Errors We make in English

1. Spelling errors
2. Grammar errors
3. Misuse f words
4. Misuse of clauses
5. Jumbled sentences
6. Words used wrongly out of misunderstand-unjust, inaccurate, satisfaction, incorrect
7. Long winding sentences
8. Incomplete sentences
9. Run-on sentences
10. Wrong use of punctuation marks
11. Wrong use of punctuation marks
12. Omission of full stop
13. Writing without s definite sense
14. Writing haphazardly
15. Writing without outline or planning
16. Writing without following norms and standards of drafting
17. Style of writing should be appropriate and standard.
Language and its types:

 Set of words used to communicate and share ideas with one another is called
language.
There are following main types of language, which are as under.
 Native language
 Non-native language
 Standard language
 Non-standard language
 Our first language is called native language. To learn first language we don’t
need learn grammar or structure of that language.
 Language that is learnt as second language is called non-native language. To
learn this language we need learn grammar and structure and so on.
 Language that is taught in schools, collages and universities is called
standard language. This type of language has dictionary is spoken all over
the world.
 Non-standard language is not taught in schools, collages and universities.
This type of language has neither dictionary nor it is spoken all over the
world.
 There four skills of language, which are as under.
 Listening
 Speaking
 Reading
 Writing
 Listening and reading are called in put skills.
 Writing and Speaking are called out put skills.

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 Tense-test:
Fill in the blanks with correct form of the verb or tense:

i. The earth………….round the sun. (move, moves, moved)

ii. My friends………..the Prime Minister yesterday. (see, have seen, saw)
iii. I…….him only one letter up to now. (sent, have sent, send)
iv. She………….worried about something. (looks, looking, is looking)
v. It started to rain while we……………..tennis. (are playing, were playing, had
played)
vi. He fast when the accident happened. (is driving, was driving, drove)
vii. He…………..asleep while he was driving. (falls, fell, has fallen)
viii. I am sure I………….him at the party last night. (saw, have seen, had seen)
ix. He…………a mill in his town. (have, has, having)
x. He……….here for the last five years. (worked, is working, has been working)
xi. He thanked me for what I………. (have done, had done, have been doing)
xii. I………..a strange noise. (hear, am hearing, have been hearing)
xiii. I………….him for a long time. (know, have known, am knowing)
xiv. I………English for five years. (study, am studying, have been studying)
xv. Do not disturb me. I……..my homework. (do, did, am doing)
xvi. Ali……………… to be a lecturer. (wants, wanting, is wanting)
xvii. The soup…………good. (taste, tastes, is tasting)
xviii. He……….TV most evenings. (watches, is watching, is watch)
xix. He……………out five minutes ago. (has gone, had gone, went)
xx. When.............he lived in Karachi, he……… …to the cinema once a week.(goes, went,
was going)
xxi. The baby………all morning. (cries, has been crying, cried)
xxii. I…………… Ali at the zoo. (saw, have seen, had seen)
xxiii. I…….Ahmed this week. (have not seen, had not seen, is not seeing)
xxiv. This paper………twice weekly. (is appearing, appearing, appears)
xxv. Carpenter fell off the ladder when he.....................the roof. (is mending, was
mending, mended)

Choose the correct alternative from those given in brackets:

i. The Headmaster………….to speak to you. (wants, is wanting. Was wanting)

ii. I…………a new bicycle last week. (bought, have bought, had bought)
iii. Here are your shoes; I………them. (just clean, just cleaned, have just cleaned)
iv. It…….since early morning. (rained, is raining, has been raining)
v. I……..a lot of work today. (did, have done, had done)
vi. I………something burning. (smell, am smelling, has been smelling)
vii. Look! The sun………….over the hills. (rise, arose, is rising)
viii. She…………unconscious since four o’clock. (is, was, has been)
ix. He used to visit us every week, but he………..now. (rarely comes, is rarely coming,
has rarely come)
x. We……….for his call since 4:20. (are waiting, have been waiting, were waiting)
xi. Every day last week my aunt…..a plate. (breaks, broke, was breaking)
xii. I know all about that film because I………..it twice. (saw, have seen, had seen)
xiii. Our guests………; they are sitting in the garden. (arrived, have arrived, had
arrived)

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xiv. I…………him since we met a year ago. (did not see, have not seen, had not seen)
xv. We…………our breakfast half an hour ago. (finished, have finished, had finished)
xvi. She jumped off the bus while it…………(moved, had moved, was moving)
xvii. When we went the cinema, the film………(already started, had already started,
would already started)
xviii. I…………for half an hour when it suddenly started to rain. (have walked, have
been walking, had been walking)
xix. Did you think you…….me somewhere before? (have seen, had seen, were seeing)
xx. The town………………...its appearing completely since 1980. (is changing, changed,
has changed)
xxi. She……………her case, look. (packed, has packed, had packed)
xxii. When I was in Karachi, I……………Sea view, Village hotel and Manhora. (visited,
was visited, have visited)
xxiii. I meant to repair the radio, but………..………time to do it today. (am not having,
have not had, had not)
xxiv. When I……………….my dinner I went to bed. (have, had, had had)
xxv. Men…….to abolish wars up to now, but maybe they will find a way in the future.
(never managed, have never managed, will have never managed)

Choose the correct or more suitable forms of the verbs to fill in the blanks:

i. The plane……………..at 3:30. (arrives, will arrive)

ii. I will phone you when he…………………..back. (comes, will come)
iii. When I got home, my dog…….at the gate waiting for me. (sits, will be sitting)
iv. I……………..brother this evening. (visit, am visiting)
v. Look at those black clouds. It……………….(will rain, is going to rain)
vi. The train………before we reach the station. (arrives, will have arrived)
vii. Perhaps we……….Sindh House next week. (visit, will visit)
viii. Unless we…………..now we cannot be on time.(start, will start)
ix. I…………..into town later on. Do you want a lift?. (drive, will be driving)
x. The next term………….on 10th February. (begins, will begin)
xi. Oh dear! I …………(will sneeze, am going to sneeze)
xii. By 2020, robots………………………………many of the jobs that people do today. (will
be taking over, will have taken over)
xiii. I am sure she………………….the exam. (passes, will pass)
xiv. I…………………home next Sunday. (go, am going)
xv. I………you one of those days, I expect. (see, will be seeing)
xvi. Help! I……….fall. (will, am going to)
xvii. She has bought some cloth; she……..................herself a blouse. (will make, is going
to make)
xviii. I…………….your house this afternoon. It is on my way home from work. (will be
passing, am passing)
xix. Hurry up! The programme……………….(will start, is about to start)
xx. This book is not long. I…………it by lunch time. (will be reading, will have read)

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 Pronoun:
Definition:
The word pronoun comes from the Late Middle English (pronoune), partial
translation Latin pronomen: Whereas pro means name and nomen means Noun

 Pronouns and their function:

The word pronoun comes from Latin pronomen, a word
substituting for a name. It can be defined as “a word substituting for a noun”. Pronoun
may refer to another pronouns.
Examples:
 Aazan is tired, and he is going to bed. [He substitutes for Aazan, and Aazan is the
antecedent of the pronoun he.]
 Ali wanted to see the letter, but for some strange reason, it has been misplaced. [It
substitutes for letter, and letter is the antecedent of pronoun it.]
 The Prime Minister wanted to see the letter that has been sent. [That substitutes for
letter, and letter is the antecedent of pronoun that.]
 Everybody removed his hat as the cortege. (A solemn procession, especially for a
funeral) passed. [Everybody is an indefinite substitute for each spectator; his
substitutes for everybody, and everybody is the antecedent of his.]

 The pronouns help us to avoid repetition of a noun:

Examples:
 Ali is an intelligent teacher. Ali is working for IBA Community College, Ubauro.
 Ali is an intelligent teacher he is working for IBA Community College, Ubauro.
 Note:
The pronoun he in the second sentence helps to avoid repetition of the noun Ali.
 ..
A pronoun can be used in place of noun phrase, a noun clause and a whole sentence.
Examples:
 He talks in a funny way. I don’t like it. (The pronoun it replaces the noun phrase a
funny way.)
 We don’t know where they have gone. Even Ali doesn’t know about it. (The pronoun
it replaces the clause where they have gone.)
 The rains have failed. It means famine. (The pronoun it here stands for the sentence
the rains have failed.)
 He sold out all the household goods. They were bought by me. (The pronoun they
replace the noun phrase all the household goods.)
 I tell you that he is a traitor. In fact everyone knows it. (The pronoun it replaces the
noun clause that he is a traitor.)
 He has failed again. His parents are unhappy at it. (Sentence)
 Note: Pronoun means for-a-noun.

 Kinds of Pronoun.
There are eight kinds of pronoun, which are as under.
i. Personal Pronoun.
ii. Reflexive Pronoun.
Types of Reflexive Pronouns:
a. Emphatic Pronouns.
b. Compound Reflexive pronouns.

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 iii. Demonstrative Pronouns.
iv. Indefinite Pronouns.
v. Distributive Pronouns.
vi. Relative Pronouns.
vii. Reciprocal Pronouns.
viii. Interrogative Pronouns.
 Personal Pronouns:
The word personal has been taken from Latin personalis
means pertaining to person. It can be described as done in person without intervention of
another proceeding from a single person. “Personal pronouns are so called because they
stand for or are used for persons only.
Examples:
a. I, We, You, He, She, it and they are called personal pronouns.
 Types of Personal Pronouns:
There are three types of personal pronouns, which are as under.
a. First Person \ First Personal Pronouns
b. Second Person \ Second Personal Pronouns.
c. Third Person \ Third Personal Pronouns.
 First Person:
Person or persons speaking are called Personal Pronouns of
the First Person. OR Speaker or speakers are said to be personal pronouns of the first
person.
Examples:
I, we.
 Second Person:
Person or persons speaking to is said to be personal
pronouns of the second person.
Examples:
You
 Third Person:
Person or persons spoken of is said to be personal
pronouns of the third person..
Examples:
He, she, it or they.
 Note:
Third personal pronoun (s) may or may not be present at the spot.

 Cases and Forms of Personal Pronouns:

 Case:
The word case has been taken from Latin word casus, which
means that which happens to fall, an accident.

 Case and Personal Pronouns:

The case of pronoun is determined by the role of
pronoun plays in the sentence.
 The Nominative Case: The nominative case is used in these functions.
a. Subject of the Sentence:
Examples:

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  I take long walks.
 He plays a good game.
b. Predicate noun:
Examples:
 If any one calls, it will be I
 Who is knocking at the door? It is I.
 The Possessive Case:
The forms of pronouns (mine, yours, hers, ours and theirs) never
preceded a noun; The book is mine.
They are used in predicate construction: This is my book.

 The Objective Case:

The functions that require the objective case are as under.
 Objective Pronouns are used as:
1. Objective of verb:
Examples:
 We invited them.
 They helped us.
 What did you say her?
2. Object of preposition.
Examples:
 Between you and me, he is mistaken.
 One of us must go.
 Ali went with them.
3. The indirect object of a verb.
Examples:
 My father gave me a dollar.
 He paid us a doubtful compliment.
 The police punished them seriously.
4. The subject of an infinitive:
Examples:
 The secretary invited them to enter.
 The receptionist has called him to attend the reception.
 The doctor let her drink a little water.
 The scout believed them to be us.
 Use of it:
1. For the things without life;
 Here is your book; take it away.
 Where is the cat? It is under the table.
2. For animals, unless we clearly wish to speak of them as males and females;
 She loves her cat and cannot do without it.
 The horse fell down and broke its leg.
3. For young child, unless we clearly we wish to refer to the sex;
 When mother saw the child it was crying bitterly.
 That bay has torn its clothes.
 Both of the babies has broken its toys.
4. To refer to some statement going before;
 He is telling what is not true; and he knows it.

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  He deserves punishment; and he knew it.
5. As a provisional and temporary subject before the verb to be when the real
subject follows;
 It is easy to find fault. [To find fault is easy]
 It is doubtful whether he will come.
 It is certain that you are wrong.
6. To give emphasize to the noun or pronoun following;
 It was I who first protested.
 It was at Medina that treaty was made.
 It is a silly that is caught twice with the same bait.
 It is an ill wind that blows nobody.
 It was you who spoiled that show.
7. As an indefinite nominative of an impersonal verbs;
 It rains.
 It blows
 It thunders.
 It seems he is mad.
 It appears that Guests have missed the train.
8. In speaking of weather or time;
 It is fine.
 It is winter.
 It is nine 0’clock.
 It is sunny today.
9. Used to introduce an infinitive phrase.
 It is to please him.
 It is necessary to go there.
 It is impossible to finish the job in time.
 It is good for children to get up early.
10. Used to introduce ----ing form:
 It is no use crying over spilt milk.
 It is waste of time watching the television.
 It is great fun watching the stars at night.
 It was pleasure talking to him.
11. Used to introduce a clause:
 It is strange that she failed again.
 It is good that he has come back.
 It is hoped that I’ll complete my Ph.D in foreign.
 Impersonal Pronoun:
The pronoun it when used without definite reference
or antecedent, as in it was snowing and it seems hard to believe.
 “It rains” means ‘The rain rains’.
 “it blows “means “The air blows”.
 Personal Pronoun is used instead of a Noun; it must be of the same number,
gender, and person as the Noun for which it stands.
Examples:
 Daniyal is a kind boy. He has lent his bicycle to Afaque.
 Salma helps her mother in household work. She also does her lesson.
 Those students who shirk work hard. They are unable to pass their examination.

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  Reflexive Pronoun: (Mirror \Compound Personal Pronouns)
The word reflexive has been taken from Latin
reflexus. It means directed or turned back on itself. A reflexive pronoun reflects a noun
or a pronoun by taking the place of its antecedent when the noun or the pronoun is doing
something itself. The Reflexive pronouns indicate that the sentence subject also receives
the action of the verb.
Examples:
 We underestimated ourselves before the contest.
 The child washed herself or itself carefully with the soap and water.
 They encouraged themselves to do well.
 People who cheat others also hurt themselves.
 Note:
Whenever there is a Reflexive Pronoun in a sentence there must be a person
to whom that pronoun can reflect.
Examples:
 Please hand that book to myself. (Incorrect)
 Please hand that book to me. (Correct)
 Family of Reflexive Pronouns are as:
Myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves,
and themselves.
 Note:
The words hisself or theirselves do not exist.
 Types of Reflexive Pronouns:
There are two types of reflexive pronouns, which are as under.
1) Emphatic or Emphasizing Reflexive Pronouns.
 Emphatic Reflexive Pronouns:
An emphatic pronoun is a personal pronoun that is used to
emphasize its referent.
Examples:
 They themselves are to blame for the accident.
 The machine itself stopped.
 I myself compiled the notes
 Use of Reflexive pronouns:
Reflexive Pronouns are used in two ways as follows.
a) For emphasis:
For Examples:
 They themselves are to blame for the accident.
 The machine itself stopped.
 I myself compiled the notes.
b) As object of the verb: (This shows that what subject does for oneself)
For Examples:
 We absented ourselves from the class yesterday.
 Ali availed himself of the offer.
 She prided herself on her victory.
 Demonstrative Pronouns: Indicative or Pointing Pronouns:
The word demonstrative is taken from
Latin”demonstrare”, which means to show clearly. So it is defined as Pronouns that are
used to point out objects to which they refer, and are, therefore called Demonstrative
Pronouns.

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Paradigm:
This, That, These, Those, Such, One, None
Examples:
 This is a present from my brother.
 These are only lame excuses.
 Both bikes are good; but this is better than that.
 My views are quite in accordance with those of the professor.
 Out of forty boys, none was absent.
 I may have offended, but such was not my intention.
 The stranger is not welcomed as such.
 Note:
 This refers to what is close at hand, and nearest to thought or person of the speaker;
 That refers to what is “over there”, further away, and more remote.
 That, with its plural those, is used to avoid the repetition of a preceding Nouns;

Examples:
 Our soldiers were better drilled than those of enemies.
 The streets of this city are worse than those Karachi.
 The climate of Murree is like that of Kashmir.
 The rivers of Pakistan are larger than those of India.
 When two things which have already been mentioned are
referred to, this this refers to the things last mentioned, that to the thing first mentioned;
Examples:
 Virtue and vice offer themselves for your choice; this (vice) leads to misery, that
(virtue) happiness.
 Alcohol and tobacco are both injurious; this perhaps, less than that.
 Indefinite Pronouns:
Pronouns that refer to persons are things in a general way,
but do not refer to any person or thing in particular are called Indefinite Pronouns. These
pronouns are also called Vague Pronouns.

Examples:
 One hardly knows what to do.
 One must not boast of one’s own careful.
 One must use one’s best efforts if one wants to succeed.
 One must not praise one’s self.
 None of his novels are well known.
 All are drowned.
 Some are born great.
 Nobody was there to rescue the old man.
 Few escaped unhurt.
 What is everybody’s business is nobody’s business.
 Everyone praised his bravery.
 Do good to others.
 His words are in everybody’s mouth.

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 Some Common Indefinite Pronouns:
Anybody Each More One
Any Either Most Others
Another Everybody Much Several
None Every One NeitherSome
Note:
a. The Indefinite Pronouns do not substitute for specific pronouns but function
themselves as nouns.
b. If everybody, everyone, and anyone is to be used and it is confirmed either he is
male or female, so it is good to use male first.
Examples;
 Everyone has right to express his ideas.
 Everyone has the right to use his vote.

c. After One (Subject), use One’s or Oneself.

Examples:
 One should do one’s duty.
 One should obey one’s parents.
 Distributive Pronouns:
According to Webster’s Dictionary Distributive means
expressing separation; denoting a taking singly, not collectively. A Distributive Pronouns
considers members of a group separately, rather than collectively. So it may define as
“Distributive Pronouns refer to persons, places or things, one at a time from a group
or collection”.
Examples:
 Men take each other’s measure when they react.
 Everyone loves his country.
 Either of you has to come to the meeting.
 Each of the students gets a prize.
 Each of us solves this sum.
 Neither of the accusations is true.
 Either of these roads leads to my village.
 Neither of them is expert.
 Points to be remembered:
a. Distributive Pronouns are three in numbers. (Each, Either, Neither).
b. Each, Either and Neither are used for persons. They are always singular and are
followed by singular verbs.
c. Each: is used to denote every one of a number of person or persons taken singly.
Examples:
 Each of these soldiers took part in the war.
 Each of them received a reward.
d. Either: means “one or the other of the two”
Examples:
 Either of these roads leads to the railway station.
 Either of you can go.
e. Neither: neither means “not the one or the other of the two”.
Examples:
 Neither of these roads leads to my village.
 Neither of them is expert.

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 f. The position of the pronoun “each”. Each has three positions.
Each:
Examples:
1. Each of the men received a reward.
 Each of these horses cost ten thousand rupees.
 I bought each of these mangoes for three rupees.
2. These men received each a reward.
 These horses cost each ten hundred rupees
3. These horses cost ten thousand rupees each.
 I bought these mangoes for nine rupees each.
 Relative Pronouns.
A Relative Pronoun comes from Latin relativus means
“having reference or relation”; or from relativus; past participial of referre means “to
refer”
A Relative pronoun is a pronoun that marks a relative clause, functions grammatically within
the relative clause, and is co-referential to the word modified by the relative clause.
Examples:
 The man who comes next.
 Ali has found the pen which he lost.
 Here is the book that you lent me.
 He that is slow to anger is better than the mighty.
 I met the person whose father was on the mercy of Allah.
A Relative Pronouns conjunctions that connect two statements. They can also be called
Conjunctive Pronouns. E.g., which, who, that, whom, whose, etc. Moreover, the Relative
Pronouns (who\whoever\which\that) relate group words to nouns or other pronouns. In
doing so, they connect a dependent clause to an antecedent. Therefore, Relative Pronouns
act as the subject or object of the dependent clause.
Examples:
 The worker who works hardest usually does the best.
The word who connects or relates the subject, worker, to the verb within the dependent
clause works.
 Use of the Relative Pronouns:
A Relative Pronoun agrees with its an antecedent in gender,
number, and person but not in case.
 Use of who
1. Who is generally used for human beings but sometimes for
pet animals also.

Examples:
 They never fail who die in a great cause.
 We had to take Tommie, who had been barking all the night, inside.

2. Who also joins or connects two statements.

Examples:
 Blessed is he who has found his work.
 The man who just entered is my teacher.

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  Use of Which:
1. Which is used for animals:
Examples:
 The dog which I bought yesterday is an Australian.
 The hen which lays golden eggs is died.
2. Which is also used for in animate (Without life) things:
Examples:
 The time, which is lost, is lost forever.
 The book which is new is very useful.
3. Which may also refers to a sentences as;
Examples:
 The man was said to be drunk, which was not the case.
 He is here, which is fortunate.
 Use of That:
1. That can be used for persons and things both.:
Examples:
 This is the boy that I told you of.
 He that is not with me is against me.
 I know the house that he lived in.
 A city that is set on a hill cannot be hid.
2. That is often instead of who, whom, and which never in place of whose:
Examples:
 He is the man that (=who) has won the race.
 The thief that (= whom) the police were looking for has been caught.
 The pen that (=which) I bought yesterday is not working properly.
3. That has no genitive case and it is never used with a preposition preceding:
Examples:
 This is the boy that I told you of.
 He that is not with me is against me.
 I know the house that he lived in.
 A city that is set on a hill cannot be hid.
4. That may be used as an adverbial accusatives = on which, in which, at which:
Examples:
 I remembered the day that (on which) he came.
 She celebrated the party that (in which) she invited her close friends.

5. That is used in preference to who or which:

(i) After Adjectives in the Superlative Degrees;
Examples:
 Ali is the finest person that I have ever met.
 The wisest man that ever lived made mistakes.
 This is the least that you can do.
 This is the best that she does.
 He was the most eloquent speaker that I have ever heard.
(ii) After the words all, same, any, none, nothing, (the) only:
Examples:
 All that I said had no effect on her.
 All that glitters is not gold.

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  He is not the same friend that he was.
 He is the same man that he has seen.
 There is none among us that can compare him.
 There is nothing that Ali will no do for his friends.
 Man is the only animal that can think.
 It is only donkeys that can bray.
(iii) After the Interrogative Pronouns who, what:
Examples:
 What is it that troubles you so much?
 What is there that I do not know?
 Who am I that I should object?
(iv) After the two antecedents, one denoting a person and the other
denoting an animal or a living thing:
Examples:
 The boy and his dog that has trespassed on the club premises were turned out.
 That Versus Which: (Use of that and which)
Use that for restrictive clauses and which for non-restrictive clauses.
 Restrictive (Defining) Clauses:
A restrictive clause cannot be omitted from a sentence
without greatly changing the meaning. OR Restrict, limit, or define more clearly the
antecedent; that is, where the clause introduced by a relative pronoun is restrictive or
defining clauses.
Examples:
 The man who had cheated me was yesterday arrested by the police.
 The book which you see on the table cost me ninety rupees.
 Non-Restrictive (Non-Defining or Continuing) Clauses:
A Non-Restrictive clause merely adds incidental facts that
do not significantly limit the meaning of principle clause. OR To give some additional
information about the antecedent; that is, where the clause introduced by a relative
pronoun is continuative or non-defining clauses.
Examples:
 The teacher sent for the boy, who (=and he) came at once.
 I gave him a rupee, which (=and it) was all I had with me.
Note:
Non-Defining clauses are separated from the main clause by commas.
Examples:
 My friend, who is a doctor, has gone to Australia.
 My brother, who is a doctor, does not believe in black magic.
 Love, which is wonderful experience, comes to every one at least once in life.
 Gambling, which is bad habit, is popular with some people.
 Use of What:
1. What refers to things only. It is used without an antecedent expressed, and
equivalent to that which (or the thing which):
Examples:
 This is what (= that which) I say.
 What (= that which) you have said is not clear.
 Give careful heed to what your parents say.
 What cannot be cured must be endured.

13
  What is done cannot be undone.
 What I had to say I said.
 He found what he was looking for.
Note:
“What” is used in Nominative and Accusative Cases.
 Use of Whom:
Whom is used in an Objective Case. Whom is the objective
case of Who
Examples;
 The man whom we met yesterday has died.
 These are the boys whom you saved from drowning.
 The girl whom you wanted to marry has married someone else.
 Use of Whose:
Whose is used to refer possession. Whose is possessive case
of who.
Examples:
 This is the boy whose father lives in Saudi Arabia.
 The bicycle whose color is black has no lock.
 Use of As: (Older Use)
As is mostly use with such (Such-as). It express the same or of the
same kind.
Examples:
 These mangoes are not such as we bought yesterday.
 We have never heard such a time as the past.
 My trouble is as your (is).
 This is not the same as that (is)
 Reciprocal Pronouns:
These member show that individual member of the plural subject
mutually react on each other.
Examples:
 They amused one another by telling stories.
 The two brothers cheated each other.
Note:
Each other is used for two persons on the other hand one an other is used for more
than two persons.

 Interrogative Pronouns:
Pronouns which are used for asking questions are called
interrogative pronouns.
Examples:
 Where do you live?
 What is the face value of this note?
 Which is the best to success in life?

14
 Adjective and its Types:
Definition:
An adjective is a word used with noun or pronoun to add something to its meaning
is called adjective. An adjective is also a word that describes, qualifies, or tells us something
more about a noun or pronoun. The word adjective means added to. An adjective usually
adjective answers the following questions:
(1) What kind of?
(2) Which?
(3) How many?
(4) How much?
Aids in Identifying adjectives:
Ad talented finished blessed
En wooden Silken Golden
Ful Harmful Lawful Joyful
Ish Reddish Foolish Girlish
Less Hopeless Senseless Fearless
Ly Friendly Manly Brotherly
Some Wholesome Quarrelsome Troublesome
Ward Forward Backward Homeward
Y Healthy Greedy Needy
Al Legal Moral Brutal
Ary Honorary Compulsory Ordinary
Ate Fortunate Accurate Delicate
Ble Feeble Sensible Curable
Ive Active Sportive Oppressive
Lent Indolent Turbulent
Ous Dangerous Ruinous Vigorous
Ar regular

Examples:
 Salma was a good girl.
 He gave me five mangoes.
 There is little time for preparation.

Types of adjective:
1. Adjective of quality
2. Adjective of quantity
3. Adjective of number
4. Interrogative adjective
5. Demonstrative adjective
6. Proper adjective
7. Possessive adjective

 Adjective of quality:
Adjective of quality shows the quality of a noun or pronoun. Adjective of
quality always answers of what kind.
Examples:
 Karachi is a large city.
 He is an honest man.

15
  The foolish old crow tried to sing.
 They have bought a black car.
 It is a dark night.
 He is a fat man.
 The farmer has grown red apples.
 Adjective of quantity:
Adjective of quantity shows the quantity of a thing. An adjective of
quantity shows how much thing is meant. An adjective of quantity answers the
question: How Much?
Examples:
 She ate some rice in the evening.
 Ali showed much patience.
 He has little intelligence.
 Rich man has lost all his wealth.
 There has not been sufficient rain in this year.
 Adjectives of number:
Adjectives of number show the definite or indefinite number of a person
or a thing, or in what order a person or a thing stands. Adjectives of number answer the
questions: How Many?
Examples:
 The hands have five fingers.
 There are no pictures on the wall.
 I have taught you many things.
 All men must die.
 There are several mistakes in your exercise.
 Sunday is the first day of the week.
 Difference between Adjective of Quantity & Adjective of Numbers:
Adjective of Quantity Adjective of Number
I ate some rice. Some boys are clever.
He lost all his wealth. All men must die.
You have no sense. There is no picture on wall

 Interrogative adjective:
Interrogative Adjectives are used with nouns to ask questions. What is
used in general sense and which is used in selective sense.
Examples:
 Which books you want?
 What news is false?
 Whose books are these?
 What manners of man is he?
 Demonstrative Adjective:
Demonstrative Adjectives point out which person or thing is meant.
Examples:
 This boy is industrious.
 That boy is stronger than Abdul.
 These mangoes are.
 Those rascals must be punished.
 I hate such things.

16
  Proper adjective:
Proper Adjectives are formed from Proper Nouns.
Examples:
Proper Nouns Proper Adjectives Proper Nouns Proper Adjectives
Pakistan Pakistani Albania Albanian
Asia Asian Canada Canadian
Iran Iranian Italy Italian
China Chinese Burma Burmese
England England Syria Syrian
 Possessive adjective:
Possessive Adjectives are used with nouns to show possession.
Examples:
 My book is on the table.
 Your knife is very sharp.
 His younger brother is as good as gold.
 Our college is one of the best colleges in the city.
 The Use of Adjectives:
1. A single adjective is usually placed immediately before the noun to which
it denotes:
Examples:
 Sair is a lazy boy.
 Ali is a clever man.
2. When several adjectives are used a noun, they will come after the noun:
Examples:
 It is a night long, dark, horrible and restless.
 You are man simple, innocent, inexperienced and you are trapped by people
selfish, cruel, and cunning.
3. Latinized adjectives as “worthseeing and concerned are used after the
noun:
Examples:
 It is a sight worthseeing.
 The case has been sent to the office concerned.
4. Sometimes adjectives come after the verb:
Examples:
 He is foolish.
 They are selfish.
 Haroon is sincere.
5. Sometimes “ing” is added to a verb to make adjective which is used before
a noun:
Examples:
 The barking dog seldom bites. (Bark = Barking)
 She is a blooming girl. (Bloom = Blooming)
 The juice has a refreshing effect.
6. When noun comes after adjective, an article is used before the same
adjective in a singular case:
Examples:
 He is an industrious man.
 It is a fluffy cat.

17
  Formation of Adjectives:
(1) Many adjectives are formed from Nouns:
Nouns Adjectives Nouns Adjectives
Boy Boyish Dirt Dirty
Play Playful Gift Gifted
(2) Some adjectives are formed from Verbs:
Verbs Adjectives Verbs Adjectives
Tire Tireless Move Moveable
Talk Talkative Cease Ceaseless
(3) Some Adjectives are formed from other Adjectives:
Adjectives Adjectives Adjectives Adjectives
Tragic Tragical Whole Wholesome
Black Blackish Three Threefold
 Comparison of Adjectives:
There are three degrees of adjective which are as follows.
i. Positive Degree of Adjective
ii. Comparative Degree of adjective
iii. Superlative Degree of Adjective
 Positive Degree of Adjective:
Adjective that denotes mere quality of a Noun or Pronoun but does not
show any kind of comparison is called positive degree of adjective.
Examples:
 Yunis is a wise man.
 She is a good girl.
 The horse is a faithful animal.
 Comparative Degree of Adjective:
The Comparative Degree of an adjective shows the higher degree of the
Quality than the positive degree, and is used to compare two nouns or pronouns.
Examples:
 The boy is stronger than that.
 Which of these two pens is the better?
 Mangoes are dearer than apples.
 Superlative Degree of adjective:
The Superlative Degree of an adjective shows the highest degree of the
quality, and is used to compare two nouns or pronouns.
Examples:
 This boy is the strongest in the class.
 Karachi is the biggest cities of all the cities.
 The Indus is the largest river in Pakistan.

18
 Adjectives and their Antonyms used in sentences:

1. We should be kind, not cruel, to our fellowmen.

2. We should be good, not bad, to animals.
3. He is always late, seldom early.
4. Early riser and later risers cannot have the same schedule and progress.
5. Slow runners and fast runners cannot cover equal distance.
6. Most people live short life, some people live long life.
7. He blows hot and cold in no time \ in a short time \ in one breath.
8. There are tragic plays and comic plays to read.
9. William Shakespeare wrote both tragedies and comedies.
10. Both warm and cold water are available for use.
11. Both the present and the past belong to Allah.
12. It is easy to judge between pure milk and impure milk.
13. Harsh sounds are not liked, whereas melodious sounds are liked.
14. Prosperity and adversity are two special positions.
15. She cannot be both naïve and cunning.
16. It is neither sweet nor dull bread.
17. Meat is neither overdone nor undone.
18. All high and low have to die.
19. Sexual species and asexual species have different nature.
20. Theist and atheist cannot have the same approach to life.
21. Man is mortal; angels are immortals.
22. We eat both fresh meat and dry meat.
23. Some days of the year are wet and some are dry.
24. It is overcast today but it was clear yesterday.
25. We enjoy plenty but people suffer from scarcity in Ethiopia.
26. We pray to Allah own us, not to disown to us.
27. Thar is a distant place: Arore is nearby\ within reach.
28. Education is provided to all small and big people. (All and sundry, bobtail and ragtag)
29. Loaf is neither underdone (less cooked) nor overdone (over cooked).
30. Long and short is that Ali is the supporter of PTI.

19
 Words used as Subjects and objects:
1. Sun: The Sun ripens grains. (Subject)
Many people worship the sun. (Object)
2. Son: His son obeys him. (Subject)
He loves his son. (Object)
3. Milk: Milk is a nutritious food. (Subject)
Children drink milk. (Object)
4. Farmer: The farmer plough the field. (Subject)
The government advances loans to the farmers. (Object)
5.Fish: Fish swim in a shoal. (Subject)
The Bengalis are fond of fish and rice. (Object)
6. Music: Music is recreating and enjoyable. (Subject)
The North American are fond of pop music. (Object)
7. Grave: Graves contain corpses. (Subject)
The gravediggers dig graves. (Object)
8. Grapes: Grapes grow in wine-yard. (Subject)
Wine is extracted from grapes. (Object)
9. Duty: Duty is sacred. (Subject)
I do my duty diligently. (Object)
10. Sap: Sap flows down the trunk of the trees. (Subject)
The farmer chopped a tree to get its sap. (Object)
11. Wheat: Wheat grows in abundance in Pakistan. (Subject)
Farmers grow wheat in plenty. (Object)
12. Engine: The railway engine moves fast. (Subject)
George Stephenson invented the first engine. (Object)
13. A pair of shoes covers feet. (Subject)
The shoemaker makes shoes. (Object)
14. A River terminates in a sea. (Subject)
Seas accommodate many rivers. (Object)
15. A desert offers a wild beauty to many travellers. (Subject)
Marco Polo, Nicolo Polo and Mafeo Polo traveled
across the Gobi desert. (Object)

20
 Silent Letters:
 K:
“K” is silent before “N”.
Examples:
Knife, knight, knee, know, knit, knowledge, knot, knead, known, knave.
 Gh:
“GH” is not pronounced before “T”, and “Gh’” is also silent in the end each
words.
Examples:
Delight, fight, bright, right, aught, sight, tight, night, taught, brought, high, though,
plough, although,
 L:
Before “f, M, D, & K”, L is silent.
Examples:
Talk, palm, calm, folk, should, behalf, alms, would, could, almond, half, chalk, walk,
yolk, balm, Lincoln.
 H:
“H” is silent before “R”.
Examples:
Rhyme, rhombus, rhinoceroses, rhetorical, rhythmical, rhythm.
 G:
“G” is silent before “N”.
Examples:
Gnash, gnaw, gnat, sign, design, resign, foreign, campaign.
 P:
“P” is silent before N, S, T.
Examples:
Receipt, Psalm, empty, psychology, prompt, pneumatic, pneumonia, psalmist,
pseudo, pseudonym, psychologist.
 N:
“N” is silent after M
Examples:
Autumn, Column, Solemn, Hymn, Condemn.
 W:
“W” is silent before R
Examples:
Write, wrong, wrist, wrap, wrangle, wrath, wreak, wren, wrathful, wrestle, wring,
wright, writhe, wretch.
 T:
“T” is silent before S
Examples:
Hustle, bustle, listen, nestle, wrestle, castle, Christmas, whistle.
 C:
“C” is silent before S
Examples:
Scene, Science, Scent, Scissors.
 Points to be remembered:
(1) If “C” comes before vowels a, o, u, and consonants r, and l the letter C
produces K sound.

21
Examples:
Cat, car, come, cap, coin, cold, color, cup, crop, crack, cradle, clap, clash, clear.
(2) If “C” comes before vowels i, e and before consonant y the letter C produces
“S” sound.
Examples:
Seize, ceiling, Centre, certify, cite, circle, citizen, cycle, cyclone, cypher.
(3) “G” produces J sound, if before G there is vowel e.
Examples:
College, Change, Judge, bridge, cage, syringe, budget.

Spelling Rules:
 Final Consonant:
1. One-syllable words ending in single vowel + single consonant, double the
consonants before a suffix beginning with a vowel:
Examples:
Beg + ed = begged rob + er = robber
Run + ing = running sad + est = saddest
But,
Wish +ed = wished (two consonants) fear + ing = fearing.
2. Words of two or three syllables ending in vowel + single consonants, double
the final consonant if the last syllable is stressed:
Examples:
Begin + ing = beginning occur + ed = occurred
Permit + ed = permitted control + er = controller
The consonant is not doubled if the last syllable is not stressed.
Examples:
Benefit + ed = benefited suffer+ ing = suffering
These words are exceptions: (Worship, kidnap, handicap)
Worship +ed = worshiped handicap + ed = handicapped
Kidnap + er = kidnapper
3. In British English the consonant l is doubled, even if the stress does not fall on
the last syllable.
Examples:
Quarrel + ed = quarrelled signal + ing = signalling
Travel + er = traveller distil + er distiller
Exception:
Parallel + ed = paralleled
4. If the word to which the suffix ful is added ends in ll, the second l is dropped.
Examples:
Skill +ful = skillful will + ful = willful
 Final e:
(1) Words ending in silent e, drop the e before suffix beginning with a vowel a:
Examples:
Live + ing = Living move + ed = moved
Hope + ing = hoping drive + er = driver
(2) The e remains before a suffix beginning with a consonants:
Examples:
Hope + ful = hopeful engage + ment = engagement
Exceptions:

22
 True +ly = truly Whole + ly = wholly
Due + ly = duly Nine + th = Ninth
Argue + ment = argument Awe + ful = awful
(3) The special case of words ending in ce and ge which keep the e when adding
able and ous.
Examples:
Notice + ible = noticeable Peace + able = peaceable
Change + ous= courageous Change +able =changeable
(4) In such words the c and g are pronounced soft before e. sometimes the e is
retained to avoid confusion with a similar word.
Examples:
Singe + ing = singeing (avoids confusion with singing)
swinge + ing = swingeing (avoids confusion with swinging)
(5) Words ending in ee do not drop an e before a suffix.
Examples:
See + ing = Seeing Agree + ment = agreement
(6) Words ending in ie change the ie to y when ing is added.
Examples:
Die + ing = Dying Tie + ing = Tying
Lie + ing = Lying

 Final y:
A final y following a consonant changes to I before a suffix except ing:
Examples:
Happy + ly = Happily Carry + ed = carried
Beauty + ful = beautiful marry + age = marriage
But,
Carry + ing = carrying marry + ing =marrying
Y following a vowel does not change.
Pray +ed = prayed play + er = player
Exception:
Pay + ed = paid say + ed = Said
Lay + ed = Laid

 Final ie or ei:
When ie or ei is pronounced like ee in jeep, I comes before e except after
c.
Examples:
Believe Receive
Relieve Receipt
Achieve Deceive
Grieve Deceit
Yield Conceive
Field Conceit
Exceptions:
Seize Protein Counterfeit
Weird Surfeit Plebeian

23
 Articles its types and use:
 Definition of articles:
Articles show number, special quality and uniqueness of nouns or pronouns.
Examples:
 There is a book on the table.
 The book that you bought yesterday is very interested.
 The students of IBA CC Ubauro are intelligent.
 Types of articles:
There are two types of articles, which are as under.
I. Indefinite articles (A and An)
II. Definite Article (The)
 Definition of Indefinite Articles:
The Articles which generalize a noun and do not point out to some particular
person or a thing are called Indefinite Articles. A or an is called the Indefinite
Article, because it usually leaves indefinite the person or thing spoken of:
Examples:
 A doctor; that is any doctor.
 A teacher; that is any teacher.
 Use of Indefinite articles:
1. The indefinite article (a) is used before a noun beginning with Consonant
Sounds.
Examples:
 He is wearing a green shirt.
 There is a woman on the housetop.
 Have you seen a giraffe?
2. The indefinite article (a) is used before a noun beginning with “W” Sounds.
Examples:
 John gave a one-rupee note to the beggar.
 There is a one eyed man on the way.
3. The indefinite article (a) is used before a noun beginning “YU” sound:
Examples:
 He studies in a university.
 France is a European city.
 It is a universal truth.
 He is a useless person.
4. To introduce a countable noun fro the first time:
Examples:
 There is a boy outside. Ask the boy come in.
 I went to a doctor’s. The doctor was not present.
 They played a game. The game was completely new.
5. To refer a person or thing as representative of a class:
Examples:
 A cow gives milk. (= Every cow gives milk)
 A garden has tree. (= Every garden has tree)
 A rat hates a cat (= Every rat hates a cat)

24
 6. In expression of rate, speed, measure etc. (a or an means each or any)
Examples:
 How much money does he earn a day?
 Take this medicine three times a day?
 This car runs at fifty kilometers an hour.
 Ali went only half a cup.
 The train will halt here for half an hour.
 Sugar sells at thirty shillings a kilogram.
7. Before names of professions:
Examples:
 Ali does not want to be an accountant.
 He is a college lecturer.
 Salma wanted to be an airhostess.
 Mansoor wants to be doctor.
8. A sometimes means the same:
Example:
 The shirts are all of a size (= all of the same size)
 Birds of a feather flock together (= birds of the same kind)
 Two of a trade seldom agree. (= two persons of the same profession or
trade)
9. In some phrases expressing number or quantity a is used like a dozen,
score, a hundred, a hundred thousand, a lot of, a great deal of:
Examples:
 She purchased a dozen bananas.
 There were no more than a score of people at the meeting.
 There are about a hundred different trees in my garden.
 The students make a lot of noise in the class.
 You need a great deal of money to buy this house.
10. In exclamations:
Examples:
 What a pity!
 What a surprise!
 What a cold day!
 What an ugly sight!
11. Before names of persons to indicate unfamiliarity:
Examples:
 There is a Mr. John at the door. Does any one know him? (The speaker does not
Mr. John)
 A Miss Isha rang up for you. She has left her telephone number for you.
 I hear a Mr. Johnnie has joined an assistant commissioner of the city.
12. Sometimes an indefinite article is used before proper nouns to describe
another person or thing:
Examples:
 The new minister is a Solomon in his judgments. (= The new minister is as wise
as Solomon in his judgments)
 I will build a Taj Mahal in memory of my love. (= I will build a beautiful
building like the Taj Mahal)

25
  The moneylender will not spare you. He is a Shylock. (= that is, as heartless as
Shylock)
13. The Indefinite article may come after many, such, quite, and rather:
Examples:
 Many a boy will join new college in our city.
 I am not such a fool as to give you my bike.
 The function was quite a success.
 It is rather a pity she has failed.
14. The Indefinite article must be placed between the adjectives and the nouns
when the adjective is preceded by so, as, too, how:
Examples:
 It is not so big a victory as she thinks.
 No body has ever seen as big a fish as this.
 It was too difficult a question for her to solve.
 The mouse is too small an animal to fight a lion.
 Every one came to know only late how important a man he was.
15. “An” is used before a word beginning with vowel sounds:
Examples:
 An aeroplane crashed last night in the forest.
 An apple a day keeps the doctor away.
 His uncle works in an office.
 Can you fly an F16 aircraft?
16. “An” is also used with the “h” when it is not sounded.
Examples:
 Shahzeb is an honest student.
 Milli is an honorary secretary of the union.
 The old man seems to be an honorable citizen.
17. Other use of “An”:
Examples:
 An F.A.O letter.
 An M.A degree.
 An F.A Certificates.
 An X types house.
 An M.A Form.
 When F-m-n-r-s-x are used individually they take article an. (ef-em-en-ar-es-eks)
Note:
 Do not use the article “an” with the words “hero and hotel”.
 An hotel Wrong
 A hotel Correct
 An hero Wrong
 A hero Correct

 Definition of Definite Articles:

An article which points out some particular person or thing is definite
article.
Examples:
 The earth revolves around the sun.
 I saw the doctor.

26
  The book you want is out of print.
 Use of Definite Articles: The Definite Article is used with:
1. With splendid natural objects:
Examples:
 The earth revolves around the sun.
 The sun rises in the east.
 Other examples
The moon the star, the sky, the equator,
the cloud, the breeze, the north pole the horizon,
2. With animals of their kinds: (Before a singular noun that represents a whole
class)
Examples:
 The elephant is the heaviest animal on the earth.
 The dinosaur was the first heaviest reptile on the earth.
 Beware of the dog.
 The cow gives milk.
 The horse is faithful animal.
3. With superlative degrees of adjectives:
Examples:
 The dinosaur was the heaviest reptile on the earth.
 This is the best book that I have ever seen.
4. With the names of states comprised of several or many countries or states:
Examples:
 I have neither seen the U.S.A nor the U.S.S.R.
 Other examples:
The UAE the United Kingdom
5. With the names of a few countries, which include word like republic and
kingdom, Federation, and government departments, ministries, organizations,
Examples:
 I hope Imran Khan will be the prime minister of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan.
 Her brother works in the Ministry of Education.
 The UNESCO is doing very useful work.
 The United Nations Organization has an office in every member country.
 Other examples:
The Irish republic the Ukraine the Netherlands
The states of the government of the Hague.
6. With ordinal numbers:
Examples:
 The second chapter of this book was interesting.
 The last ball of the over was decisive.
 Other examples:
The first the second the third

7. When two or more nouns or pronouns are used as metaphors:

Examples:
 New player is the Shahid Afridi of our team.
 Prof. Ghulam Hussain is known as the Shakespeare of Pakistan.
 Pervez Musharaf is the Kamal Atta Turk of Pakistan.

27
 8. With the names of rivers, oceans, seas, lakes, canals, deserts, group of islands,
winds, and gulfs:
Examples:
 The Indus River is the largest river of Pakistan.
 Does the Nile flow through Ethiopia?
 The Indus is the longest river in Pakistan.
 The Mississippi and the Amazon are the greatest rivers of the U.S.A.
 The Indian Ocean is in South Asia.
 The Mediterranean Sea lies between Europe and Africa.
 The Arabian Sea is the main source of fishing.
 The Rice Canal flows beside Larkana City.
 The Sahara is the biggest desert in the world.
 The Monsoon brings the rain.
 Thieves navigated through the Persian Gulf.
 Other examples:
The Black Sea the Pacific Ocean the Suez Canal
the West Indies (group of Island) The Alps
The Atlantic Ocean the Ravi the Ganga
The Jamna the Bay of Bengal the Red Sea
The Hindu Kush the Karakorum the Malta
9. With the names of greatest mountain ranges and the highest peaks of the
world:
Examples:
 The Himalayas are the highest mountains in the world.
 The Himalayas protect Pakistan from invaders.
 Other Examples:
10. With the names of the holy books:
Examples:
 The Bible is a religious book of the Christian.
 The Muslims recite the Holy Qur’an.
 The Sikhs believe in and follow the teachings given in their religious book
called the Grunth.
 Other examples:
The Vedas the Risalo of Shah the Ramayana
The Iliad the Odyssey the Upanishads
11. With the names of sides or directions:
Examples:
 The sun sets in the west.
 India lies in the east of Pakistan.
 The West has made a royal progress in science and technology.
 Other examples:
The south the north
12. With names of newspapers and magazines:
Examples:
 The London Telegraph has the largest circulation in London.
 The wall street journal is famous magazine.
 The Pakistan Times has a big circulation in Pakistan.
 Other Examples;

28
 The Pakistan Times the Kitabustan
The Muslims the Guardian
13. While comparing two clauses or sides of two sentences: (With comparative
degrees in adverb)
Examples:
 The higher the colder.
 The sooner the better.
 The wealthier the happier.
 The later the better.
 The higher you go the colder you feel.
 The more you work the more you earn.
14. In some phrases and idioms:
Examples:
 Money is the crux of all the problems.
 Some thieves broke into my house at the dead of the night.
 He is a snake in the grass.
15. With long span of time:
Examples:
 The stars shine in the night.
 Other examples:
In the morning In the evening.
16. With the names of nations, communities, tribes and dynasties:
Examples:
 The English ruled many parts of the world.
 The Chinese built railroads and bridges in the U.S.A, Canada and Australia.
 The European culture is spreading all over the world.
 The Muslims are brave.
 The Rajput is fighting community.
 The Muslims recite the Holy Qur’an.
 The Sikhs believe in their religious book called the Grunth.
 Other examples:
The Hindus the Sindhi the French
The Bloch
17. With some adjectives when they are changed into common nouns:
Examples:
 The poor suffer much.
 The rich enjoy the pleasures of life.
 The needy ought to be helped.
 The dead never come to life.
 The living are fortunate.
18. With common nouns when they are used as proper nouns:
Examples:
 The Word came from Allah.
 The Christians believe in the teachings in the Book.
19. Before the names of famous ships, aero-planes, trains:
Examples:
 The Tipu is the biggest warship of Pakistan.
 Ali flew Pakistan by the Eagle.

29
  The guest is coming to village by the Bolan Mail.
 The Awami express goes to Islamabad.
 She came to visit us by the Royal Airline.
 Other examples:
The Amir-ul-Bahar the Tezgam the Shalimar
The Safina-i-Abid
20. With historical events, buildings, and things:
Examples:
 The World War II ended in 1942.
 The soviet Revolution brought in Russia.
 The French Revolution was blessing in disguise.
 Other examples:
The World War I the Holy Kaaba
21. Before the names of (geographical) countries and provinces:
Examples:
 The Sindh is the fertile province of Pakistan.
 The Punjab is known as the land five rivers.
 The USA rules the world now a day.
22. Before collective nouns:
Examples:
 The police are on the search of thieves.
 The army has recovered the territories.
 The committee has divided in its verdict.
 The navy of Pakistan is the best navy in the world.
23. After the words all, both,:
Examples:
 All the students went away from college.
 Both the brothers passed the examinations.
24. Before musical instruments:
Examples:
 The drum beating competition was in full swings.
 Taimoor cannot paly the flute.
25. Before a noun (with emphasis) to give the force of superlative:
Examples:
 The verb is the word (= chief word) in a sentence.
26. With persons or things that have already mentioned:
Examples:
 I met an old man. The old man was blind
 We saw a dog. The dog was mad.
27. Before titles or special names:
Examples:
 Dawn was founded by the Quaid-e-Azam.
 Other examples:
Akbar the great Alexander the great
28. Before proper noun when it is qualified by an adjective or adjectival phrase:
Examples:
 The great Caesar, the immortal Shakespeare.

30
 29. Before the words denoting natural phenomena:
Examples;
 The spring follows the autumn.
 The day follows the night.
30. The is used in place of possessive pronouns:
Examples:
 The police caught thief by the neck. (Not by his neck)
 He struck me on the head. (Not by my head)
31. Before a common noun to give the meaning of abstract noun:
Examples:
 He played the fool. (in foolish manner)
 At last the father in him was aroused. (the feelings of father)
32. Before an adjective in the comparative degree when only two persons or
things are compared and selection is meant:
Examples:
 Ali is the wiser of the two.
 The pen is the better of the two.
33. While mentioning two nouns of the same names:
Examples:
 I don’t mean the Hyderabad of Pakistan I mean the Hyderabad of India.

31
 Verb and its types:
 Definition of verb:
The word verb comes from Latin verbum. A verb is a part of speech that
expresses existence, action or occurrence of a subject or an object. A verb is word that is
used to tell something about some person or thing. Any action of the subject is called
verb. The verb is the heart of a sentence and is a vital part of the predicate of a sentence.
 Uses of verbs:
A verb says
(a) What the subject (of the sentence) does:
Examples:
 Fire burns.
 The thief ran away.
 Mother locked the room.
 The clock strikes.
(b) What the subject is:
Examples:
 Shakespeare was an English poet and dramatist.
 Ali is a teacher.
 Glass is brittle. (Hard)
 Boys are more intelligent than girls.
(c) What is done to the subject:
Examples:
 The tiger was killed by the hunter.
 The thief has been arrested.
 English is spoken all over the world.
(d) What the subject has:
Examples:
 The new student has no commonsense.
 Africa has large forests.
(e) What happens to the subject:
Examples;
 The old newspapers have turned.
 The leaves of the trees are falling.
 Kinds of verb:
There are three kinds of verbs;
1. Transitive Verbs
2. Intransitive Verbs
3. Auxiliary verbs
 Transitive Verbs:
A transitive verb is a verb that denotes an action
which passes over (Transitive means passing over)from the subject or doer to an object.
Some verbs are usually followed by noun or pronoun that is called the direct object, and
show an action on someone or something. These verbs are called transitive verbs.
Transitive verbs need an object to complete the meaning of the sentence. A transitive verb,
used with the direct object, transmits action to an object and may also have an indirect
object that precedes the direct object, which indicates to or for whom the action is done.
Examples:
 The boy kicks the football.
 The baby cut its hand with a knife.

32
  We eat rice.
 Ali compiles his notes.

 Verbs Used Only Transitively:

Bring, seek, expect, require, order, request,
demand, question, love, hate, desire etc.
Note:
(a) An object answering whom or what follows transitive verbs:
Examples:
 The man killed the deer.
 Killed what or whom? = The dear.
 He likes book.
 Likes what? = Book.
 She threw garbage.
 Threw what? = Garbage.
 Prosecutors charge people.
 Charge whom? = People.
 A local woman is seeking a seat on the city council.
 Seeking what? = Seat.
(b) Transitive verbs can be converted into passive forms:
Examples:
 The man killed the deer. (Active Voice)
 The deer was killed by the man. (Passive Voice)
 Intransitive Verbs:
An intransitive verb is a verb that denotes an
action which does not pass over to an object, or which expresses a state or being. An
Intransitive is a verb that merely takes an object with it. Here action is limited to the subject
only. Some verbs are usually not followed the direct objects, needing only the subject to
complete thought; these verbs are called Intransitive verbs. An In transitive verb has only
one argument (its subject) hence has a valency of one. An Intransitive Verb is not
considered a subject agreement and complement. An Intransitive Verb does not take an
object.
Examples:
 She eats too much.
 New baby weeps frequently.
 This plant has bloomed on the front of the shelf.
 The sound of the music carried through the hall.
 The sun shines brightly.
 He ran a long distance. (Action)
 The baby sleeps. (State)
 There is a flaw in this diamond. (Being)
Note:
(a) If the answer of the question (by using What or Who) returns back, it is surely
Intransitive Verb:
Examples:
 She eats too much.
 Who eats? The answer is she.
 New baby weeps frequently.
 Who weeps? The answer is new baby.

33
  This plant has bloomed on the front of the shelf.
 What has bloomed? The answer is this plant.
 The sound of the music carried through the hall.
 The sun shines brightly.
 What does shine? The answer is shines.

(b) Intransitive Verbs are never converted into Passive Voice.

Examples:
 New baby weeps frequently. (Active Voice)
 ……………………………………….. (No Passive form)
 Verbs Used Only Intransitively:
Die, go, come, fall, lie, occur, rise, care, etc.
 Transitive and Intransitive Use of Some Verbs:
Examples:

Transitive Use Intransitive Use

1. She sang a song. 1. She sang beautifully.
2. He stopped the ball. 2. The ball stopped.
3. Men fly aeroplanes. 3. Birds fly in the sky.
4. We sell books. 4. The book is selling well.
5. The servant dropped the plate. 5. The fruit dropped from the tree.
6. The aunt fought the wasps. 6. Some ants fought very fiercely.
7. The shot sank the ship. 7. The ship sank rapidly.
8. He spoke the truth. 8. He spoke haughtily.
9. The horse kicks the man. 9.The horse never kicks.
10. Ali feels a severe pain in his head. 10. How do you feel?
 Causative Verbs:
When the subject of a verb gets its work done by
an other subject is called Causative Verbs.
Examples:
 My class teacher made me stand up on the bench.
 You have to make him perform his duties will.
 She let me use her pen.
 A herbal medicine sends me sleep.
 The poet watched Lucy Gray grow.
 I found him steal from my wallet.
 Ali got the lion killed by the villagers.
 The hunter makes the lion kill.
 The farmer made the hunter kill lion.
 The villagers will make the police kill the wild animals.
 Regular Verbs:
Verbs that form their past tense or past participle
by the addition of “d”- “ed” or “t” to the present, are called Regular Verbs. These verbs are
also called Weak Verbs.

34
Examples:

Present Tense Past Tense Past Participle

Arrive Arrived Arrived
Change Changed Changed
Prove Proved Proved
Ask Asked Asked
Boil Boiled Boiled
Call Called Called
Burn Burnt Burnt
Learn Learnt Learnt
Mean Meant Meant

 Irregular Verbs:
Verbs that form their past and past participle in
irregular way. Irregular verbs mostly change their internal vowels in past and Past
Participle. Irregular verbs are also called Strong verbs.
Examples:

Present Tense Past Tense Past Participle

Arise Arose Arisen
Begin Began Begun
Blow Blew Chosen
Choose Chose Blown
Come Came Come
Dig Dug Dug
Draw Drew Drawn
Eat Ate Eaten
Forget Forgot Forgotten
Get Got Gotten
Know Knew Known
Ride Rode Ridden
Sink Sank Sunk
Tell Told Told
Write Wrote Written

 Auxiliary Verbs:
A verb that helps to form tenses of the other
verbs is called an Auxiliary Verb. Auxiliary Verbs help the main verb to make a tense. An
auxiliary verb is helping verb.
Examples:
 She is working in hospital.
 He has gone to collage.
 I have been studying hard.
 The cat was jumping over the wall.

35
  Auxiliaries are used:
1. To form tenses:
Examples:
 She is working in hospital.
 He has gone to collage.
 I have been studying hard.
2. To form moods:
Examples:
 We study together. (Indicative Mood)
 Do you eat apple? (Indicative Mood)
 Stand up. (Imperative Mood)
 He wants to sit here. (Infinitive Mood)
 Had I seen him, I would have told him. (Subjunctive Mood)
 Take care, that no mistake be made. (Subjunctive Mood)
3. To form voices:
Examples:
 He will be defeated this time.
 English is understood in most parts of the world.
Verbs Used Transitively and Intransitively:

1. We enjoyed ourselves. (Intransitive)

2. We enjoyed some breathtaking scenes. (Transitive)
3. You look gloomy. (Intransitive)
4. Somebody looked at me with surprise. (Transitive)
5. We eat to live. (Intransitive)
6. We eat hot (spicy) food. (Transitive)
7. You should write regularly. (Intransitive)
8. You should write something regularly. (Transitive)
9. Cattle walk slowly. (Intransitive)
10. A tired farmer walked slowly. (Intransitive)
11. She walked slowly. (Transitive)
12. They who serve only to Allah are great. (Intransitive)
13. We served guests with delicious food. (Transitive)
14. The Holy Prophet preached for a long time. (Intransitive)
15. The Holy Prophet preached Islam for a long time. (Transitive)
16. He runs fast. (Intransitive)
17. He runs a roaring business. (Transitive)
18. Our class teacher teaches well. (Intransitive)
19. Our class teacher teaches English well. (Transitive)
20. She drives recklessly. (Intransitive)
21. He drives a truck slow. (Transitive)
22. Children grow day by day. (Intransitive)
23. We grow wheat in plenty. (Transitive)
24. The nose is to smell with. (Intransitive)
25. Our cook smells onion and smell. (Intransitive)
26. She smells a flower. (Transitive)
27. Footballer kicks hard. (Intransitive)
28. He kicks a ball. (Transitive)
29. I feel well. (Intransitive)

36
30. I feel bad. (Intransitive)
31. We feel comfortable here. (Intransitive)
32. I feel for you. (Transitive)
33. I feel a thorn in my heel. (Transitive)
34. He said so. (Intransitive)
35. He said it to me. (Transitive)
36. Somebody watched carefully. (Intransitive)
37. A watchman watches over goods. (Transitive)
38. Keep your self-straight. (Intransitive)
39. Keep it there. (Transitive)
40. Keep off the grass. (Transitive)
41. I hurt myself. (Intransitive)
42. You hurt my feelings. (Transitive)
43. Most young boys flirt. (Intransitive)
44. Most young boys and girls flirt. (Transitive)
45. He is reading now. (Intransitive)
46. She is reading a book. (Transitive)
47. The horse hits hard. (Intransitive)
48. We hit upon a plan. (Transitive)
Use of Causative Verbs:
1. A strong wind caused a hut fall to the ground.
2. His procrastination caused him bear a big loss.
3. Fire causes things blacken.
4. White color caused the bridge look white and bright.
5. Fear caused his face look white.
6. Anger caused him look furious.
7. Long illness made him look pale and frail.
8. She made her children obey her without question.
9. The commander ordered his men “shoot”.
10. My class teacher made me stand up on the bench.
11. You have to make him perform his duties will.
12. She let me use her pen.
13. Inflation made the cost of living rise sharply.
14. A herbal medicine sends me sleep.
15. The poet watched Lucy Gray grow.
16. I found him steal from my wallet.
17. They let him go.
18. The guards let them run away from prison.
19. His wife made him go.
20. She made her only son run wild.
21. His partner caused him suffer a colossal loss.
22. I want you work hard for success.
23. The doctor made me feel well.
24. She caused me feel bad.
25. The court made him undergo rigorous punishment.
26. He made me polish his shoes.
27. She made him marry her soon.
28. The Quaid-e-Azam made the nation live\ free and independent.
29. They caused our business plans fail.
30. You ordered reach in time.

37
 31. A slippery floor caused an old man fall headlong onto the floor.
32. We had better ask them leave.
33. Make him work hard.
34. Self-respect encourages me to be self-conscious.
35. You tempted me to commit a heinous crime.
36. Snow had whitened the top of the trees.
37. We walked quickly through the darkened streets.
38. The rope was elongated to tether the cow fast.
39. Emboldened by the wine, he went over to introduce himself to her.
40. I straightened my tie and walked away.
41. They let us play in the garden.
42. The law enforcing agencies exhorted us to abide by the law.
43. Kidnappers forced us pay a large sum amount in ransom.
44. My boss warned me against enjoying any more leave without pay.
45. Ali got the lion killed by the villagers.
46. The hunter makes the lion kill.
47. The farmer made the hunter kill lion.
48. The villagers will make the police kill the wild animals.

The Participle:
 Definition:
A participle is that form of verb which partakes of the nature both of a
verb and of an adjective. Or Participle is a word that is partly verb and partly and adjective.
The participle is a double part of speech and combines the function of a verb and an
adjective. It always formed from verb and is used as an adjective. Participle is also called
verbal adjective.
Examples:
 Hearing the noise, the boy woke up.
 Blinded by a dust storm, they fell into disorder.
 The child, thinking all was safe, attempted to cross the road.
 We had a drink of the sparkling water.
 Loudly knocking at the gate, he demanded admission.
 Kinds Of The Participle:
There are following kinds of participles.
1. Present Participle.
2. Past Participle.
3. Past Perfect Participle
4. Participle + Perfect Participle.
5. Participle Adjectives
 Present Participle:
Present Participle expresses the continuity of time. It expresses
present, past, and future continuous tenses. Present participle is a verb which shows that an
action is going on and is still incomplete. Present participle ends in -ing and represents an
action as going on or incomplete or imperfect.
Examples:
 He is taking tea.
 She was working very hard.
 He will be driving fast.
 Somebody was weeping through the window.

38
  The child, thinking all was safe, attempted to cross the road.
 Loudly knocking at the gate, he demanded admission.
 We met a girl carrying a basket of flowers.
 He rushed into the filed, and foremost fighting fell.
 I saw a girl singing a song.
 He found her writing a letter.
 Past Participle:
Past Participle is that form of verb which shows an action already
done or completed. It usually takes has, have and had (Present and Past Perfect).
Examples:
 Blinded by a dust storm, they fell into disorder.
 Deceived by his friends, Ali lost all hopes.
 Driven by hunger, she stole a piece of bread.
 Time misspent is time lost.
 We saw a few trees laden with fruit.
 The worker has driven a cart.
 She had done her best.
 The enemy forces have retreated.
 Cost of living has gone up.
 Past Perfect Participle
Past Perfect Participle is that form a verb which shows continuity
of work from past to past time. It explains something about past perfect continuous tense.
Examples:
 He had been working very hard.
 She had been defying her parents.
 They had been violating the laws of the land.
 People had been abiding by the laws of the land.
 Participle + Perfect Participle:
Participle + Perfect Participle points out that after the completion
of some work subject starts an other work.
Examples:
 Having written some letters, I mailed them.
 Having paid for lodging and boarding, we checked out.
 Having taken break fast, Shahzeb goes to college.
 Having borrowed some money, she bought winter wear.
 Having composed some music, she played it.
 Participle Adjectives:
The Participles used as simple qualifying adjective in front of a
noun; thus used they are called Participle Adjectives. Participle Adjectives usually answer
of white.
Examples:
 She will not buy broken cup. =
 Of what type cup? Broken cup.
 It is crime to buy stolen property.
 He burnt all his written copies.
 Ali gave away his worn clothes to the poor.
 A rolling stone gathers no mass.
 His tattered coat needs mending.

39
  A lying witness ought to be punished.
 He played a losing game.
 A burnt child dreads fire.
 Education is the most pressing need of our country.
 Ali is reputed to be the most learned man of his time.
 Some more information about participles:
(1) A participle is a verbal adjective.
(2) Like a verb it may govern noun or pronoun.
Examples:
 Hearing the noise, the boy woke up. (The noun noise is governed by the participle
Hearing)
(3) Like a verb it may be modified by an adverb.
Examples:
 Loudly knocking at the gate, he demanded admission. (Here the participle knocking
is modified by the verb loudly)
(4) Like an adjective it may qualify a noun or pronoun.
Examples:
 Having rested, we continued our journey.

(5) Like and adjective it may be compared.

Examples:
 Education is the most pressing need of our country. (Here the participle pressing is
compared by prefixing most)
 Use Of The Participles:
1. The Continuous Tenses (Active Voice) are formed from the present participle
with tenses of the verb be.
2. The Perfect Tenses (Active Voice are formed from the Past Participle with the
tenses have.
3. Participles qualify nouns or pronouns.
(i) Attributively
(ii) Predicatively
(iii) Absolutely with noun or pronoun going before.
Gerund:
When the word formed by adding “ing” to the first form of the verb and is used as a
noun is called gerund. A gerund is that form of verb which ends in –ing, and has the force of
a noun and a verb.
Examples:
 Playing cards is not allowed here.
 Giving is better than receiving.
 I like reading poetry.
 He is fond of hoarding money.
 Use Of The Gerund:
A Gerund being a verb-noun is used as-
(1) Subject of a verb:
Examples:
 Hunting was my favorite pastime.
 Seeing is believing.
 Hunting deer is not allowed in Pakistan.

40
 (2) Object of a transitive verb:
Examples:
 Stop playing.
 Children love making mud castle.
 Ali likes reading poetry.
 She loves listening music.
(3) Object of a preposition:
Examples:
 The girls are fond of singing.
 I am tired of teaching.
 They were punished for telling a lie.
 I have an aversion to fishing.
(4) Complement of a verb:
Examples:
 What I most detest is smoking.
 Seeing is believing.
 What he likes most is collecting old pages.
(5) Absolutely:
Examples:
 Playing cards being aversion, we did not play bridge.
(6) In apposition to a noun:
Examples:
 She talked of one thing only, eating well.
(7) In a verbal noun the is used before the gerund and of after the gerund:
(Ordinary Nouns)
Examples:
 The fighting of the bulls delighted the crowd.
 The time of the singing of birds has come.
 The making of the plan is in hand.
(8) Compound gerund forms are formed by placing a past participle after the
gerund of have and be. As a rule the present form of the gerund is used for
both present and past actions:
Examples:
 He was accused of having deserted his ship.
 I heard of his having gained a prize.
 We were fatigued on account of having walked so far.
 Difference between Gerund and Present Participles:
Gerund and Present Participle look alike in form because both
are formed by adding “ing” to the first form of the verb; but their function is different.
Gerund is used as Verbal noun while Present Participle is used as an adjective before
noun.
Examples:
 Running is a good exercise. (Gerund)
 Running horse fell down the road. (Present Participle)

41
 Art of Composition:
 A topic to write on
 Brainstorming
 An outline or haphazard.
 Organizing outline.
 Write a first draft or making first attempt at writing
 Use simple, easy and every day use words
 Adhering to outline in its order.
 Writing short easy sentences
 Connecting sentences to render them meaningful and effective
 Maintaining sequences and connection of thoughts expressed in composition.
 Keeping in a view logic development of composition.
 Theses statement and following it throughout
 Topical sentences-every sentence of a paragraph adds to its meaning. Every
paragraph has a topical sentence that reflects on the main idea contained in
the paragraph. Topical sentence may be used somewhere inside a paragraph,
preferably in the beginning of a paragraph.
 Read your write-up and make necessary corrections, additions and deletions.
 Write a final draft when you are fully satisfied with what you have written as
a rough and first draft.
 There is always room for corrections and expansions through additions and
improvement
 Never be fully satisfied with your attempt at creation of something from your
own
 With hard work, revision, necessary improvement and unavoidable
corrections, you can create a wonderful piece of composition.
 Write with confidence in pursuance of some subject you are writing about
 Write deliberately to the point keeping in view the theme or thesis statement
of the subject through.

Writing a draft, report or a letter:

1. Think about the purpose and object of writing a letter.
2. Either it is to be originated or composed in response to a letter.
3. Upward communication and down ward communication.
4. Sender’s address, date, receiver’s address, salutation, subject, introduction,
main body or matter of the letter, ending paragraph, reference if any, in the
beginning of the letter, complements are the parts of an official letter.
5. Write short, easy and meaningful sentences.
6. Use correct tenses and forms of the verbs.
7. Write only about the topic and or subject, don’t digress or deviate.
8. Write short paragraph. However, a long paragraph may be written to support
the main body of the letter.
9. Avoid writing long, winding, difficult and run-on sentences.
10. Avoid repetition, redundancy, and circumlocution.
11. Write only what you really mean and aim for. Be specific.

42
 12. Use exact words that satisfy your purpose and serve your end.
13. Make rough draft so that nothing important is left out.
14. Use a letterhead, if available.
15. Add what comes to your mind during the course of writing or later.
16. Write the final form of the letter only when you are fully satisfied with the
contents of your letter.
17. Revise your letter, edit it and make necessary corrections.
18. Delete or emit what is not needed.
19. See the articles, punctuation marks and modals are properly used.
20. See the proper margins are left and indications are maintained.
21. Avoid high-flown language, exaggeration, and artificially.
22. Maintain official norms and your official status.
23. If you write on behalf of your officer, mind his status.

 Essay:
Discussion of a topic from author’s personal point of view. A composition in
which the writer states his knowledge that may contain narrative or descriptive elements.
But it will include comments and criticism representing writer’s own point of view. The
essay thus becomes a test, not merely of knowledge, but of thought and examination of
examination.

 Types Of Essays:
There are following Kinds of essays.
i. Reflective essays
ii. Narrative Essays
iii. Descriptive Essays
iv. Expository Essays
v. Essay Involving Discussion

 Reflective Essays:
A reflective essay consists of reflection or thoughts on some topic, which is
generally of
an abstract nature, such as Music, Romance, Proverbs, Personal Influence, etc.
 Narrative Essays:
A narrative essay deals with a narration and that should be treated as a
subject for a
thought and comment. It may deal with historical facts or legends, biographies,
incidents or voyage, a story, etc.
 Descriptive Essays:
It deals with the description of some place or thing such as animals, plants,
minerals, towns, countries, aspects and phenomena in Nature, etc.
 Expository Essays:
It consists of an exposition or explanation of some subjects such as
institutions, industries, occupations, scientific and literary topics.
 Essay Involving Discussion:
It frequently requires the writer to discuss a certain problem and to present
a logical statement of his point of view, for example Co-Education. The Influence of Sea-
power in History, The Finest Occupation in Life.

43
Uses of the words in sentences giving affirmative and negative sentences without use
of verbs of negation such as (No, Not, Never, Neither, Nor, Nay)
1. You seldom show up.
2. She seldom shows up.
3. The Quaid-e-Azam could see a crowd of people without being seen.
4. Most dishonest people travel by train without ticket.
5. Most students shirk work hard.
6. The sunblind can hardly see in the sun.
7. The sand-blind can hardly see in the sun.
8. They remain away from home most of the time.
9. He is too old to walk.
10. Good people keep from bad company.
11. The gardener says to keep off the grass.
12. Our stay on the earth is nominal.
13. The food they cater is irresistible.
14. The time is beyond our control.
15. We set off without any delay.
16. Our driver averted a bad accident.
17. She abstains from bad company.
18. Some students avoid telling the truth.
19. Some metals are immutable.
20. Some matters are catalyst.
21. She would always be a Christian.
22. Most people of the world are polytheist.
23. He is baldhead.
24. I had my head shaven.
25. Most of the people of the world are disbelievers.
26. She keeps from backbiting.
27. Most spouses are dishonest and inconstant.
28. Most friends are inconstant.
29. You always stop me from doing it.
30. They both are hardly nubile.
31. I missed the first morning train.
32. Most old people suffer from oblivion \ forgetfulness.
33. We drink impure water.
34. All spices look adulterated.
35. Most youth are late riser.
36. The sheet of glass is opaque.
37. He declared bankruptcy.
38. He has got some invaluable assets.
39. Your handwriting is illegible.
40. Length and breadth of the earth is immeasurable.
41. You fill find some handless people there.
42. You adopt improper means of earning.

44
 Sentences, Structure, Paraphrasing
Sentences with their affirmative Structure, Substitutions:
1. He drives recklessly.
He drives very fast and carelessly.
2. They live in a room.
They are roommates.
3. We studied in on class.
We are classmates.
4. Some dishes are irresistible.
Some dishes are very delicious or tasty.
5. I cannot bear scorching sun and heat.
Summer is hard on me.
6. Most people worship many gods.
Most people are polytheist.
7. Some people are stingy\Misers\Miserly.
Some people can’t spend money generously.
8. We firmly believe that there is one God.
We stanchly believe in oneness of Allah.
9. We never backbite.
We keep from backbiting.
10. They don’t indulge in bad company.
They keep from bad company.
11. Most women in Europe are heavy smokers.
Most women in Europe are heavy smokers.
12. Mangoes are out of season.
Mangoes cannot be had.
13. The Mongols butchered the Muslims ruthlessly.
The Mongols killed the Muslims mercilessly.
14. She knows how to manage things.
She is a good planner.
15. I can’t understand what you say.
Your version is beyond my comprehension.
16. This diet s full of nutrition.
This diet is nutritious.
17. He was born to his parents after a long time.
He is Dearborn to his parents.
18. Wheat is looking up these days.
Wheat is dear these days.
19. Women often shed crocodile tears.
Women often weep insincerely.
Women are good at shedding false tears.
20. Parents love their children very much.
Parents love their children affectionately.
Parents love their children passionately.
21. He breathes hot and cold in one breath.
His mood is unpredictable.

45
 His nature is unpredictable.
22. He married several times.
He married severally.

Words and their pair words and antonyms used in sentences:

1. She raised money and divided\ distributed among the poor.
2. This picture is clear and that picture is blurred.
3. It is fair but that is unfair.
4. I wont cures you. Allah may bless you.
5. Some people are busy; most people are idle.
6. He is busy in worldly affairs; his wife is busy in religious affairs.
7. All is not well most is unwell.
8. He looks well; she looks unwell.
9. Not all men are wise; most are foolish.
10. Some commit things to memory; some forget them.
11. Most commit crime, some refrain from them.
12. Karachi is thickly populated city; Ubauro is thinly populated city.
13. An old couple retired to countryside; their children opted for city life.
14. We recreated after we had got tired.
15. The young and the old all enjoy themselves.
16. Old books and new one can be had there.
17. I wish I were here; my distant cousins were there.
18. I have known him for my benefactor but his friend is a malefactor.
19. A benefactor and a malefactor cannot be equal.
20. One of them is an honest man; none of the rest is honest.
21. Your voice is audible; his is inaudible.
22. Unseen scenic spots are sweeter than heard ones.
23. All are unknown; none is known.
24. We don’t want to visit the seen places; we shall go for unseen places.
25. Unheard melodies are sweeter than heard ones.

46
How to Learn & Improve Written & Speaking English:
 Listening, speaking, reading, and writing English
 Words-Vocabulary
 Poetic Diction
 Reading newspaper, and stories
 Speaking some sentences every day
 Listening English News on Televisions. (BBC and VOA)
 Spelling exercise
 Grammar Rules
 Direct Learning Method
 Translation Method- Indirect Learning Method
 Bilingual People, trilingual people, Poly lingual
 Dictionary Usage
 Write something everyday
 British English-American English
 Difference between British English and American English
 Writing Diary every day
 Writing letters to your friends
 Using difficult words in your sentences
 Speaking before a mirror, classmates, and big audience.
 Taking parts in speeches, debates, & declamation contents
 Think before you speak
 Speak slowly & deliberately
 Speak confidently
 Don’t feel shy
 Don’t be afraid
 Dispel your fear
 Reading for fun, entertainment & instructions
 Writing, revising & rewriting for improvement
 Improving Vocabulary by learning synonyms, antonyms, homonyms &
acronyms.
 Root-words –prefixes and suffixes
 Learning New Words with their spelling
Examples:
 Words used for clothes such as shirt, trousers, sweater, scarf, jeans etc.
 Words used for ornaments & jewelry such as ring, ringlet, necklace, brooch,
earring, tops, bracelets, bangles etc.
 Words used for pieces of furniture such as chair, armchair, stool, table,
rocking chair, dressing table, cupboard, bedstead, Centre table, tea table,
dinning table, cradle, waterbed etc.
 Words used for crockery & cutlery such as plate, saucer, saucer, cup, jug,
glass, teapot, fork, knife, spoon, tin opener, pitcher, milk pot, filter etc.

47
 Adverb and its types:
Definition:
A word that modifies or adds to the meaning of verb, adjective or another adverb is
called adverb.
Examples:
 We drive carefully.
 She eats slowly.
 He likes very sweet mangoes.
 The weather is extremely cold.
 She dresses very smartly.
Aids in identifying adverbs:
Ly Nicely Wisely Quickly
Long Sidelong Headlong
Ward\ wards Backward Forward Landwards
Way\ ways Anyway No way Always
Wise Like wise Other wise Clock-wise
Types of adverb:
(1) Adverb of Time
(2) Adverb of Place
(3) Adverb of Number
(4) Adverb of Manner
(5) Adverb of Quantity
(6) Adverb of Reason
(7) Adverb of affirmation or Negation
(8) Interrogative Adverbs
(9) Relative adverbs
Adverb of Time:
Adverbs which shows time are called adverbs of time. Adverbs of time answer the
question of when?
Examples:
 She always comes late.
 They will join us tomorrow.
 We want to see you soon.
 Other Examples:
Ago, before, now, late, lately, never, yet, still, then, already, since, daily,
yesterday, today, again, as yet, early, immediately.
Adverb of Place:
Adverbs that show place are called adverbs of place. Adverbs of place answer the
questions where?
Examples:
 Go and stand there.
 She is inside the kitchen.
 God is present everywhere.
 Other examples:
Here, above, aside, around, under, below, backward, forward, up, down,
near, far, away, outside, out, in.
Adverb of Number
Adverbs of Manner show how or in what manner an action is done. Adverbs of
Manner answer the question how or in what manner?

48
Examples:
 Major Aziz Bhatti fought bravely.
 This letter is well written.
 Some came happily and some returned sadly.
 Other examples:
Slowly, quickly, clearly, lazily, soundly, lastly, habitually, legally, newly,
obediently, purely, thus, so, impossibly, terribly, favorably, fortunately.
Adverb of Manner:
Adverbs show how often an action is done. An adverb of manner is also called
adverbs of frequency. Adverbs of numbers answer the question “how often”
Examples:
 Ali always tries to do his best.
 We shall learn this lesson again.
 He often makes mistakes.
 He visits our college once in a week
 Other examples:
Once, twice, thrice, often, seldom, ever, firstly, secondly, always, never,
frequently, occasionally.
Adverb of Quantity:
Adverbs which show quantity or degree of a verb or an adjective are called adverbs
of quantity. An adverb of quantity is also known as adverbs of degree. Adverbs of quantity
answer the question; How much, in what degree or to what extent?
Examples:
 Shahid is quite well.
 Ali is fully prepared.
 We can hardly see in the night.
 She is almost dying.
 Other examples:
Rather, too, full, partly, little, fairly, so, half, somewhat, nearly, very,
almost, enough, as, also, hardly, wholly, entirely, much.
Adverb of Reason:
Adverbs which show reason, effect, result, and cause are called adverbs of reason.
Adverbs of cause answer the question “Why”
Examples:
 The treaty of Hudebai was accordingly terminated.
 The officer is hence unable to refute the charge.
 He therefore left his home.
 Other Examples:
Consequently, still, what, so that, because, wherefore, why, like wise,
how, so, for.
Adverb of affirmation or Negation:
Adverbs which show belief or disbelief, affirmation or negation, are called adverbs
of affirmation or negation.
Examples:
 He certainly went home.
 Surely she is mistaken.
 Yes, he will come soon.
 Ali does not know his whereabouts.
 Other examples:

49
 Yes, perhaps, surely, no doubt, probably, no, truly, not, not at all.
Interrogative Adverbs:
Adverbs which are used for asking questions, are called interrogative adverbs.
Examples:
 When will he come back?
 How often did you see him?
 How far can you swim?

Relative adverbs:
Adverbs which only join or connect two sentences with each other are called
relative adverbs.
Examples:
 Ali does not know where he lives.
 This is how it happened.
 This is the reason why he left.

50
 Preposition and its types:
Definition:
A word placed before noun or pronoun to show its relations to an other word is
called prepositions. A preposition is a word or a group of words placed before nouns or
pronouns to show in what relation a person or thing stands to some thing else, is called
prepositions.
Examples:
 My book is on the table.
 The walked into the class.
 The baby felled onto the ground.
 Kinds of prepositions:
(1) Simple Prepositions:
Simple prepositions are single words prepositions.
Examples:
 His grades are above average.
 The dog entered through the door.
 She is sitting over the fireplace.
 The road is under repair.
 Other examples:
Over, at, in, from, on, to, up, off, after, under, by for, of, out, till, with, through,
past, round, under, up.
(2) Compound Prepositions:
Compound prepositions are formed by prefixing a preposition (Usually a
is equal to no\ not and be is equal to by) to a noun or an adverb., these prepositions
are called compound prepositions. Compound prepositions are more than one word.
Examples:
 He does not care about his job.
 The teacher is among the students.
 Other Examples:
Across, amidst, before, behind, between, beyond, outside, underneath,
above, along, amongst, around, below, beside, beneath, inside, within.
(3) Phrasal Prepositions:
Groups of words used with the force of a single preposition is called phrasal
preposition.
Examples:
 In case of need, phone me on 3229848.
 Owing to his illness, he retired from his job.
 Major Aziz Bhatti died fighting on behalf of his country.
 Other examples:
According to, agreeably to, along with, away from, because of, by dint of,
by means of, by reason of, by virtue of, by way of, for the sake of, in accordance with,
in addition to, in (on) behalf of, in case of, with reference to etc.
 Classification of Prepositions:
(1) Preposition denoting place\ position.
On, in, before, beside, between, after, around, over, under, by, among, across,
along, against, near, through, below.
(2) Prepositions to denote directions:
Into, out of, from\ to, towards, through, by way of.

51
 (3) Preposition denoting time:
(i) Indefinite Prepositions:
Indefinite prepositions denote any limited time.
Examples: Years ago, ages ago, Centuries ago
(ii) Definite prepositions:
Definite prepositions denote exact idea of time.
Examples:
In, on, from, since, about, to, at, for.
 Correct the following Sentences:
1. The man was absorbed at his work.
 The man was absorbed in his work.
2. He accused the man for stealing his bicycle.
 He accused the man of stealing his bicycle.
3. I am accustomed with hot weather.
 I am accustomed to hot weather.
4. The girl is afraid from the dog.
 The girl is afraid of the dog.
5. He aimed on the pigeon.
 He aimed at the pigeon.
6. The teacher was angry against him.
 The teacher was angry with him.
7. They were anxious for his health.
 They were anxious about his health.
8. We arrived to the village at night.
 We arrived at the village at night.
9. He is now ashamed from his conduct.
 He is now ashamed of his conduct.
10. She has benefited from the change.
 She has benefited by the change.
11. He boasted for his riches.
 He boasted of (or about) his riches.
12. He came with the train yesterday.
 He came by the train yesterday.
13. Many people complained for heat.
 Many people complained of heat.
14. All things are composed from cells.
 All things are composed of cells.
15. I have great confidence to him.
 I have great confidence in him.
16. We must confirm with the rules.
 We must confirm to the rules.
17. I congratulate you for your success.
 I congratulate you on your success.
18. A year consists form twelve months.
 A year consists of twelve months.
19. The mountains are covered by snow.
 The mountains are covered with snow.
20. My books are different than yours.
 My books are different from yours.
21. Ali divided the cake in four parts.

52
  Ali divided the cake into four parts.
22. The woman was dressed with black.
 The woman was dressed in black.

 Insert the suitable prepositions:

1. I am good……………………….English.
2. He is interested in…………………………..history.
3. Please don’t interfere……………………………….my personal affairs.
4. Green pepper is very rich……………………………vitamin C.
5. He was embarrassed because everybody was laughing……………………..him.
6. She is obsessed……………………………her project.
7. He is married…………………………Mariam.
8. He does not care………………………………..losing his jobs.
9. I never listen………………………….the radio.
10. I know nothing……………………..the matter.
11. Mexico is……………………………… the south of the United States.
12. Ali is not very good……………………..painting.
13. She has worked in this clinic……………………………2002.
14. My uncle lives……………………786 Fairview Avenue.
15. I don’t think you can finish the work………………………my help.
16. No one knows his address………………………..his daughter.
17. How are you getting along……………………you classmates?
18. Some travellers were sitting………………..the shade……………..thick trees.
19. She takes delight……………………reading light literature.
20. Some fishermen sailed…………………..the shore to catch fish.
21. I hold a pen…………………………my hand.
22. We sleep………………………..peace.
23. May the departed soul rest……………………peace.
24. The Muslims fast……………….dawn.
25. It is none………………………. your business.
26. He drives…………………a high speed.
27. She is fond ……………………… cosmetics.
28. He read a poem word………………..word…………………me.
29. Marco Polo travelled…………………………………the Gobi Desert…………foot.
30. Milk is sold……………….kilo.
Key to above sentences:
1. At, 2. In, 3. In, 4. In, 5. At, 6. With, 7.to, 8. About, 9. To, 10. About, 11. To, 12. At, 13.
Since, 14. At, 15.without, 16. Expect, 17. With, 18. In, of, 19.in, 20.off, 21.in, 22,in, 23,
in, 24. 1t, 25. Of, 26. At, 27. Of, 28. For, to, 29. Across, by, 30. By

53
 Modals and their uses:
 Can:
(i) Can is used to express an ability or power to do a certain things:
(a) Limited to do the present time:
Examples:
 I can write the letter now.
 She can play the sing this time.
(b) Not limited by the time:
Examples:
 She can swim.
 They can help you.
(c) Related to the future:
Examples:
 I can come in the evening.
 Pakistan and India can play game in December 2018
(ii) To express permission in present time:
Examples:
 Can I stay here? Of course, you can.
 Can I borrow your umbrella?
(iii) To express power or order in present:
Examples:
 You cannot leave office early.
 You can drive any car now.
(iv) Can is used in the corresponding interrogative and negative sentences:
Examples:
 Can this be true? No it cannot be true.
 Can he be present in his office? No he cannot be.
 Could:
(i) Could is used to express ability and power to do:
(a) A certain thing in the past:
Examples:
 She could speak English when she was six.
 I could rive the car last year.
(b) To make a polite request:
Examples:
 Could you give me a glass of water?
 Could you pass me the plate of salt?
(c) In conditional sentences:
Examples:
 If I could go there, I would be happy.
 If she could come, she would bring flowers.
(ii) Could is used to express permission in past time:
 May:
(1) May expresses the idea of:
(a) Formal permission:
Examples:
 May I come in sir?
 You may go now.

54
 (b) Offer:
Examples:
 You may stay in college.
 You may drive my car.
(c) Possibility:
Examples:
 It may rain tomorrow.
 He may be at home.
(d) Impossibility:
Examples:
 It may not be true.
 It may not train tomorrow.
(2) To express possibility in affirmative and negative:
Examples:
 It may not rain tomorrow.
 He may not be at home.
 Might:
Might is the past of “May”
 Must:
(1) Must is used to express:
(a) Necessity:
Examples:
 You must improve your spelling.
 He must go now.
(b) Obligation:
Examples:
 We must love our Youngers.
 You must pay your taxes.
(c) Probability:
Examples:
 He must have returned by now.
 Muzamil is absent today. He must be sick.
(2) To express logical certainty.
Examples:
 Living in such crowded conditions must be difficult. (= I am sure it is difficult)
 She m must have left already. (= I am sure she has left already)
(3) Must is often used when the obligation comes from the speaker.
When the obligation comes from somewhere else, have to is often
used: Compare the following sentences:
Examples:
 I must be on a diet. (It is my own idea)
 I have to be on a diet. (The doctor has told me to be on a diet)

55
  Shall:
(1) Shall is used in the first person singular to express pure future.
Examples:
 I shall be thirty-two next birthday.
 When shall we see you again?
(2) Shall is sometimes used in the second and third persons to express
command, a promise, or threat.
Examples:
 He shall not enter my home again. (Command)
 You shall have a holiday tomorrow. (Promise)
 You shall be punished for this. (Threat)

 Should:
(1) Should is used in all persons to express duty or obligation.
Examples:
 We should obey the laws.
 You should keep your promise.
 Children should obey
 You should not tell a lie.
(2) Should is used as the past equivalents of shall.
Examples:
 I expected that I should get a first seat.
(3) In clauses of condition, should is used to express a supposition that
may not be true.
Examples:
 If it should it rain, they will not come.
 If he should see me here, he will be annoyed.
(4) Should is also used as in the examples below.
Examples:
 I should like you to help her. (Should like polite form of request)
 You should have been more careful. (Should + perfect infinitive indicates a past
obligation that was not fulfilled)
(5) Should is used after lest:
Examples:
 Walk carefully lest you should fall.
 Will:
Will is used to express:
(1) Volition:
Examples:
 I will (= am willing to) carry your books.
 I will (= am willing to) try to do better next time.
 I will (= am determined to) succeed or die in attempt.
(2) Characteristics habit:
Examples:
 He will talk about nothing but films.
 She will sit for hours listening to the news

56
 (3) Assumption or probability;
Examples;
 This will be the book that you want, I suppose.
 That will be the postman, she thinks.
(4) Will you? Indicates an invitation or a request:
Examples:
 Will you have a cup of tea?
 Will you lend me your scooter?
 Would:
Would is used to express;
(1) A repeated action in the past:
Examples:
 When I was a child my father would read me stories before going to bed.
(2) In soft statements:
Examples:
 I would like a cup of tea.

(3) Polite requests:

Examples:
 Would you help me please?
 Would you dispatch these letters today.
(4) Would is used as the past equivalents of will:
Examples:
 She said she would carry my books.
 Ought to:
(1) Ought (to) expresses moral obligation or desirability: (Weaker obligations
than must)
Examples:
 We ought to love our neighbors.
 You ought to know better.
 He ought not to agree with the old lady
(2) Ought (to) can also be used to express probability:
Examples:
 Prices ought to come down soon.
 This book ought to be very useful.

57
 Punctuation:
 Use of capitals:
(1) The word of every sentence.
(2) The first word of every line of poetry.
(3) All proper nouns.
(4) Titles of persons, books, newspapers, magazines, poems etc.
 Punctuation Marks:
(1) To mark the close of a sentence.
(2) To mark abbreviation.
 Comma is used:
(1) To separate series of words of the same parts of speech.
Examples:
 The room was decorated with buntings, balloons, charts, maps etc.
 The rich and the poor, the black and the white, the strong and the weak are equal in
the eyes of Allah.
(2) To separate nouns or pronouns in apposition.
Examples:
 Mahmood, Sulatan of Ghazni, Mir Jafar, the great traitor.
(3) To separate Absolute Phrase:
Examples:
 Being hungry, the wolf intended to devour the lamb.
 Having written letter, I mailed it.
(4) To separate co-ordinate clauses;
Examples:
 He came, he saw, he conquered.
(5) To separate certain Adverbs and Adverbial Phrases:
Examples:
 Of course, I know all about him. In fact, I had known all along.
(6) Before and after explanatory phrases.
Examples:
 He was young, say about thirty. His conduct, to tell you the truth, was rather
doubtful.
(7) To indicate the omission and avoid.
Examples:
 I went to Paris, he to London.
(8) To separate noun clauses from one another when they are objects to the
same verb:
Examples:
 Who he is, or where he lives or how he earns his livelihood, is known to us.
(9) To separate an Adverbial Clause from its Principle clause, when the former
precedes the later:
Examples:
 If he invites me, I shall go to attend the party.
 The Semi-Colon:
(1) To separate longer clauses of a compound sentences.
Examples:
 Honesty in thought and act has many advantages; it inspires others with confidence;
it leads to clearness of thought, and it saves one from many errors.
(2) To give greater emphasize to different clauses.

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Examples:
As Caesar loved me, I weep for him; as he was fortunate, I rejoice at it; as he was
valiant, I honor him; but as he was ambitious, I slew him. So there is tears for his love; joy
for his fortunate; honor for his valor and death for his ambition.
 The Colon:
(1) To introduce a quotation or an example and is followed by a dash.
Examples:
(a) The General spoke as follows:--
 I came, I saw, I conquered.
(b) The principal advised the students:--
 Take exercise and prolong your life.
(2) Before sentences which are grammatically independent, but are closely
connected in sense.
Examples:
 His father was a famous man: he was no other than Rustam.
 Sign of exclamation:
It is used after interjections and phrases or sentences expressing
sudden emotion or wish.
Examples:
 Bravo my men! You are sure to win.
 Alas! I have lost my valet.
 Hurrah! We have won the match.
 The inverted commas:
They are used to give exact words of speaker or to enclose a quotation:
Examples:
 “Live and let live”, is a golden principle.
 The dash:
The dash is used to indicate a break or an abrupt change of thought:
Examples:
 He certainly helped me-but it was purely selfish.
 The Hyphen: (-)
It is a shorter line than the dash. It is used to connect the parts of
compound words:
Examples:
 Now-a-days, commander-in-chief, father-in-law
 The Bracket:
It is used to enclose parenthetical clauses in a sentence.
Examples:
 The Holy Prophet (Peace be upon him)

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