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Micro Hydro Power measured in gallons per minute (gpm), cubic feet per
second (cfs), or liters per second (l/s). More head is
usually better because the system uses less water and
in the Nineties the equipment can be smaller. The turbine also runs at
a higher speed. At very high heads, pipe pressure
ratings and pipe joint integrity become problematic.
Paul Cunningham & Barbara Atkinson Since power is the product of head and flow, more flow
is required at lower head to generate the same power
©1994 Paul Cunningham and Barbara Atkinson
level. More flow is better, even if not all of it is used,
icro hydro power was once the
M
since more water can remain in the stream for
world’s prominent source of environmental benefits.
mechanical power for A simple equation estimates output power for a system
with 53% efficiency, which is representative of most
manufacturing. Micro hydro is making a micro hydro systems:
comeback for electricity generation in Net Head* (feet) x Flow (US gpm) / 10 = Output (Watts)
homes. Increasing numbers of small
* Net head is the pressure available after subtracting
hydro systems are being installed in losses from pipe friction. Most hydro systems are
remote sites in North America. There’s limited in output capacity by stream conditions. That is,
they cannot be expanded indefinitely like a wind or PV
also a growing market for micro hydro system. This means that the sizing procedure may be
electricity in developing countries. This based on site conditions rather than power needs. The
article is a technical over-view. size and/or type of system components may vary
greatly from site to site. System capacity may be
Micro hydro power is gradually assuming the dictated by specific circumstances (e.g. water dries up
decentralized form it once had. Water power predates in the summer). If insufficient potential is available to
the use of electricity. At one time hydro power was generate the power necessary to operate the average
employed on many sites in Europe and North America. load, you must use appliances that are more energy-
It was primarily used to grind grain where water had a efficient and/or add other forms of generation
vertical drop of more than a few feet and sufficient flow. equipment to the system. Hybrid wind/PV/hydro
Less common, but of no less importance, was the use systems are very successful and the energy sources
of hydro to provide shaft power for textile plants, complement each other.
sawmills and other manufacturing operations.
The systems described here are called “run of river”;
Over time thousands of small mills were replaced by i.e. water not stored behind a dam (see HP#8). Only an
centrally-generated electric power. Many major impoundment of sufficient size to direct the water into
hydroelectric projects were developed using large the pipeline is required. Power is generated at a
dams, generating several megaWatts of power. In constant rate; if not used, it is stored in batteries or sent
many areas, hydro electric power is still used on a to a shunt load. Therefore, there is little environmental
small scale and is arguably the most cost-effective form impact since minimal water is used. There is also much
of energy. less regulatory complication.
Renewable energy sources such as wind and solar are System Types
being scaled up from residential to electric utility size. If electric heating loads are excluded, 300-400 Watts of
In contrast, hydro power is being scaled down to continuous output can power a typical North American
residential size. The small machines are similar in most house. This includes a refrigerator/freezer, washing
ways to the large ones except for their scale. machine, lights, entertainment and communication
equipment, all of standard efficiency. With energy-
Siting
efficient appliances and lights and careful use
A hydro system is much more site-specific than a wind
management, it is possible to reduce the average
or photovoltaic (PV — solar electric) system. A
demand to about 200 Watts continuous.
sufficient quantity of falling water must be available.
The vertical distance the water falls is called head and Power can be supplied by a micro hydro system in two
is usually measured in feet, meters, or units of ways. In a battery-based system, power is generated at
pressure. The quantity of water is called flow and is a level equal to the average demand and stored in
DEFINITIONS
Power = the rate of doing work (Watts or
horsepower)
1 Watt = 1 Volt x 1 Ampere
1 horsepower = 746 Watts
1000 Watts consumed for one hour = one
kiloWatt-hour (the unit used on utility bills).
Power is measured in Watts and energy is
measured in Watt-hours.
Example: a 100 Watt light bulb uses power at the
rate of 100 Watts. During a period of 10 hours, it
Above: Building a weir to measure a stream’s flow. consumes 100 Watts x 10 hours = 1000 Watt-
hours or one kiloWatt-hour of electricity.
batteries. Batteries can supply power as needed at
levels much higher than that generated and during
times of low demand the excess can be stored. If used if the power level or transmission distance is
enough energy is available from the water, an AC- greater. If all of the loads are inverter-powered the
direct system can generate power as alternating battery voltage is independent of the inverter output
current (AC). This system typically requires a much voltage and voltages of 48 or 120 may be used to
higher power level than the battery-based system. overcome long transmission distances. Although
batteries and inverters can be specified for these
Battery-Based Systems
voltages, it is common to convert the high voltage back
Most home power systems are battery-based. They
down to 12 or 24 Volts (battery voltage) using
require far less water than AC systems and are usually
transformers or solid state converters. Articles on this
less expensive. Because the energy is stored in
subject appeared in Home Power #17 and #28.
batteries, the generator can be shut down for servicing
without interrupting the power delivered to the loads. Wind or solar power sources can assist in power
Since only the average load needs to be generated in production because batteries are used. Also, DC loads
this type of system, the pipeline, turbine, generator and (appliances or lights designed for DC) can be operated
other components can be much smaller than those in directly from the batteries. DC versions of many
an AC system. appliances are available, although they often cost more
and are harder to find, and in some cases, quality and
Very reliable inverters are available to convert DC
performance vary.
battery power into AC output (120 volt, 60 Hz). These
are used to power most or all home appliances. This
makes it possible to have a system that is nearly
Below: Diagram of a typical battery-based system:
indistinguishable from a house using utility power.
The input Optional
Battery AC
voltage to the Generator Transformer Inverter
Bank Loads
batteries in a or LCB
battery-based
s y s t e m
c o m m o n l y
ranges from 12
Overcharge DC
to 48 Volts DC. If
Controller Loads
the transmission
distance is not
great then 12
Volts is often
high enough. A Shunt
24 Volt system is Loads
AC-Direct Systems
Optional Optiional AC
This is the system type used by Generator
Transformer Transformer Loads
utilities. It can also be used on a
home power scale under the right
conditions. In an AC system,
there is no battery storage. This
means that the generator must
Volts / Hz.
be capable of supplying the
Regulator
instantaneous demand, including
the peak load. The most difficult
load is the short-duration power
surge drawn by an induction
motor found in refrigerators, Shunt
freezers, washing machines, Loads
some power tools and other
appliances. Even though the
running load of an induction motor may be only a few Above: AC direct micro hydro block diagram and photo
hundred Watts, the starting load may be 3 to 7 times of an AC induction micro hydro turbine.
this level or several kiloWatts. Since other appliances
may also be operating at the same time, a minimum
power level of 2 to 3 kiloWatts may be required for an It is important to use a pipeline of sufficiently large
AC system, depending on the nature of the loads. diameter to minimize friction losses from the moving
water. When possible, the pipeline should be buried.
In a typical AC system, an electronic controller keeps
This stabilizes the pipe and prevents critters from
voltage and frequency within certain limits. The hydro’s
chewing it. Pipelines are usually made from PVC or
output is monitored and any unused power is
polyethylene although metal or concrete pipes can also
transferred to a “shunt” load, such as a hot water
be used. The article on hydro system siting in Home
heater. The controller acts like an automatic dimmer
switch that monitors the generator output frequency
Power #8 describes pipe sizing.
cycle by cycle and diverts power to the shunt load(s) in Turbines
order to maintain a constant speed or load balance on Although traditional waterwheels of various types have
the generator. There is almost always enough excess been used for centuries, they aren’t usually suitable for
power from this type of system to heat domestic hot generating electricity. They are heavy, large and turn at
water and provide some, if not all, of a home’s space low speeds. They require complex gearing to reach
heating. Examples of AC-direct systems are described speeds to run an electric generator. They also have
in Home Power #25 and #33. icing problems in cold climates. Water turbines rotate at
System Components higher speeds, are lighter and more compact. Turbines
are more appropriate for electricity generation and are
An intake collects the water and a pipeline delivers it to
usually more efficient.
the turbine. The turbine converts the water’s energy
into mechanical shaft power. The turbine drives the There are two basic kinds of turbines: impulse and
generator which converts shaft power into electricity. In reaction.
an AC system, this power goes directly to the loads. In
Impulse machines use a
a battery-based system, the power is stored in
nozzle at the end of the
batteries, which feed the loads as needed. Controllers
pipeline that converts
may be required to regulate the system.
the water under
Pipeline pressure into a fast-
Most hydro systems require a pipeline to feed water to Above: Pelton runner.
moving jet. This jet is
the turbine. The exception is a propeller machine with then directed at the
an open intake. The water should pass first through a turbine wheel (also
simple filter to block debris that may clog or damage called the runner),
the machine. The intake should be placed off to the which is designed to
side of the main water flow to protect it from the direct convert as much of the
force of the water and debris during high flows. jet’s kinetic energy as
possible into shaft Above: Turgo runner.
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