JOURNAL OF ADOLESCENT I-EALTH CARE 19i38;9:105-113

P=smasexual Identity Development

RICHARD R. TROIDEN, PH.D

Homosexual identity development is not a lmear,

step-by-step process, ncr is developmental change
a matter of either progress or regression. Instead,
identity develoement is a horizontal spiral, similar
to a spring lying on 9s side (2). Progress through
identity confusion, identity ass
developmental stages occurs in a back-and-forth,
ment. Often-repeated themes in up-and-down fashion. Characteristics of stages may
Kane and gay maks, dustend overlap and recur in different ways for different
provIdc the content and characte people.
4 warning: ideal types are not real. Nothing and
KEYWORDS: no one exactly fits them. Ideal types are heuristic
Development devices, ways of organizing materials for analytic
Homosexuality and comparative purposes; they serve as bench-
Identity marks against which to describe, compare, and test
Developmental stage theory hypotheses relating to empiric reality.
Second, the ages at which homosexual events
People are not born with perceptions of (e.g., first same-sex feelings, first same-sex activity,
as heterosexual, bisexual, or homo self-definition as homosexual) tre encountered, and
to sexual or romantic settings. Ins the stages with which these events are associated,
tities are developed slowly, over a are rough guidelines. because the reported ages are
of time (1). This paper presents an averages, the values are affected by extreme cases;
model that describes how self-define thus, variations are expected and should not be
gay males recall having devel treated as regressions.
themselves as homosexual. The Pinally, rel ativ? youth, gender atypiccatity,lack of
four stages: sensitization, identi high school heterosexual experience, high school
tity assumption, and commitm homosexual experience, lack of a colIege education,
sexuals typically experience identity c accepting family and friends, and a sq~portive
during adolescence, an understanding of workplace appear to facilitate homosexual identity
chologic and behavioral forms this conflict assumes development (1). Preliminary data from retrospe~-
enables clinicians to better understand and tive studies on small adolescent populations,ior ex-
needs of lesbian and ‘gay adolescent popu ample; suggests that age cohort relates to the rate
of homosexual identity development. Homosexual
males currently arrive at bisexual or homosexual
Frcm the Deprtmcnt of Sociology-Anthropology, Miami University, self-definitions at lower average ages (3) than did
Ohio. Dr. Troiden is an AASECT Certified Sex Educator and Sex their older counterparts. Conversely, a relatively
Counxlor. older age, gender typicality, high school hc)erosex-
Address reprint requests to: Dr. RicJuwd R. Troiden, W~rtment of
Saciobgy-Anthmplogy, 344 Hoyt Hall, Oxford, OH 45056.
ual experience, lack of high school homosexual ex-
Manuscript accepted September 4‘1987. perience, nonaccepting family and friends, and a

0 society for Adolescent Mediie, 1988 105

Published by Elsevier Science Publishing Co., Inc., 52 Vanderbilt Ave., New Ywk, NY 10017
106 TROIDEN
nonsupportive woikplae seem to prolong homo-
sexual identity development (1).
Discussion
The various theoretic models and research used to
explain and desqibe the development of homosex-
ual identities share a number of features (1,4).
Nearly all of the models view homosexual identity
formation as taking place against a backdrop of
stigma, which heavily influences identity develop-
ment and personal adjustment. Second, homosexual
identities are described as developing over a long
period of time and as involving a number of “growth
points or changes” that may be ordered into a series
of stages (5). Third, homosexual identity develop
ment involves increasing acceptance of the label
“homosexual” as applied tc the self. Fourth, lesbi-
ans and gays develop “increasingly personalized
and frequent” social contacts with other homosex-
uals over time (5). Fifth, homosexuals typically re-
port an increased desire over time to disclose the
homosexual identity to at least some nonhomosex-
ual audiences. B&use I have discussed and criti-
cized homosexual identity development theory and
research elsewhere (4), discussion is confined here
to a description of the four stages that make up my
modek sensitization, identity confusion, identity dS-
sumption, and commitment.
The Mod.4
Stage 1: Sensitization
The sensitization stage occurs prior to puberty. At
this time, most lesbians and gay males do not see
homosexuality as personally relevant. However, gay
males and lesbians typically have experiences during
childhood that later serve as bases for seeing ho-
mosexuality as personally relevant, and which lend
support to emerging perceptions of themselves as
possibly homosexual. Sensitization is characterized
by generalized feelings of marginahty, perceptions
of beiig different from same-sex peers. Slightly
more than 70% of the homosexuals in the Bell, Wein-
berg, and Hammersmith sample (6), for example,
reported feeling “somewhat” or “very much” dif-
ferent from same-sex peers during childhood.
The following comments illustrate the forms that
childhood feelings of difference may assume for les-
bians: “I wasn’t interested in boys”; “I was more
interested in the arts and in intellectualthings”; “I
felt different: unfeminine, ungraceful, not very
JOURNAL OF ADOLESCENT HEALTH CARE Vol. 9, No. 2
pretty, kind of a mess”; “I was more masculine,
more independent, more aggressive, more outdoor-
ish” (6).
Similar themes of childhood marginality are
echoed in the comments of gay males: “I had a
keener interest in the arts”; “I couldn’t stand sports,
so naturally that made me different. A ball thrown
at me was like a bomb’; ‘1 wasn’t interested in lay-
ing girls in the cornfields. It turned me off com-
pletely “; “I just didn’t feel 1 was like other boys. I
was very fond of pretty things like ribbons and flow-
ers and music”; “I was called the sissy of the family.
I had been very pointedly told thei I was effeminate”
(6).
Research by Bell, Weinberg and Hammersmith (6)
revealed that homosexual males were two times
more likely than heterosexual controls to report feel-
ing “very much” or “somewhat” different from
other boys during grade school. Lesbians were also
more likely than heterosexual controls to feel “some-
what” or “very much” different from other girls dur-
ing grade school. Both the lesbians and the gay
males typically attributed their feelings of difference
to gender-inappropriate or gender-neutral interests
or behaviors. Only a minority of the lesbians and
the gay males felt different because of same-sex at-
tractions or homosexual activities.
Although being different and set apart from same-
sex age-mates is a persistent theme in the recollec-
tions of childhood experiences, Bell, Weinberg, and
Hammersmith (7) found that only a minority of gays
and lesbians started to see themselves as sexually
different before age 12. Fewer still labeled this dif-
ference “homosexual” while children. The socially
created categories of homosexual, heterosexual, and
bisexual hold little or no meaning for children. Chil-
dren who are “prehomosexuals” rarely if ever won-
der “Am 1 a homosexual?,” or believe that
homosexuality has anything to do with them per
sonally (8).
Because children and early adolescents rarely
structure their experiences using the labels of ho-
mosexual, bisexual, or heterosexual, it is clinically
more useful to focus on the meanings the feelings
hold for young people and to assist them in inte-
grating these feelings psychologically. When clini-
cians impose their own sexual categories upon
youths by telling them, for example, “You’re not
really homosexual or bisexual, you just think you
are,” or “You’re not really bisexual or homosexual,
you’re only passing through a phase,” they do not
make the sexual feelings disappear. Instead, other-
imposed judgments invalidate the client’s experi-
March 1988

Gay males also first act on

You are not sure

about whalt sort 0

am I?,” ‘Am I a homosexual?,” “Am I really a het-

erosexual?” (p. 156)

think that it might help to meet ot

la TROlDEN
Table 1. Responses to Identity Confusion (Stage 2)
1. D&al: disavow homosexual feelings or actions
2. Repair seek counseling or a “cum”
3. Awidmce: shun situations or behavior that confirm desires
a. inhibit homosexually associated interests, behaviors
b. limit opposite-sex exposure to avoid discovery
c. limit exposure to information about homosexuality
d. antihomosexual attitudes and actions
e. heterosexual irnmer&m as means of “cure”
f. escapism through drug use and abuse
4. Redefinition:behavior redefined along conventional lines
a. special case strategy (“I’d only do this with you”)
b. ambisexual strategy (“f guess I’m bisexual”)
c, temporary identity strategy (‘This is only a phase”)
d. situational strategy (“It was only experimentation’“)
5. Acceptance:homoeroticism accepted, more information
sought
confusion, People are unlikely to identify them-
selves in terms of a social category as long as they
are unaware that the category exists, lack accurate
information about the kinds of people that occupy
the category, and believe they share nothing in com-
mon with category members (21). Self-labelirag as
homosexual was made more difficult in the past be-
cause men and women were unable to identify with
the bizarre characterizations of homosexuals re-
flected in prevailing stereotypes. Today, accurate in-
formation about homosexuals and homosexuality
has been circulated and distributed throughout so-
ciety, m it easier for people to identify homo-
sexual nts within themselves (10,13,16).
Retrospective studies of adult homosexuals su
that gay males and lesbians first understand what
the word “homosexual” means at app~~mately the
same time, at the average ages of 17 or 18 years (19).
nr;e%to i&My confusion. Lesbians and gay
lly respond to identity confusion by us-
ing denial (22), repair (23), avoidance (8), redeflni-
tion (8,9), and acceptance (8,9). Table 1 lists the five
or responses to identity confusion. Lesbians and
males who use denial disavow the homosexual
t to their feelings, fantasies, or activities.
olves vigorous attempts to eradicate ho-
feelings and behaviors. Professional help
eliminate the homosexual feelings, fan-
overall strategy for dealing
Although avoidant women
. so ugly. I didn’t think I could ever feel this way about
recognize that their behavior, thoughts, or
are homosexual, they shun situations that
con&m these inclinations. Avoidance may assume
at least one of six forms.
JOURNAL OF ADOLESCENT HEALTH CARE Vol. 9, No. 2
Some adolescents inhibit homosexually associ-
ated behaviors or interests: “I tho
interest in other &ls would go awa
attention to boys and concentrated more on
feminine” (author’s files).
Other youths limit their exposure to the opposite
mation about homosexu
information may confirm
uality: “Your first lecture
feelings by attacking and ri
came out and realized that not
way” (author’s files).
Heterosexual immersion is a fifth avoidance strat-
egy. Some adolescents establish hete~sexu~ in-
volvements in hopes of “curing” themselves of their
homosexual interests: “I thought my homosexual
feelings would go away if I dated a lot and had sex
with as many women a
In some cases, an adoles
come pregnant to “prov
Escapism is a sixth a
olescent homosexuals
ings through the use and abuse of chemical
substances. Getting “high” on drugs provides relief
from feelings of identity confusion and may serve
to justify sexual activities normally viewed as
unacceptable.
Redefinition is the fourth general means of reduc-
ing identity confusion and involves redefining the
behavior, feelings, or context along more conven-
tional lines. Redefinition assumes at least four forms:
the special case strategy-“1 never thought of my
feelings or our love making as lesbian. The whole
experience was too beautiful for it to be something
any other women” (author’s files); the ambisexual
strategy-“1 guess I’m attracte to both women and
men” (author’s files); the temporary identity strat-
egy-?‘m just passing through a phase, I’m really
Ma

Chly a minorityof
to self-define as ho
contact with one or

Lesbians and gay males

 TROIDEN JOURNALOF ADOLESCENT Vol. 9, No. 2
110

denial, repair, ambisexual, or temporary identity

strategies described earlier. Positive contacts with
other homosexuals, on the other hand, usually fa-
cilitate homosexual identity formation. Favorable
contacts provide lesbians and gay males with a
first-hand opportunity to obtain information about
homosexuality and homosexuals. Direct positive tity as follows:
exposure provides a basis for reexamining and You are quite sure you are a homosexual and you
reevaluating ideas about homosexuality and for accept this fairly happily. You are Prepared to tell a
seeing similarities between oneself and those la- ng a homosexual (such as
beled “homosexual.” The meanings that are attrib- rs etc.) but you carefully se
uted to the homosexual label begin to be
transformed in a more favorable direction.
1contacts with other homo-
tes to see that the homo-
156)

, ~ationa~2~~ons that legi

u&y and neutralize guilt feelings, the range
of identities and roles available to homosexuals,
and the norms governing same-sex erotic expres-
sion.

St&ma-management strategies. Once they adopt

homosexual identities, lesbians and gay males are

of same-sex sexua

sexual identity is a v
the homosexual

diences, and shifts in sti~a-management

strategies.

sexual is probably the most com-
n strategy (23). Women and men
is also an extremely common eva-
Internal indicators. The fusion of same-sex SW-
uality and emotionality into a mea
one internal measure of a person’s c
homosexuality as a way of life. Persons of the spme
sex are redefined as legitimate sources of love and
romance as well as sexua
Same-sex romantic prefe
sexuals themselves as differen
sexuals from those who are
(35).
Anothe measure of
mosexuali y of life is re
March 1988
ings that homosexuals attach to the homosexual
identity. The homosexual subculture encourages
both lesbians and gay males to perceive the homo-
sexual identity as an “essential” identity, a state of
being and way of life, rather than merely a form of
behavior or sexual orientation (30,35-37).
The degree of satisfaction with one’s sexual ori-
entation is a third internal indicator of ~ommitm~::
(38). men Bell and Weinberg (15) asked their sam-
ple of homosexuals if they would rem&n homosex-
ual even if a magic pill would enable them to become
heterosexual, 95% of the lesbians and 86% of the gay
males claimed they would not take the magic pill.
Exfernnl indicators. An external indicator of the
successful synthesis of same-sex emotioqality and
sexuality into a meaningful whole is a commitment
to a same-sex love relationship, Lesbians begin
same-gender love relationships between the average
ages of 22 and 23 years-a year or less after they
self-define as lesbian (15,19). Gay males typically
enter their first love affairs at slightly older average
ages (between 21 and 24 years),’ roughly 2 to 5 years
after they self-define as hcmosexual(10,15,18).
Risclosure of the homosexual identity to hetero-
sexual audiences is a second ext&nal indicator of
commitment to homosexuality as a way of life.
“Coming out” involves disclosure to an expanding
series of audiences ranging from oneself, to other
homosexuals, to heterosexual friends and/or family,
to coworkers, to employers, on through to being
publicly identified as homosexual by the media (25).
Disclosure of the homosexual identity to nonho-
mosexual others typically occurs with increasing lev-
elsbf commitment to homosexuality as a way of life.
So, health professionals should not expect adoles-
cents to share their homosexual identities openly
with many nonhomosexu&.
Although homosexual identity development is
characterized over time by an increasing desire to
disclose the homosexual identity to nonhomosexual
audiences, few people disclose their homosexual
identities to all of the people in their environments.
Instead, they fluctuate “back and forth in degrees
of openness, depending on personal, social, and
professional factors” (39). Slightly more than half of
Bell and Weinberg’s (15) respondents, for example,
came out to some or most siblings or close hetero-
sexual friends, and less than half disclosed the ho-
mosexual identity to their parents. Even greater
discretion was exercised in disclosing the homosex-
ual identity to coworkers and employers. Only about
HOMOSFXJAL lDENTTy DEVELOPMENT 111
Table 2. Average Ages Adult Homosexuals Recall First
Encountering Homosexual Events
Event Lesbians Gay males
Same-sex arousal (yr) 14-16 13
Same-sex sctivity (yr) 20 15
Understand term “homosexual” (yr) 17-18 17
Suspect self is homosexual (yr) 18 17
Homosexualself-definition (yr) 21-23 19-21”
Same-sex love relationship (yr) 22-23 21-24
“Come 0uY’ to nonhomosexuals(yr) 28 23-28
‘Adolescent gay males recall having self-identified at “1 average
age of 14.
one-third confided in coworkers, and less than one-
fifth claimed that their employers were aware of
their homosexuality.
Those lesbians who disclose their homosexual
identities to nongay friends begin to do so at an
average age of 28 years (19); gay males disclose be-
tween the average ages of 23 and 28 years (18,19).
Gay males who disclose their homosexual identities
to their parents do so at age 28 years, on average;
lesbians at an average age of 30 years (19). Those
who come out in professional settings do so at even
later average ages-32 years for lesbians, 31 years
for gqy males (19). The average ages at which les-
bians and gal’ males encounter the homosexual
events (e.g., age of first same-sex attraction) asso-
ciated with each stage of identity development are
summariztid in Table 2.
A shift in stigma-management strategies is a third
external indication of commitment. Blending (4) and
covering (23) replace passing and group alignment
as the most common strategies, with a minority opt-
ing for conversion (23). People who blend act in a
gender-appropriate fashion and neither announce
nor deny their homosexual identities to nonhomo-
sexual others. They perceive their homosexuality as
irrelevant to the worlds of work and immediate fam-
ily. Women and men whq cover are ready to admit
that they are homosexual (in many cases bec+st: it
is obvious or known about), but nonetheless take
great pains to keep their homosexuality from loom-
ing large. They manage their homosexuality in ways
meant to demonstrate that they are respectable, al-
though they may be homosexual.
People who convert are openly homosexual and
confront, rather than evade, the homosexual stigma.
Formally or informally, they attempt to inform the
general public abut the special contributions ho-
mosexuals have made to society in hopes of elimi-
nating oppression through political change (e.g.,

ll2 TROIDEN
Table 3. StigmaManagementStrategiesAssociated
with IdentityAssumption (Stage3) and Commitment
(Skage4) - - 1. &x.sititiqn: Gender-neutral or cross-gender interests;
Stage3: Identity Assumption
1.
OlpihJption: samwwx acts avoided; seen very negatively
2.
Wtstwlhotim:‘~, gender-inappropriate actions
3.
Wgz lead a “double lift?’
4.
Grarp@iufirm: become involved in homosexual
Cz6lnrnunity
stage 4 Gommitment
1, Blendingz gay identity neither announced nor denied
2. coming: tone down homosexuality to show
“mp&tablllty’
3. Gontwsfoo:confront the stigma, seek social change’
‘A few lndlvlduals u&e this strategy&wing the ldentlty-as-
equal rights in jobs and housing). A few individuals
adopt this strategy during identity assumption when
they define themselves as homosexual. Stigma-man-
agement strategies associated with identity assump-
tion (Stage 3) ad commitment (Stage 4) are listed
in Table 3.
Stigma-evasion strategies are, however, situa-
tional rather than constant-that is, personal, social
or profe&ional factors may prompt individuals to
blend or cover in some situations, openly disclose
the homosexual identity in others, and switch to
conversionist modes in yet other contexts. Selective
and nonselective self-disclosure have important con-
sequences for the self. Identity disclosure enables
the homosexual identity to be more fully realized-
that is, a shared and taken-for-granted facet of self-
in a wider range of contexts. A more complete in-
tegration between people’s identities and their social
worlds is possible when personal, social, and profes-
sional factcm rmit them to see and to present
themselves as peomosexual and to know that they
are viewed as such by others. Cass (5) described
&My synthtsis in the following way:
You are prepared to tqll [almost] anyo?iethat you are
a homosexual. You are happy about the way you
8te but feel that being a homosexualis not the most
imwt part of you. You mix socially with ho-
mosexuals and heterosexuals[with whom] you are
open about your hoa)osexuality. (p. 156)
Summary
A homosexual identity is a perception of self as ho-
mosexual in relation to sexual or romantic settings.
Homosexual identity development occurs over a
prokqed period of time and involves four ideal
stages: sensitization, identity confusion, identity as-
JOURNAL OF ADOLRSCRNTl-lRALTl-8 Vol. 9, hlo. 2
Table 4. Hallmarksof EachHomosexual Identity
DevelopmentStage
generalized feelings of marginality and
difference from same-sex peers
2. ldentily confusion: Ssme-sex arousal or activity; absence of
heterosexual arousal; penxptions’of sexual
diffe*nce;inner-oil andconfusiog
3. Identify &umption: Rewarding contacts with experienced
hmmexuais; self-definition as
homosexuab identity tolerance and
acceptance; homosexual associations;
sexual experimentation; exploration of
homosexual subculture
4. Commitmmk Homosexuality adoptfxl as a way of life;
” indicated internally by integration of sexuality
and cnotionality, shifts ln the meanings and
value assigned the homosexual identity, and
satisfaction with the homosexual identity;
indicated externally by same-sex love
relationships, identity disclosure to
nonhomosexuals, and changes in stigma
management strategies
sumption, and commitment. The hallmarks of each
stage are summarized in Table 4.
Retrospective studies of adults who define them-
selves as homosexual and lead corresponding life-
styles suggest that homosexual identities emerge
from generalized perceptions d the self as different
during childhood. Generalized perceptions of the
self as different typically crystallize into @ages of
the self as sexually different during middle to late
adolescence. Rewarding encounters with other
homosexuals near the end of adolescence facilitate
definition and acceptance of self as homosexual.
Continuetd involvement with the homosexual iden-
tity a?p role fosters commitment to homosexuality
as a way of life and an increased desire to disclose
the homosexual identity to nonhomosexual audi-
ences. Selective and nonselective identity disclosure
enables lesbians and gay males to integrate their
homosexual identities more fully with their environ-
ments. In the final analysis, however, homosexual
id&tity is emergent: that is, it is never fully deter-
mined in a fixed or absolute sense and is always
subject to modification and further change,
The author wishes to thank Gary Remafedi, M.D., for his excel-
lent crltlcisms of an earlier draft of this paper.
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