixed in form and
used without recourse to the meaning of their elements: ‘it can rain cats and dogs, but never
dogs and cats or cats and cows .Even with idioms , however, there can be some free way: for
example, at least the three verbs banging, hitting, and knocking can occupy the slot in the
idiomatic sentence, ‘it’s like ---- your head against a (brick) wall.’ Collocations are more loosely
associated than idioms, contiguously (as with ‘tortoise’ and ‘shel’in ‘tortoiseshell’ or proximately
(as with’ cats and ‘purr’ in ‘ the cat was purring ‘ ).When the elements of compound word
collocate they form new lexical items:’ house and ‘boat ‘, coming together in both ‘houseboat’
and ‘boat house ‘, each with a distctinct meaning and use. An item that collocates with another
is its ‘collocations’. Collocations have some important types, reading the type of collocations and,
there are open collocations and restricted which can be identified three basic types of
restrictions .In open collocation the words can combine with a wide range of other words e.g.
keep the promise ,speak softly ,great pain ,heavy book. Restrictions of use can be opposed to the
process of synonymy; there are three types of restrictions: 1) Systematic collocational
restrictions that is restrictions which are typical for certain criterion, e.g. a non human subject in
the case of the phrase an apple pie order, or a human subject in the case of the phrase bitter
tongue. 2).semi systematic collocation restriction, that is restrictions are topical for certain
words, e.g. wages are paid for manual or mechanic work, while fees are paid either for
professional men or for school, colleges and public bodies. 29

3) Idiosyncratic collocational restrictions which are imposed only by idiom, e.g. a hand some man
but a pretty woman. These are the restrictions of collocations. Attempts have been made to
approach the problem of collocations in different ways .Up till now; however, there is certain
divergence of opinion as to the essential features of collocations as distinguished from other
word groups and the nature of nature of phrases that can be properly termed “phraseological
units”. The habitual terms “phrases, idioms, compound words, and phraseological units “, are
even treated differently by different linguists. The complexity of the problem may be largely
accounted for by the fact that the borderline between word groups and collocations is not
clearly defined. This word groups are relatively free as collocability of member words is
fundamentally delimited by their lexical and grammatical valency which makes at least some of
them very close to set – phrases. Collocations are but comparatively stable and semantically
inseparable. Between the extremes of complete motivation and variability of member words and
lack of motivation combined with complete stability of lexical components and grammatical
structure there are innumerable borderline cases. However, the existing terms, e.g.
phraseological units, idioms, phrases, compound words, phrases, reflect to a certain extent the
main debatable issues of phraseology which centre in the divergent vies concerning the nature
and essential features of collocations as distinguished from the so called free word groups. The
term phrase implies that the basic criterion of differention is stability of the lexical components
and grammatical structure of word groups. The term idiom generally implies that the essential
feature of the linguistic units under consideration is idiomaticity which defies word by word
translation. The term compound words implies a certain combination with certain words, they
have an aptness to function in speech as a single word. The term phraseological unit implies that
it can not be freely made up in speech.

30

Thus difference in terminology reflects certain differences in the main criteria used to distinguish
between these word groups and collocations. Collocations are habitually defined as non-
motivated word groups that can not be freely made up in speech but are produced as ready
made units. This definition proceeds from the assumption that the essential features of
collocations are stability of the lexical components. It is consequently assumed that unlike
components of free word groups which may vary according to the needs of communication,
member words of collocation are always reproduced as single unchangeable combinations. For
example, bear a grudge may be changed into bear malice, but not into bar a fancy or liking. We
can say take a liking (fancy) but not take hatred (disgust). These habitual collocations tend to
become kind of where the meaning of member word is to some extent dominated by the
meaning of the whole group. Due to this, it can be said that collocations are felt as possessing a
certain degree of semantic inseparability. The current definition of collocation is that it can not
be freely made up in speech, but has to be reproduced as ready made units and also to be
learned as wholes.

§1.2.2. THE PROBLEM OF COLLOCATIONS Collocation is an expression consisting of two or more

words that correspond to some conventional way of saying things. Or in the words of Firth:
“Collocations of a given word are statements of the habitual or customary places of that word.”
Collocations include noun phrases like strong tea and weapons of mass destruction, phrasal
verbs like to make up, and other stock phrases like the rich and powerful. Particularly interesting
are the subtle and not-easily-explainable patterns of word usage that native speakers all know:
why they say a stiff breeze but not a stiff wind (while either a strong breeze or a strong wind is
okay), or why they speak of broad daylight (but not bright daylight or Narrow darkness). 31

Collocations are characterized by limited compositionality. It can be called a natural language

expression compositional if the meaning of the expression can be predicted from the meaning of
the parts. Collocations are not fully compositional in that there is usually an element of meaning
added to the combination. In the case of tea strong, strong has acquired the meaning rich in
some active agent who is closely related, but slightly different from the basic sense having great
physical strength. Idioms are the most extreme examples of non-compositionality. Idioms like to
kick the bucket or to hear it through the grapevine only have an indirect historical relationship to
the meanings of the parts of the expression. There are not talking about buckets or grapevines
literally when it is used these idioms. Most collocations exhibit milder forms of non-
compositionality, it is very nearly a systematic composition of its parts, but still has an element of
added meaning.

It usually refers to administrative

efficiency and would, for example, not be used to describe a cooking technique although that
meaning would be compatible with its literal meaning. There is much interest in collocations
partly because this is an area that has been neglected in structural linguistic traditions that
follow Saussure and Chomsky. There is, however, a tradition in British linguistics, associated with
the names of Firth, Holliday, and Sinclair, which pays close attention to phenomena like
collocations. Structural linguistics concentrates on general abstractions about the properties of
phrases and sentences. In contrast, Firth’s Contextual Theory of Meaning emphasizes the
importance of context: the context of the social setting (as opposed to the idealized speaker),
the context of spoken and textual discourse (as opposed to the isolated sentence), and,
important for collocations, the context of surrounding words. These contextual features easily
get lost in the abstract treatment that is typical of structural linguistics. A good example of the
type of problem that is seen as important in this contextual view of language is Holliday’s
example of strong vs. powerful tea it 32

is a convention in English to talk about strong tea, not powerful tea, although any speaker of
English would also understand the latter unconventional expression. Arguably, there are no
interesting structural properties of English that can be gleaned from this contrast. However, the
contrast may tell us something interesting about attitudes towards different types of substances
in English culture (why do they use powerful for drugs like heroin, but not for cigarettes, tea and
coffee?) and it is obviously important to teach this contrast to students who want to learn
idiomatically correct English. Frequency-based search works well for fixed phrases. But many
collocations consist of two words that stand in a more flexible relationship to one another.
Consider the verb knock and one of its most frequent arguments, door. Here are some examples
of knocking on or at a door: a. she knocked on his door b. they knocked at the door c. 100
women knocked on Donaldson’s door d. a man knocked on the metal front door The words that
appear between knocked and door vary and the distance between the two words is not constant
so a fixed phrase approach would not work here. But there is enough regularity in the patterns
to allow us to determine that knock is the right verb to use in English for this situation, not hit,
beat or rap. A short note is in order here on collocations that occur as a fixed phrase versus
those that are more variable. Verbs with little semantic content like make, take and do are called
light verbs in collocations like make a decision or do a favour. There is hardly anything about the
meaning of make, take or do that would explain why it have to say make a decision instead of
take a decision and do a favour instead of make a favour, but for many linguists purposes the
correct light verb for combination with a particular noun must be determined. 33

Verb particle constructions or phrasal verbs are an especially important part of the lexicon of
English. Many verbs in English like to tell off and to go down consist of a combination of a main
verb and a particle. These verbs often correspond to a single lexeme in other languages
(reprimanded, descended in France. for two approaches that use this type of information for
finding phrases and collocations. Proper nouns (also called proper names) are usually included in
the category of collocations although they are quite different from lexical collocations. They are
most amenable to approaches that look for fixed phrases that reappear in exactly the same form
throughout a text. Collocation is applied to; let us point to the many different degrees of
invariability that a collocation can show. At one extreme of the spectrum we have usage notes in
dictionaries that describe subtle differences in usage between near synonyms like answer and
reply (diplomatic answer vs. stinging reply). This type of collocation is important for generating
text that sounds natural, but getting a collocation wrong here is less likely to lead to a fatal error.
The other extreme are completely frozen expressions like proper names and idioms. Here there
is just one way of saying things and any deviation will completely change the meaning of what is
said. An important area that we haven’t been able to cover is the discovery of proper nouns,
which can be regarded as a kind of collocation. Proper nouns cannot be exhaustively covered in
dictionaries since new people, places, and other entities come into existence and are named all
the time. Yet another approach to discovering collocations is to search for points in the word
stream with either low or high uncertainty as to what the next (or previous) word will be. Points
with high uncertainty are likely to be phrase boundaries, which in turn are candidates for points
where a collocation may start or end, whereas points with low uncertainty are likely to be
located within a collocation. 34

§1.2.3. THE USE OF COLLOCATIONS The meaning of the verb to collocate is to put aside.
Collocations are thus combinations f words. In: He kept his money in his pocket. The meaning of
the verb is» to preserve for future use, » have in ones possession, but in He kept in his neighbors
The meaning is entirely different from the former, being “to remain on good terms with” in such
collocation it is difficult or impossible to identify the meaning of the parts of collocation.

The order of the elements is

also extremely important, being a fixed order. One can say: He On can climbed on to the window
seat to window seat he an climbed Climbed he can on to the window seat There are linguists
who consider this type of collocation as being equally – word like, and phrase like, considering
phrasal verbs semi-compounds. Collocations may be set expressions and three combinations. Set
expressions are successions of words that must be learned as if they were a single word. They
can not be divided in to their constituent elements destroying their meaning. Between the parts
of a set expression there is on intrinsic connectionits elements can not be replaced by other
elements without changing the meaning of the remaining elements. The meaning of the
collocation is usually expressed by a single word. From a grammatical point of view, collocations
are complex parts of speech. The largest group of collocations is formed by complex verbs. Some
linguists also call them phrasal verbs. They are made of a verb, usually of Germanic origin, and
belonging to the basic word stock, such as – to get, to 35
give, to take, to bring, to carry, to hold, to keep, to sit, to drive, to fly , to turned. And an
adverbial particle which functions as an adverb and modifies the verb with which it is
associated .the most commonly used adverbial particles in such combinations are about
,above ,across ,after ,along, around, away ,back, backward , before, behind , between ,beyond,
by ,down ,forth ,in, inside, off, on, out ,outside, over, round. as can be noticed, most of the
originate prepositions. Examples of both set expressions and free combinations may be offered
by the verb –to get, In combination with various adverbial particles, it may form set expressions,
as ‘to get in to get up- meaning , to be elected”, “to get through- to pass an examination “,to
arrange , to prepare”, “to be friendly- agree with “. In these expressions the meaning is not easily
understood from the meaning of the component words. These constructions have an evident
idiomatic character. Other collocations, built on the same patter, have a meaning which can be
easily derived from that of the components, having the character of free combinations. In such
cases, the complex verb acquires are subsidiary meaning of the verb which stands as base, as in
“to get ahead- to advance”, “to get away- to escape”, “ to get back – to return”, “to get by- to
pass”. In such examples as-, to fall down climb up, to blow up etc, the meaning of the verb is
intensified. It is important to notice that some verbs and particles have a high combinatory
potential, being often used together, while others are un likely to occur together. Knowing in
advance the combinatory possibilities offered by both elements contributes to the correct
decoding of the text in which they are used. The constituent structure of collocations may be
represented by diagrams called “tree diagrams “. The tree diagrams is made of branches and a
node (where all branches meet) The set expression “to climb up” may be represented

36

by the following tree diagram in which VP is the label for the verb phrase, V for the verb Part for
particle. Diagramme V.P. PART

To

PART

climb

up

Though most phrasal verbs may be replaced by one word synonyms , e.g. to get out-meaning to
leave , to give up – to surrender, to ring up – to telephone. Not all of them have an adequate
substitute. They are not always interchangeable with a synonym: e.g. to put out – to begin a
voyage, to put up – provide lodgings. This is to a great extent a matter of idiomatic usage. If
compound words can not be separated, complex verbs often can. Of course, only a pan of them
is separable. Phrasal verbs may be both transitive and intransitive. E.g. take in the wash Take the
wash in In such cases, the pattern is verb + particle + noun or verb + noun + particle. One may
say that in the former pattern the emphasis falls on the noun, while in the latter the emphases is
put on the action. When personal pronouns are introduced in the pattern, they are usually
placed between the verb and the adverbial particle, according to the pattern verb + pronoun +
adverbial particle. E.g. put it on To blow up Collocations may be met in other parts of speech too.
37

Examples of complex adverbs are all alone – not in the company of others, all along – for the
whole length of. Examples of complex conjunctions are as if, as for, as to, so as to. Such
collocation constitutes lexical and grammatical clichés provided by language. Though their use is
not a proof of originality in speech, they are extremely important in communication. They have
an important part in language structure. Their idiomatic character makes sometimes life difficult
for translators, who must find other language equivalents which have sometimes nothing to do
with the words of the translated, or have very little in common with it. In e.g. Jane has been
often asked out during this summer holiday. The Romanian translation is not “a fost adesea
invitata sa iasa afara “, but “a fost adesea invitata in oras “. One can also talk about collocation
range, which implies certain restrictions concerning the verbs which are used and the particles
respectively. Thus we can expect verbs of movement to be used approximately with the same
set of particles, though sometimes the equivalence is not perfect. for example “to go ,to come
,to walk ,to run ,to get “, are usually followed by the adverbial particles, ‘ahead ,along, away,
back , in ,off, out, up, round’, but we would not expect some other verbs to be accompanied by
the some adverbial particles , e.g.” to beat to die ,to laugh ,etc.

§1.2.4. TYPES OF COLLOCATION A collocation is an expression consisting of two or more words

that correspond to some conventional way of saying things. Collocations can be defined in
numerous ways but the most common are those of two or more clusters which occur with a
more than chance regularity through spoken and written English. Bellow there are shown the
most easily distinguishable types of collocations which contains the following elements (parts of
speech). 38

Verb +noun: Throw a party, accept responsibility, drew the curtains, rushed the door, break
Code, lift a blockade. Verb + noun : Cold winter, somber clouds, strong tea, best wishes, square
meal, grim determination, huge profit. Noun+verb: Water freezing, clock ticks, blood running
down, arms waving, legs Kicking, rain beating, light moving. Verb+adverb: Affect deeply,
appreciate sincerely, resisting wildly, looking kindly, live Dangerously, hold tightly, scream loudly,
speak softly, and speak heavily Adverb + adjective: Completely hidden, nervously entered,
deeply absorbed, closely related, Completely related, completely soaked, totally unacceptable
behavior. These are the most used and practical types of collocations, also there are others types
of collocations but for this analyze will be studied only these types of collocations. Acquisition
and correct production of such word combination is mark of an advanced of proficiency in a
language, as Lewis (1997 pg 15) puts it that its fluency is based on the acquisition of a large state
or fixed or semi fixed prefabricated items, Sonya (1988) goes ever further to say that lexical
errors are more serious because affective communication depends on the choice of words, 39

also James (1998pg 152) agrees that the correct usage of collocation contributes greatly to ones
ieomatcity and native likeness . .

§1.2.5. THE IMPORTANCE OF COLLOCATIONS Collocations run through the whole of the English
language. No piece of natural spoken or written English is totally free of collocations. For the
student choosing the right collocation will make his speech and writing sound much more
natural, more native speaker like, even when basic intelligibility does not seem to be at issue. A
student who talks about ‘strong rain’ may make himself understood, but possibly not without
provoking smile or correction, which may or not matter. He will certainly be marked down for it
an exam. But perhaps even more importantly than this, language that is collocation is also more
precise. This is because most single words in the English language especially the more common
words embrace a whole range of meanings, some quite distinct, and some that shade into each
other by degrees. The precise meaning in any context is determined by that context: by the word
that surround and combine with the best collocation. A student who choose the best collocation
will express himself much more clearly and to be able to convey not just general meaning, but
something quite precise. Compare, for example, the following two sentences: ‘This is a good
book and contains a lot of interesting details’, ‘This is a fascinated book, and contains a wealth of
historical detail’. Both sentences are perfectly correct in terms of grammar and the vocabulary,
but which communicates more (both spoke about the book under discussion and the person
discussing it) Students with good ideas often lose marks because they don’t know the four or
five most important collocations of a key word that is central to what they are writing about. As
a result, they create longer, wordier ways of defining or

40

discussing the issue, increasing the chance of further errors, examples: ‘His disability will
continue until he dies’, rather than ‘He has a permanent disability’. There is no magic formula for
correcting these mistakes. Collocations have to be acquired both through direct study and large
amount of quality impute. The very concept of collocations is often not easy for learners. The
essentially simple idea that word choice is seriously limited by what comes before and after it
perhaps the single most elusive aspect of the lexical system and the hardest, therefore, for
learners to acquire. Learning collocations apart from increasing the mental , leads to an increase
in written and spoken fluency ( the brain has more time to focus on its message, if many of the
nuts and bolts are already in place ). In the form of collocations of varying length as Lewis says:
“Fluency is based on the acquisition of a large store of fixed or semi fixed prefabricated items,
which are available as the foundation for any linguistic novelty or creativity’. Moreover, stress
and intonation also improve if language is met, learnt and acquired in chunks, quality input
should lead to quality output.
References: 1

Bauer Laurie, English word formation ,Cambridge 1984 ,pg 115-120.

Levitchi Leon, Limba engleza contemporan, Lexicology, 1970, pg 25-37

Olga Achmanava, Linguistic terminology , Moscow university press ,1977,pg 161-

165. 4

Galina Salapina, Limba engleza contemporana, Lexicologie, editia II-a, Timisoara,

pg 14-21. 5.Olga Achmanova, The chair of English ,Lexicology, Theory and Method, edited by
Moscow state university,1972, pg 76-85. 6.English for advanced students ,with a special chapter
in English lexicology, Institutul Europei ,Iasi,1993, pg 190-195. 7.R.S.Girbuz,A course in modern
English lexicology, Higher School Published House, Moscow 1996,pg 86-105. 41

8.Seminars in Modern English Lexicology, Part II, Chisinau ,Moldova State University,2000, pg
161-163 . 9. N .Raevska, English lexicology, second edition revised, edited by Радянска Школа,
1961, pg 25-37. 10. N.M.Raenska, English lexicology, Kiev, 1971, pg 86-90. 11.Peter Roach, Third
Edition, English Phonetics and Phonology, A practical course, Cambridge, University Press,1999,
pg 63-65. 12. James. R. Natting, S. Dacerio, Oxford Applied Linguistic, Lexical Phrases and
Language Technique, Oxford University Press,1992, pg 23-53. 13.A.P Cowie, Oxford Linguistic
Phraseology, Theory and Analyses, 1998, pg 21-23, 145-153. 14.Oxford Collocations Dictionary
For Students, Oxford University Press. 15.Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary. 16.Johnatan
Orauther,Catherym Cavanaugh, Oxford Guide to British and American Culture, Oxford University
Press,1999, pg 58-73.

42

CHAPTER II - STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF COLLOCATIONS §2.1.1. STRUCTURAL

CLASSIFICATION OF COLLOCATION BASED ON THEIR TYPES. There are more criteria of classifying
the collocations but for this research paper the classification will be done according to
collocations’ structure. For the purpose of the investigation, this chapter is focused on five types
of collocation: Verb +noun

e.g. accept responsibility, to follow the instructions,

Adjective +noun e.g. sad place, strong chest, narrow corridors, Noun +verb e.g. to took the
opportunity, fall asleep, blood running down,. Verb +adverb e.g. looking kindly, scream loudly,
speak softly, and hold tightly. Adverb+ adjective e.g. deeply absorbed, nervously entered,
completely hidden. The examples of collocations analyzed in this research paper were taken
from Charlotte Bronte novels-Jane Eire. There are 230 examples of collocations taken from this
book. On the background these examples will be made the statistics and percentage on basis of
the: number of elements, structural analysis of parts of speech. Also in this chapter will be
translated 60 collocations from English into Romanian language, and will be analyzed the
problem of translating the collocation and the techniques used in translating this collocations.
According to the 230 examples of collocations analyzed here, it can be said that –adjective
+noun types has 121 examples from all 230 e.g. good child, large building, charity school, angry
word, long story, dirty habits, soft smile, 43

wide schoolrooms, empty stomachs, large school, long way, simple clothes, good health, plain
food. The second type which has the smallest number of collocations is –verb +adverb which has
49 examples e.g. behave better thought bitterly, look around, resisting wildly, shouted wildly,
moved slowly, speak hardly, go silently, swear furiously, look carefully, whispered kindly,
answered quickly, listened carefully. Verb+noun types is the following type of collocation
analyzed according to the number of its elements -35 examples of collocations, e.g. keep the
promise, broke of a conversation, put out the flames, calmly mending the curtains, obey the
orders, to post a letter, improve the character, smacking the face, lie down, make no mistakes,
left without a word, trembling of fear, starve to death, follow the instructions. The noun+verb
type has 21 examples of collocations e.g. light moving, rin pouring down, blood running down,
body trembled, heart beating fast, bell rang, sun shone, fog lying, people kept coming, coach
rolled off, anger boiled up, rain beating, the sun go down. The last type adverb +adjective has
the smallest number of collocations 4 e.g. completely hidden, deeply absorbed closely related,
totally unacceptable, nervously entered. Table 1 N= 1 2 3 4 5

TYPE OF PATTERN Adjective + noun Verb + adverb Verb + noun Noun + verb Adverb + adjective

NUMBER 121 49 35 21 4

PERCENTAGE 52.6% 21.3% 15.2% 9.3% 1.7%

As can be observed the first type –adjective +noun has the big number of collocations -52.6%
from all the collocations studied in this research. The second type verb +adverb has 21.3% this
means that it do not constitute even a half of the first type. Verb +noun type has 15.2% from all
the collocations. The noun +verb type has 9.3 %collocations, and the less number has adverb 44

+adjective type 1.7%, this can be understood that adverb +adjective collocations are not so used
like other types. Analyzing all the types of collocations it can be concluded that adjective +noun
type constitute the largest number of collocations and the adverb +adjective type constitute the
smallest number of collocations used in a language and in communication.

§2.1.2.

STRUCTURAL

CLASSIFICATION

BASED

ON

NUMBER OF ELEMENTS Another principle on the basis of which collocations are analyzed is the
classification according to number of elements (parts of speech) which form the collocations.
The collocations can be formed from two, three or even more elements, at the end of this
analyze it could be observed the frequent number of collocations. For this cause the
classification is made according to the first classification- adjective +noun sad place ,verb +
adverb looking kindly, verb + noun rushed the door ,noun +verb light moving, adverb + adjective
nervously entered. The number of elements con be classified in: Collocations formed from two
elements, e.g. long walks, great pain, naughty girl, angry Voice, dirty habits, stern look.
Collocations formed from three elements, e.g. cold winter wind, wicked cruel boy, hard Ice Cold
fingers, Collocations formed from four or more elements, e.g. beautiful long curly hair. The
numbers of collocations under analyses are 230 but they are shared according to their type
analyzed before.

45

The collocations formed from two elements are the most frequent having 131 examples, those
with three have 67 examples and those with four elements have 32 examples, the smallest
number. N= 1 2 3

TYPE OF PATTERN

NUBER

PERCENTAGE

TWO ELEMENTS THREE ELEMENTS FOUR ELEMENTS

230 131 67 32
100% 56.9% 29.1%. 13.4%

Analyzing the whole label it can be observed that the big number of percentage has collocations
with two elements - 56.9%, and the smallest number has those with for elements - 13.4%. For a
better view of this analyze the structure will be according to all types of collocations. The first
type analyzed is adjective + noun, the total number of its elements is 121 from 230. The
collocations created from two elements constitute 81 examples of collocations e.g. chilly
afternoons, delicate health, young master, death bed, terrible experience, beautiful house, hard
work, angry voice, strange idea, wicked heart, narrow corridors, dirty habits, wide shoulders,
exciting life, evil influence, kind word, heavy sleeper, right path, wrong way, ordinary child. The
collocations produced from three elements have 23 examples of collocations e.g. cold winter
wind, sad lonely existence, freezing cold rooms, pretty cheerful child, narrow front door, strange
inhuman sound, pure young thing, small piece of biscuit, strange ghostly laugh, hard physical
conditions . The collocations formed from four or more elements have 4 examples e.g. dark hair
and eyes, ice cold fingers and toes, beautiful long curly hair, fair master to his servants. Table 1

46

N= TYPE OF PATTERN 1 2 3

NUMBER PERCENTAGE

ADJECTIVE + NOUN Two elements Three elements Four elements

121 81 23 4

100% 66.9% 19.% 3.3%

As can be observed the large numbers of collocations are those with two elements consisting
66.9% from the total percentage, the type of three elements has 29%, and the last type with
four elements constitute the smallest percentage 3.3%. Analyzing the obtained results it can be
said that, adjective +noun collocations formed from two elements constitute the largest number
of this type and the smallest number are those with four elements. The second type analyzed is
–verb +adverb The collocations formed from two elements have 31 examples, e.g. behave better
thought bitterly, looking kindly, listened carefully, swear furiously, looked carefully, shouted
desperately, examine carefully, go silently, cry bitterly, speak heavily. The collocations formed
from three elements have 9 examples, e.g. all complained bitterly, speak hardly English, hold
tightly on hands. And the collocations formed from four elements have 10 examples e.g. held
tightly to her, all went quietly upstairs, felt brave enough to speak. The table 2 N=

TYPE OF PATTERN
NUMBER

PERCENTAGE

123

VERB +ADVERB Two elements Three elements Four elements

49. 31 9 10

100% 63% 18.35% 20.4%

The first type has the largest number of collocations, this means that collocations formed from
two elements constitutes 63.3% from all number of 47

collocations, the type of three elements have 18.35, and the last one has 20.4%. As can be
observed the type with four elements has one more element than those with three and also a
big number than collocations from adjective +noun type of four elements. Analyzing the
obtained results it can be said that collocations formed from two elements have the largest
number of examples, this means that it is more used group than others. The third type analyzed
is verb +noun. It is has 35 examples of collocations, the collocations with two elements has 3
examples e.g. feel wicked, flowing streams, the collocations with three elements have
16examples e.g. drew the curtains, cutting the head, make no mistakes, rushed the door, keep
the promise, improve the character, post a letter, obey the orders follow the instructions, the
collocation formed from four elements have 13 examples e.g. lack the door carefully,

fetch the supper trays,

calmly

mending the curtains, bringing down its rider, tidy the drawer immediately, broke off a
conversation, enjoy the beautiful summer weather . The table 3 The total number analyzed is 35
The percentage is a function from the total number 35 N=

TYPE OF PATERN

NUMBER

PERCENTAGE

123
VERB + NOUN Two elements Three elements Four elements

35 3 16 13

100% 8.57% 45.7% 37.1%

As can be observed the second type has the largest number of collocations 45.7%from all the
number, the third type has 37.1 % of collocations and the first type has the smallest number of
collocations 8.57%. Analyzing this table it can be said that here the big number of collocations
has the type with four elements although before in others tables it has the smallest number of
collocation. It can

48

be said that in verb +noun type the most frequent collocations are those with three elements
and the smallest number used are those with two elements. The forth type analyzed is- noun +
verb It has 21 examples of collocations, the collocation with two elements has 5 examples e.g.
arms waving, legs kicking, light moving, bell rang, spring approached, the collocation with three
elements have 7 examples e.g. rain pouring down, blood running down, pain gave strength, eyes
wide open, heart beating fast, and the collocations formed from four elements have 9 examples,
e.g. rain beating on the window, hair must be arranged, shame and anger boiled up, sun shone
on the flowers. The table 4 N= 1 2 3

TYPE OF PATTERN

NUMBER PERCENTAGE

Two elements Three elements Four elements

21 5 7 9

100% 14.2% 33.3% 42.8%

As can be observed the big number of collocations have the third type of collocations - 42.8%,
the second type have 33.3%, and the first type have 23%. Analyzing this table it can be said that
more useful collocations from this type are those with four elements and less used are those
with two elements. The fifth type under analyses is adverb +adjective It has the smallest number
of collocations -4 examples, the collocations with two elements has 3 examples, e.g. completely
hidden, nervously entered, slightly open, and those with three elements has only one example,
e.g. hardly spoke English. The table 5 49

N=
TYPE OF PATTERN

NUMBER

PERCENTAGE

12

ADVERB + ADJECTIVE Two elements Three elements

434

100% 75% 25%

It can be observed that the first type has 75% this means that it is more used than the second
who has only one example. Analyzing the whole types it can be said that the most used
collocations are those with two and three elements but also depends on the type of collocation
for example the adjective +noun type has more examples with two elements but verb +noun
type has more examples with three elements, this means that the structure of collocation
depends on its type.

§2.1.3. STRCUTURAL CLASSIFICATION BASED ON PARTS OF SPEECH For a better view of

collocations and its structure were studied the structural combination based on parts of speech
for example the collocation formed from adjective +noun in death bed the first part of speech
can be also noun but was conversed in adjective, that is why must be analyzed its structural
combination. Also it can be observed not only the outside structure but also it’s inside structure.
This analyze will be made also according to five types of collocations. The first type studied will
be adjective + noun -121 examples, e.g. strange idea, somber clouds, poor child, naughty tricks.
The result of analyze is following: adjective + noun + noun -7 examples, e.g. cold winter wind,
kind ladies and gentleman, dark hair and eyes, adjective + noun+ noun -15 examples, e.g.
strange inhuman sound, noisy rushing water, secret hiding place, large pale 50

forehead, little old lady, noun +adjective + noun -3 ex., several small doors, noun + noun -10 ex.,
e.g. death bed, boarding school, worm fire, candle light, number + adjective +noun -3 ex., first
full day, past participle + noun -5 ex., e.g. wicked boy, wicked heart, adjective + noun -78 ex.,
terrible fear, heavy book, young master. Table 1. N= 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

TYPE OF PATTERN

NUMBER
PERCENTGE

Adjective +noun Noun + noun Adjective + adjective + noun Noun +adjective + noun Adjective +
noun + noun Past part. + noun Number + adjective + noun

121 78 10 15 3 7 5 2

100% 64.4% 8.26% 12.3% 2.4% 5.7% 4.13% 2.4%

Analyzing the whole chart it can be observed that adjective can change in other parts of speech,
and vice versa, other parts of speech can change in adjectives, for example in collocation-
window seat the first part of speech is noun but was conversed into adjective. Also it can be
observed that most examples remain unchangeable. The second type studied is: verb + adverb -
49 e.g. The verb + adverb type has the following structure: verb + adverb -36 ex., looked straight,
speak heavily, scream loudly, and cry bitterly, verb + adverb + prep. + noun -3 ex., hold tightly on
hands, verb + adverb + adverb -3 ex., lay fast asleep, verb + adverb + noun -2 ex., speak hardly
English, pronoun + verb + adverb -2 ex., I feel asleep, verb + prep + verb + adverb -2 ex., laugh
and speak freely, Table 2 N=

TYPE OF PATTERN

NUMBER 51

PERCENTAGE

12345

49 36 3 3 3 2

Verb + adverb Verb + adverb + prep + noun. Verb + adverb + adverb. Verb + adverb +noun Verb +
prep + verb + adverb

100% 73.4% 6.1% 6.1% 6.1% 4.0%

Looking carefully at this table it can be observed that there are not big changes like the first table
The third type analyzed is: verb + noun -35 ex. The verb + noun type has the following structure
verb + article +noun -15 ex., drew the curtains cutting the head, and rushed the door, verb +
prep. + noun – 5 ex., bringing down its rider, catch my look, verb + pronoun + adjective -3 ex.,
knocked it down, verb + artic. + adj.+ noun + noun -2 ex., floating along a quiet river, verb
+adverb + prep + pronoun -2 ex., lie down with me, verb + prep. + art. + noun -4 ex., left without
a word, verb + art. + Noun + prep + art + noun -1 ex., to play a tune on the piano. Table 3 N= 1 2
34567
TYPE OF PATTERN

NUMBER

PERCENTAGE

Verb + article + noun Verb + prep + noun Verb + prep + art + noun Verb + pronoun + adjective
Verb + art + adj. + noun + noun Verb + adverb + prep + pronoun Verb +art. + noun +

35 15 5 4 3 2 2 1

100% 42.8% 14.25 11.4% 8.57% 5.75 5.7% 2.855

Studying this label it can be observed that collocations of this type are formed from more parts
of speech.

52

The forth type analyzed is: noun + verb -21 ex. This type has the following structure: noun + verb
+ adverb -9 ex., blood pouring down, sun go down, noun + verb -3 ex., bell rang, legs kicking,
noun + past simple -3 ex., coach rolled off, adj + noun +verb -2 ex., sweet madness seized, noun
+ verb+ prep + art + noun -2 ex., sun shone on the flowers, art + noun +verb + adverb -2 ex., the
sun go down, noun + verb + prep + verb +pron -1 ex., people kept coming to visit him.

Table 4. N=

TYPE OF PATTERN

NUMBER

PRCENTAGE

1234567

NOUN + VERB Noun + verb + advreb Noun + verb Noun + past simple Adj. + noun + verb Noun +
verb + prep + art. + noun Art. + noun + verb + adverb Noun + verb + prep. + verb +

21 9 3 3 2 2 2 1

100% 42.8% 14.25 14.2% 9.52% 9.52% 9.52% 4.76%

pron. Analyzing this label it can be observed that noun + verb type is formed from more parts of
speech. The last type analyzed is adverb + adjective, this type has no changes at all, its structure
remains the same: adverb + adjective, e.g. completely hidden, closely related.

§2.1.4. THE ANALYZE OF TRANSLATING TECHNIQUES

53

In favour of a better understanding of collocations we decided to include in this research paper

their translating form from English into Romanian according to those 230 examples, which we
worked in previous chapter. Translating the collocations from English into Romanian language, it
was impossible to translate them without any changes, that ‘why we were obligated to use
translation techniques. The translation techniques used here are: Transposition – change of
grammatical level, the category of parts of speech, e.g. in death bed, the first part of speech is
noun but in this example it is conversed in adjective. Enlargement –it is linked to quantity of
words, e.g. speak softly- spuse pe un ton rugator, in translating this collocation were enlarged
the parts of speech. Reduction –it is linked also to quantity of words, e.g. boarding school –
orfelinat ,translating this collocation were reduced one word. Modulation – finding the
equivalent which respect the norms of the target language, a change of form, but not of the
concept, e.g. poor vicar – pastor sarac, translating this collocation were hanged the form but not
the concept. Contextual synonym – translating through synonyms, e.g. keep her promise – a se
tine de cuvint. Word by word translation –translating word by word, e.g. long walksplimbari
lungi, this example was translated word by word. Literal translation – terrible fear – spaima
grozava. Translating all the collocations according to translations techniques it can be observed
that the most collocations are translated according to literal translation – 77 examples,
enlargement – 38examples,contextual synonym -36 examples, modulation -22 examples,
reduction -13 examples, word for word -12 examples, the smallest number has transposition -10
examples. Table 1 54

N= 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

TYPE OF TECHNIQUES

NUMBER

PERCENTAGE

Literal translation Enlargement Contextual synonym Modulation Reduction Word for word
Transposition

230 77 38 36 22 13 12 10
100% 33.4% 16.5% 15.6% 9.5% 5.6% 5.2% 4.3%

Analyzing the whole label it can be noticed that literal translation has -33.4%, enlargement –
16.5%, contextual synonym -15.6%, modulation – 9.5%, reduction – 5.65, word for word -5.2%
and transposition – 4.3 For a better view of translation process of collocation, they were
translated according to their number of elements. For this purpose the investigation will be
based on five types of collocations, adjective + noun, adverb + verb, verb +noun, noun +verb and
adverb + adjective and their number elements: two elements, three elements and four elements
The first type analyzed is adjective + noun type. The large numbers of collocations here were
translated according to literal translation, for a good observation the example is analyzed
together with its sentence, for example: e.g. What a strange feeling to be leaving Ggatehead, my
home for the whole of my childhood. The collocation under analyses is – strange feeling-
simtamint straniu it has two parts of speech -adjective + noun.In Romanian it also has two parts
of speech – noun + adjective. Here the noun is placed before the adjective and the adjective
after the noun.

55

e.g. Sometimes he hit me, sometimes, he just threatened me, and I lived in terrible fear of him.
In this sentence the collocation under analysis is –terrible fear – spaima grozava . This collocation
is formed from two parts of speech – adjective + noun. In Romanian it is formed also from noun
+ adjective, here is used the conversion, the noun was changed with the adjective and vice versa,
the adjective was changed with the verb. e.g. I really sow him as a wicked murderer. The
collocation under analysis is –wicked murderer – tiran ucigas. This example of collocation is
formed from two parts of speech –adjective + noun. In Romanian it is also formed from two
parts of speech –noun + adjective, here is used the changed of the word order. the noun was
changed with the adjective and the adjective with the noun. e.g. He’s your young master The
collocation under analysis is – young master. – tinarul domnisor. This collocation is formed from
two parts of speech –adjective + noun. In Romanian it also has two parts of speech –noun +
adjective. Here was used a conversion, the adjective in initial form was conversed in noun and
vice versa. e.g. Strange ideas come to me. In this sentence the collocation analyzed is –strange
idea– gind ciudat. This collocation is formed from two parts of speech –adjective + noun. In
Romanian it is also formed from two parts –noun+ adjective

56

In this translation was changed the word order, the noun in place of adjective and vice versa, the
adjective in place of noun. e.g. Lost in the world of imagination, I forgot my sad lonely existence,
for a while, and was happy. The collocation under analysis is–sad lonely existence –trairea trista
si singuratica . This example of collocation is formed from three parts of speech- adjective +
adjective + noun .In Romanian it has the same structure but the parts of speech are changed –
noun + adjective + adjective. e.g. What a strange feeling to be leaving gateshead , my home for
the whole of my childhood. The collocation under analyses is – strange feeling- simtamint
straniu. It has two parts of speech -adjective + noun. In Romanian it also has two parts of speech
– noun + adjective. Here the noun is placed before the adjective and the adjective after the
noun. e.g. Well I hope you will be a good child at school, she said toughing my cheeks gently with
her fingers. The collocations are: Good child Toughing my cheeks gently The first example – good
child- fetita cuminte . It has two parts of speech – adjective + noun. In Romanian it also has two
parts of speech noun + adjective; here are the same changes as in the example before. The
second example is – toughing my cheeks gently – m-a netezit blind pe obraji. It has four parts of
speech- verb + pronoun + noun + adverb. 57

In Romanian it has five parts of speech – pronoun + verb + adverb +preposition +noun.
Transposition technique, examples: e.g. I was good to be back to my familiar bedroom, with a
warm fire and a candle light. In this sentence there are three collocations Familiar bedroom
Warm fire Candle light The first example of collocations is familiar bed room - odaia copiilor . It is
formed from two parts of speech- noun + noun, but the first noun suffered a conversion
changing into an adjective. And now it is adjective + noun In Romanian it is also formed from two
parts of speech- noun + noun, but here the noun remains unchanged. The second collocation
from this sentence is warm fire- foc din simeneu It is formed from two parts of speech- noun +
noun, where the noun suffered a conversion like the example before. In Romanian it has three
parts of speech- noun + preposition + noun. The third example of collocations is –candle light-
luminare aprinsa. It is formed from two parts of speech –noun + noun where the one noun
suffered a conversion like the examples before. In Romanian it has also two parts of speech-
noun + adjective. Here is used transposition technique, because the noun was changed in
adjectives, in order to give the appropriate meaning of the context into Romanian. e.g. I wanted
to join the family circle, but Mrs. Reed, my out, refused. 58

The collocation under analysis is- family circle-.cerc familial. This example of collocation is
formed from two parts of speech – adjective +noun-but here was used a conversion the noun
“family” was changed in adjective and formed this example of collocation –adjective +noun. In
Romanian it has two parts of speech and they also were changed by conversion, the noun
“familie” was changed in adjective “familial”. e.g. On his death bed he had made his wife , aunt
reed promise to look after me like her own children. In this sentence the collocation analyzed is –
death bed – cu limba de moarte. This example of collocation is formed from two parts of speech
– noun + noun, but the noun was changed in an adjective and now the collocation is formed
from adjective + noun. In Romanian it has four parts of speech –preposition + noun + preposition
+ noun. Contextual synonym technique e.g. They pulled us a part and I heard the say, what a
wicked girl. The collocation under analysis is -wicked girl- fiinta disperata. This example of
collocation is formed two parts of speech –adjective + noun. In Romanian it also is formed from
two parts of speech- noun + adjective and has the same structure like the example before. e.g.
Wicked cruel You boy I cried In this sentence the collocation analyzed is –wicked cruel boy-
uriciosule baiat indracit-. 59
This collocation is formed from three parts of speech – adjective + adjective + noun. In Romanian
it is also formed from three parts of speech- adjective + noun + adjective. e.g. They pulled us a
part and I heard the say, what a wicked girl. The collocation under analysis is -wicked girl- fiinta
disperata. This example of collocation is formed two parts of speech –adjective + noun. In
Romanian it also is formed from two parts of speech- noun + adjective and has the same
structure like the example before. e.g. It was also a great relief to recognize Dr Lloyd, who Mrs.
Reed called in for her servants (she always called a specialist for her self and the children). In this
sentence the collocation analyzed is –great relief-

usurare

neinchipuita . This example of collocation is formed from two parts of speech – adjective + noun.
In Romanian it is also formed from two parts of speech – noun + adjective, but here the noun
stands before the noun, e.g. What is all this? Demanded an angry voice. The collocation under
analysis is – angry voice-voce autoritara. This example of collocation is formed from two parts of
speech –noun + adjective. In Romanian it also has two parts of speech –noun + adjective. The
difference from these examples is that in English the noun stands before the adjective, but in
Romanian the adjectives stands before noun. 60

e.g. Mr. Brocklepurst, interrupted Mrs. Reed, I mentioned to you in my letter that this little girl
has in fact a very bad character. In this sentence the collocation under analyses is- a very bad
charactertrasaturi de character rele. This collocation is formed from four parts of speech- article
+ adverb + adjective + noun. In Romanian it has noun + preposition+noun +adjective. As can be
observed the number of parts of speech is the same but their grammatical structure is not the
same Reduction technique e.g. The red room was a cold, silent room, hardly ever used, although
it was one of the largest bedroom in the house. The collocation under analysis is – cold silent
room- camera nelocuita. This example of collocation is formed from three parts of speech-
adjective + adjective + noun. In Romanian it has two parts of speech –noun + adjective.
Translating this collocation was reduced one part of speech – one adjective. e.g. He should have
been at boarding school, but his mother, who loved him very much had ought hibrom home for
a month or two, because she though his health was delicate. In these sentences the collocation
is: Boarding school -orfelinat The first example of collocation is formed from two parts of speech
– adjective + noun, but in Romanian language it is formed from one part of speech – noun, here
was used again the reduction technique and this collocation was translated –orfelinat, because
in Romanian one word is used to name this object. 61

Modulation technique The collocation under analyses is –poor vicar –pastor sarac .It is formed
from two parts of speech –adjective +noun. In Romanian it also has the some structure, but the
noun is placed before the adjective .and the adjective after the noun –noun +adjective. In
translation of this collocation it can be observed that between “vicar “ and “astor “it has no any
link ,”vicar means –priest», while “pastor means shepherd “.this means that in translation was
used the modulation technique –the word vicar was translated in pastor . Was used this
translation technique in order to respect the norms of the target language. e.g. He lifted the
heavy book and threw it hard at me. The collocation analyzed is – heavy book –carte groasa. It is
formed from two parts of speech –adjective + noun .In Romanian it is formed also from same
parts of speech – noun + adjective, but translating it into Romanian was used the modulation
technique because in Romania it is not saing “carte grea” that’s why was used the modulation
technique in order to sound more natural in Romanian language E.g. Each child could have a
drink of water out of the shared cup and could take a small piece of biscuit. The collocations
from this sentence are: Shared cup Small piece of biscuit The first example of collocation is –
shared cup –cana ce servea tuturor .It is formed from tow parts of speech-verb +noun ,but here
is an conversion the verb “ shere” was changed in adjective “shared “and now it is –adjective
+noun. In Romanian it has four parts of speech=noun +preposition +verb +adverb. 62

In this collocation was used the explanation technique because the ‘shared cup was explained as
–cana ce servea tuturor . The second example is –small piece of biscuit-o bucata de prajitura . It
is formed from four parts of speech –adjective +noun +pre position +noun. In Romanian it has
also four parts of speech –article +noun + preposition +noun. e.g.

But the only y food served to us was porridge, which

was burnt ,it was so disgusting that we could not eat it so we left the dining room with empty
stomachs . The collocation under analyses is –empty stomachs –flaminde de moarte . It is
formed from two parts of speech –adjective + noun. In Romanian it has three parts of speech –
adjective + preposition +noun. Although it was translated with this technique the equivalent
respect the norms of the Romanian language, it was changed the form but the concept re main
the same. Word for word technique e.g. I never liked long walks, especially in winter. The
collocation under analysis is Long walks– plimbari lungiThis example of collocation is formed
from two parts of speech –adjective +noun, in Romanian it has this structure:

noun +adjective here was used

conversion. The parts of speech were changed, adjective in place of noun and vice versa. e.g. We
believe in hard work, plain food, simple clothes and no luxury of any kind. The collocations in
these sentences are: Hard work 63

Plain food Simple clothes The first collocation from this sentences –hard work – munca grea It is
formed from two parts of speech - adjective + noun. In Romanian it is also formed from tow
parts of speech – noun + adjective, but here the noun is placed before the adjective, and the
adjective in place of noun, because in Romanian language the adjective stands after the noun.
That’s why there is need the change of place of the parts of speech. The second example of
collocation – plain food- translated cumpatata. It is formed from two parts of speech – adjective
+ noun. In Romanian it is also formed from two parts of speech – noun+ adjective. Here is the
same change as in the example before. The third example is –simple clothes- imbracaminte
modesta. It is formed from two parts of speech – adjective + noun. In Romanian it also has two
parts of speech –noun + adjective. Here is the same change as in the examples before.. e.g. I was
put in the bottom class. The collocation under analyses is-the bottom class-capatul sirului . It is
formed from three parts of speech – article +noun +noun, here was used a conversion the noun
“bottom “was changed in adjective and now is adjective + noun. In Romanian it has two parts of
speech –noun +noun ,where the noun “capatul “was changed in adjective .as can be observed
here this example was the same structure Enlargement technique e.g. He was a tall, thin man
dressed all in black, with a cold stony face at the top of the column. The collocations from these
sentences are 64

Tall, thin man Cold stony face. The first example of collocation from this sentence – tall, thin man
– cu o infatisare de adevarata prajina uscativa It is formed from threee parts of speech- adjective
+ adjective + noun. In Romanian it has a large number of parts of speech, seven – preposition +
article + noun + preposition + adjective + noun + adjective. In translation this collocation in
Romanian it was used more words, in order to give an original meaning to the Romanian
context. Although it has more parts of speech the meaning remain the same.. The second
example of collocation from this sentence – with a cold stony face – chipul lui aducea a masca
taiata din piatra This collocation is formed from five parts of speech – preposition + article +
adjective + adjective + noun. In Romanian it has more parts of speech – noun + pronoun + verb +
noun + verb + preposition + noun. As can be observed in Romanian translation there are more
words because was used the enlargement technique, in order to give an appropriate translation
of Romanian language .Although there was used more words in translation the meaning was
kept e.g. Well I hope you will be a good child at school, she said toughing my cheeks gently with
her fingers. The collocations are: Good child Toughing my cheeks gently The first example – good
child- fetita cuminte . It has two parts of speech – adjective + noun. In Romanian it also has two
parts of speech noun + adjective; here are the same changes as in the example before. 65

The second example is – toughing my cheeks gently – m-a netezit blind pe obraji. It has four
parts of speech- verb + pronoun + noun + adverb. In Romanian it has five parts of speech –
pronoun + verb + adverb +preposition +noun. Analyzing all the collocation of this type it can be
observed that: literal translation technique has the large number of collocations -30 examples,
contextual synonym -24 examples, enlargement –20examples, reduction -10examples,
transposition -10examples, modulation -9examples and word for word -18 examples. Table 2 N=
TYPE OF PATTER

NUMBER

PERCENTAGE

1234567

121 30 24 20 18 10 10 9
100 24.7% 19.8% 16.5% 14.8% 8.2% 8.2% 7.4%

Literal translation Contextual synonym Enlargement Word for word Reduction Transposition
Modulation

As can be observed the literal translation has 24.7%, contextual synonym has 19.8%,

enlargement

has

16.5%,Word

for

word

14.8%,Reduction

8.2%,Transposition 8.2% Modulation 7.4%. For being able to have a complete view of translation
analyze it is better to have also a label with translation technique according to the number of
elements. Table 3 N= TYPE TECHNIQUE

OF TWO ELEMENTS 66

THREE

FOUR

ELEMENTS

ELEMENTS

1234567

ADJECTIVE + NOUN Literal translation Contextual synonym Enlargement Word for word
Reduction Transposition Modulation

15 -18.5% 13 -16.4% 14 -17.2% 18 -22.5% 6 -7.4% 10 -12.3% 6 -7.4%

4 -17.3% 7 -33.3% 5 -21.7%

2 -50% 1 -25% 1 -25%

4 -17.3% 2 -8.6%

The most frequent translation techniques in collocations with two elements is literal translation
having 18.5%, and for three elements is contextual synonym -33.3%, the less used technique is
modulation and reduction for both. Word for word and transposition technique are missing from
collocations with three elements, the collocations with four elements were translated only
through literal, context syn., and enlargement. The next type analyzed is adverb +verb, also like
adjective + noun type, the large number of collocations were translated through literal
translation, for example: Literal translation e.g. Bessie kissed me for the last time as I held tightly
to her. The collocation under analyses is – I held tightly to her- am cuprins-o strins. It is formed
from five parts of speech – pronoun + verb + adverb + preposition + pronoun. In Romanian it has
three parts of speech – pronoun + verb + adverb As can be observed the two parts of speech
was reduced. Although was reduced two elements the meaning remain unchanged. e.g. She
screamed so loudly ma’am said Bessie softly . The collocation under analysis is – screamed so
loudly – racnea foarte tare .

67

This example of collocation is formed from three parts of speech –verb + conjunction + adverb.
In Romanian it has also the some structure of three parts of speech – verb + adverb + adverb.
There is no need of any changes only the English conjunction was translated in Romanian – as
adverb . Enlargement technique e.g. speak softly– spuse pe un ton rugatorThis collocation is
formed from two parts of speech – verb + adverb. In Romanian the same collocation has five
parts of speech – verb + preposition + article noun + adjective. Here it can be observed that is a
big difference in the grammatical structure, because in the translation was used the enlargement
technique in order to emphases the filings of the reader and to give an appropriate meaning in
Romanian language . e.g. Until I hear from Bessie, or see for myself, that you are a really trying to
behave better, you can not be treated as a good, happy child, like my children. The collocation
under analysis is - traing to behave better stradania de a fi mai prietenoasa si mai blinda . This
example of collocation is formed from four parts of speech- verb +preposition +verb+ adverb.
But in Romanian translation the same pattern has nine parts of speech, which are –noun
+preposition+ verb + adjective +noun + conjunction+ adjective + noun. The difference in
translation is that the same pattern in English needs few words but translating in Romanian it
needs more words, in order to give the same meaning. The techniques used here are
enlargement and contextual synonyms translation.

68

Reduction technique e.g. Goodbye to Goteshead, I shouted wildly as we walked together out of
the front door to wait for the coach in the road. The collocation under analyses is – I shouted
wildly- am exclamat eu. It is formed from three parts of speech – pronoun + verb + adverb. In
Romanian it has two parts of speech- verb + pronoun. Although here was used a reduction the
meaning remain the same. e.g .In fact she was so kind to me that I become brave enough to ask
a question. The collocation under analyses is –become brave enough –a capata curaj . This
collocation is formed from three parts of speech – verb + adverb +adverb .In Romanian it has
two parts of speech –verb + adverb. In Romanian one adverb was reduced in order to give the
originality and importance of the Romanian equivalent translation. Word for word technique e.g.
I had to share Miss Miller ‘s ,but I was so tired that I fell asleep Immediately . The collocation
under analyses is –I fell asleep immediately –am adormit imediat . It is formed from three parts
of speech – pronoun +verb +adverb. In Romanian it is formed from three parts of speech –
pronoun +verb +adverb .as can be observed this collocation has the same parts of speech –
pronoun +verb +adverb, which mean that there are no changes. e.g. I sow a light and I thought it
was a ghost, I cried holding tightly on to Bessie hand. 69

The collocation under analysis is – holding tightly on hand – a tine strins de mina. This
collocation is formed from four parts of speech – verb + adverb +preposition +noun. In
Romanian it has also four parts of speech- verb + adverb + preposition + noun. As can be
observed this collocation has the same grammatical structure. e.g. The collocation under
analysis is – stared fascinated- admira incintata. This example of collocation is formed from two
parts of speech –verb + adverb. In Romanian it has two parts of speech also –verb + adverb.
Here in translation is not any changes the technique used here is word by word translation,
because the meaning needn’t any changes. Modulation technique e.g. Then we all went quietly
upstairs to the long crowded bedroom, where two children shared every bed. The collocation
under analyses is –all went quietly upstairs –in perecche ne urcam sus . It is formed from four
parts of speech – adverb +verb +adverb +noun. In Romanian it has five parts of speech -
preposition + noun +pronoun +verb +adverb. As can be observed there is no link in their
grammatical structure because the technique used here is modulation, it was used an equivalent
in order to translate this collocation, an equivalent which respect the norms of the target
language. Contextual synonym technique

70

e.g. As I wondered ,I sow a girl near me reading a book ,I felt brave enough to speak to her ,since
I liked reading too. The collocation under the analyses is-I felt brave enough to speak – am avut
indrazneala sa vorbesc . It is formed from three parts of speech – pronoun +verb +adverb
+adverb +preposition +verb. In Romanian it has –five parts of speech –verb +adverb + verb.
Between their grammatical structures is no link at all but the meaning is kept. It was translated
so because using the synonyms the meaning is more related to the context. Studding the
translation according to their techniques, it can be observed that from the total number of
collocations, the majority were translated through literal translation -21 examples, contextual
synonym -5 examples, enlargement 8 examples, modulation -7 examples, word for word -3
examples, reduction -1 example, and through transposition technique nothing were translated. It
can be understand batter through next two labels, the first represents the whole type translation
and the second show translations according to their number of elements. Table 4 N= TYPE OF
TECHNIQUE 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

ADVERB+ VERB Literal translation Contextual synonym Enlargement Word for word Reduction
Transposition Modulation

NUMBER

PERCENTAGE

49 21 5 7 3 1

100% 42.8% 10.2% 14.2% 6.12% 2.0%

14.2%

71

As has been pointed out literal translation is the most frequent technique having -42.8%, and the
less used here is reduction -2.0%. In translating this type the transposition wasn’t used at all. The
second label is according to their number of elements: Table 5 N= TYPE

1234567

OF TWO

THREE

FOUR

TECHNIQUE

ELEMENTS

ELEMENTS ELEMENTS

Literal translation Contextual synonym Enlargement Word for word Reduction Transposition
Modulation
16 -51.6% 3 -9.6% 5 -10.2% 3 -9.6% 1 -2.0%

6 -66.6% 1 -22.0% 1 -22.0%

5 -83.3% 1 -16.6%

Analyzing the techniques it can be observed that literal and enlargement are more frequent in
this type 16.51%, 66.6% for literal and 10.2%, 22.0% for enlargement, in the collocation with two
elements the transposition and modulation, and in collocation with three elements the word for
word, reduction, transposition and modulation techniques were not used at all, in translating the
collocation with four elements only literal and enlargement techniques were used. The third
type analyzed is verb + noun here the large number also was translated through literal
translation, for example: e.g. I climbed on to the window seat and drew the curtains, so that I
was completely hidden. The collocations under analysis are: Climbed on to the window seat, 72

Drew the curtains, The first example of collocation from this sentence- climbed on to the
window seat- cocotat pe prichiciul lat .This collocation is formed from six parts of speech-verb
+preposition +preposition + article + noun +noun . In Romanian it has only four parts of speech –
verb + preposition +noun + adjective. The second example of collocation from this sentence is –
drew the curtains,– tragind draperiile. This collocation is formed from three parts of speech –
verb+article +noun , in Romanian it has two parts of speech –verb +noun. e.g. put away the
lesson –book and fetch the super –trays ,called Miss Miller . In this sentence the collocation
under analyses is –fetch the super trays –a cara tava cu mincare. This example is formed from
four parts of speech –verb +article +noun +noun. In Romanian it has also four parts of speech –
verb +noun +preposition +noun. e.g. will madam, I hope she will be grateful for this opportunity
to improve her character. The collocation under nalyses is– a-– improve her character erfectiona
caracterul . It is formed from three parts of speech – verb + pronoun + noun. In Romanian it has
also three and the same parts of speech – pronoun + verb + noun, but the word order is not the
same. Contextual synonym technique e.g.It hit me and I fell, cutting my head on the door. The
collocation under analysis is cutting my head– a-mi sparge capul. 73

This collocation is formed from three parts of speech- verb + pronoun + noun. In Romanian it
also has three parts of speech – pronoun + verb + noun, their word order is changed in order to
emphases the filings of the reader and to sound more natural in Romanian language.. . e.g.The
rain was still beating on the windows, and I could hear the wind in the street. The collocation
under analysis is – the rain was still beating on the window– ploaia rapaia in fereastra . The
collocation is formed from eight parts of speech – article + noun +verb + conjunction + verb +
preposition + article + noun. In Romanian it has four parts of speech – noun + verb + preposition
+ noun. Translating this collocation was reduced four parts of speech. The Romanian word
“rapaia” with an old connotation was used here in order to give an appropriate meaning of the
context and also to correspond with the vocabulary of that time. e.g.I began to fear that his
ghost ,light come back to punish his wife for not keeping the promise . The collocation under
analysis is – keep her promise– a se tine de cuvint. This example of collocation is formed from
three parts of speech- verb + pronoun + noun. In Romanian it is also formed from three parts of
speech – verb + preposition + noun. Here was used the contextual synonym translation
technique in order to emphases the filings of the reader and to give a more natural meaning in
Romanian language Enlargement 74

e.g. I treed to make no mistake but they colled naughty every moment of the day. The
collocation under analyisis is – make no mistake– a face fata tuturor indatoririlor. The collocation
is formed from three parts of speech – verb + conjunction + noun. In Romanian it is formed from
four parts of speech – verb + noun + adverb + noun. In this translation of collocation was used
the enlargement and, in order to remain the same meaning of the context. E.g. Mrs Reed
smacked my face and left me without a word. The collocation under analyses is –smacked my
face –a trage palme pe fata. This example of collocation has three parts of speech –verb
+pronoun + noun. In Romanian the some example has four parts of speech – verb +noun
+preposition +noun. Translating this collocation it can be observed that one word was added in
Romanian translation–“palme “.this means that the technique used here is enlargement because
was added parts of speech ,in order to give more understandable meaning of the collocations .
Word for word translation e.g. Screaming wildly, I rushed to the door and shook it. In this
sentence the collocatins under analysis is –rushed to the door- a se repezi la usa . In this example
of collocations is formed from four parts of speech – verb + preposition + article + noun. In
Romanian it has three parts of speech – verb + preposition + noun. As can be observed that here
is the same grammatical structure without any changes. 75

Analyzing this type and its translations techniques it can be observed that literal translation is
more used having 20 examples form the total number – 35, and the less used modulation, word
for word, reduction all having 2 examples. Reduction technique e.g.The rain was still beating on
the windows, and I could hear the wind in the street. The collocation under analysis is – the rain
was still beating on the window– ploaia rapaia in fereastra . The collocation is formed from eight
parts of speech – article + noun +verb + conjunction + verb + preposition + article + noun. In
Romanian it has four parts of speech – noun + verb + preposition + noun. Translating this
collocation was reduced four parts of speech. The Romanian word “rapaia” with an old
connotation was used here, in order to give an appropriate meaning of the context and also to
correspond with the vocabulary of that time. e.g.

Sometimes I looked out of the window at the grey

November afternoon, and sow the rain pouring down on the leafless garden. In this sentence the
collocation under analysis is rain pouring down–– ploaie cadea incet. In this example of
collocation there are four parts of speech – article + noun +verb + adverb. In Romanian
translation is formed from three parts of speech – noun+ verb+ adverb. As it can be observed
there are the some construction but without the article. In this example the translation
technique is reduction, it was reduced the word “down”, In order to give a more meaningful
connotation to the context. 76

Table 6 N=

TYPE OF TECHNIQUE

NUMBER

PERCENTAGE

1234567

VERB +NOUN Literal translation Contextual synonym Enlargement Word for word Reduction
Transposition Modulation

35 20 5 4 2 2

100% 57.1% 14.2% 11/4% 5.7% 5.7%

5.7%

The big percentage has literal translation -57.1%, contextual synonym -14.2%, enlargement
-11.4% and word for word, modulation, reduction all has 5.7% The next label is according to
their umber of elements: Analyzing this label according to number of elements, it is also
observed that literal translation is more used in all three types. Table 7 N=

TYPEOF

1234567

TRANSLATION Literal translation Contextual synonym Enlargement Word for word Reduction
Transposition Modulation

TWOELEMENTS THREE 1 -33.3%

FOUR

ELEMENTS 12 -75% 1 -6.2% 1 -6.2% 2-13.2%

ELEMENTS 5 -38.4% 2 -15.3% 4-25.5% 2 15.3%

2 -13.3%

2 -15.3%

2 -66.6%

As can be observed in translating the collocation with two elements only the literal translation
and reduction were used. In collocation with three and four elements the reduction and
transposition were not used. It means that in translation the collocation different techniques are
used. 77

The next type analyzed is noun + verb, in spite of those types which the large number were
literal translation, in this type enlargement technique constitute the large number,7 examples,
literal translation 5 examples, modulation 3 examples word for word 1example, contextual
synonym 3 examples. Examples of translations of collocations and their analysis: Modulation
technique e.g. My whole body trembled when he come near. The collocation analyzed is - body
trembled-ingheta single in vine. This collocation is formed from three parts of speech – adjective
+ noun + verb. In Romanian it is formed from four parts of speech – verb + noun + preposition +
noun. technique in order to emphases the filings of the reader and also to give an appropriate
meaning of the English context. e.g. And so I was carried upstairs, arms waving and legs kicking .
The collocation under analysis is – arms waving and legs kicking – m-am impotrivit din rasputeri.
This collocation is formed from five parts of speech- noun + verb + conjunction + noun + verb. In
Romanian it has four parts of speech – pronoun + verb + preposition + noun. Here was used the
modulation technique because in Romanian it has no the direct equivalent of such collocation,
e.g. The door was closed and the coach rolled off. The collocation under analyses is – the coach
rolled off- diligenta se urni greoi din loc. 78

It has five parts of speech article + noun + verb + preposition. In Romanian it has five parts of
speech – noun + verb + adverb + preposition + noun. Although it has the same number of parts
of speech they has no the same in grammatical structure. In this example there is a phrase-
rolled off – a se urni . Contextual synonym technique e.g. My head was hot, my heart beat fast.
The collocations under analysis are – my heart beat fast – inima-mi zvicnea spasmodic. This
example of collocations is formed from four parts of speech –pronoun + noun +verb + adverb. In
Romanian is also four parts of speech, but here is a small change in grammatical structure –
noun + pronoun + verb + adverb. The word “fast”was translated in Romanian as “spasmodic”,
because the old vocabulary of that time was used. e.g. Is your book interesting, I asked, Here,
have a look at it, I glanced quickly at it but find difficult to understand ,so I gave it back. The
collocation under analyses is-I glanced quickly at it- am rasfoit cartea . It is formed from five parts
of speech –pronoun +verb +adverb +preposition + pronoun. In Romanian it has three parts
speech – pronoun + verb +noun Enlargement technique e.g. When he left, I felt very lonely again
The collocation under analyses is –felt very lonely again, - gera amaraciune aizbito. 79

This example of collocation is formed from four parts of speech –verb +adverb + adverb +adverb.
In the Romanian it is formed from five parts of speech – adjective + noun + article + verb +
pronoun. As it can be observed there is a big difference between the English and Romanian
patterns in their grammatical structure. In Romanian translation appeared one more part of
speech, in order to give the most appropriate translation of the context.

Word for word technique e.g. So two servants slept in my room, while I lay awake all night
trembling with fear and eyes wide open in horror imaging ghosts in every corner. The
collocations from this sentence are –trembling with fear -eyes wide open. The first collocation –
trembled with fear –tremurind de frica . This collocation is formed from three parts of speech –
verb +preposition + noun. In Romanian also it has three parts of speech – verb+ preposition +
noun .AS it can be observed this example has the some structure –verb+ preposition + noun,
which means that here was used the word by word translation technique. The second example
of collocation is formed from three parts of speech – noun+ adjective + verb. In Romanian it also
has three parts of speech and also has the some structure –noun +adjective + verb.

Literal translation technique

80

e.g. Goodbye to Goteshead, I shouted wildly as we walked together out of the front door to wait
for the coach in the road. The collocation under analyses is – I shouted wildly- am exclamat eu. It
is formed from three parts of speech – pronoun + verb + adverb. In Romanian it has one less
word, two parts of speech- verb + pronoun. e.g. put away the lesson –book and fetch the super –
trays ,called Miss Miller . In this sentence the collocation under analyses is –fetch the super trays
–a cara tava cu mincare. This example is formed from four parts of speech –verb +article +noun
+noun. In Romanian it has also four parts of speech – verb +noun +preposition +noun. In this
example the English article “the» was translated with preposition “cu” in Romanian .although
the number of parts of speech is the same the grammatical structure is different According to
this type the more frequent technique is enlargement 7 ex, literal translation 5 examples,
contextual synonym 3 examples, word for word only one example. Reduction and transposition
was not used at all.

Table 8 N=

TYPES OF TECHNIQUE

NUMBER

PERCENTAGE
123456

NOUN +VERB Literal translation Contextual synonym Enlargement Word for word Reduction
Transposition

21 5 3 7 1

100% 23.8% 14.2% 33.3% 4.7%

81

Label according to number of elements. In spite of all labels which the most frequent translation
was literal, here the most used technique is enlargement and the less is reduction and
transposition.

Table 9 N= TYPE

OF TOW

THREE

FOUR

FIVE

TRANSLATION ELEMENTS ELEMENTS ELEMENTS ELEMENTS Literal 1 -20% 2 -28.5% 2 -50%

translation Contextual

34567

synonym Enlargement Word for word Reduction Transposition Modulation

1 -20%

2 -28.5%
1 -20% 1 -20%

1 -4.28%

2 -28.5%

4 - 1OO%

1 -25%

1 -25%

As have been pointed out the most used technique is enlargement for all types, having the big
percentage 33.3%, the reduction, transposition, modulation in translation of collocation with
two and three elements were not used and the collocation formed from four elements was
translated only through enlargement technique, The last type analyzed is adverb + adjective
translation. This type has the less number of collocations -4 and are translated though
contextual syn.-1-25% and literal translation 3 -75%. Table 10 82

N=

TYPE OF TECHNIQUE

TWO ELEMENTS

12

ADVERB + ADJECTIVE Contextual synonym Literal translation

1 -25% 3 75%

Translating this collocation were used only contextual synonym and literal translation techniques
Examine the whole translations it can be said that, literal translation is more used in all types of
collocations and the less used are reduction, modulation, and word for word translation. The
transposition technique was used only in adjective + noun type.

CONCLUSION This research paper “The problem of collocations in English language” adds to the
few studies so far conducted in the area of defying and understanding it as a single unit. 83

Investigating this topic it can be concluded that collocations constitute an area of difficulty in
learning English because it is misunderstood with other word groups, which have in common
some peculiarities. That is why in the first chapter we tired to distinguish the collocations from
word groups like: phrases, idioms, compound words and phraseologic units. Firstly we defined
these word groups in order to understand and defining better the collocations and their
importance in learning how to speak, write, and think like a native speaker of English language.
The second chapter is based only on the practice of analyses of collocations according to their
five types: Adjective + noun, verb + noun, adverb + verb, noun + verb, and adverb + adjective. On
the basis of these types was made analysis and statistics according to: types of collocations,
number of elements, parts of speech. Studying this language feature it can be said that the most
frequent type of collocations is adjective + noun and the smallest number of collocations are
adverb + adjective type, this means that the most used collocations are those formed from
adjective + noun type. The same can be said bout the number of elements but here are some
differences according to the type of collocations, for example in adjective +noun type the
collocation with two elements constitute the biggest number and with four elements constitutes
the smallest number, but in verb + adverb type the collocations with three elements constitute
the biggest number and those with two elements constitutes the smallest number of
collocations. In noun +verb type the biggest number constitutes collocations with four elements
and the smallest number constitutes collocations with two elements this means that collocations
are not the same for the all types or have not the same structure for all types. Studying these
language elements based on parts of speech it can be said that their structure based on parts of
speech is not the same, for example in adjective + noun type almost all collocations are formed
from adjective + noun, but in 84

verb + noun type almost all collocations are formed from verb + article (prepositions) + noun, as
it is observed this type needs one more part of speech. An important aspect from this paper is
the translation of collocations from English into Romanian language, using 230 examples from
Charlotte Bronte novels –Jane Eyre. In translating these collocations were used some translation
techniques like: word for word, literal translation, enlargement, reduction, modulation,
transposition and contextual synonym. Analyzing the translations it can be said that the most
used technique is literal translation and the less used technique is transposition. This can be said
that in all types of collocations the literal translation is the most used, this being followed by the
contextual synonym and enlargement then word for word, reduction, modulation and
transposition. Although there was used a great number of techniques, the meaning and the
context was kept. Analyzing and studying the whole research paper it can be observed that
collocations can be learnt, understood and spoken without any problems and difficulties if we
will keep their basic features. This is an actual theme and it is studied by linguists, lexicographers
in making dictionaries, in translation problems, and terminology. To finish on a more cheerful
note, it can be said that collocations are the way in which the words are combined and spoken
by us in every day life. In order to understand, speak, think and write as a native English person,
we must study the collocations.

85

SUMMARY This research paper, “The problem of collocations in English language “, is focused on
defining the other word groups: idioms, compound words, phraseological units and phrases in
order to understand better the collocation and not to have problems in distinguishing it from
these word groups because

86

they have a lot of peculiarities which make them to be wrong understood as a single unit.
Distinguishing it from these word groups the following aspect of this research is to define the
collocations and their importance in learning how to think, speak and write in English as a native
one using collocations as the base of learning . Another important aspect in this article is the
analyze of collocation structure based on five types of collocations: adjective +noun, noun + verb
,verb +noun, adverb + verb, adverb + adjective.

These types of collocations were analyzed

according to: number of elements, parts of speech and translation techniques. Translation
techniques used in this research paper are: literal translation, contextual synonym, word by
word, enlargement, transposition, reduction and modulation. For these analyze, examples were
taken from Charlotte Bronte novels-Jane Ere, the numbers of investigated collocations are 230,
and for the translation investigation also these collocations were analyzed. On these analyze
were made statistics and percentage according to each type of investigation in order to have a
better view of collocations and their structure. Understanding the collocations and their
importance in English language will make the language easier to speak and understand.

BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. A.P Cowie, Oxford Linguistic Phraseology, Theory and Analyses, 1998, pg 21-
23, 145-153 87

2. A.P. Cowie. The treatment of collocations and idioms in learner’s dictionaries. Applied
Linguistics, 1981. 2. Bauer Laurie, English word formation ,Cambridge 1984 ,pg 115-120. 3.
English for advanced students ,with a special chapter in English lexicology, Institutul Europei
,Iasi,1993, pg 190-195. 4. Ido Dagan and Kenneth Church.: Identifying and translating technical
terminology. In Proceedings of the Fourth ACL Conference on Applied Natural Language
Processing, Stuttgart, Germany, October 1994. 5. Interim Report on English Collocations, Tokio,
1933 6. Levitchi Leon, Limba engleza contemporan, Lexicology, 1970, pg 25-37 7. L. P. Smith,
Wrds and Idioms, London,1925. 8. Galina Salapina, Limba engleza contemporana, Lexicologie,
editia II-a, Timisoara, pg 14-21. 9. Olga Achmanava, Linguistic terminology , Moscow university
press ,1977,pg 161165. 10. Olga Achmanova, The chair of English ,Lexicology, Theory and
Method, edited by Moscow state university,1972, pg 76-85. in 11. James. R. Natting, S. Dacerio,
Oxford Applied Linguistic, Lexical Phrases and Language Technique, Oxford University Press,1992,
pg 23-53. 12. J. R. Firth. The technique of semantics. Transactions of the Philological Society,
1935. J. M Dixon, English Idioms, London, 1927. 13. Johnatan Orauther,Catherym Cavanaugh,
Oxford Guide to British and American Culture, Oxford University Press,1999, pg 58-73. 14. M.
Benson, E. Benson, and R. Ilson. The BBI Combinatory Dictionary of English: A Guide to Word
Combinations. John Benjamins, Amsterdam and Philadelphia, 1986.

88

15. N .Raevska, English lexicology, second edition revised, edited by Радянска Школа, 1961, pg
2516. N.M.Raenska, English lexicology, Kiev, 1971, pg 86-90. 17. R.S.Girbuz, A course in modern
English lexicology, Higher School Published House, Moscow 1996,pg 86-105. 18. Morton Benson.
The structure of the collocational dictionary. International 19. Peter Roach, Third Edition, English
Phonetics and Phonology, A practical course, Cambridge, University Press,1999, pg 63-65. 20.
Peter F. Brown, Stephen A. Della Pietra, Vincent J. Della Pietra, and 21Robert L. Mercer. Word-
sense disambiguation using statistical methods. 22. Seminars in Modern English Lexicology, Part
II, Chisinau ,Moldova State University,2000, pg 161-163 23. Y. Choueka, T. Klein, and E. Neuwitz.
Automatic retrieval of frequent idiomatic and collocational expressions in a large corpus. Journal
for Literary and Linguistic computing, 1983. 24. V. H. Collins, A Book of English idioms with
Explanation, London – New York – Toronto, 1958. 25. V. V. Vinogradov, Оснвные понятия
фразеолоогии,ЛГУ, 1946. 26. Williem L. Graff,language and Language, New York – London, 1932

Dictionaries 1. Oxford Collocations, dictionary for students of English, Oxford University

Press University Press, 2002. 2.

Oxford dictionary of idioms, Oxford University Press, 1999.

3. English Idioms, second edition, Oxford University Press, 2001. 4. Oxford Quide To Warld,
Oxford University Press, 2002. 89

5. Oxford, Phrasal Verbs Dictionary for learners of English. Oxford

University Press,2001. 6. Oxford,Word power dictionary for learners of English, Oxford University

Press,1998. 7. Oxford dictionary for advanced learners, fifth edition, Oxford University

Press

APPENDICES ANEXE 1- ADJECTIVE + NOUN TYPE N=

ADJECTIVE

NOUN, TRANSLATION
EXA90

TECHNIQUE

MPLES,

TWO

ELEMENTS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

Somber clouds Long walks Leafless shrubbery Family circle Window seat Boarding school
Delicate health Terrible fear Heavy book Greait pain Wicked murder Angry voice Strange idea
Young master Painful reminders Wicked heart Red room Large bedroom Naughty girl Stony face
Long hours Familiar bedroom Worm fire Candle light Great relief

Nouri sumbri plimbari lungi cararuile gradinii scuturate Cerc familial Prichici lat internat Sanatate
subreda

Word for word Word for word enlargement transpozition transpoziton transpozition Literal

Spaima grozava

translation Literal

Carte groasa

translation Context

Durere infioratoare

synonym Context

tiran Voce autoritara

synonym reduction Context

Gind ciudat

synonym Context

Tinarul domnisor
synonym Context

Amintiri dureroase

synonym Literal

Inima slaba

translation Context

Camera rosie Odaie samptuasa Fata neascultatoare

synonym Word for word modulation Literal

Masca taiata din piatra Mai multe ore Odaia copiilor Foc din simeneu Luminare aprinsa Usurare
nainchipuita

translation enlargement enlargement Transposition Transposition Transposition enlargement

91

26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50

Poor child Terrible experience Beautiful house Delicate child Poor vicar Ungrateful child Death
bed Good health Bad character Hard work Plain food Simple clothes Long way Young child
Strange feeling Large building Good child

Sarmana fetita

Context

Experienta grea

synonym Context

Cada atit de frumoasa prostuta Pastor sarac Fata nerecunoscatoare Cu limba de moarte
sanatoasa Character rau Munca grea Miacare cumpatata

synonym enlargement reduction modulation modulation Transposition reduction Word for word
Word for word Context
Imbracaminte modesta

synonym Context

Cale lunga copilta Simtamint straniu

synonym Word for word enlargement Context

Cladire lunga

synonym Context

Fetita cuminte

synonym Literal

Silent corridors

Aripa

Large school

stapinea o liniste adinca Cladire imensa

Context

Flaminde de moarte

synonym Context

Uneatable breakfast

Mincare oribila

synonym Context

Charity school Charity children Financial matters Wide schoolrooms

synonym Azil de caritate enlargement Copii orfani modulation administratie reduction Sala cu
dimensiuni enlargement

Empty stomachs
uluitoare 92

de

casa

translation unde enlargement

51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72

Afternoon lessons Next morning Dirty habits Soft smile Long story Angry word Careless girl
Ordinary child Surrounding countryside Healthy place Few questions

Lectii de dupa masa Yiua urmatoare

enlargement Literal

Obiceiuri rele

translation Context

Zimbet placut povestire Cuvint minios

synonym Word for word reduction Literal

Fata nepasatoare

translation Literal

Copil ca toti ceilalti

translation Literal

Imprejurimi pitoresti

translation Literal

Loc sigur

translation Context
Citeva intrebari

synonym Literal

Narrow corridors

Coridoare

Wide shoulders

intunecate Lat in pete

Strong chest Lonely road Beating heart

translation Piept puternic Word for word Drum pustiu Word for word Inima batu cu graba si un
Enlargement

Exciting life

val de singe ma navali Viata agitata

Literal

Atmosfera placuta

translation Literal

Privire aspra

translation Literal

mohorit Cale gresita Calea cea dreapta

translation reduction Word for word Enlargement

Cheerful atmosphere Stern look Sad place Wrong way Right path

93

inguste

translation si Literal translation Literal

73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81

Evil influence Kind word Heavy sleeper Slight noice Great rocks Disturbed emotions Foolish
dream Good idea Powerful voice

Influenta rea Cuvint bun Doarme adinc

Word for word Word for word Context

Bolborosi straiu si sinistru Tancuri de stinca

synonym Enlargement Context

Suflet ravasit Vis prostesc Buna ideie

synonym modulation Word for word Literal

Voce puternica

translation Literal

N=

THREE ELEMENTS

TRANSLATION

translation TECHNIQUE

Cold winter wind

Vintul vrajmas al iernii

Context

O ploaie atit de naprasnica

synonym Context
Trairea trista si singuratica

synonym Literal

Ascunzisul secret Baiat indracit Toata dupa amiaza

translation reduction reduction Literal

Ochi caprui si par negru Frunnte inalta alba

translation Enlargement Literal

Small piece of biscuit

O bucata de prajitura

translation Context

Piece of brown bread

synonym O felioara de pine integrala Context

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Long heavy rain Sad lonely existence Secret hiding place Wicked cruel boy Whole long afternoon
Dark hair and eyes Large pale forehead

Freezing cold rooms

Vint

rece

suera

synonym prin en largement

crapaturile ferestrelor din 12

Hard physical conditions

camera Indatoriri grele 94

reduction

13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

Some little luxory Pretty, cheerful child

putin reduction O copilita gingasa si palida Context synonym Context

Strange ghostly laugh

Ris hohotitor,ciudat

Middle aged woman Angry looking eyes

synonym Femeie intr 30-40 modulation Ochii sclipeau de o apriga en largement

Pure young thing Noisy rushing water

incapatinare Fiinta inocenta Valuri ce clocotesc

reduction Context

Hohot de ris diabolesc Usa ingusta de la intrare Lucru tare greu

synonym modulation enlargement Literal

Strange inhuman sound Narrow front door Extremely hard work

intunecata

translation din enlargement

Dark stormy night

Noapte

N=

FOUR ELEMENTS

cauza furtunii TRANSLATION

1

Ice cold fingers and toes

Degetele de la mini si enlargement

TECHNIQUE

picioare intepenite de o 2 3

Beautiful long curly hair Several small block doors

raceala ca gheata Un par frumos lung si cret

Literal

O multime de usi micute

translation Literal translation

95

ANEXE 2- VERB + ADVREB TYPE N=

VERB + ADVERB,

TRANSLATION

TECHNIQUE

Uitindu-se patrunzator Admiram incintata Lucram din greu Intors impotriva A privi Racnea foarte
tare Spuse pe un ton rugator A impinge cu violenta A se apleca ingrijrat Privea nedumerit Privind
blind A se simti neputincios

Literal translation Literal translation Literal translation Iteral tranlation Word for word
enlargement enlargement Contextual syn. Contextual syn. Literal translation Literal translation
Literal translation

TWO ELEMENTS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Glanced sharply Stared fascinated Worked hard Turn against Look around Scream loudly Speak
softly Resisting wildly Lisfting carefully Looking thoughtfully Looking kindly Feel wicked

96

13 14 15 16 17

Bell rang Speak heavily Shouted wildly Feel asleep Felt hungry

Clopotul suna Voce grava de bas A exclama A adormi As fi mincat de doua ori

Word for word enlargemant reduction Literal translation enlargement

Answered quickly Sing switly Listened carefully Whispered kindly Cry bitterly Answered firmly
Feel asleep Go silently Swear furiously Look puzzled

pe atit A raspuns calm Cinta dragut Asculta uluita Sopti incurajator a plinge sfisietor A raspuns
hotarit A adormi A merge incetifor Injurind furios Aprivi incurcat,

Literal translation Literal translation Literal translation contextual syn. Literal translation Literal
translation Literal translation contextual syn. Word for word enlargement

28 29 30 31 N=

Look carefully Speak slowly Examine carefully Shouted desperately THREE ELEMENTS

nedumerit Aprivi atant A vorbi incet A examina atent, grijuliu A striga dissperat TRANSLATION

Literal translation Literal translation enlargement Literal translation TECHNIQUE

12

Became brave enough All complained bitterly

A capata curaj Literal translation Toate s-au plins de acea Enlargement

I kept expecting Watch her carefully Speak hardly English

mincare Ma asteptam Pazitio bine Vorbeste mai

18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 N=
Went quietly upstairs Both stayed silent Lay fast asleep Felt strong or calm FOUR ELEMENTS

123

Hold tightly on hands Held tightly to her Glanced quickly at it

Literal translation Literal translation greu Literal translation

engleza In pereche urcau sus Stateam in liniste A adormi imediat

contextual syn. Literal translation Literal translation

TRANSLATION

TECHNIQUE

O tinea strins de miini Am cuprins-o strins Am rasfoit puti cartea

Literal translation Literal translation Literal translation

97

456

Felt brave enough to speak Am avut indrazneala sa Literal translation Laugh and speak freely

vorbesc Vorbea sir idea in toata enlargement

Lay down with me

inima Culcate cu mine

98

Literal translation

ANEXE 3- VERB + NOUN TYPE N=

VERB + NOUN,

TRANSLATION
TECHNIQUE

reduction Literal translation reduction TECHNIQUE

TWO ELEMENTS 1 2 3 N=

Feel wicked Flowing streams Lie down THREE ELEMENTS

neputincios Riuri curgatoare Culca-te TRANSLATION

123

Drew the curtains Cutting the head Make no mistake

Tragind draperiile Literal translation A sparge capul Literal translation A face fata tuturor
modulation

Starve to death Keep the promise Rushed the door Trembling of fear Fetch another servant
Smacking the face Knocked it down Left without a word Improve the character To pass a letter To
obey the orders Put out the flames Follow the instruction

indatoririlor A muri de foame A se tine de cuvint A se repezi la usa Tremurind de frica A chema
alta sluga A trage palme peste fata A trinti jos Fara sa scoata o vorba A perfectiona caracterul A
trimite o scrisoare A se supune ordinelor A stinge focul Indicatiile vor fi

N=

FOUR ELEMENTS

indeplinite TRANSLATION

123

Lack the door careffully Inchide usa bine Literal translation Fetch the supper trays A cara tava cu
bucate Literal translation Tidy the drawer Aranjeaza sertarul sin u enlargement

immediately Enjoyed the

4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
summer weather

Literal translation contextual syn. Literal translation Literal translation Literal translation
modulation Literal translation Literal translation Literal translation Literal translation Literal
translation Literal translation

TECHNIQUE

stinjeni lucrul beautiful Ne bucuram din plin de enlargement frumusetea 99

imprejurimilor

si

I took the opportunity To enjoy the fresh air

primaverii stralucitoare Am avut ocazia Literal translation Ma bucuram de enlargement

Bringing down its rider

prospetimea aerului curat Isi prabusira calaretul la modulation

He jumped on horse back

pamint Sari pe saua de pe spatele contextual syn.

8 10 11

calului Staring up at the moon Admirind luna Literal translation Play a tune on the piano A cinta
o strofa la clavii modulation Suddenly he catch my look Neasteptat imi prinse enlargement

567

cautatura 12 13

scurtatoare
Floating a long a river

pironita asupra lui Plutesti de/a lungul unei contextual syn.

Broke off a conversation

ape A intrerupe conversatia

Literal translation

ANEXE 4- NOUN + VERB TYPE N=

NOUN + VERB

TRANSLATION

TWO ELEMENTS Arms waving

m-am

imprtrivit

din enlargement

Legs kicking

rasputeri m-am imprtrivit

din enlargement

3 4 5 N=

Light moving Bell rang Spring approached THREE ELEMENTS

rasputeri Lumina searbada Clopotul suna Primavera se apropie TRANSLATION

contextual syn. Word for word Literal translation TECHNIQUE

1
Rain pouring down

Ploaia cadea incet

Literal translation

100

TECHNIQUE

23

Whole body trembled Blood running down

Ingheta single in vine modulation Picaturi de singe se enlargement

Pain gave strength Heart beating fast Eyes wide open Coach rolled off

prelingeau Durere groaznica Inima zvicnea spasmodic Ochii larg deschisi Diligenta se porni greoi

modulation contextual syn. Literal translation contextual syn.

N=

FOUR ELEMENTS

din loc TRANSLATION

TECHNIQUE

Rain

window Shame and anger boiled up Minia si rusinea clocotea enlargement

4567
beating

on

the Ploaia rapaia in fereastra

contextual syn.

The sun go down

in mine Soarele

Sweet madness seized me

scapata in vale Nebunia dulce

N=

FIVE ELEMENTS

stapinea TRANSLATION

The hair must be arranged Parul

modestly and plainly modest si lins Fog lying constantly in the Leaganul acelor neguri modulation

valley rele The sun shone on the Razele soarelui dulce se enlargement

34

flowers 4

rosu

trebuia
revarsau

pamintului People kept coming to Oamenii il visit him

necontenit

101

aprins enlargement ma enlargement TECHNIQUE aranjat Literal translation

asupra vizitau Literal translation

ANEXE 5- ADVERB + ADJECTIVE TYPE N=

ADVERB + ADJECTIVE

TRANSLATION

TECHNIQUE

1234

TWO ELEMENTS Completely hidden Nervously entered Slightly obeyed Quietly answered

Complet izolata Nervos intrara Se supunea nevrind raspuns blind

contextual syn. Literal translation Literal translation Literal translation

102

ANEXE 6 - TYPES OF COLLOCATIONS

3.02824 98, 3% 16.0235 29, 15% 52.6, 48%

15.2, 14% 21.3, 20%

103

A+N V + AD V+N N +V AD +ADJ

-Adj – adjective -Ad –adverb -V –verb -N –noun

ANEXE 7 –NUMBER OF ELEMENTS

104

32, 21% 56, 36%

67, 43%

105

2 elem 3elem 4elem

32, 21% 56, 36%

67, 43%

ANEXE 8 – TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES

106

2 elem 3elem 4elem

10, 5% 12, 6% 13, 6%

77, 37%

22, 11% 36, 17%

38, 18%

107

literal enlarg cont.syn modulat reduct w for w transp

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