B.SN.L Intern

NISHANT KAMAL 15BEE0247 BHARAT SANCHAR NIGAM L.T.
Acknowledgement
I acknowledge my gratitude and thank to all the well knowledge persons for
giving me opportunity to avail all the best facilities available at this telecom
Centre through which I have gained knowledge thinking so as too just in the
environment suitable for harmonic adjustment. I am grateful to the following
persons for various help rendered by them during the training period.
Mr. A.K. Shukla JTO
Finally, a deep thanks to
Mr Salan Singh SDE
Last but not the least; I thank my teacher, friends and my family members for
their constant encouragement.
NISHANT KAMAL 15BEE0247 BHARAT SANCHAR NIGAM L.T.D
PREFACE
Since time immemorial, a man has tried hard to bring the world as close to
himself as possible. His thirst for information is hard to quench so he has
continuously tried to develop new technologies, which have helped to reach the
objective.
The world we see today is a result of the continuous research in the field of
communication, which started with the invention of telephone by Grahm Bell to
the current avtar as we see in the form INTERNET and mobile phones. All
these technologies have come to existence because man continued its endeavor
towards the objective.
This project report of mine, STUDY OF TRENDS TECHNOLOGIES IN

COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING has been a small effort in
reviewing the trends technologies prevailing. For this purpose, no organization
other than BAHRAT SANCHAR NIGAM LIMITED could have been a better
choice.
Table of contents
1. Acknowledgement
2. Preface
3. Table of contents
4. Introduction
5. making a telephone call
6. About the exchange
a. computer unit
b. power plant
c. central air conditioner
d. main distribution frame
7. V-SAT network
a. Design aspects
b. Operational factors
8. Types of access V-SAT networks
a. fixed assignment time division multiple access
(F-TDMA)
b. Random access
c. Code division multiple access (CDMA)
9. The Internet
a. Introduction
b. Internet connectivity
c.OSI model
d. Communication b\w the layers
e. File transfer the internet
f. National internet backbone
10. Wireless in local loop
a. Technical aspects
b. Advantages
11. Global system for mobile communication (GSM)
BHARAT SANCHAR NIGAM LIMITED (BSNL)
An Introduction:-
Today, BSNL is the No. 1 telecommunication company and the largest public
sector undertaking of India and its responsibilities includes improvement of the
already impeccable quality of telecom services, expansion of telecom services
in all villages and instilling confidence among its customers. It is fourth largest
department of Telecommunication Company in Asia and seventh in world
today Bharat Sanchar Nigam Ltd. formed in October, 2000. It is a telecom
company providing comprehensive range of telecom services in India: Wire
line, CDMA mobile, GSM Mobile, Internet, Broadband, Carrier service, MPLS-
VPN, VSAT, VoIP services, IN Services etc. BSNL has installed Quality
Telecom Network in the country and now focusing on improving it, expanding
the network and introducing new telecom services
Apart from vast network expansions, especial emphasis has given for
introducing latest technologies and new services like I-NET, INTERNET, ISDN
(INTEGRATED SERVICES DIGITAL NETWORK), IN (INTELLIGENT
NETWORK), GSM and WLL (WIRELESS IN LOCAL LOOP) services etc.
Now BSNL has also entered in mobile communication. BSNL has all the new
services send technological advantages, which are available with any well,
developed Telecom network anywhere else in the country.Full credit for all
above achievement goes to the officers and staff of the BSNL. The
administration is fully aware of the challenges lying ahead and quite committed
to provide the latest and best telecom services by their continued support and
active co-operation.Above more than 3 laces employees, officer and engineers
working in BSNL at present.Today, it has about 47.3 million line basic
telephone capacity 20.1 Million GSM Capacity(CellOne) garnering 24 percent
of all mobile users as its subscribers. That means that almost every fourth
mobile user in the country has a BSNL connection.4 million WLL capacity
More than 37382 fixed exchanges 18000 BTS 287 Satellite Stations 480196
Rkm of OFC Cable 63730 Rkm of Microwave Network connecting Spread in
602 Districts, 7330 cities/towns and 5.5 Lakhs villagesThe company has vast
experience in Planning, Installation, network integration and Maintenance of
Switching & Transmission Networks and also has a world class ISO 9000
certified Telecom Training Institute.
Financial Position
Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited, the largest Public Sector Undertaking of the
Nation, is certainly on a financial ground that's sound.Scaling new heights of
success, the present turnover of BSNL is more than Rs.351,820 million (US $ 8
billion) with net profit to the tune of Rs.99,390 million (US $ 2.26 billion) for
last financial year.
Conclusion
The turnover, nationwide coverage, comprehensive range of telecom services
and the desire to excel has made BSNL the No. 1 Telecom Company of India.
VISION
To become the largest telecom Service Provider in Asia
MISSION
To provide world class telecom services to its customers on demand at
competitive prices.To Provide world class telecom infrastructure in its area of
operation and to contribute to the growth of the country's economy
Headquarters-Delhi Area, India
Industry-Telecommunications
Type-Public Company
Status-Operating
Company Size-more than 3 laces employees
Founded-2000
Top Locations-Chandīgarh Area, India (35),Delhi Area,India (75),Bangalore
Area,India (34)
BSNL Services:-
When it comes connecting the four corners of the country , and much beyond ,
one solitary name lies embedded at the pinnacle- BSNL. A company that has
gone past the number games and the quest to attain the position of the leader. It
is working round the clock to take India in to the future by providing excellent
telecom services for people of India.Driven by the very best of telecom
technology from global leaders, it connects each inch of India to the infinite
corners of the globe, to enable you to step in to tomorrow.
The telecom services have been recognized the world over as an important tool
for socio-economic development for a nation and hence telecom infrastructure
is treated a crucial factor to realize the socio-economic objectives in India.
Accordingly the Department of Telecom has been formulating developmental
policies for the accelerated growth of the telecommunication services in various

cities. The department is also responsible for frequency management in the field
of radio connection in close coordination with the international bodies.
MAKING A TELEPHONE CALL

A telephone call starts when the caller lifts the handsets of the base. Once the
dial tone is heard, the caller uses a rotary or a push button dial mounted either
on the handset or on the base to enter a sequence of digits, the telephone number
of called party. The switching equipment from the exchange removes the dial
tone from the line after the first digit is received and after receiving the last
digit, determines the called party is in the same exchange or a different ones. If
the called is in the same exchange, burst of ringing current is applied to the
called party’s line. Each telephone contains a ringer that responds to specific
electric frequency. When the called party answers the telephone by pocking up
the handset, steady start to flow in the called party’s line and is detected by the
exchange. The exchange than stops applying ringing and sets up the connection
between the caller and the called party. If the called party is in different
exchange from the caller, the caller exchange set up the connection over the
telephone network to the called party’s exchange. The called party then handles
the process of ringing, detecting an answer, and notifying the calling and billing
machinery when the call is completed. When conversation is over, one or both
parties hang up by replacing their handset on the base, stopping the flow of
current. The exchange when initiates the process of taking down the connection,
including notifying billing equipment of the duration of the call if appropriate.
Basic Concept:
1. Switching equipment:
Equipment which effects interconnected of telephones is known as switching
equipment. Basically it is a device or a system that connects one telephone line
to another so that 2 or more people can have a conversation over their respective
telephones or so that your computer’s modem can connect to a remote modem
such as a remote modem owned by an ISP (internet service provider ) which in
turn connects you to the internet.
2. Telephone exchange:
The switching centre, which houses the terminating and switching equipment is
called telephone exchange.
EXCHANGE LAYOUT:
Typical exchange consists of:
 Switch Room
 Operations and Maintenance (OMC) Room
 Input Output processor (IOP) Room
 Power Plant Room
 Battery Room
 Main Distribution Frame (MDF) Room
ABOUT THE EXCHANGE
All telephone subscribers are served by automatic exchanges, which perform

the functions the human operator. The number being dialed is stored and then
passed to the exchange’s central computer, which in turns operates the
switching to complete the call or routes it a higher level switch for further
processing. Today’s automatic exchanges uses a pair of computers, one running
the program that provides services and the second monitoring the operation of
the first, ready to take over in a few seconds in the event of equipment failure.
Various exchanges present in BSNL are:
E-10B
OCB283
EWSD
All exchange has some purposes and some basic structural units, which are:
1. subscribers connection unit

2. switching network (CX)
3. control unit
4. OMC
For smooth working of an exchange following unit are very important:-
1. Computer Unit: - it deals with additional services of the exchange to the

customers with the help of computers.
2. Power Plant:- to feed proper power supply to exchange

3. AC Plant: - to maintain the continuous temperature + or – 2 degree Celsius to

the digital switch (exchange).
4. MDF: - to connect switch (exchange) with the external environment

(subscriber) i.e. it is the interface between subscribers and exchange.
Computer unit
As the name specified it is the main part of the exchange that deals with the all
services provided by the exchange to the customers with the help of computer.
It also provides the updated data to all other part of the exchange.
The customers are using the services of the exchange by using the internet also
gets connected to the main server present this room via an internet room.
It mainly consists of the servers that are providing the different services. The
main servers of this room are:-
IVRS is used for the change number services provided by the exchange.
CERS are provided by the exchange to avoid the problems that the users are
facing the repairing of telephone. In this system when the user enters it’s
complained it gets directly entered to the server and user is allotted with an id
number.
LOCAL DIRECTORY ENQUIRY is another services provided by the

exchange, by using this; subscribers calls the particular number and gets the
directory enquiry. The server present in the main computer room provides this
service.
INTERNET DIRECTORY ENQUIRY is the latest service by the exchange. In

this type of service makes it enquiry using the internet, which gets connected to
the main server at the internet room in the exchange and further to the main
server in the computer room.
POWERPLANT
As we know that, the power is the main source or any organization. It is the case
of E-10B exchange. That is the first requirement of any organization is the
input.
The main source of this exchange is AC supply. However, as soon as the power
supply is gone off, then what is source? No one think on this that the telephone
is always plays its role in the human life. Even if the power supply gone off.
Thus there must be adjustment source of power.
The main parts of the power room are:
Batteries: - these are the instant sources of the power as soon as power is gone
off.
UPS (Uninterrupted Power Supply):- the UPS must give supply to the
computer. As we know there is some equipment which can withstand any type
of power supply, but there are also some instruments which cannot withstand
with this type of power supply, even a microsecond delay will cause the loss of
data.
Charging- Discharging Unit: - the batteries we are using in the power room
need timely charging. As soon as the AC power supply is on, we make use of
the charging unit present in the power room. The slowly charging of the
batteries is known as the trickle charging. But sometimes we need the
BOOSTER charging. In this type of charging awe take of the batteries from the
load and charge separately, until it gets fully charged.
The main work of the discharging unit is to control the discharging of the
batteries.
Inverter and Converter Unit: - the main use of this system is to change AC
mains to DC and vice versa as required by the parts of exchange.
Engine Room:-we know that the batteries are the instant source of supply but
we cannot use it for much larger time, thus for this, we have an engine to
generate the power supply. They are of 885 KVA. Thus, this room controls the
supply of the engine.
CENTRAL AIR CONDITIONER
For the function of electrical equipment, cooling system is basic requirement.

The basic advantages of cooling systems are following-
It provides the thermal stability so that the temperature does not reach the
tolerance limit of electronic equipment
It saves equipment from dust so to avoid malfunction of equipment’s.
It protects equipment from excess humidity which can caused rusting of
equipment.
The basic unit of measurement used in the industry is known as “ton of

refrigeration” (TR) which is equivalent to the heat extracted in 24 hours for
converting thousands kg of liquid to ice at zero degree.
The compressor is the heart of the AC system and the costliest. It increases the
pressure and temperature of the refrigerant gas coming from the evaporator
coils by compressing it.
Compressor comes in various types. The most widely used is simple reciprocal
type a cylinder and piston arrangement. For capacity more than 120 TR,
centrifugal compressors are used. The condenser liquefies the refrigerant gas by
a heat exchange process. The capillary tube or the expansion valve pressurizes
liquid refrigerant and meters it flows to the evaporator.
The refrigerant then passes trough the evaporator coils, which extract heat out
of the ambience.
MAIN DISTRIBUTION FRAME

To connect switch (exchange) with the external environment (subscriber) i.e. it
is the interface between subscribers and exchange.
The switching equipment, common to all the subscribers of the area is located
in an exchange. To make possible for a subscriber to communicate with
remaining subscribers, telephone of each and every subscriber must be
connected to the exchange. The function of MDF is to provide a means for
connecting side is terminated at OCB where the switching take place. From
OCB, through PCM connected to various sections like WLL, TAX etc.
FUNCTION OF MDF :
A fixed means of terminating the external cables.
A means for mounting the protective devices for incoming circuits.
A convenient point of interception for locating of faults.
A means for cross connecting the external circuits to the appropriate internal
circuits.
The primary function of MDF is to remove fault. It is also known as Fault
Remove Section.
The telephone numbers are also disconnected in the MDF because of some
specific reason.
A line from the subscriber’s telephone set involves:

• Subscribers House wiring
• Overhead wires
• Cable Distribution Point
• Underground cables
• Exchange Main Distribution Frame
From the subscriber’s house wiring, the line is brought on overhead wires to a
point called distribution point(DP). From the DP, the pairs are extended to the
exchange through underground distribution cables, secondary cables and
primary cables. At the exchange are brought through underground cables to
cable chamber. In the cable chambers, they are jointed to PVC cables for
terminating at MDF. This frame incorporates protecting devices and provides
for a flexible arrangement for connecting subscriber’s lines to exchange
equipments.
SUBSCRIBERS HOUSE WIRING :
PVC aluminum twin wire 1or1.12 mm is used for wiring at subscriber’s house.
Protective devices are not necessary at the subscriber’s premises as per present
standards.
UNDERGROUND CABLES :
The underground cables laid at a depth to 2.5 feet
below the ground level connect the DP post to the exchange MDF. The cabinets
and pillars included in the cable network provide flexible arrangement of
interconnection between various sizes of cables.
The MDF is properly earthed for the protection of the equipment. The external
pairs are area wise terminated on the line side of the frame, while connection
from the equipment is done on the exchange side in a numerical order. By
interconnections at this frame with the help of jumper wires, any subscriber in
any area can be given any exchange number. This MDF mounts Delay Fuses
Address Scheme :
MDF has many tag blocks of 100 and that numbered from 1 to 100.
In a tag block, there are 128 pair wire theoretically. Therefore, total number
of connecting wires are 1024 theoretically. But in practical, there are only 1000
pairs.
For equipment side: From ground, a single pair of 400 wires originates, which
is divided in 4 pairs of 100 wires. Practically, each pair is provided with 102
wires. These exact 2 wires are used in case of any manufacturing defect.
For broadband connections, different colored tag blocks are provided.
Broadband is used to provide different facilities on land-line phones with high
speed to access them. A grey colored tag block is used for line
side while yellow colored tag block is used on equipment side. These tag
blocks has 0 to 47 pairs.
In order to know the centre load point: Cabinet and pillar are provided with
capacity as per requirement. The D.P. box is provided with 10 or 20 or 5 pairs.
Now a days, a D.P. box of 5 pairs is used which is wall mount instead of being
mounted on pole.
To identify any telephone, we require the following two addresses:-
1. Exchange/line address
2. Equipment address
Exchange address is written in given manner:
Vertical number--Tag block number--Pair number
For example 7-5-15
Here, Vertical no.=7
Tag block no.=5
Pair no.=15
This gives the address of a telephone in the exchange.
Equipment address is given as:-

Rack number-Tag block number-pair number
For example7-6-87
Here, Rack no.=7
Tag block no.=6
Pair no.=87
This gives the information about the actual location of telephone equipment.
This address is provided to lineman for repairing, in case of any fault.
There is another section of fault repairing located in MDF section. When
subscriber’s phone is not working, then subscriber calls to exchange. For this he
dials, 198.
At other side in exchange anyone on computer feeds
subscriber detail and phone number.
Further system is fully computerized. Computers do the
testing of line and gives fault at its output. Then fault is given to
lineman of that area. He checks out the lines of that area and removes
the fault. After this, he informs to the exchange that the line is OK and
then the exchange informs the subscriber at their phone number, that
there telephone is working now.
N.E.: The word NE stands for the ‘NUMBER OF EQUIPMENT’ .It is used
for testing number.
WEDGE: Wedge is used as a device for checking the ring.
Wedge is placed in jack strips, which is connected to telephonefor checking.
CONSTRUCTION OF M.D.F:-
Main distribution frame is mainly divided in two parts.
(1) Vertical Side or Line side.
(2) LEN side or Exchange side.
Vertical Side or Line side:
All the part from vertical side to the subscriber is generally

called outdoor section.
1. One Vertical has 10 tag blocks.
2. Each Tag block has 10 rows
3. Each Row has 10 tags.
So finally, each tag block has 100 tags.
4. Connection between vertical side & subscribers are provided by Jelly filled
cables.
5. These wires are first terminated in Cabinet box, then according to
requirements the group of the wires (e.g. 200 wires, 100 wires etc.) is
terminated in Pillar box.
LEN side or Exchange side:
All the parts from LEN to the exchange are called indoor section. The
connection of subscriber from exchange is terminated on this side of MDF.
1. In 1 Tag block there are 128 tags.
2. Each tag block is divided in 4 Segments. That is 0, 1, 2 & 3 and in each
segments.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF FAULTS:
1. LOOP FAULTIf two wires are joined together because of improper

connection, storming air etc.
2. EARTH FAULT:-If two wires get scrape at some places and if this wire
comes in contact with tree, pillar or any metal objects then this type of fault
occurs.
3. CABLE FAULT:-For outdoor connections, jelly filled wires are used which
are affected by natural causes such as rain, earthquake etc. At such time this
fault occurs.
4. DISCONNECT FAULT:-This type of fault occurs due to the breaking of
wires between the vertical side & LEN side.
PROTECTIVE DEVICES USED IN M.D.F:
Comprehensive protection against effects of lightning and power line contacts
is achieved in practice by fuses, arresters and heat coils. They are not affected
by normal speech and signaling voltage and current but operates when the
foreign voltage or current on the line is excessive. The line is then disconnected
automatically from the equipment.
For safety precautions fuses are used. Every subscriber line has individual
fuse. These fuses are made of GD (gas discharge) tube, which are connected in
parallel. These fuses have two sides, one is exchange side and other is
subscriber side.
Connections between the different tag blocks are made using the Jumper
wires of red and white colours.
GD tubes are connected in parallel while Electrical fuses are connected in
series.
In electrical fuse, when high voltage appears across it, then it will break up
the connection and thus safeguard the system.
If GD tube is connected in series, then due to high voltage across any line, the
whole exchange will be disconnected. Thus when GD tubes are connected in
parallel, it will provide the required facility.
In case of heavy lightning discharges, gas discharge protectors are used and
more consistent voltage is obtained. The gas discharge protector essentially
consists of two tungsten electrodes sealed in a special glass envelope containing
a mixture of inert gases, mainly neon. One of the electrodes are for connections
to the lines and the other is the earth electrode.
If the potential difference across the electrodes rises to a certain critical
value(the striking value) the gas is ionized and becomes conducting. This
condition will continue till the potential difference across the electrodes falls to
the extinction voltage value. For voltages less than striking value it will not
conduct. For normal operating voltages on the lines, it offers extremely high
impedance and thus does not introduce any transmission loss.
The primary function of MDF is:

The fault of telephone number is removed in the MDF; it is called as Fault
Remove Section.
For removing the fault of telephone number, we use the testing

These testing are T.T.Y. testing, Group testing, etc.
For any type of testing firstly we need the vertical no. or the live tester, printer
and computer test N.E. number of that particular telephone number.
The telephone numbers are also disconnected in the MDF because of some
specific reason.
ORGANISATION OF THE MDF//PARTS OF THE MDF
Horizontal side
Vertical side
HORIZONTAL SIDE:
It is again subdivided in to two parts
Exchange side
Line side
Description of the horizontal side:-
RACK: - On the rack, the tags are situated. One rack is having eight tags. The
courting is done from up (0) to down (7).
TAG: - Each rack consists of eight tags.

1 tag = 4 core
1 core = 4 bunch
1 bunch = 2 line
N.E.:- The word NE stands for the ‘NUMBER OF EQUIPMENT’.

It is a 128 pair cable. The EWSD and MDF connected by NE.
WEDGE:-If we want to disconnect any two numbers then we insert a wedge

between subscriber side and exchange side. Here wedge works as insulator
made of plastic.
VERTICAL SIDE:
The vertical aside connected to the underground cable. This cable is having 100
pairs.
These pair is distributed when we allot the telephone number to the subscriber.
Vertical side is again subdivided in two parts:
One part is connected with the horizontal side and another with the subscriber
line by using 100 pair underground cable.
This is how the present day telephone system works. Different exchanges have
different architectures of switching call routing and other features.
Now let us see how BSNL has kept up with the changing world and provided
the subscribers with the latest facilities technologies, which include the V-SAT
network, Internet, the WLL (wireless in local loop) and the GSM mobile.
V-SAT NETWORK
What is V-SAT?
It can be defined as a class of very small aperture Intelligent Satellite Earth
Station suitable for easy on-premise installation, usually operating in
conjugation with a large size HUB earth station. Capable of supporting a wide
range of two ways integrated Telecom Services.
It has the following components:
Micro Earth Station
Mini Earth Station
Personal Earth Station
Roof Top Terminal
Customer Premises Terminal
ADVANTAGES OF V-SAT
Can be located in the user premises on roof top or backyard and hence eliminate
last mile problem.
Superior quality satellite based data services.
Quick implementation time.
Reliable communication.
Broadcast feature on satellite communication.
Communication to different areas.
Flexibility for network and changes.
Service in distance insensitive.
Low cost.
REASON FOR V-SAT EVOLUTION

The main reason for V-SAT evolution is due to advances in following areas:
Packet transmission and switching.
Efficient multiple access protocol.
Powerful microprocessor.
KU and RF electronics.
Antennae miniaturization
Spread spectrum techniques.
Protocol standardization and implementation.
LSI based FEC codec has and modems.
Higher power satellites.
CLASSIFICATION OF V-SATs
V-SAT can be classified as following:

1. Modulation type
2. Application used for.
3. Transmission rate.
4. Cost.
CATEGORIES OF V-SATs
1. Broadcast/ point to multipoint

Types of services
a. Broadcast video
b. Program quality audio.
c. Packetised data.
In this mode of operation V-SATs transmit/receive data through a centralized
HUB. This type of network is called star network.
2. Point to point
Types of services
a. Voice
b. Data
c. Image
In this mode of operation, V-SATs transmit/receive data without the help of hub
station. This type of network is called a mesh network.
3. Two way interactive
Types of services
a. Voice
b. Data
c. Image
In this configuration, V-SATs can communicate both on star as well as mesh
topology.
DESIGN FACTORS FOR V-SAT SYSTEMS

The capabilities of V-SAT system depend upon the following factors.
I. Satellite characteristics
II. Geographical and environmental factors.
III. Transmission link properties.
IV. Earth station characteristics.
V. Information encoding and modulation.
VI. Total system operation.
When evaluating V-SAT system each of the above attributes should be given
attention. However, few of more important attributes are
Operational aspects
Frequency bands
Satellite access methods
OPERATIONAL ASPECTS
Considering a V-SAT system from its operational aspects, there are five broad
functions that determines how the system works. These are:
Bandwidth allocation
Multiplexing
Network management
Protocol handling
Transmission
TYPE OF ACCESS FOR V-SAT DATA NETWORK

There are three types access available for V-SAT data networks. They are:
1. Fixed assignment time division multiple access (F-TDMA)
2. Random access
a. Pure aloha
b. Slotted aloha
c. Reservation
i. Implicit
ii. Explicit
3. code division multiple access (CDMA)
FIXED ASSIGNMENT TIME DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS (F-

TDMA)
In a fixed assignment TDMA, each frame is divided in to slots of fixed time
durations among stations of network. The assignment of stations to slots is
permanent similar to TDMA system carrying digitalized voice except FTDMA
does not have synchronization. Packets are sent asynchronously, with no frame
sync signals.
FEATURES
No inter modulation problems.
Transport utilization is better.
Burst from different stations must arrive at satellite exactly in allocated slots.
Throughput is 70% to 80%
Delay – medium is too high.
Complexity-medium.
RANDOM ACCESS
With TDMA schemes, signals are transmitted by earth stations in a burst mode.
If no scheduling is provided b/w the transmitting station, this type of access is
called time random multiple access. This simplest method for the stations to
transmit burst without regard for other station.
Random access id of two types:

Pure aloha
Slotted aloha
PURE ALOHA
Pure aloha, also called unslotted aloha is the simplest form of random access
schema.
In this form of access stations transmit packets\bursts randomly.
Packet from different stations may collide, thereby destroying information
content.
Station transmits the packet until they are received correctly.
The aloha channel throughout can be analyzed in terms of traffic offered
through the following relationship:
S=Ge-2g
Maximum throughput is 13% to 18%.
Delay- low
Complexity- very low
SLOTTED ALOHA
The maximum throughput of an unslotted aloha channel is limited to 18% due
to collision.
To reduce probability of each collision time slots are introduced so that the
transmission could only at the start of the slots.
The above network discipline reduces the rate of collision by half and hence
increases the maximum throughput efficiency of the channel.
In S-Aloha, each station has 2 queues.
a. New packet queue
b. Retransmit packet queue.
Only if the retransmit packet queue is empty, a new packet queue is sent.
The analysis of slotted aloha channel shows that
S = Ge2g
Maximum channel throughput is 36%.
Delay- low.
Complexity- low- medium.
Reservation
The low bandwidth utilization of pure aloha and the slotted aloha has led to
many proposals for increasing utilization by means of slot reservation schemes.
The object of slot reservation schemes is to receive a particular time slot for a
given station. This ensures that no collision takes place.
This scheme has a higher throughput than either S- Aloha or F-TDMA
depending on traffic.
This increase in channel utilization efficiency is obtained at some overhead
either in terms of allocation of bandwidth for reservation purposes and\or
increased complexity of the control mechanism in transmitting stations.
All reservation methods use some form of framing approach and the reservation
scheme can be either implicit or explicit.
The implicit reservation method involves reservation by use. This is done
whenever a station successfully transmit in a slot; all the stations internally
assign that slot in sub-segment frames for exclusive use by the successful
station. This is called R-Aloha. In this there is no way to prevent a station
capturing most or all of the slots in a frame for an indefinite time.
The explicit reservation is a distinct and unique assignment of slots to a user by
the network scheduler.
CODE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS (CDMA)

With CDMA transmission from earth station are spread over the time frequency
plane by a code transformation. These techniques are referred to as Spread
Spectrum Systems. In addition to their multiple access capabilities, they are
useful in combating jamming, and are for this reason principally used in
military systems.
Features
All stations operate on the same transponder frequency using a large bandwidth
than needed for the data rate.
Network needs no time for frequency coordination.
Provide anti jam capabilities or protection against interference.
Provide for a graceful degradation of network performance as the number of
simultaneous users increases.
Low spectral density compared to conventional emissions.
It yields same capacity as FDMA.
Limitations of CDMA
Require large transponder ratio.
Due to imperfect code Orthogonalities , expected simultaneous users may be
limited.
Requires a highly central earth station called HUB using star configuration.
VSAT technology using SSMA is presently available only for low bit rate
application.
VSAT NETWORK IN DOT

Department of telecommunication entered the VSAT era in 1991 by
commissioning its first satellite based low bit rate network known as REMOTE
AREA BUSINESS MESSAGE NETWORK (RABMN).
This has been engineered for users located in remote areas for stable and
reliable data communication.
This service envisages installation of very small aperture terminals (VSAT) to
work with satellite based pocket switched network.
It has 3 main components:-

A large master earth station (hub)
A satellite transponder located in geo stationary orbit
A small micro earth station located at user’s premises
SERVICES OFFERED BY RABM NETWORK:-

Data communication up to 1200 bps
Fax services.
Access to Public Telex Network
Access to international data network through VSNL gateway.
Tariff and billing:-

A RABMN customer availabling VSAT has to pay the following charges:-
Registration charge Rs. 5000 per terminal
Cost of each VSAT Rs. 5.2 lakhs
Cost of each installation Rs. 15,000 per terminal
License fees Rs. 100 per terminal
Maintenance charges Rs. 25,000 per terminal annually
Satellite access charges Rs. 5000 per month per terminal
Traffic charges Rs. 50 per kilo segment of data
Network users:
Some of the probable users are
Banking network
Civil aviation
Airlines\railways
Public\private sector industries
Meteorological department
Police department
RABMN NETWORK
Introduction
Satellite communication plays a vital role in long distance communication.

Satellite medium offers high bandwidth making it suitable for data
communication and computer networking.
Satellite communication is of distance and cost effective.
Multi access nature of satellites.
Provides two way communications.
Dynamic assignment of channels between geographically dispersed users.
Satellite network provides point to point and point to multipoint communication
needs.
Frequency division multiple access (FDMA):-

Bandwidth is split in to narrow frequency bands with multiple users each
allocated a frequency range within the larger bandwidth.
Time division multiple access (TDMA):-
Each terminal is allotted a short time slot in which to transmit on a sequential
basis. This time slot is usually a fraction of a second.
Code division multiple access (CDMA)

Each terminal is allotted a unique encryption code. The transmitted signals are
encoded and only the terminal intended to receive it, can decode it. This is also
known as Spread Spectrum Multiple Access.
Statistical time division multiplexing (STDM):-

In TDM, time slots are allotted to the multiplexed lines even if they have no
data transmit. In STDM, a time slot is allotted to the multiplexed line only if
there is data to be sent. The multiplexed circuit is used more efficiently.
VSAT (very small aperture terminal)

It is also called Micro Earth Station or Personal Earth Station.
Its main features are as follows:-
Independent of terrain can be installed in hilly regions, islands and remote
places.
Flexible service carrying data, Telex.
No last mile problems of cable pair\overhead lines.
Interference immunity.
Data security
The main services offered by VSAT are as follows:-

Interactive data communication.
Connection to public telex network.
Connection to Packet Switched Data Network – INET.
Connection to international gateway packet switch.
The different technologies used in VSAT are-

Satellite based
Spread spectrum
Packet switching
Tariffs:-
Cost of VSAT : about Rs. 7,00,000
Installation cost : Rs. 15,000
Maintenance cost : Rs. 25,000
Satellite access charge : Rs. 5,000 per month
Charges for using VSAT are as follows:

National: Rs. 50 per kilo segment of data:Rs. 10 per min in addition to vol. of
telex
International : Rs.200 per Kilo segment of data: Rs. 240 per hour duration.
Dialing codes for VSAT are as follows:
Within RABMN: 12 digit code 4041xxxxxxxx

to other data networks:
 I-NET
 4043xxxxxxxx
 international networks
 DNICxxxxxxxx
To telex networks
 NATIONAL Q008/area code/telex number
 INTERNATIONAL 0009/country code/telex number
 TELEX TO RABMIN 09841xxxxx (last 5 digits of telex number)
Specifications for master earth station:

There are two types of master earth stations:
 Outbound
 Inbound
 Outbound:
Each VSAT and host computer is allotted an HCL port

NPG polls HCL ports and generates a 153.6 Kbps demand based
STDM data stream
Data stream contains variable length packets of data addressed to
various VSAT’s
Outmux chips the data @1:16 resulting in 2.4576 MB stream.
BPSK modulator produced 5 MHz of spectrum
Upconvertor converts to 5GHz RF
Mes transmits 153.6KBps STDM/BPSK/SS carriers
NPG provides FEC encoding for outbound data
 Inbound:
Inbound signals originates from VSAT’s

VSAT has a unique PN code
Data spread by its PN code and transmitted to satellite in 6 GHz band
MES resolves the signal in 4 GHz band, converts to 70 MHz IF and
sends to Demod section
Demod cards compare the pattern of the to other PN code for its
associated VSAT. When the correct pattern is detected, the original
signal is extracted from the IF signal and transmitted to INMUX
NPG polls INMUX for I\C data packets and transmits the packets to
HCL
VSAT specifications
Antennae module
 Reflector : 1.2M X 1.8M
 Weight : 60 KGs
 Tracking : fixed
 Amb. Temp : -40 to +50 deg. Cel.
 Wind speed : operating 100 kmph
Controller module
 Size : 15 cm(h) x 43 cm(w) x 55 cm (d)
 Weight : 15 kgs
 Power supply : 220V\60Hz, 300 watts
 Oper. Temp. : -5 to 50 deg. Cel.

 Humidity : up to 95%
Controller module :
INPUT\OUTPUT PROCESOR
Converts raw data to packets
Customer protocol to network protocol
Ø NETWORK PROCESSOR
TRANS SIDE:
· generates BFEC & FCS
· Retains packets in buffer until ACK’s receives and transmits if
required.
RECIEVER SIDE:
· checks BFEC & FCS
· ACK’s the packets and requests retransmission of missing packets
Ø SPACE PROCESSOR
TRANS SIDE
· Encodes the packets with PN sequence to 2.45MBps stream
· BPSK modulation of IF
RECIEVER SIDE
· Demodulates IF signal to 2.45MBps
· Dispreads to 153.6KBps stream
· Checks destination link address in the header
· Discards packets addressed to other links.
Micro earth station transmits 1.2KBps\9.6KBps BPSK/CDMA

carrier’s bursts in absolutely random access mode in the same
frequency.
INTERNET
Introduction:
The Internet is not a program, not software, not hardware or a big system. It is a
group of various co-operating computers worldwide interconnected by
computer based on TCP\IP communication protocols. People use it to get

information over a standard communication link. The hundreds or thousands or
millions of computer network are connected to each other for exchanging the
information which is based on the unique identity and set of procedures.
Internet is a series of interconnected networks providing global link to
information.
GIAS: BSNL launched the Gateway Internet Access Service (GAIS) through
dial up/leased/ISDN network. Users can access GAIS from 99 cities in India by
this means.
INTERNET CONNECTIVITY
INTERNET TECHNOLOGY
The basic function of Internet can be summarized as under-
Interconnecting of computers to form a network.
Interconnecting of computers to form a network of networks.
To establish a communication link between two computers within as network.
To provide alternate communication link among the networks, even if one
network is not working. These are based on TCP/IP communications protocol.
Transfer of a file through Internet:-

Suppose a file is to be transmitted on Internet from one computer to other ones
Break the file in to small packets
Attached destination and source address in o packets
Multiplexed and transmit these packets
At destination de-multiplex the packets
Remove address bits from the packets and assemble the data in to the original
file
Make source bits as destination address and send the acknowledgement in to the
source.Therefore, it is clear that network hardware sends the packets to
specified destination and network software reassembles of communications, the
computer network performs the following functions-
Addressing and routing

Fragmentation and error correction
Data error checking
Connectivity control
Multiplexing and de-multiplexing
Data flow control
End users interface etc.

The data handling
A single module cannot handle the entire process. One that adopted as a
standard is an open system interconnection (OSI) model.
OSI NETWORKING MODEL: The open systems interconnection model

defines all the methods and protocols needed to connect one computer to any
other over a network.
The OSI model separates the methods and protocols needed for a network
connection in to seven different layers. Each higher layer relies on services
provided by a lower level layer.
The OSI model is sometimes called “the seven layer model”. It was developed
by the International Standards Organization (ISO) in 1983 and is documented as
standard 7498.
Layers are:
Application layer
Presentation layer
Session layer
Transport layer
Network layer
Data link layer
Physical layer
PHYSICAL LAYER:
The physical layer defines the properties of the physical medium used to make a
network connection. It includes a network cable that can transmit a stream of
bits between nodes on the physical network. The physical connection can be
either point to point or multipoint, and it can consist of either half duplex (one
direction at a time) or full duplex (both directions simultaneously)
transmissions. Moreover, the bits can be transmitted either in series or in
parallel (most network use a serial stream of bits, but the standard allows for
both serial and parallel transmission). The specification for the physical layer
also defines the cable used, the voltages carried on the cable, the timing of the
electrical signals, the distance that can be run, and so on. For example, a NIC
network interface network) is part of the physical layer.
DATA LINK LAYER: the data link layer, layer 2, defines standard that assign
meaning to the bits carried by the physical layer. It establishes a reliable
protocol through the physical layer, so the network layer (layer 3) can transmit
its data. The data link layer typically includes error detection and correction to
ensure a reliable data stream. The data elements carried by the data link layer
are called frames.
Examples of frame types include x.25 and 802.x (802.x includes both Ethernet
and Token Ring networks).
The data link layer is usually subdivided in to two sub layers, called the Logical
link control (LLC) and Media Access Control (MAC) sub layers. The LLC sub
layer performs tasks such as call set up and termination and data transfer. The
MAC sub layer handles frame assembly and disassembly, error detection and
correction, and addressing. The two most common MAC protocols are 802.3
Ethernet and 802.5 Token ring .Other MAC protocols include 802.12 100 Base
VBG, 802.11 Wireless, and 802.7 Broadband.
Network Layer: The network layer, Layer-3, is where a lot of action goes on
for most networks. The network layer defines how data packets get from one
point to another on network. The Network layer is also known as packet layer, it
defines different packet protocols, such as Internet Protocol (IP) and Internet
Protocol Exchange (IPX). These packet protocols include source and destination
routing information. The routing information in each packet tells the network
where to send the packets to reach its destination and tells the receiving
computer from where the packet originated.
Transport Layer: The Transport Layer, layer-4, manages the flow of

information from one network node to another. It identifies each computer or
node on a network uniquely. It ensures that the packets are decoded in the
proper sequence and that all packets are received. Transport layer protocols
include Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Sequenced Packet Exchange
(SPX).Each is used in concert with IP and IPX respectively.
Session layer: The session layer, layer-5, defines the connection from a user to
a network server, or from a peer on a network to another peer. These virtual
connections are referred to as sessions. They include negotiation between the
client and the host, or peer and peer, on matters of flow and control, transaction-
processing, transfer of user information, and authentication to the network.
Presentation Layer: The presentation layer, layer-6, takes the data supplied by
the lower level layer and transform so it can be presented to the system. The
Presentation layer can include data compression and decompression as well as
data encryption and decryption.
Application Layer: The Application layer, layer 7, controls how the operating
system and its application interact with network.
As mentioned earlier, data flows from an application program or the operating
system, and then goes through the protocols and devices that make up the seven
layers of the OSI model one by one until the data arrives at the physical layer
and is transmitted over the network connection. The computer at the receiving
end reverses this process. At each stage of the OSI model, the data is “wrapped”
with new control information related to the work done at the particular layer.
This control information is different for each layer, but it includes headers,
trailers pre-ambles, and post-ambles.
Therefore, for example, when the data goes into the networking software and
components making up the OSI model, it starts at the application layer and
includes an application header and application data. Next, at the presentation
layer, a presentation header is wrapped around the data and it is passed to the
session layer, where a session header is wrapped around all the data, and so on,
until it reaches the physical layer. At the receiving computer this process is
reversed.
COMMON TERMINOLOGY USED IN INTERNET:
WWW: World Wide Web (WWW) is a wide area hypermedia information

retrieval aiming to give universal access to a large universe of documents.
HTTP: Hyper text transmission Protocol (HTTP) is the communication

protocol used to transfer documents from the server to client over the WWW
(http:// www).
HTML: Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML) is a system of marking or

tagging the various parts of web documents to tell the browser software how to
display the document text, link graphics and link media.
ISDN: Integrated Service Digital Network (ISDN) is a digital phone connection

technology that provides both voice and data services over the same connection.
ISP: Internet Service Provider (ISP) is an agency that provides Internet access
and other net related services.
NATIONAL INTERNET BACKBONE (NIB)

Networking is a key component of any Internet Services Provider (ISP)
operations. The networking equipments like access servers, routers and modems
are critical to the successful functioning of ISP.
An ISP node where subscribers enter internet, consists of a set of equipments as
given below.
Access server
Router
Modem bank
LAN (Local Area Network) components
Security server
Rack, console & power supply
Network management agent.
Help desk
WIRELESS IN LOCAL LOOP (WLL) MOBILE
WLL is a communication system that connects customers to the Public Switch

Telephone Network (PSTN) using radio frequency signals as substitutes of
conventional wires for all part of connection between the subscribers and the
telephone exchange. It works on CDMA technique. The local loop is access part
of telecommunication network i.e. the part between PSTN switch and
subscribers. WLL network application involves uses of radio to replace of the
wire link between PSTN switch and subscriber. The radio technology is able to
provide same quality of services as that provided by the wires line. Application
of wireless loop technology has just been started in the worldwide. There is no
standard for this so far. However, a number of national and international air
interface standards for digital cellular mobile telephone system are available.
TECHNICAL ASPECTS:
WLL is based on CDMA technique and is entirely different from GSM. The
system for WLL services can be divided in to following parts:-
BSC (Base Switching Centre):- It provides links between BTS & BSM; it
consists of different processors, in BSNL it is of SUN Polaris of LG Company.

In LG 1 BSC can have 48 BTS? In BSNL we have two types of BSC:-
V-5.2:- This type of BSC cannot switch by itself so it is dependent on local

exchange / PSTN for switching and keeping records of billing etc. BSNL uses
this type of BSC for rural areas.
CCS-7 / R2:- These types of BSC are totally automatic it doesn’t depend on
local exchange for its functions, it is complete in itself. BSNL uses this type of
BSC for urban areas.
BTS (Base Transreceiver System):- As it is clear from its name it transmits as

well as receive signal, it works as an amplifier (router) to overcome the loss in
signal in transmission.
BSM (Base Station Management):- It controls and manages the WLL

services. It can troubleshoot the problem; add new users as well as capable to
block service given to user. It is basically a computer system, which manages
the whole process of WLL service. In BSNL BSM are two UNIX based
computer system.
CODE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS (CDMA):
CONCEPT OF MULTIPLE ACCESSES: - Multiple access system allows a

large number of users to share a common pool of radio telephone circuits, like
sharing of trunked radio facility. Multiple access radio has similarity to the
LAN in which the common channel is available to all users. The circuits are
demands assigned i.e. assigned on demand first-cum-first-served basis. The
provision of access to the radio circuits methods of multiple accesses are:
CDMA: - Where large number of transmission are combined on the same

channel at the same time and separated by the codes.
FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access):- Where individual

transmission separated by each other by the time.
WHAT IS CDMA?
CDMA, a cellular technology originally known as IS-95, competes with GSM

technology for dominance in the cellular world.
There are now different variations, but the original CDMA is known as
CdmaOne.
Latest CDMA global subscriber & operators numbers

As of December 2002, there were 120 millions users worldwide, with 55
million of these in the USA.
See other cellular technology in the world.
We now have CDMA2000 and its variant like 1X EV, 1XEV-DO and MC 3X.
The refer of variant of usage of a 1.25 MHz channel. 3X uses a 5 MHz channel.
Wide band CDMA forms that the basis of UMTS 3G networks, developed
originally by Qualcomm, high capacity and small cell radius, employing spread-
spectrum technology and special coding scheme characterized by CDMA.
The Telecommunication Industry Association (TIA) in 1993 adopted CDMA.

May 2001 there were 35 million subscribers on cdmaOne system worldwide.
Over 35 countries have either commercial or trial activity ongoing. There were
already 43 WLL systems in 22 countries using cdmaOne technology.
Enhancing today’s data capabilities is the 1XRTT CDMA standard this next
evolutionary step for cdmaOne operators will provide data rates up to 300 kbps,
significant capacity increases as well as extended batteries life for handsets.
Worldwide resources are being devoted to roll out third generation CDMA
technology, including multi-carrier (cdmaOne2000 1xMC and HDR in 1.25
MHz bandwidth and 3xMC in 5 MHz bandwidth) and direct spread (WCDMA
in 5 MHz bandwidth).
This first phase of cdmaOne2000 variously called 1XRTT, 3G1X or just plain
1X is designed to double current voce capacity and support always on data
transmission speed 10 times faster than typically available today, some 153.6
kbps on both the forward and reverse links.
ADVANTAGES OF WLL:
Country wide induction of WLL underway of areas than are non-feasible for the
normal network
Helping relieves congestion of connections in the normal cable / wire based
network in urban areas
Limited the mobility without any airtime charges
It has improved signal and reducing the interference
Greater capacity than mobile
Provides ease of operation, administration & maintenance at lower cost.
The telecommunication is the biggest factor in influencing the speed of life in
the modern age. Today we can get connection with any corner of world through
the push button of computer; with the small mobile phone we can send not only
the messages but also the secret document. As we know that there is positive
view behind any mention that it should be helpful in the development of society.
But humans have diverted mentality some of them of positive view and some of
them of negative view. Where use any invention for the welfare of society but
some uses for the satisfaction their disturbed mentality and to earn more and
more money whether it may be harmful for the society. They infringe the norms
of society and their behavior is condemned as antisocial, immoral and sinful.
CELLULAR MOBILE SERVICES:
Cellular is one of the fastest growing and most demanding telecommunication

applications. Today, it represents a continuously increasing percentage of all
new telephone subscriptions around the world. Currently there are more than 45
million subscribers in worldwide and nearly 50% of those subscribers are
located in USA. It is forecasted that cellular system using a digital technology
will become the universal method of telecommunications. By the year 2005,
forecasters predict that there will be more than 100 million cellular subscribers
worldwide.
GLOBAL SYSTEM FOR MOBILE COMMUNICATION (GSM)
The GSM Association is a unique organization, with a truly global reach,

offering a full range of business and technical services to its members. Now as
the wireless family unfolds the association is deriving forward its vision of
seamless, limitless, world of wireless communication.
Throughout the evolution of cellular telecommunications, various systems have
been developed without the benefit of standardized specifications. This
presented many problems directly related to compatibility, especially with the
development of digital radio technology. The GSM standard is intended to
address these problems.

Global system for mobile communication (GSM) is a globally accepted
standard for digital cellular communication. GSM is the name of a
standardization group established in 1982 to create a common European mobile
telephone standard that would formulae the specifications for a pan-European
mobile cellular radio system operating at 900 MHz. It is estimated that many
country outside of Europe will join the GSM partnership.

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NISHANT KAMAL 15BEE0247 BHARAT SANCHAR NIGAM L.T.

Mr. A.K. Shukla JTO

Finally, a deep thanks to

Mr Salan Singh SDE

This project report of mine, STUDY OF TRENDS TECHNOLOGIES IN

BHARAT SANCHAR NIGAM LIMITED (BSNL)

policies for the accelerated growth of the telecommunication services in various

MAKING A TELEPHONE CALL

All telephone subscribers are served by automatic exchanges, which perform

Various exchanges present in BSNL are:

1. subscribers connection unit

For smooth working of an exchange following unit are very important:-

1. Computer Unit: - it deals with additional services of the exchange to the

2. Power Plant:- to feed proper power supply to exchange

3. AC Plant: - to maintain the continuous temperature + or – 2 degree Celsius to

4. MDF: - to connect switch (exchange) with the external environment

LOCAL DIRECTORY ENQUIRY is another services provided by the

INTERNET DIRECTORY ENQUIRY is the latest service by the exchange. In

CENTRAL AIR CONDITIONER

For the function of electrical equipment, cooling system is basic requirement.

The basic unit of measurement used in the industry is known as “ton of

MAIN DISTRIBUTION FRAME

A line from the subscriber’s telephone set involves:

Equipment address is given as:-

All the part from vertical side to the subscriber is generally

1. LOOP FAULTIf two wires are joined together because of improper

The primary function of MDF is:

For removing the fault of telephone number, we use the testing

ORGANISATION OF THE MDF//PARTS OF THE MDF

TAG: - Each rack consists of eight tags.

N.E.:- The word NE stands for the ‘NUMBER OF EQUIPMENT’.

WEDGE:-If we want to disconnect any two numbers then we insert a wedge

REASON FOR V-SAT EVOLUTION

V-SAT can be classified as following:

1. Broadcast/ point to multipoint

DESIGN FACTORS FOR V-SAT SYSTEMS

TYPE OF ACCESS FOR V-SAT DATA NETWORK

FIXED ASSIGNMENT TIME DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS (F-

Random access id of two types:

CODE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS (CDMA)

VSAT NETWORK IN DOT

It has 3 main components:-

SERVICES OFFERED BY RABM NETWORK:-

Tariff and billing:-

Satellite communication plays a vital role in long distance communication.

Frequency division multiple access (FDMA):-

Code division multiple access (CDMA)

Statistical time division multiplexing (STDM):-

VSAT (very small aperture terminal)

The main services offered by VSAT are as follows:-

The different technologies used in VSAT are-

Charges for using VSAT are as follows:

Dialing codes for VSAT are as follows:

Within RABMN: 12 digit code 4041xxxxxxxx

Specifications for master earth station:

Each VSAT and host computer is allotted an HCL port

Inbound signals originates from VSAT’s

 Oper. Temp. : -5 to 50 deg. Cel.

Micro earth station transmits 1.2KBps\9.6KBps BPSK/CDMA

computer based on TCP\IP communication protocols. People use it to get

Transfer of a file through Internet:-

Addressing and routing

End users interface etc.

OSI NETWORKING MODEL: The open systems interconnection model