Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Published by
Early Concern Society for
Childhood Research and Development
Suite 403, Concord Tower
113 Kazi Nazrul Islam Avenue
Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh
ISBN: 978-984-34-2578-2
Copyright © 2017 by Author
Original, compilation and editorial matter
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic,
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by the Bangladesh Copyright Act without the prior written permission of
the author.
Views expressed are those of the author, and may not necessarily be
attributed to publisher.
Dedication
Contents
Foreword
Acknowledgements
Brief Notes on Author
1 Introduction 11
2 b„weÁvb: ÁvbZË¡xq cÖm‡½ wKQz ch©‡eÿY 14
3 Conceptualization of Human Being: Vision of an Anthropologist 36
4 Formation of Anthropology as a Science of Human Being: A
Theoretical Exploration in Historical Perspective 44
Foreword
I am pleased to note that the book is written by Mohammad Shah Jalal on
Anthropology as a specialized field of knowledge. The author has
addressed the issue on the formation of the discipline. He has raised
questions that are in my view relevant as Anthropology in its course of
formation underwent multiple transformation, shift, turn and through
incorporation of new and rejection of so called old thought. It appears to
be that interdisciplinarity has come from diverse origin and made
together to create an estuary.
Therefore, the outcome of integration of all sources and the processes
need to be revealed in order for Anthropology to be an insightful
specialized field for study of human beings.
This book is a reasonable attempt to make Anthropology to be an
academic discipline. It will be useful for readers to have a closer look at
the pros and cons of the entire process of formation.
I wish that such endeavor need to have a go.
Further, all the best wishes to the author and expect that the readers
would be kind enough to go through the text and search for their queries.
Best wishes.
Acknowledgements
At the outset, I would like to express my sincerest and deepest gratitude
to Professor Dr. Farzana Islam, the first female Vice Chancellor of a
public university in Bangladesh. In essence, I am fortunate for her being,
who has extended extraordinary supports for two decades, being my
colleague at the Department of Anthropology, Jahangirnagar University.
Her family, especially, great son Protik, husband Akter Hossain, both
brothers Professor Dr. Nazrul Islam and Professor Dr. Hedayatul Islam
have inspired me in preparing the context for writing this wok.
I am graceful that Zahirul Islam, being my student been transformed to
be my son who is intrinsic in preparing me in every aspect that is
possible for a human being who inevitably worked relentlessly in
preparing this book.
A. K. M. Mamunur Rashid, my student has outstanding contribution
both in my personal and academic endeavor. I am deeply indebted to
Mohammad Nasir Uddin, my student and later colleague who has been a
great hope of my life and has truly contributed in shaping my thought. I
extend tribute to Md. Adil Hasan Chowdhury, my student and later
faculty at the Department of Anthropology, Rajshahi University for his
intense supports that he had provided to me. I acknowledge all my
colleagues and staff members of the Department of Anthropology,
Jahangirnagar University. Finally, I express my eternal gratitude to my
parents.
Chapter 1
Introduction
To begin thinking with an academic discipline that studies Homo
sapiens, termed as human being which is the subject and object as a
species, while the author is a member and contain all the attributes that
the species has, the key and central issue is to define the relationship
between the author and the discipline – anthropology. This is eternal and
undisputable cause to address the most vital issue that is the
methodology as to how to study the object as the author is a subject and
an object of the discipline. The primary question is – is it feasible that the
author could absorb the entire diversity that the species has already
absorbed in and containing self within it in terms of religion, ethnicity,
language, adaptation to immensely different ecosystem, cognitive world,
social, economic, political, and life ways. The species has also created a
world of its own as well. Most prominently gender, class, caste, religion,
race, are not merely diversity, but deleterious sources of inequality and
division of the human created world into deadly antagonism.
Therefore, could the author overcome all these, being a member of the
species, come out and go above all these and attain a position of a
researcher, be neutral, deal with theoretical concepts objectively free of
p[fo_ do^ag_hn [h^ `iffiq Doleb_cg‖m Rof_ i` Ihp_stigation which is
the first and prior is to treat object and subject or any social phenomenon
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Anthropology: Science of Human Being
12
Anthropology: Science of Human Being
Chapter 2
kv¯¿ wn‡m‡e wb‡Ri GKwU †g․wjK Ae¯
v‡bi K_v b„weÁvb `vex K‡i| G‡ÿ‡Î
Ôgvbe cÖRvwZi cwic~Y© Aa¨qbÕB b„weÁv‡bi ÁvbKvÐxq ¯^vZš¿ ev Abb¨Zvi cÖavb
wfwË e‡j we‡ewPZ| b„weÁv‡bi ¯^vZš¿¨m~PK GB cÖavb •ewkówUi K_v gv_vq
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Anthropology: Science of Human Being
†i‡LB ejv hvq gvbyl m¤úwK©Z Aa¨vq‡bi GKwU cwic~Y© weÁvb nevi cÖwZkÖæwZ
wb‡q b„weÁv‡bi hvÎv ïiæ n‡qwQj Ges ÔgvbylÕ Z_v Ôgvbe cÖRvwZÕB b„‣eÁvwbK
A‡š^l‡Yi g~j welqe¯‧| A‡š^l‡Yi GB gyL¨ welq‡K †evSvi †ÿ‡Î ev e¨vL¨v-
we‡køl‡Yi †ÿ‡Î DwjøwLZ weweaZv I •ewPΨ wKiƒc f~wgKv cvjb K‡i‡Q †m
welqwUi cÖwZ ÁvbZË¡xq `„wó‡Kvb †_‡K `„KcvZ Kiv Ges GB `„Kcv‡Zi
†cÖÿvc‡U b„‣eÁvwbK ÁvbZË¡ cÖm‡½ wKQz ch©‡eÿY mvg‡b wb‡q AvmvB GB
wbe‡Üi jÿ¨|
cÖkœ n‡jv GZme Uvbv‡cv‡ob I wfbœZv wK b„weÁv‡bi wbR¯^ `„wófw½ Ges ZË¡xq
†g․j-bxwZ (basic theoretical premise) •Zwi‡Z BwZevPK wKsev mnvqK †Kvb
f~wgKv cvjb K‡i‡Q? bvwK, Gi d‡j b„weÁvb Avm‡j GKwU A¯úó, †avuqv‡U,
AwbwðZ Ges my¯úó Aeqenxb ZË¡-c×wZavix ÁvbKvÐ wn‡m‡eB †e‡o D‡V‡Q?
Gfv‡e †e‡o IVv ÁvbKvÐwU wK †g․wjKZ¡, ALÐZv Ges wbR¯^ AvZ¥cwiP‡qi
†Kvb wbw`©ó Aeqe ev ¯^iƒc AR©‡b e¨_©B n‡q‡Q? AviI ¯úó K‡i cÖkœwU Gfv‡e
Dc¯
vcb Kiv †h‡Z cv‡i; b„weÁvb wK gvbyl Aa¨qb‡K †K›`ªxq welqe¯‧ wn‡m‡e
wb‡q GKwU •ewk¦K ÁvbKvÐ (universal discipline) wn‡m‡e wb‡Ri ¯^Zš¿,
kw³kvjx Ges ¯úó Ae¯
vb `vuo Kiv‡Z mÿg n‡q‡Q? bvwK, GiKg N‡U‡Q †h
welqe¯‧ I `„wófw½Z A¯úóZv Ges wØav-؇›Øi dvu‡K b„weÁvb Avm‡j wewfbœ
mg‡q, wfbœ wfbœ Ae¯
v I cwi‡e‡k, cwieZ©gvb mvgvwRK-ivR‣bwZK-eyw×e„wËK
†cÖÿvc‡U wewfbœ e¨w³, cÖwZôvb, msMVb, ms¯
v wKsev `j-‡Mvôx KZ…©K A‡bKUv
Lvg‡LqvwjcyY©fv‡e, ¯^wbe©vwPZ ev †¯^”QvPvix Dcv‡q (arbitrarily) e¨eüZ,
e¨vL¨vZ, Dc¯
vwcZ, cwi‡ewkZ ev we‡køwlZ n‡q‡Q? -Gme cÖ‡kœi †cÖÿvc‡U GB
wbe‡Üi Ae¯
vb n‡jv: mvgwMÖK Gme A¯úó I AwbwðZ Ae¯
vb Ges Aeq‡ei
Kvi‡Y b„weÁvb e¯‧Z wewfbœ ch©v‡q e¨w³-ZvwË¡K, msMVb ev ms¯
v KZ…©K Zv‡`i
wbR¯^ myweavRbK Ae¯
vb cÖKv‡k mnvqK Ges myweavRbK e³e¨ ev g‡Zi aviK
GKwU c` ev cÖZ¨q Z_v GKwU Ôterm of convenienceÕ wn‡m‡eB e¨eüZ n‡q
G‡m‡Q|
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Anthropology: Science of Human Being
b„weÁv‡bi ÁvbZË¡xq weKv‡ki BwZnvm Ges †m weKv‡ki bvbv av‡c D‡V Avmv
c¨vivWvBgmg~n Ges GB c¨vivWvBg¸‡jvi gv‡S wbwnZ ZË¡-c×wZ welqK †K›`ªxq
we‡ePbvw` ÁvbZvwË¡K m¼‡Ui cÖavb aviK Ges wb‡`©kK| †`k I gnv‡`k‡f‡`
b„‣eÁvwbK PP©vi †ÿ‡Î †`Lv w`‡q‡Q bvbvgyLx cÖeYZv Z_v GKv‡WwgK b„weÁvb
PP©vi †ÿ‡Î RvZxq HwZn¨mg~‡ni g‡a¨ i‡q‡Q wecyj wfbœZv| e¨w³ ZvwË¡KMY
KZ…©K b„weÁvb‡K †Kvb avivevwnK ev mymse× Ae¯
vb †_‡K e¨vL¨v I Dc¯
vcb bv
K‡i eis wfbœ wfbœ `„wó‡Kvb †_‡K eyS‡Z PvIqv n‡q‡Q| GB bvbvgywL †evSvcovi
†cÖÿvc‡U ÁvbKvÐwU‡K Zvuiv ¯^ ¯^ `„wófw½ I fvebvi Av‡jv‡K wbw`©ó AvKvi
†`qvi †Póv K‡i‡Qb Ges Avjv`v Avjv`v Ae¯
v‡b wb‡q hvIqvi †Póv K‡i‡Qb|
GQvov ivRbxwZ I ÿgZv m¤ú‡K©i wewfbœ cwi‡cÖwÿ‡Z I HwZnvwmK weKv‡ki
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Anthropology: Science of Human Being
b„weÁvb wb‡R‡K `vex K‡i c~Y©v½ weÁvb ev holistic science wn‡m‡e| c~Y©v½
nevi A_© n‡jv gvbe cÖRvwZ‡K mKj w`K †_‡K Ges mKj Ae¯
vq Aa¨qb Kiv:
gvby‡li AZxZ, eZ©gvb I fwel¨‡Zi cwic~Y© Abyaveb Ges Zvi •RweK,
mvgvwRK, mvs¯‥…wZK, AvPiYMZ, g‡bvRvMwZK Ges cÖZxKx-fvlvZvwË¡K
w`Kmg~‡ni mw¤§wjZ I m¤ú~Y© we‡kølY| ¯^vfvweKfv‡eB †m Aa¨qb n‡e
AvšÍ:mvs¯‥…wZK Ges ZzjbvgyjK| Z‡e Zzjbvi ga¨ w`‡q wefvRb ev cv_©K¨B †h
18
Anthropology: Science of Human Being
†Kej DrmvwnZ n‡e †mwU Awbevh© bq| GB Aa¨qb †Kvb †Kvb †ÿ‡Î gvbe
H‡K¨i ev AwfbœZvi welq‡KB D`NvUb Ki‡Z cv‡i| G Kvi‡YB gvbe cÖRvwZi
wfbœZvi cvV ïiæ n‡Z cv‡i GKK I Awfbœ gvbe cÖRvwZi ga¨Kvi •ewPΨ
wn‡m‡eB| †m cv_©K¨‡K gvbe cÖRvwZi wbw`©ó †Kvb As‡ki Ae¯
vb †_‡K we‡kl
†Kvb `„wó‡Kv‡bi cÖ‡qv‡M cvV Kiv n‡j †mwU c~Y©v½ cv‡Vi wfwË •Zwi Ki‡Z bv-I
cv‡i| b„weÁvb wK GB ¸iæZ¡c~Y© we‡ePbvwU‡K mvg‡b †i‡L AMÖmi n‡Z †c‡iwQj?
gvby‡li Aa¨qb n‡q IVvi m¤¢vebv wK Ôwe‡kl ai‡bi gvbylÕ ÔA™¢zZ gvbylÕ ev
ÔAb¨ gvby‡lÕi cv‡V iƒcvšÍwiZ n‡qwQj? †mwU †Kvb †cÖÿvc‡U? †Kvb ÁvbZvwË¡K-
e„w×e„wËK cwi‡cÖwÿ‡Z? †mwU wK gvby‡li cyY©v½ cv‡Vi Zzjbvq gvby‡li †Kvb
GKwU we‡kl w`K Z_v Zvi mgvR ev ms¯‥…wZ wKsev HwZn¨-AZx‡Zi cv‡V cwiYZ
n‡qwQj GK ch©v‡q? Ges AvR‡K wK b„weÁvb wb‡R‡K cÖvmw½K I cÖ‡qvRbxq e‡j
cÖgvY Ki‡Z wM‡q Ôgvby‡li c~Y©v½ Aa¨q‡bÕi welqwU‡K cv‡k mwi‡q †i‡L‡Q Ges
A‡bK †ewk eZ©gvb ev mgmvgwqK cÖm½mg~‡ni Aa¨q‡b ch©ewmZ n‡q‡Q?
1917 mv‡ji ej‡kwfK wecøe Ges †mvwf‡qZ iv‡óªi m„wói †cÖÿvc‡U †mLvbKvi
wewfbœ RvwZ †Mvôx¸‡jv m¤ú‡K© we¯Í…Z Aa¨qb cÖvmw½K n‡q I‡V| we‡kl K‡i
wewfbœ RvwZZvwË¡K-‡f․‡MvwjK GKK¸‡jvi (ethno-territorial units) ga¨Kvi
mxgv‡iLv Uvbvi Rb¨ G Aa¨qb‡K Riæix e‡j g‡b Kiv nq| ÿz`ª Rb‡Mvôx¸‡jvi
fvlvi wjwLZ eY©gvjv `vuo Kiv‡bv Ges Zv‡`i Rb¨ we`¨vjq e¨e¯
v cÖwZôvq eû
G_‡bvMÖvdvi AZ¨šÍ Nwbôfv‡e KvR K‡ib| 1930 Gi `k‡Ki ci †_‡K
†mvwf‡qZ b„weÁv‡bi mKj cÖKvi ZvwË¡K `„wófw½‡KB gv·©ev`x-‡jwbbev`x
WKUªvBb m¤ú~Y©iƒ‡c cÖfvweZ Ki‡Z _v‡K| mgvR weeZ©‡bi avcmg~n Aa¨qb,
HwZnvwmK cwieZ©‡bi cÖavb kw³ wn‡m‡e †kÖYx msMÖvg‡K †`Lv BZ¨vw` n‡q I‡V
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Anthropology: Science of Human Being
1970 I 1980 Gi `k‡K G‡m †mvwf‡qZ b„weÁvb AwaK AvMÖnx n‡q I‡V
mgvRZË¡g~jK Rwi‡ci ga¨ w`‡q mgmvgwqK G_wbK Bmy¨mg~n Aa¨q‡bi wel‡q|
ga¨ Gwkqv, evwëK cÖRvZš¿mg~n Ges †fvjMv A‡j G mgq we¯Í…Z M‡elYv KvR
cwiPvwjZ nq| g‡¯‥vi Bbw÷wUDU Ae G_‡bvMÖvwd Gi cwiPvjK Y. Bromely
Ges Zvi mnKg©x‡`i KvR G mgq cÖvavb¨ we¯Ívi K‡i Ges Zviv †h wcÖgwW©qvwj÷
ZË¡wU `vuo Kivb †mwU cwiwPwZ cvq ÔG_&‡bvm w_IixÕ wn‡m‡e (Bromley, 1981)|
†mwf‡qZ RvZxqZvmg~‡ni g‡a¨ †h ivR‣bwZK µ‡gv”PZv †mwUB GB G_‡bvm
w_Iwii ga¨ w`‡q cÖwZdwjZ nq| GQvov G_‡bvm‡K mvgvwRK-‣RweK mËv
wn‡m‡e †KD †KD e¨vL¨v K‡ib Ges GB e¨vL¨vwUI RbwcÖq nq| Aek¨ G_&‡bvm
w_Iwii cvkvcvwk HwZnvwmK G_‡bvMÖvwd Ges G_‡bvwR‡bwmm Aa¨qb G mg‡q
G‡mI M‡elYv G‡RÛvq h‡_ó ¸iæZ¡c~Y© ¯
vb `Lj K‡i _v‡K Ges c„w_exi
BwZnv‡mi Avw`Zg Rb‡Mvôxmg~n (primeval societies) Ges gvbe mgvR¸‡jvi
cÖv_wgK ch©vq (early stages of human societies) m¤ú‡K© kw³kvjx wKQz
M‡elYv G mgqB cÖKvwkZ nq| AviI KvR nq kvgvwbRg I a‡g©i cÖv_wgK
ch©vq, fvlvZvwË¡K cybwbg©vY, wg_, AvB‡Kv‡bvMÖvwd cÖf…wZ wel‡q| `yf©vM¨RbK †h,
ivwkqvb cwÐZ føvw`wgi cÖc, Gg, evLwZb ev G, wf, Pvqbv‡fi LyeB kw³kvjx
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Anthropology: Science of Human Being
ZvwË¡K wfw˸‡jv‡K GwM‡q wb‡q hvIqvi Rb¨ †mvwf‡qZ we`¨vRM‡Z Lye GKUv
D‡`¨vM-Av‡qvRb nqwb| Z_vwc mvgwMÖKfv‡e G mgq †mvwf‡qZ b„weÁvb GKUv
AZ¨šÍ kw³kvjx ZvwË¡K wfwË jvf K‡i, hv †mwf‡qZ iv‡óªi Aemvb I ZrcieZ©x
bvbvwea cwieZ©b I iƒcvšÍ‡ii gv‡SI ivwkqvb b„weÁvb‡K k³ eyw×e„wËK wfwËi
Ici `vuo Kwi‡q ivL‡Z mÿg nq|
1851 mvj †_‡K ïiæ K‡i 1889 mvj ch©šÍ mgqKv‡j gvwK©b hy³iv‡óª b„weÁvb
PP©v n‡q‡Q g~jZt `¨v ey¨‡iv Ae Av‡gwiKvb G_‡bv‡jvwR Gi ZË¡veav‡b ev
mivmwi Gi AvIZvq| ¯
vbxq fvlv e¨envi K‡i †bwUf Av‡gwiKvb BÛvqvb‡`i
gv‡S cwiPvjbv Kiv n‡qwQj `xN©Kvjxb gvVKg©, AvwU©d¨v±m †hvMvo K‡i
wgDwRqvg M‡o †Zvjv n‡q‡Q, ¯
vbxq †U·U msMÖn Kiv n‡q‡Q Ges d‡UvMÖv‡di
ga¨ w`‡q BÛqvb‡`i RxebwP·K a‡i ivLvi †Póv Kiv n‡q‡Q| A‡b‡K †hgb
e‡j‡Qb BD‡ivcxq‡`i Av‡gwiKv Avwe®‥v‡ii ga¨ w`‡qB Av‡gwiKvb b„weÁv‡bi
hvÎv ïiæ n‡q‡Q| m`¨ Avwe®‥…Z GB f~L‡Ûi g~j Awaevmx Z_v Av‡gwiKvb
BwÛqvb‡`i (BD‡ivcxq‡`i ÔAb¨Õ) wel‡q AvMÖn †_‡KB Av‡gwiKvb b„weÁv‡bi
wfwË ¯
vwcZ nq| ¯
vbxq BwÛqvb‡`i RxebhvÎv `ªæZ nvwiq hv‡”Q, e¯‧MZ ms¯‥…wZ
Aejyß cÖvq Ges RbmsL¨v µgkB n«vm cv‡”Q-Giƒc GKwU cwiw¯
wZ‡Z GK
ai‡bi ÔÎvZvÕ ev ÔD×viKvixÕ (―salvage‖ anthropology) b„weÁv‡bi Avwek¨KZv
Abyfe Kiv n‡qwQj| ey¨‡iv‡Z Rgv n‡Z _vKv gvV ch©vq n‡Z msM„nxZ Z_¨-DcvË
web¨v‡mi Kv‡R Ges †bwUf Av‡gwiKvb mgv‡Ri PwiÎ e¨vL¨v Kivi †ÿ‡Î
weeZ©bev`x ZvwË¡KM‡Yi ZË¡¸‡jv e¨envi Kiv nw”Qj (Malefift, 1976)|
1840 †_‡K ïiæ K‡i 1950 ch©šÍ we¯Í…Z mgqKv‡j e¯‧Z cÖvwZôvwbK I †ckvMZ
b„weÁvb GLv‡b cÖwZôv cvq| d«vbh †evqvm Ges Zvi QvÎ-QvÎx‡`i KvR G †ÿ‡Î
gyL¨ f~wgKv cvjb K‡i| Aek¨ 1888 mv‡j †evqvm K¬¨vK© wek¦we`¨vj‡q hLb cÖ_g
GKv‡WwgK wb‡qvM jvf K‡ib, Zvi Av‡MB Av‡gwiKvq b„weÁvb Zvi †dvi-wdì
G‡cÖvP wb‡q †ek kw³kvjx GKUv Ae¯
vb •Zwi K‡i wb‡Z †c‡iwQj e‡jB
A‡b‡Ki gZ (Malefifjt, 1976) 1888 mv‡jB Av‡gwiKvb A¨vb‡_ªv‡cv‡jvwR÷
Gi cÖ_g msL¨v cÖKvwkZ nq †hLv‡b fvlvZË¡, cÖZœZË¡, •`wnK b„weÁvb Ges
G_‡bv‡jvwR wel‡q †jLv‡jwL msKwjZ n‡qwQj| Z_vwc wek kZ‡Ki GB ïiæi
ch©v‡q Av‡gwiKvb b„weÁvb Z_v mvgwMÖKfv‡e b„weÁv‡bi me †_‡K cÖfvekvjx
e¨w³Z¡ wn‡m‡e we‡ewPZ nb †evqvm| e¯‧Z 1896 mvj †_‡K ïiæ K‡i 1942 (G
eQiB Zvui g„Zz¨ nq) mvj ch©šÍ Kjw¤^qv wek¦we`¨vj‡q Aa¨vcbvi mg‡q wZwb
wecyj msL¨K b„weÁvbx‡K cÖwkÿY †`b hviv cieZ©x‡Z ¯^ ¯^ †ÿ‡Î D‡jøL‡hvM¨
L¨vwZ AR©b K‡ib Ges b„‣eÁvwbK Aa¨qb I M‡elYvi †ÿ‡Î D‡jøL‡hvM¨fv‡e
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Anthropology: Science of Human Being
GiI c‡i 1960 I Õ70 Gi `k‡K wf‡qZbvg hy‡×i AwfÁZvi ga¨ w`‡q
hvIqvi ci Ges GKUv `xN© GKv‡WwgK m¼U †gvKv‡ejvi Av‡gwiKvb b„weÁvb
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Anthropology: Science of Human Being
BwZnv‡mi cÖwZ Szu‡K c‡o| Ges cieZ©x‡Z µgk DËivaywbK ZvwË¡K‡`i KvR
gvwK©b b„weÁv‡b ¸iæZ¡c~Y© RvqMv `Lj K‡i †bq|
weªwUk b„weÁv‡b cÖ_g wek¦hy× ev Zrc~e©Kvjxb mg‡q cÖvavb¨c~Y© ZvwË¡K aviv n‡jv
e¨vwßev` Ges wµqvev`; Avi G `y‡Uv ZvwË¡K avivB GKwU‡K Ab¨wUi GK`g
wecixZ wn‡m‡e Dc¯
vcb K‡i‡Q| weeZ©bev`x‡`i HwZnvwmK cybtwbg©v‡Yi †h
jÿ¨ †mwU e¨vwßev`x‡`i Kv‡RI wQj, weeZ©bev`x‡`i g‡ZvB Giv †`L‡Z †P‡q‡Q
cÖvwZôvwbK e¨e¯
vq KvjµwgK cwieZ©‡bi ga¨ w`‡q AvaywbK mf¨Zvi ch©v‡q
gvbeZvi DËiY N‡U‡Q| wKš‧ GB HwZnvwmK cwieZ©b‡K e¨vL¨v Kivi †ÿ‡Î
weeZ©bev`xMY Ges e¨vwßev`xM‡Yi †g․wjK Abygvb Awfbœ bq| cÖ_‡gv³MY
‡hLv‡b g‡b Ki‡Zb mgMÖ gvbe BwZnv‡mi GK Awfbœ MšÍe¨ i‡q‡Q, Ges †m
MšÍ‡e¨ †cu․Qv‡bvi Rb¨ mKj gvbe mgvRB g‡bvMZ H‡K¨i (psychic unity)
Kvi‡Y D™¢vebx ÿgZvi ga¨ w`‡q AMÖmi n‡”Q| Gi wecix‡Z wØZx‡qv³MY g‡b
Ki‡Zb cwieZ©‡bi g~j AbyNUK n‡”Q AwfMg‡bi ga¨ w`‡q msNwUZ mvs¯‥…wZK
†hvMv‡hvM-cÖwZwU ms¯‥…wZi Avjv`v Avjv`v D™¢vebx ÿgZv bq|
1920 Gi `kK n‡Z ïiæ K‡i 1960 Gi `kK ch©šÍ weªwUk mvgvwRK b„weÁv‡b
cÖZvckvjx ZË¡ I c×wZMZ aviv n‡jv wµqvev`| wµqvev`x‡`i Ae¯
vb m¤ú‡K©
†nbwiKv KzKwjK †hgb e‡j‡Qb †h Giv mvgvwRK b„weÁv‡b 1920 Gi `kK n‡Z
ïiæ K‡i 1960 Gi `kK ch©šÍ kw³kvjx Ae¯
vb a‡i iv‡L Ges Aa¨q‡bi
welqe¯‧ wn‡m‡e wew”Qbœ Rb‡Mvôxmg~‡ni ¯^Zš¿ ms¯‥…wZi cÖwZB Zviv †Rvi †`b|
we‡k¦i HwZnvwmK cwieZ©b msµvšÍ †Kvbiƒc wbqgbxwZ ev e„nr ZË¡ cÖwZôvi †Póv
†_‡K Giv weiZ _v‡Kb| Gi cwie‡Z© Zviv ¸iæZ¡ †`b w¯
wZkxj mgvR e¨e¯
vi
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Anthropology: Science of Human Being
eZ©gvb‡K›`ªxK •ewkó¨mg~n Lyu‡R †ei Kivi Ici| Zv‡`i `„wó‡Z e¯‧MZ w`K
†_‡K mij mgvRmg~n, †h¸‡jv cwðgv mgvR †¯ªvZ †_‡K wew”Qbœ mgvR¸‡jvB
n‡”Q b„‣eÁvwbK Aa¨q‡bi Rb¨ Av`k© mgvR Ges Gme mgv‡Ri mvgwMÖKfv‡e
mn‡R e¨vL¨v Kiv hvq (Kuklick, 1996)|
weªwUk Ges Av‡gwiKvb b„weÁ‡bi wfbœZv cÖm‡½ Ges, GKB mv‡_, weªwUk
b„weÁv‡bi †fZ‡i †h DcÁvbKvÐxq Uvbv‡cv‡ob †m wel‡q †nbwiKv KzKwj‡Ki
we‡kølY G cÖm‡½ D‡jøL Kiv hvq| b„weÁv‡bi weKvk cÖwµqvqB wKfv‡e
Am½wZmg~n Ges wek¦RbxbZvi NvUwZi welqwU Awbe©vhfv‡e Dcw¯
Z †_‡K
wM‡qwQj Zv Zvui G Av‡jvPbv †_‡K †evSv hvq (we¯ÍvwiZ Av‡jvPbvi Rb¨ †`Lyb
Kuklick, 1992)|
we‡ePbvi cÖm½mg~n
GB eûgvwÎKZv, •ewPΨ I •ecix‡Z¡i †cÖÿvc‡U gvbyl Aa¨q‡bi weÁvb n‡q
IVvi †ÿ‡Î b„weÁv‡bi mxgve×Zv ev Am½wZ¸‡jv wPwýZ Kivi j‡ÿ¨ gyL¨ †h
†ÿθ‡jv we‡kl g‡bv‡hvM `vex K‡i †m cÖm½¸‡jv‡K GLv‡b Avjv`vfv‡e D‡jøL
Kiv n‡jvt
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Anthropology: Science of Human Being
mgvR Aa¨q‡b cy‡ivcywi e¨vc„Z _v‡K bv Z_vwc AvRI b„weÁvb GgbwK wkívwqZ
wbR mgv‡R M‡elYv Ki‡Z wM‡q GK ai‡bi ÔAb¨Õ •Zwi K‡i †bq|
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Anthropology: Science of Human Being
30
Anthropology: Science of Human Being
UxKv
1
G Aa¨v‡q b„weÁv‡bi ÁvbZË¡xq cÖm½ wb‡q wbeÜKv‡ii ch©‡eÿYmg~n Dc¯
vcb
Kiv n‡q‡Q| ÁvbZË¡ ej‡Z (philosophy) ‡evSv‡bv nq Ávb m¤úwK©Z ZË¡ ev
Ôtheory of knowledgeÕ Ges Ôsource and process of knowledgeÕ‡K| †h
we‡kl ai‡bi Áv‡bi AbymÜvb †_‡K b„weÁv‡bi hvÎv I weKvk Zvi ZvwË¡K
we‡kølY GLv‡b g~j jÿ¨| GB we‡køl‡Yi ga¨ w`‡q ‡evSvi †Póv Kiv n‡q‡Q
b„‣eÁvwbK Áv‡bi ZvwË¡K m¼U, mxgve×Zv ev Uvbv‡cv‡ob¸‡jv †Kv_vq|
b„‣eÁvwbK Áv‡bi ZvwË¡KZv eyS‡Z wM‡q GLv‡b cÖavbZ g‡bv‡hvM †`qv n‡q‡Q
Gi ÁvbKvÐxq BwZnv‡mi (disciplinary history) cÖwZ| b„weÁv‡bi ÁvbZË¡
(epistemology) we‡køl‡Y Gfv‡e ÁvbKvÐ (discipline) wn‡m‡e b„weÁv‡bi D™¢e
I weKvk we‡kølY GLv‡b cÖvmw½K n‡q D‡V‡Q|
2
DËivaywbKZvev`x ZË¡ b„weÁv‡b Kx ai‡bi cÖfve •Zwi K‡i‡Q Zvi GKwU
mswÿß Av‡jvPbvi Rb¨ †`Lyb Layton, 1997 Gi c„ôv 185 n‡Z 215 ch©šÍ|
3
`wÿY Gkxq b„weÁvb msµvšÍ G Av‡jvPbvwU‡Z g~jZt we‡ePbv Kiv n‡q‡Q
fviZ I kÖxj¼vq b„weÁvb PP©vi †h BwZnvm i‡q‡Q †mwU‡K| mvgwMÖKfv‡e `wÿY
Gwkqv ejv n‡j Zv‡Z evsjv‡`‡ki b„weÁvbI AšÍf~©³ nq| wKš‧ GLv‡b cwimi I
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Anthropology: Science of Human Being
welqe¯‧ wePv‡i evsjv‡`‡k b„weÁvb m¤ú‡K© mywbw`©ó we‡kølY Dc¯
vcb †_‡K weiZ
_vKv n‡q‡Q| e¯‧Z G †cÖÿvcU †_‡K Av‡jvPbv Kivi †ÿ‡Î evsjv‡`‡ki b„weÁvb
¯^Zš¿ I we¯Í…Z Av‡jvPbv `vex K‡i| eZ©gvb cwim‡i †mB †Póv bv K‡i GwU
fwel¨‡Z wfbœfv‡e Av‡jvPbvi cÖZ¨vkv _vK‡jv|
MÖš’cwÄ
Abu-Lughod, L. (1991) Writing Against Culture, in R. G. Fox (Ed)
Recapturing Anthropology: Working in the Present. Santa Fe: School of
American Reserch.
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Anthropology: Science of Human Being
34
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35
Anthropology: Science of Human Being
Chapter 3
the outer surface of the model as it envelops all the organic forms of life such
as plants, animals, microorganisms, pathogens and vectors and exists
presumably all over the universe. Existing interrelationship refers to mutual
inter-dependency of elements. It envisages that human being actively
transforms the organic and inorganic environment they live in and the process
is mutually implicated. Further, human beings are seen as a species that is
divided into nation states, nationalities, and ethnic groups that structured in the
system of kinship and family through a gender line.
Language, all forms of non-linguistic symbols, cognitive abilities and contents
behavior, and music are seen as integral part of culture. Food is one of the
central components of culture while organic environment, particularly plants
and animals remains to be the sources of food.
Inseparability of culture and body could be observed in the very fact that
language being a symbolic system is founded on the biological capabilities,
particularly, neural connection between association areas for hearing and
motor coordination of speech, localized in the left hemisphere of the brain
j[lnc]of[lfs ch Bli][‖m [h^ W_lhc]e_‖m [l_[m. Scgcf[lfs, ][j[]cns `il ]ofnol_
has also a genetic basis.
However, the most fundamental aspect of homo sapience is the brain; see
Gray’s Anatomy (Gray & Carter, 1858) for detail.
38
Anthropology: Science of Human Being
Kinship Gender
Economy Power
INORGANIC
vision, hearing, touch, and motor coordination. This overlap allows learning to
occur through transfer and correlation of information between association
areas. Second; evolution of human hands accompanied evolution of the fine
visual motor coordination in the brain. Third; humans are born as altogether
dependent beings, which allows a relatively long time for learning. These
three characteristics-a complex brain, the ability to make tools and social
bonding have allowed humans to generate an impressive diversity in cultural
sysn_g [h^ ni molpcp_ ch nb_ qc^_ l[ha_ i` _]ifiac][f hc]b_m‖.
Further, culture is deeply related and linked to the society, as early as Tylor
has observed that culture is acquired by humans as member of the society.
Human beings constitute complex networks of relationship based on blood,
affinity, descent, gender, economy, and power, and continuously transform it.
Mind, together with body, culture and society constitute human beings.
Individual psyche, personality, mental processes, emotional feelings and
experiences are basic elements of humans.
Therefore, the model emphasizes on interrelationships, interconnectedness and
interdependency of individual elements of human life. Intrinsically, the model
contains a relational basis of anthropology with all its specialized fields shown
in the diagram 2.
In the above diagram, 17 specialized fields are mentioned while there exist
many other sub-fields which could not be included. Though each field appears
ni \_ [h ―ch^_j_h^_hn mj_]c[fct[ncih‖. E[]b i` cn ]ihn[chm mige basic
theoretical orientation in common. In order to have a clear idea about the
individual field a brief discussion may be useful.
The board sub-field of cultural anthropology incorporates such fields as
linguistics anthropology, which focuses on language, ethnography and
ethnology study contemporary cultures (Aitchison, 1995). Archaeology
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Anthropology: Science of Human Being
41
Anthropology: Science of Human Being
Diagram 2:
The interrelationship between specialized sub-fields of Anthropology
However, the very existence of the specialized branches refers to the idea that
not individual field but all of these together constitute anthropology as a
discipline. These fields refer to an underlying interdisciplinary conceptual
framework of anthropology that combines natural sciences, social sciences,
42
Anthropology: Science of Human Being
Bibliography
Aitchison, I. (1995) Linguistics: An introduction. Reading: Cox &
Wymen Ltd.
Gray, H. & Carter, H. V. (1858) Gray’s Anatomy: Descriptive and Surgical.
London: John W. Parker and Son.
Levi-Strauss, C. (1963/1986) Structural Anthropology. Middlesex: Penguin
Books.
McElroy, A. & Townsend, P. K. (1996) Medical Anthropology in
Ecological Perspective. New York: Westview Press.
Penniman, T. K. (1935) A Hundred Years of Anthropology. London:
Duckworth.
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Anthropology: Science of Human Being
Chapter 4
44
Anthropology: Science of Human Being
puts forward his own theoretical perspectives that may help formation of
anthropology as a science of human being.
Introduction
In 2005, anthropology looks unprecedentedly different from what was in
its formative stage and has undergone changes that are exclusive and
fundamental. An exploration into the reasons for impasse is inevitable,
since only theoretical insight of the formation of its contexts and
epistemological grounding may help understand the present crisis and
construct paradigm of the science of human being.
In the contemporary stage of its development the crisis has reached its
climax. In this phase, it has taken a belligerent turn to philosophy, which
has significantly influenced both theory and ethnography. The very
existence of the discipline has been put into serious question. Culture
being the central concept, around which anthropology aspires to develop,
b[m hiq \__h ]ihn_mn_^. Ih cnm jf[]_ ―jiq_l‖ b[m _g_la_^ jli`ioh^fs [m
the key notion.
Ah _rjl_mmcih i` nb_ `__fcham nb[n ―mno^scha‖ bog[h \_cha cm [fgimn
impossible as its complexity has created not an ordinary crisis rather it
has led to an impasse for anthropology as a discipline, This has also
produced profound tension among the anthropologists all over the world.
S[bfchm b[m i\m_lp_^ nb[n [hnblijifias cm oh^_laicha nblioab ―nqcfcabn‖.
For, Geertz, anthrijifias cm ―[^ bi]‖, [h^ ―_r jimn‖ _hn_ljlcm_, [h^
worldview, rather than a discipline. Nihilism is viewed as extensively
embedded.
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Anthropology: Science of Human Being
[h[fsmcm b[mh‖n f_`n [hs m]ij_ `il ehiqf_^a_ [\ion g_^c]ch_ [h^
psychiatry which could have certain use for human beings.
In addition to that, while Michel Foucault was not at all agreeing with the
existence of human nature (innate), he was rather keener to pursue such
issues as human nature that has appeared in the discourses under any
circumstances (Foucault, 1984).
Hence, ‗nb_ c^_[ i` [ ^cm]cjfch_, ch [hs i` nb_ m_hm_m i` qbim_ clihc_m [h^
cross-actions Michael Foucault built so much of his rhetorical tower, fits
anthropology none too well. At once broad and general, wildly aspiring
(‗Tb_ Sno^s i` M[h‘), [h^ j[lnc]of[l [h^ miscellaneous, strangely
obsessive (puberty rites, gift exchange, kin terminology), it has always
had, both to itself and to outsiders, a blurry ig[a_‘ (G__lnt, 1995: 97).
Since the article does not have a scope for a detailed discussion on post-
structuralism and pos-modernism, only some basic observations on these
two perspectives are presented here. It should be noted that post-
mnlo]nol[fcmg b[m hin s_n ]igjl_b_hmcp_fs ]limm_^ nb_ ‗jb[m_ i`
mnlo]nol_‘ [h^ [mmog_^ nb_ ncnf_ ―jimn‖ nb_il_nc][ffs. I` nbcm cm ni \_
recognized than we have to put over all efforts to the revelation of the
structure of all inorganic bodies composed of not only atom and particles
but also its decaying qualities (uranium, carbon 14) including its
transformation, in case of organic elements DNA is the life process as it
contain gene that carry information about how the protein synthesis is to
be carried out, being a mechanism of its growth, while the structure of
h_olih [h^ h_oliafc[ cm nb_ e_s ni \_ ―bog[h‖. Ih ][m_ i` f[hao[a_,
sound is the exclusive means to attach meaning to be produced and
generate a system of arbitrary sing that can be the principal means of
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Anthropology: Science of Human Being
much less certain than nineteenth century science would have us believe
(Appleby, 1996). This theoretical position provoked many other thinkers
who had developed post-modern perspective. How this perspective
differs from modernism may be apparent in its basic understanding.
Gicha \_sih^ nb_ ‗]f[mmc]‘ ^_`chcncih i` Lsin[l^ (1979/1984), ―nb_ _h^
i` g_n[h[ll[ncp_m‖, J[g_mih (1983) ^_fcgcnm nb_ m]ij_ i` nb_ n_lg ―Pimn-
gi^_lhcmg‖ \s i``_lcha nbl__ e_s _f_g_hnm j[lnc]of[lfs, cnm bcmnorical
location which is: 1) a counter-reaction to modernism; 2) its use of
pastiche (a jumbled mixture); and 3) the importance of images (Rabinow,
1986: 248-249).
The above elements of post-modernism are profoundly significant, yet
without the concept of simulation, developed by Baudrillard (1983), the
undrestandign of post-modernism remains to be incomplete. The
conceptions of simulation is usually known as the loss of the real, which
means that in contemporary life the pervasive influence of images from
film, TV, and advertising has led to a loss of the distinction between real
and imagined, reality and illusion, surface and depth.
Here the key question is, whether the modern era or, as of Habermas,
modernism has already ended and the entire concept of rationalization
(q_\_l) il l_[mih b[m ]_[m_, [h^ nb_ ―jimn‖ j_lci^ i` gi^_lhcmg b[m \__h
fully established? Exploration of these questions with exclusiveness can
reveal the fact post-modernism has fundamental constraints as a
theoretical perspective.
The implication of philosophical shifts for ethnography
The major implication of this philosophical shift would be transparent in
its position with regard to ethnography. The post-modernists have urged
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Anthropology: Science of Human Being
(Clifford, 1986: 6). It may be noted here that James Clifford is attributed
with the interdisciplinary program at University of California, Santa
Clause, who is himself not an anthropologist but rather (in his own
qil^m) [ ‗bcmnilc[h [h^ ]lcnc] i` [hnblijifias‘ (Koj_l, 1999: 210).
Cfc``il^‖m l_]iahcncih i` _nbhial[jbc] nlonbm [m ―j[lnc[f‖ b[m jlipc^_^
space to the authors of ―After Writing Culture‖ `il developing their ideas
and in order to overcome to eschew the antagonisms and pessimisms that
the debate has aroused and respond constructively to the challenge for
ethnography which constitutes the heart of the matter (James et al., 1997:
2).
―Wlcncha Cofnol_‖ ^_\[n_ b[m [fmi g[^_ [hnblijifiacmnm ]ihm]ciom [\ion
the need to pay closer attention to the epistemological basis of their
representations. Moreover, this has made them aware to consider the
practical implications of the process of reflection both for the
anthropological enterprise and the subjects of any anthropological
inquiry (ibid: 3).
Tb_ ^_\[n_ cm ]ihnchocha [m nb_ [onbil i` ‗A`n_l qlcncha ]ofnol_‘
jlijim_m ni ^_[f qcnb nb_ ko_mncihm l[cm_^ \s ‗Wlcncha ]ofnol_‘. Tb_
[onbilm i` ―A`n_l Wlcncha Cofnol_‖ b[p_ c^_hnc`c_^ nb_ g[dil ]ihmnl[chnm
i` ―Wlcncha Cofnol_‖. Tb_s `ioh^ nb[n nb_ [onbilm i` ―Wlcncha Cofnol_‖
have concentrated only on four major issues: 1) subject-matter (other 2),
methodology, (participant observation), 3) form (textuality), 4) intention
(information). It suggests that four discrete epistemological means
particularity. 1) The humanism of representational practices; 2) the
difficulty of uncovering representations which are being presented and
by whom; 3) the problem of the form that the different representational
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Institutionalization of Anthropology
Anthropology was born in the nineteenth century. In France and Great
Blcn[ch cnm ilcach[f ^_mcah[ncih q[m ―_nbhifias‖, as mentioned in the
society Ethnologique de Paris (founded in 1839) and the Ethnological
society of London (dating from 1843) respectively. Until 1870s
Anthropology has been referred quite narrowly to what is today called
physical anthropology, but with the establishment of the Royal
Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland in 1871, Ethnology
was renamed as Anthropology, Consequently, the first formal teaching in
anthropology. Consequently, the first formal teaching in anthropology
began at the University of Oxford in 1884, along with the honorary
British chair of anthropology being created at the University of Liverpool
in 1908 to which Sir James George Frazer was appointed (Cheater, 1989:
17).
Cb[lf_m, D[lqch‖m The Descent of Man (1871) has made an attempt to
discern human beings as a species which, of course, has bad developed
within the conceptual framework of his theory of natural selection
worked out in The Origin of Species (Darwin, 1859). For some peculiar
reasons the theoretical premise of Darwin as developed in his The
Descent of Man had failed to draw adequate attention of academicians
and scholars for which it faced discontinuity in time and space. During
nb_ `iffiqcha nqi ^_][^_m [ m_lc_m i` ―mi]cifiac][f‖ gihial[jbm
appeared dealing with primitive society. These included classic studies
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Anthropology: Science of Human Being
58
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60
Anthropology: Science of Human Being
61
Anthropology: Science of Human Being
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Anthropology: Science of Human Being
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Anthropology: Science of Human Being
Lacunae in Ethnography
Since it was been mentioned earlier that anthropology had started its
journey qcnb nb_ n_lg ―_nbhifias‖, _nbhial[jbs b[^ \__h cnm `ioh^[ncih
with a fieldwork tradition which is known to had begun by Malinowski
in I914 but in fact it had originated much earlier, on the one hand, and by
another ethnographer, on the other. This lacunae is courageously
confessed by Angela Cheater (Cheater, 1989: 21) at a time when the
academic communities of the world had turned their blind eye to this
proven fact. She writes in this connection that the Russian naturalist,
Nikolai Niklouho-Maclay (1846) spent some three years between l87l
and 1882, studying the people as well as the natural history of the
―M[]f[s Ci[mn‖ i` nb_ M[^[ha ^cmnlc]n i` N_q Goch_[. D_mjcn_ bcm
political representations to the British government on behalf of those he
studied, and his fame in Australia for some peculiar reason, he is never
l_a[l^_^ [m nb_ `ioh^_l i` nb_ ―`c_f^qile nl[^cncih ch [hnblijifias‖
(Cheater, 1989: 21).
coast, and laid the foundation for a rich ethnographic tradition in Russia
that is virtually unknown in the west (Eriksen et al., 2001: 24).
jms]bifiac][f nl[og[ i` ginb_l ―ni \_‖, ]ih`fc]n [n nb_ `[gcfs, [nd many
inb_l ]igjfc][ncihm. fh mo]b [ \[]ealioh^ biq [ mno^s ih ―\clnb lcno[f
fiiem fce_ [h^ biq go]b cm cn ―_h^olcha‖ `il nb_ ch`ilg[hnm [h^ gimn
cgjiln[hnfs nbcm ―ch]fomcih‖ [h^ ―_r]fomcih‖ g[e_ [hnblijifias
humanistic discipline? Further, what theoretical implication anthropology
had as a result of exclusion of such a universal aspect of human life as
―^cm_[m_‖ [h^ ―b_[fnb‖? A `i]om ih ―]ofnol_‖ qiof^ \_ f_mm bog[hcmnc]
nb[h [ `i]om ih ―^cm_[m_ [h^ mo``_lcham. Tb_l_`il_, chmn_[^ i` b[pcha [
―h[lliq `i]om‖, [ff iol _``ilnm beextended to comprehend real life of
human beings in a holistic way. Further, for sure anthropology would be
taken away human being from it humanistic foundation as a species.
Conclusion
The present writing extend assumption that anthropology has not yet
become a science of human being. As such most of the contemporary
crises are associated with how the said discipline can really grow up as
nb_ ―fiaim‖ i` ―[hnblijim‖. Ah [nn_gjn b[m \__h g[^_ ni _rjfil_ l_[mons
responsible for this failure. What constraints have made anthropology so
fragile, tentative, often arbitrary and vulnerable. How has anthropology
been historically exposed to so many changes, shifts, divergences and
discontinuities. And finally, under what circumstances anthropology
could not succeeded to be an universal science of human beings. Rather,
it has divided human beings into different categories, such as, the exotic,
native, savage, tribals, and those who are undergoing humanization,
process, in particular as subject matter of anthropology, while the
―^_p_fij_^ W_mn_lh_lm‖ b[^ \__h _r]fo^_^, `lig nb_ jolpc_q i`
anthropology.
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Anthropology: Science of Human Being
However, the discipline has strictly confined its focus primarily into
―]ofnol_‖ [h^ ―mi]c_ns‖, [h^ ni [h insignificant extent the biological aspect
i` j[lnc]of[l bog[h \_cham. Tbcm ―h[lliq `i]om‖ b[m hin ihfs _r]fo^_^
many of the universal aspects of humans, but creates constraints upon the
discipline to be parochial in character.
On the basis of arguments given above, the author has identified some
aspects of human life that are universal and intrinsic for every human.
being. Which are to be indispensable subject matter of anthropology as
noted below:
cope with for the continuation of life. But these are indeed certain
individual exceptions.
f) Language is learned not only for communication but also for all
cognitive activities that continue throughout life.
i) Not passive, rather active pursuance of individual and social life is the
basic trends.
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Anthropology: Science of Human Being
For this purpose, anthropology has to share itself with biological, social,
physical sciences as well as humanities. A narrow focus would only
jlipc^_ cffomcp_ ―mb[^iq‖ i` [ ]igjf_r \ocfn.
Thus it is the firm conviction of the author that a science of human being
could definitely be formed, the treasury of knowledge, theories and
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Anthropology: Science of Human Being
paradigms that already had been gathered and formulated could be fully
utilized, adding new ideas to it. Finally, a rigorous process to reorganize
anthropology, as a science of human being is a call of the time. And
probably it is not too late to begin the great work with.
Bibliography
Abu-Lughod, L. (1991) Writing Against Culture, in R. Fox (Ed.)
Recapturing Anthropology. Working in the present. Santa Fe, N. M.:
School of American Research Press.
70
Anthropology: Science of Human Being
71
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Geertz, C. (1995) After the Fact, Two countries, Four Decades, One
Anthropologist. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
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73
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Chapter 5
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Introduction
Malinowski has been recognized as the founder of fieldwork tradition in
anthropology in almost entire world academia and anthropology is
considered as a child of colonialism. Malinowski's first expedition was in
1914 when he visited Motu and Papua and the Mailu of New Guinea and
spent some years from 1914-15 and 1915-18 in the Trobriand Island
(Eriksen & Finn, 2001: 243).
The Expedition
In 1871 he settled on the northeastern coast of New Guinea (now Papua
New Guinea) where no white person had been before. While his primary
objective in going to New Guinea was to make a comparative study of
the racial types of the Pacific region, he is known more for his efforts in
defending the rights of indigenous people to their land against the spread
of colonialism than he is for his ethnographic work. Miklouho-Maclay
spent more than 3 years living and travelling in New Guinea pursuing his
ethnographic studies. His work focused mainly on recording the physical
characteristics of people and their material culture and paid little
attention to social relationships and religious matters.
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Anthropology: Science of Human Being
Conception of Maclay
A theory was widespread according to which primitive societies were
formed of people of a lower type who were incapable of raising
themselves to the level of modern civilization. This argument was used
in justifying the seizure of land as colonies, the slave trade, and the
poverty-stricken existence of huge masses of people. Such views were
quite alien to Miklouho Maclay. He was firmly convinced that naturally
[ff j_ijf_ [l_ \ilh nb_ m[g_ [h^ _ko[f, nb[n nb_l_ q_l_ hi ‗bcab_l‘ [h^
‗fiq_l‘ \_cham, nb[n nb_ jlcgcncp_ mn[n_ q[m [ bcmnilc][f ih_, qbc]b q[m
fading in the face of the modern world and that it was the duty of the
scientist to describe and understand this state better and more fully
(Butinov, 1953; Tumarkin, 1988).
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Anthropology: Science of Human Being
Methodology
He was convinced that his only hope of overcoming distrust was to gain
a command of the language, just as it was the only way for him to
understand the customs, and traditions, and mode of life of the natives.
The main impediment to learning the language consisted in the fact that
it was incredibly dificult to identify the words for notions, actions, and
states that one could not point out. Only after four months, for example,
did Miklouho-M[]f[s f_[g qb[n ‗gilhcha‘ [h^ ‗_p_hcha‘ q_l_ ][ff_^,
but he did not know the qil^ `il ‗hcabn‘. H_ b[^ ^cm]ip_l_^ biq ni m[s
‗\[^‘ \on ^c^ hin ehiq nb_ qil^ `il ‗aii^‘. H_ ain chni mig_ `ohhs
situations and sometimes simply awkward ones with the language.
Maclay knows that for the anthropologist and the ethnographer there is
no such thing as minor items everything is important, and one must know
everything. But genuine knowledge can only be obtained in the course of
lengthy, repeated, direct observations. An outsider cursory views or data
from unreliable sources frequently mislead scientific research.
It took 130 days for Maclay to built needed relationship with the Papuan
villagers. In those hours Maclay keenly watched, all that was going on,
attempting to remember every little, detail to imprint on his memory
every single feature, storing up the observations as an ethnographer and
_hdischa qb[n b_ m[q nblioab [h [lncmn‖m _s_.
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Papuans believed that Maclay Besides the fact that he could heal various
cffh_mm_m fcn `cl_, jl_p_hn l[ch c` b_ qcmb_^―, cn cm ch nb_ ^[cls nb[n b_
poured a few drops of water into a dish containing alcohol and set fire to
the alcohol.
Focus of Observations
Miklouho-Maclay also attached great importance to the long article
‗Enbhifiac][f Nin_m ih nb_ P[jo[hm‘. In cm mo``c]c_hn ni fcmn nb_ ^c``_l_hn
subjectm ^_[fn qcnb ni [jjl_]c[n_ nb_ m]ij_ i` nb_ [lnc]f_: ‗Fii^‘ (qcnb [
detailed description of the fruits, their properties, harvesting season, and
ways of preparing them; with a list of the animals, birds, insects, and
shellfish used as food; everything that concerns the cooking of food);
‗Pinm [h^ Un_hmcfm‘; Igjf_g_hnm [h^ Algm‘; ‗Cfinbcha [h^ Olh[g_hnm‘;
‗Oh nb_ pcff[a_m [h^ nb_ Dq_ffcham‘; ‗Pf[hn[ncihm [h^ nb_ Wilecha i` nb_
Sicf‘; ‗D_[fcham [h^ B[ln_lcha Agiha nb_ Vcff[a_m‘; ‗Tb_ Ep_ls^[s
Life of the Papu[hm‘ (ch]fo^cha g[llc[a_, `[gcfs l_f[ncihm, ]bcf^l_h, nb_
P[jo[h‖m ^[s, j[chncha i` nb_cl `[]_m [h^ \i^c_m, al__ncham, [h^ `oh_l[f
lcn_m); ‗Nin_m ih nb_ Sno^s i` nb_ L[hao[a_ [h^ ih Dc[f_]nm‘; ‗Aln‘
(ilh[g_hncha); ‗Oh \_fc_`m [h^ nb_ Comnigm Cihh_]n_^ 'Wcnb Tb_g‘;
‗Momc] [h^ Schacha‘; ‗F_mncpcnc_m [h^ F_[mnm‘.
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Fieldwork
Miklouho-Maclay wrote several anthropological and ethnographic essays
on the islands of Vuap (Yap), Hermit, Palau, and others. He was
particularly interested in the purpose of objects, their function in society.
He tried to approach this subject unbiased by European ideas and
prejudices stemming from the concepts of power, the state, property, and
so forth.
Within the time period between 1886 and 1888 Peter the Great
Anthropology and Ethnography Museum in Leningrad were Australia
and Oceania and New Guinea had been well represented.
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Western culture". Colonialism has often been considered a force that can
corrupt indigenous societies.
From his hut at Garagassi Point, Maclay visited many villages, collected
specimens, drew faces and scenery and named mountain peaks. With
patience, courage and medical Skill he won the confidence and co-
operation of the inhabitants. He found them far from long-headed as
earlier reported and studied their languages and characteristics. His
necessities were running out when the corvette Isumrud arrived in
December 1872. He named the Maclay Coast from Isumrud to Vitiaz
Straits and in the corvette went to the Halmaheras and Philippines where
he found primitive tribes similar to those he had seen in New Guinea. In
1873 at Batavia he published his anthropological observations, sent
specimens and comments to his European teachers and recuperated for
six months at Buitenzorg in the mountains. He then visited the Celebes
and Moluccas, and at Papua-Koviai in west New Guinea found
ethnological traits similar to those on the Philippines and Maclay Coast.
After local exploration he returned to Papua-Koviai and found that
raiders had smashed his hut, stolen his equipment and killed some local
supporters. With skill he captured the chief offender and brought him to
JUSTICE, but the experience contrasted so strongly with the goodwill of
the more isolated natives of the Maclay Coast that he determined to
preserve their cultures.
Key Works
The works of Miklouho-Maclay were published in 1873 in Russian,
German, Dutch, and English editions. Miklouho-Maclay published some
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Visit to Australia
On 26 August Maclay addressed the local Linnean Society on the need
for a laboratory of marine studies on Sydney Harbour. The lecture was
one of his thirty-four research papers and notes published by the society;
he was made an honorary member in l879. In November 1878 the Dutch
government informed him that on his recommendations it was checking
the slave traffic at Ternate and Tidore. In January 1879 he wrote to Sir
Arthur Gordon, high commissioner for the Western Pacific, on protecting
the land rights of his friends on the Maclay Coast, and ending the traffic
in arms and intoxicants in the South Pacific. In March, after continuing
his campaign for the laboratory, Maclay sailed in the Sadie F. Caller for
the islands northeast of Queensland. In April 1880 he went to Somerset,
Queensland, and thence to Brisbane, where he resumed his studies on the
comparative anatomy of the brains of Aboriginal, Malayan, Chinese and
Polynesian origin.
Maclay returned to Sydney in January 1881. With the help from the
government and scientific societies in Sydney and Melbourne his
ambition for a marine laboratory was at last realized. While it was being
built at Watsons Bay he worked in Sydney museums and collected
evidence for his campaign against the exploitation of natives. In August
he went to New Guinea in hope of providing guidance at the trial of the
murderers of native missionaries and their families at Kalo. He returned
in October and found the laboratory almost complete. When the Russian
Pacific fleet visited Melbourne in February 1882 Maclay joined the
Vestnik and arrived at Kronshtadt, Russia, in September.
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Conclusion
It is widely established that anthropology, especially the field work
tradition has been founded by Malinowski who was a polish by origin
and a mathematics and Physics by training and son of a Professor of
Philology of Slavic Language who has published his first Ethnographic
text the Argonauts of the Western Pacific published in 1922. At least 40
years before in 1871 in one of the Oceanic Island Papua New Guinea and
led the foundation of empiricism in anthropology. Further, it is
recognized that Colonialism has given -the birth of anthropology. These
to pivotal questions appears to be different if a look at the very root is
evident regards the founder instead of Malinowski it is seems to be N. N.
Miklouho-Maclay who struggle against Colonialism through out his life.
Therefore, a detail, both extensive and intensive exploration would be of
great academic value. Basic constrains of this writing is nonavailability
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Bibliography
Beregu, N. (1975) Maklaiya etnograficheskiye ocherki (On the Maclay
Coast, ethnographic essays). Moscow: Nauka Publishers.
Butinov N. A. (1953) N. N. Miklouho-Maclay (A biographical essay in
Russian), in N.N. Miklouho-Maclay Sobraniye Sochinenii (Collected
Works). Moscow-Leningrad: USSR Academy of Sciences Publishers.
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Chapter 6
Soviet Anthropology:
An Outline of Theoretical Approach
Anthropological scholarship what used to be the Soviet Union found its
own theoretical and methodological rationale, in Ethnos theory. Soviet
anthropology focuses on building knowledge on human being through
integrated as well as intensive investigation of a particular group of
people or ethnos in their historical perspectives Soviet anthropologists
have defined such human groups, classified them using devices based on
ecological condition of life, social system and physical traits. Emphasis
has been given in cultural, social and psychological aspect than that of
physical traits. Human history is seen in the light of an evolutionary
scheme of different types of ethnos, while the core focus of anthropology
is biological aspects of human being and to reveal its evolutionary
transition.
I. Introduction
The development of Anthropology in former Soviet Union as scientific
discipline for the study of human being is not very old. The process of
development began only in the mid-nineteenth century. However, since
then it developed tremendously and attained a distinguished status in the
theoretical and conceptual development of anthropology.
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The first social groups in the human history were the herds of
archaeoanthropoids, which were essentially flexible bio-social groups
with ignorable stability. Most of the ethnographers do not consider this
early type as ethnos proper. The specialists relate the origin of the first
human community -- the ethnos --to the developed primitive society with
the appearance of exogomous kin organisations known as clan and
lineage the human communities- the ethnos- never developed outside a
definite socio-economic formation and a power structure.
On the basis of the above factors and from the historical point of view
the ethnos in primitive society are categorised as lineage clan, phratry,
tribe and tribal unions. Then they developed the nationalities in slave
owning and feudal societies with political state power, and nations in
capitalist and socialist society (Bromley, 1975: 47-57).
In between the early and later palaeolithic age the primitive herd
transformed into primitive kin, where main social centre was societies
based on kinship and affinity to good relationship-the basis of kinship.
The recognition of this relationship may be culturally conditioned. Often
in such societies kinship relations play the role of mode of production.
The kins were divided into two groups- Lineage and Clan.
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thus differing from the clan. Lineage may be unilocal or multilocal, and
it extends through a number of generations. It is usually exogamous.
The entire system of gentes, phratries and tribes developed with almost
compelling necessity. All these three are groups of various degrees of
consanguinity, each complete in itself and managing its own affairs, but
each also supplementing the rest; therefore we discover the gens as the
social unit of a people.
Nationality
Tribal communities were replaced by nationality in slave- owning
society. Society was divided by classes and antagonistic classes as well.
Blood-based kinship organisation was replaced by the territorial state
with political power. Nationalities were formed out of tribal components
and have been developing throughout the slave- owning and feudal
socio- economic formation. Today the term nationality is being used for
coding the sense of belonging to a particular ethnos.
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Geographical Classification
This classification considers only the distribution of ethnos in accordance
with their place of living and is mainly used in describing the people.
The peoples of the world are broadly divided as follows:
People of Asia: West Asia, South Asia, South East Asia, East and
Central Asia,
People of Europe.
Racial Classification
Though race is a social phenomenon, Soviet anthropology has classified
race phenotypically. Race is a historically formed group of people,
having a common origin, which presents common hereditary,
morphological and psychological traits that vary within certain limits.
Modern races were formed during later palaeolithic age and from that
very time a continuous process of intermixing was going on which
resulted in elimination of racial differences. On the other hand, racial
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Anthropology: Science of Human Being
Europeoids are living in all the continents. They are subdivided into a
few smaller races such as fair haired blond, dark haired brunette, and
other.
Mongoloids are distributed mainly in Siberia and Asia. American Indians
are also referred to as Mongoloids. Mongoloid race is subdivided into
continantal pacific oceanians and polar Eskimos. Polynesians and
mongoloids of South Asia.
Negroids are concentrated mainly in Africa. The race has subdivisions
Negroes, Bushman, Hottentots and Pigmies.
Linguistic Classification
Comparative linguistic study is crucially important in ethnography as an
establishment of genetical relations between the languages revealing the
relationship between the human communities.
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Agriculture, ploughing of land with the help of oxen (Bromley, 1973: 60-
67).
VI. Methodology
Ethnographic research in USSR is basically qualitative, while
quantitative approaches are also used to support qualitative information.
The exercise could be divided into two broad phases. The first phase is
collection of material, mainly based on field work. The second phase is
interpretation of material. Of course in between these two phases lies the
compilation or data processing stage.
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Usually in the field work one uses classical methodology, i.e., participant
observation. Soviet ethnographers called this method- direct
participation. In field work, beside mapping, observation and recording, a
few other effective methods are also used. These include unstructured
open ended interviews which are often called indepth-interview and
informal discussions are also conducted in order to know the Knowledge,
attitudes and practices of a special group on particular issue.
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VII. Conclusion
In this chapter the theoretical, methodological and conceptual aspects of
soviet anthropology have been outlined, as they show, Soviet
Ethnography attempted to attain a systemetic rigour as a modern
academic discipline at par with other sciences.
Bibliography
Alekceev, V. P. (1985) "Chelavick" Evalutsia i Taksanomia human,
evolution and Taksanom ("Man" Evolution and Taxonomy human,
evolution and Taxonomy), p. 75-140. Moscow.
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Chapter 7
Introduction
Ahnblijifias b[m _g_la_^ [m [ m]c_h]_ ni mno^s ―[hnblijim‖ c._., bog[h
beings, but a closer look into the history of the discipline shows that its
focus has significantly varied all over the globe (Jalal, 2003:47).
Radcliffe-Brown (1952) has conceived anthropology as a natural science
i` mi]c_ns, qbcf_ Wbcn_ (1942) _hpcm[a_^ [hnblijifias [m [ ―m]c_h]_ i`
]ofnol_‖.
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The initial use of the concept stressed a supposed inner unity, marked by
continuity nblioab ncg_ `lig jlcgil^c[f \_achhcham. A ―]ofnol_‖ q[m nbom
conceived as the expression of the inner spiritual force animating people
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Abu-Lughod (1991) has conceived that culture is the essential tool for
g[echa inb_l, [h^ nb[n ―]ofnol_‖ ij_l[n_m ch [hnblijifiac][f ^cm]iolm_ ni
_h`il]_ m_j[l[ncihm nb[n ch_pcn[\fs ][lls [ m_hm_ i` bc_l[l]bs. Tb_l_`il_‖,
[hnblijifiacmnm g[s om_ ―[ p[lc_ns i` mnl[n_ac_m ‗`il qlcncha [a[chmn
]ofnol_‖ (A\o-Loabi^, 1991). ―A`n_l qlcncha ]ofnol_‖ (J[g_m, Hockey &
D[qmih, 1997) _rn_h^m bij_ nb[n ]ofnol[f ―nl[hmf[ncih‖ cm pc[\f_ [h^ cn
proposes epistemologies for it.
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Conclusion
The brief exploration of the concept of culture through anthropological
thoughts illustrates that in the entire evolutionary course culture was
understood in terms of abstract concept of progress, and it was often used
synonymously to civilization, which was rooted in enlightenment,
positivism, utilitarianism, and extended to the theory of modernization
and globalization. Counter enlightenment had provided a rebellion
against such conception of culture. If value and belief are considered as
culture, then mol_fs cn g[s hin \_ ―m]c_hnc`c][ffs‖ \[m_^. Tb_ nb_ils i`
biological evolution by Darwin had an enormous influence on the
concept of culture as it had reinforced a biological theory of human
progress. Diffussionism has conceived the concept of culture in
opposition to that connected with biology, and it rested on the universal
human mentality. Franz Boas has provided a new meaning and
momentum to the concept of culture. He conceived it as particular and
relative. Geertz (1973) has focused on the questions of meaning of
culture. He has defined culture semiotically. Kroeber and Kluckhohn
(1952) have conceived culture as a collective symbolic discourse.
Poststructuralists have taken culture is a fabricated text of a fiction
written by ethndgraphers. Culture is now seen as a process of
constructing collective identity. Abu-Lughod (1991) has proposed modes
for writing against culture while James, Hockey and Dawson (1997)
b[p_ i``_l_^ _jcmn_gifiac][f g_[hm `il ]ofnol[f ―nl[hmf[ncih‖. Tbcm b[m
been a very brief journey and scanty as well. However, the journey
reveals that culture has been pivotal to all anthropological paradigms.
Therefore, culture has got particular theoretical and methodological
significance in anthropology.
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Anthropology: Science of Human Being
Bibliography
Abu-Lughod, L. (1991) Writing against Culture, in R. Fox (Ed)
Recapturing AnthropoIogy: Working in the Present, p. 37-62. Santa Fe:
School of American Research Press.
Allison, J., Jenny, H. & Dawson, A. (1997) After Writing Culture.
Epistemology and Praxis in Contemporary Anthropology. London and
New York: Routledge.
Barnard, A. & Spencer, J. (Eds) (1998) Encyclopedia of Social and
Cultural Anthropology. London: Routledge.
Benedict, R. F. (1934) Patterns of Culture. New York: The New
American Library.
Boas, F. (1982/1898) Summary of the work of the committee in British
Columbia, in G. Stocking (Ed) A Franz Boas Reader: The Shaping of
American Anthropology. New York: Basic Books.
Foucault, M. (1980) Power/knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other
Writings, 1972-I977. Brighton: Harvester Press.
Geertz, C. (1973) The Interpretations of Culture: Selected Issues. New
York: Basic Books.
Harris, M. (1979) Cultural Materialism: The struggle for a science of
Culture. New York: Random House.
Inglis, F. (2000) Cliflord Geertz Culture, Custom and Ethics. England:
Polity Press.
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Chapter 8
Avw`evmx wi‡UvwiK1
wbe‡Ü Bs‡iwR Ôwi‡UvwiK (rhetoric)Õ c`wU‡K fvlvšÍwiZ bv K‡i e¨env‡ii GKwU
†cÖÿvcU i‡q‡Q| evsjvq Gi `ywU cÖwZkã nj, ÔAj¼vieûjÕ, ÔevMvo¤^iÕ
(Siddiqui, 1993)| Avevi GB `yBwU evsjv kã‡K †hfv‡e †evSv nq, Zv
wi‡Uvwi‡Ki A_©‡K h_vh_ wb‡`©k K‡i bv| Bs‡iwR‡Z Gi GKwU AvwfavwbK msÁv
nj: Ôgvbyl‡K cÖfvweZ Kivi wbwg‡Ë e³…Zv ev †jLv‡jwL, wKš‧ †m¸‡jv cy‡ivcywi
mZ¨ ev AK…wÎg bqÕ (Hornby, 2005)| hvB †nvK, cÖvPxb MÖxK mgqKvj †_‡K
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Anthropology: Science of Human Being
124
Anthropology: Science of Human Being
Avw`evmx Rb‡Mvôx Ñ Giv Kviv, cwiPq Kx, DrcwË Kxfv‡e, G‡`i ms¯‥…wZ I
RxebvPvi †Kgb? Gme welq m¤úwK©Z wi‡Uvwi‡Ki D™¢e I weKv‡k ÔA-Avw`evmxÕ
e¨w³MY †hgb hy³, †Zgwb Zv‡`i wb‡R‡`i ga¨ †_‡KI D‡jøL‡hvM¨ f~wgKv
i‡q‡Q| ¯
vbxq †_‡K AvšÍR©vwZK ch©vq ch©šÍ wewfbœ eyw×Rxex, †jLK, cÖwZôvb
Ges cÖkvmwbK e¨w³eM©, Avw`evmx‡`i e¨vcv‡i IqvwKenvj Ggb e¨w³ we‡kl
(Ges mgKvjxb `vk©wbK gZev`) GB cÖwµqvq Ae`vb ‡i‡L‡Qb| Z‡e, Zvrch©c~Y©
e¨vcvi nj, Avw`evmx‡`i wb‡q wPšÍvfvebv I †jLv‡jwL Avw`evmx bq, eis ÔA-
Avw`evmx‡`iÕ cwi‡cÖwÿZ †_‡K †ewk n‡q‡Q| cÖvK& weªwUk mgqKv‡j Avw`evmx
†Mvôxmg~n wb‡R‡`i ev Ab¨‡`i wbKU †Kvb mvaviY bv‡g cwiwPZ wQj bv|
Kv‡RB, wewfbœ m~‡Î (†hgb, Tripura, 1992; †m‡›`j I ej, 1998; Bmjvg,
2005) cÖvß Z‡_¨i wfwˇZ ejv hvq, Aóv`k kZ‡Ki ‡k‡li w`‡K evsjv
weªwUk‡`i Kivq‡Ë Avmvi mg‡q Zv‡`i eZ©gvb cwiP‡qi wbg©vY ïiæ nq| weªwUk,
cvwK¯Ívb, evsjv‡`k Ñ wZb kvmbvg‡ji g‡a¨ weªwUk Avgj nj Avw`evmx
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Anthropology: Science of Human Being
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Anthropology: Science of Human Being
128
Anthropology: Science of Human Being
ÁvbZË¡xq cÖm½
GB welqwU b„„weÁvb we¯ÍvwiZ Aa¨qb K‡i‡Q| cÖvmw½K c`mg~‡ni (†hgb, tribe)
eyrcwË Ges A‡_©i µgweKvk (etymology), GB welq¸‡jv DrmvwiZ nq cÖviw¤¢K
G_&‡bvMÖvdvi‡`i Øviv| hviv g~jZ PviwU K¨vUvMwi‡Z wef³: ch©UK, ewYK,
wgkbvix Ges Jcwb‡ewkK kvmKe„›` (Dcwb‡ewkK †`‡k wb‡qvwRZ)| Giv †hme
¯
v‡b ågY K‡i‡Qb, ag©cÖPvi K‡i‡Qb ev kvmbKvh© cwiPvjbv K‡i‡Qb, †mLvbKvi
Rb‡Mvôxi Rxeb Wv‡qwi‡Z wj‡L‡Qb| ‡h¸‡jv Wvqwi‡Z wj‡L‡Qb, †mLv‡b A‡bK
c` (terms) e¨envi K‡i‡Qb| Zv‡`i †jLvi †g․wjKZ¡mg~‡ni GKwU wQj
G_‡bv‡mbwUªRg (ethnocentrism), evsjvq hv‡K ejv nq ¯^RvZ¨‡eva| GwU
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Anthropology: Science of Human Being
GKwU ZË¡, hv Rvg©vb `vk©wbK ‡Rvnvb nvW©vi (1744-1803) cÖYqb K‡ib| wZwb
e‡jb, mvaviYZ GKwU Rb‡Mvôx Av‡iKwU Rb‡Mvôxi RxebhvÎv‡K wb‡Ri
g~j¨‡eva ev gvcKvwV (standard) w`‡q, Z_v wb‡Ri fvjg‡›`i †evSvi †eva,
MÖnY‡hvM¨Zv I AMÖnY‡hvM¨Zv‡eva w`‡q gv‡cb| hv mwVK bq| KviY `yBwU
Rb‡Mvôxi Rxebe¨e¯
v Av‡cwÿK| GB welqwU d«vb&R †evqvm Zvi mvs¯‥…wZK
Av‡cwÿKZv (cultural relativism ) Z‡Ë¡ we¯ÍvwiZ wj‡L‡Qb|
Zviv †Kb G_&‡bv‡mw›UªK wQ‡jb? Avgiv a‡i wbw”Q, GwU wQj MÖxK ch©UK g‡›U¯‥z
(wLªt c~t) Gi mgq †_‡K| wZwb ïiæ K‡ib GK`g b„weÁv‡bi Abykxjb, hvÎvïiæ
I weKvk †_‡K| cÖK…Z G_‡bvMÖvdvi wb‡KvjvB wgK‡jvn-g¨vK‡j| kZvwãi ci
kZvwã a‡i cÖPzi †jLv R‡gwQj mviv wek¦e¨vcx| GB †h cÖPzi DcvË Wv‡qwi‡Z
msM„nxZ n‡qwQj, G¸‡jv we‡køl‡Yi gva¨‡g b„weÁv‡bi ZË¡ I wPšÍv ïiæ I weKvk
N‡U| †mUvI cÖ_g w`‡K G_‡bv‡mw›UªR‡gi evB‡i wQjbv| wK wK c` cÖviw¤¢K
G_‡bvMÖvdvi I ZvwË¡Kiv e¨envi K‡iwQ‡jb| †m¸‡jvi cÖavb K‡qKwU nj,
Ôsavage (eb¨)Õ, Ô barber (ee©i)Õ Ges Ôtribe (DcRvwZ)Õ| ÔtribeÕ Kviv ?
b„weÁvbx‡`i g‡Z, ÔtribeÕ Av‡MI wQj, GLbI Av‡Q| `yBwU gvbe‡Mvôx (human
group), hviv msL¨vq Kg, 200 †_‡K 250| Z_v nq gvZ…m~Îxq (matrilineal),
wKsev wcZ…m~Îxq (patrilineal) esk‡Mvôx (descent)| Gi A_©, GKB MÖæ‡c i‡³i
I es‡ki m¤úK© Øviv cÖ‡Z¨K m`m¨ †Mvôx‡Z _v‡K| GB MÖæc¸‡jv wcZ…Zvwš¿K
(patriarchal) wKsev gvZ…Zvwš¿K (matriarchal) n‡Z cv‡i| GB `y‡Uv MÖæc
eskm~Îxq bq, eis ÿgZv Kvi, cyiæl bv bvixi ? GB ai‡bi MÖæc‡K g~jZ clan
A_ev lineage e‡j| cv_©K¨ GLv‡b †h, lineage Gi †ÿ‡Î cÖ‡Z¨K m`m¨
originator ‡K bv‡g Ges e¨w³MZfv‡e (physically) †P‡b| clan Gi †ÿ‡Î GUv
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n‡e †h, c~e©cyiæl (ancestor) KvíwbK| ÔtribeÕ nq, hLb K‡qKwU gvZ…m~Îxq
wKsev wcZ…m~Îxq clan A_ev lineage GKwU †Mvôx ev Rb‡Mvôx •Zwi K‡i|
ivR‣bwZK e¨e¯
vi Aaxb GB ÔtribeÕ aviYv ÁvwZm¤úK© ZË¡ Øviv •Zwi, hvi ïiæ
gM©v‡bi mgqKvj †_‡K| †m Abykxjb GLb †bB, GUv BwZnv‡m wQj| ev¯Í‡e †bB
, wKš‧ c`wU Av‡Q| GUv‡K e¨envi Kiv nq, B‡”Q gZ (arbitrarily)| tribe Gi
evsjv‡`‡ki cwifvlv nj DcRvwZ| †hUv lexicologically constitute Ki‡Q
`yBwU k‡ãi mgš^‡q: GKwU nj Dc (sub) Ges Av‡iKwU nj RvwZ (nation)|
Gi A_© `uvovq, DcRvwZ nj †Kvb GKwU RvwZi DckvLv| Zvn‡j, Gi ¯^vaxb
Aw¯ÍZ¡‡K wb‡`©k K‡i bv|
b„‡MvôxÑ Ôb„Õ Gi A_© gvbyl Avi Ô‡MvôxÕ nj GKxf~Z gvbyl| GUv †h ‡Kvb
†ckvRxex †MvôxI n‡Z cv‡i| Gi A_©, †h ‡Kvb gvby‡li †MvôxB b„‡Mvôx Z_v
human community| GQvov Av‡Q, Avw`evmx, indigenous Gi evsjv wnmv‡e
GwU e¨eüZ nq| lexicologically `yBwU k‡ãi mgš^‡q ÔAvw`Õ Ges ÔevmxÕ| Avw`
mgq wbw`©ó bq, ‡Kvb mgq Kvj‡K wb‡`©k K‡i bv| ÔAvw`Õ welqwU‡K b„weÁvb
wKfv‡e wPwýZ K‡i, Zv ¯úó Kiv cÖ‡qvRb|
GK, RxweZ gvbyl Ges Hominoids (great apes) (Stringer, 1994)| Hominoid
Gi gv‡b Rxevk¥ hv‡`i ape †`i bq, A_P AvaywbK gvbyl‡`i mv‡_I wgj ‡bB|
Z‡e, brain mKj living organisms Gi †P‡q eo| Zv‡`i‡K ejv nq Homo
habilis| Gi gv‡b, handyman, hv‡`i nv‡Zi e¨envi Av‡Q, nvwZqvi cÖYq‡bi
mÿgZv Av‡Q| cÖ_g GB ai‡bi gvby‡li b„‣eÁvwbK KvR nj A÷ª‡jvwc‡_mvBbm
(australopithecines), ZvÄvwbqv I Ab¨vb¨ ¯
v‡b cvIqv †M‡Q| G‡`i AbymÜvb
nq cvnv‡oi Lv‡Z (gorge)| G‡`i mgqKvj wba©viY Kiv nq 2.1 wgwjqb eQi|
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Giv wQj wØc`x (bipedal) Ges G‡`i `šÍ gvby‡li mv‡_ wgj Av‡Q| G‡`i
gw¯Í‡®‥i AvqZb (brain size), AvaywbK hy‡Mi GcÕi ‡P‡q †ewk bq, 650 wmwm
(†µwbqvj †KcvwmwU)| Gi cieZ©x‡Z †h Rxevk¥ cvIqv hvq, AvaywbK gvby‡li
mv‡_ Gbv‡UvwgK¨vwjø wgj cvIqv hvq| Ges G‡Kev‡i †mvRv (upright) `uvwo‡q
_vK‡Zv| Zv‡`i wØc`x PjvPj (bipedal loco motion) wQj| Zv‡`i nv‡Zi
ch©vß e¨envi wQj| wewfbœ ai‡bi aviv‡jv A¯¿ cvIqv †M‡Q| GUv nj,
bvB‡Rwiqvq 1.7 wgwjqb eQi Av‡M AviI Aw¯ÍZ¡ cvIqv †M‡Q| GKB mgqKv‡j
wQj B‡›`v‡bwkqvi Rvfv gvbyl| Giv GKB ai‡bi gvbyl| wcwKs gvbyl, G‡`i‡K
ejv nq upright man (†mvRv n‡q `vwo‡q _vKv gvbyl)| G‡`i gw¯Í‡®‥i AvqZb
850-1100 wmwm|
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bvg †`Iqv nq Homo sapiens sapiens| Giv wkKv‡ii Rb¨ hv •Zwi KiZ, Zv
nj d¬¨v·, cv_‡ii •Zwi| Cro-Magnon Gi ci nj AvaywbK gvbyl|
gvby‡li mf¨Zvi BwZnvm †_‡K †`Lv hvq, cÖZœZË¡ hv cÖgvY Ki‡Z †c‡i‡Q, 4wU
mf¨Zv Av‡Q cyi‡bv: †g‡mvc‡Uwgqv (BivK), BwRc&U ( wgki), g‡n‡Äv`v‡iv-niàv
(cvwK¯Ívb) Ges mvs Pvqbv (Pxb)| G¸‡jv wLªóc~e© 3 †_‡K 5 nvRvi eQi Av‡Mi|
cieZ©xKv‡j be¨ mf¨Zv cvIqv hvq- AvR‡UK I Bb&Kv| Zvn‡j a‡i †bIqv hvq,
45 nvRvi eQi Av‡Mi †µv-‡gMbvb Ges 5 nvRvi eQi Av‡Mi mf¨Zv,
gvSLv‡bi 40 nvRvi eQi wQj gvbyl wQj wkKvix I msMÖvnK (hunter and
gatherer)| mf¨Zv I emwZwfwËK Rxeb (settled life) GB HwZnvwmK mgqKv‡j
LyeB Aí w`‡bi e¨vcvi| AvaywbK gvby‡li Ae¯
vb †hLv‡bB _vKyK, Zviv wkKvix
I msMÖvn‡Ki Gi Ae¯
vi ga¨ w`‡q †M‡Q| GRb¨ PjvPj (mobility) wQj
cÖv_wgK e¨vcvi| gvbyl ZLb ¯
vqx emwZ ¯
vcbKvix bq| GB ‡h PjvPj f~L‡Ði
Dci, †mUv we‡ePbvq Avb‡Z nq| b„weÁvbxiv cÖgvY K‡i‡Qb †h, AvaywbK gvby‡li
†R‡bwUK MVb wbD‡jw_K wkKvix I msMÖvnK‡`i mv‡_ ûeû wg‡j hvq| GLv‡b
cÖvmw½K †h, wRb I Rxeb e¨e¯
vi g‡a¨ GKvšÍ mnve¯
vb ¯úó| GB mg‡qi
cÖmv‡i Avw` Kviv, emwZ ¯
vcbKvix Kviv, Kv‡`i‡K Avw`evmx eje? GUv LyeB
RwUj GKwU welq| Anthropogenisis Gi †g․wjK cÖkœ| •RweK b„weÁvb GLbI
KvR K‡i P‡j‡Q| wUg †nvqvBU 2002 mv‡j ‡mvgvwjqvq 3wU Rxevk¥ †c‡q‡Qb -
bvix, cyiæl I wkïi| Rxev‡k¥i eqm 1 jÿ 60 nvRvi eQi| Giv AvaywbK
gvby‡li mv‡_ mv`„k¨c~Y©| GB Pjgvb M‡elYv¸‡jv GB cÖ‡kœi DËi †LuvRvi bZzb
w`MšÍ D‡b¥vPb Ki‡e| d‡j entomologically fvevi my‡hvM Av‡Q|
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G_wbK cÖwµqv
GB cÖm‡½ Rnijvj †bniæi ch©‡eÿYwU mwe‡kl ¸iæZ¡c~Y© (Nehru, 1961)|
fviZe‡l© GKwU AZ¨šÍ DbœZ mf¨Zv wQj Ñ BÛvm AeevwnKvq iƒcjvfKvix
g‡n‡Äv`v‡iv, niàv| RbmsL¨v a‡i ivLvi Rb¨ wQj K…wl| Ab¨vb¨ †`‡ki †hv×viv
†Póv K‡i‡Q Rq Kivi Rb¨| Zviv `Lj Kivi Rb¨ wfZ‡i Xz‡K wVKB, G‡m †`‡L
Zv‡`i †P‡q A‡bK DbœZ mf¨Zvi †jvKRb GLv‡b emevm K‡i| Conquerors
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Intermarriage, reproduction ‡_‡K ejv hvq bv †h, GKwU MÖæc cÖavb ï× Ôi³Õ
†_‡K •Zwi n‡q‡Q, Zv bq| weªwUk Jcwb‡ewkKiv †_‡K †M‡Q| fviZ we‡k¦i mKj
G_wbK MÖæc‡K cÖwZwbwaZ¡ K‡i fviZe‡l© emevmiZ eZ©gvb Awaevmxe„›` n‡jb
living relics, living evidence of ethno genesis (Thurston & Rangachari,
1909; Robb, 1995)| a‡i †bIqv nq, A÷ª-GwkqvwUK fvlv‡Mvôxi w`K †_‡K
mevi Av‡M A÷ªvj‡qWiv GLv‡b emevm KiZ| Zviv msL¨vMwiô wQj| wLªó c~e© cÖvq
3-4 nvRvi eQi Av‡M G‡`i †P‡q cÖvMÖmi GKwU `j cÖ‡ek K‡i, hv‡`i‡K
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Avgiv ewj `ªvwewWqvb| Zv‡`i g~j fvlv wQj cvwj Ges Giv g~jZ `wÿY fvi‡Z
evm K‡i| Giv cieZ©x‡Z RvwZ ivóª MVb K‡i| Giv 4wU g~j fvlv‡Mvôx‡Z
wef³: (1) Zvwgj (2) †Z‡j¸ (3) gvjvqvjg (4) K¨vbviv| GQvov AviI †QvU
MÖæc GLv‡b evm K‡i| GbvUwgK, Gb‡_ªv‡cv‡gwUªK Ges †iwmqvj •ewkó¨
we‡ePbvq `ªvwewWqvbiv ¯úóZB ¯^Zš¿| GB cÖgvY msiwÿZ Av‡Q KvjPvivj
wgDwRqv‡g| g‡n‡Äv`v‡iv niàvi Awaevmx‡`i GbvUwgK •ewkó¨ nj
`ªvwewWqvb‡`i|
wLªóc~e© 1500 mv‡ji Av‡M GLv‡b Av‡iKwU MÖæc cÖ‡ek K‡i| Giv nj,
B‡›`vGwiqvb fvlv‡Mvôx| Giv K…wl‡Z DbœZ Ges `ªvwewWqvb‡`i †_‡K wfbœ| GB
cÖvMÖmi Rb‡Mvôx µgvMZ `ªvwewWqvb‡`i `wÿ‡Y wb‡q hvq| Dˇii Gwiqvbiv
`wÿ‡Yi mxgv ( †hgb, cvÄve ) ch©šÍ we¯Ívi jvf K‡i| G‡`i fvlv ms¯‥…Z| GB
fvlv †_‡K A‡bK¸‡jv kvLv ivóªxq fvlvI (language branches) m„wó n‡q‡Q,
†hgb, wnw›`, evsjv, wenvwi, cvÄvwe| Gwiqvb‡`i e¨vcK Rb‡Mvôx cy‡iv fviZ
Ry‡o evm Ki‡Q| G‡`i †jvKmsL¨v kÖxjsKvqI AMÖmi nq| wmsnjx fvlv G‡`i
†_‡K Drcbœ| Zvwgj I wmsnjx wg‡j kÖxjsKvi RbMY| fviZxq kÖxjsKvb| wKQz Avie
gymjgvb i‡q‡Q| kÖxjsKv‡Z GB cÖwµqv‡Z †`Lv hvq A÷ªvj‡qW‡`i mv‡_ Gwiqvb‡`i
mswgkÖY| hvB †nvK, `ªvweo, A÷ªvj‡qW I Gwiqvb, GB wZb cÖavb wZbwU MÖæc `xN© mgq
GKmv‡_ _vKvi Kvi‡Y A÷ªvj‡qW‡`i `ªvweo, c‡i Gwiqvb‡`i mv‡_ `ªvweo I
A÷ªvj‡qW‡`i wgkÖb n‡q‡Q| `wÿ‡Y we¯Ívi jvf K‡i `ªvweoiv Ges DËi `Lj K‡i
Gwiqvbiv| A÷ªvj‡qWiv Gwmwg‡j‡UW I WvBfviwmdvBW n‡q hvq| GB Ômswgk&ªYÕ
(assembling ) Gi d‡j mvD_ Gwkqvb †im e‡j GKwU bZzb †im D™¢~Z nq|
H mg‡q AvdMvb, †gvMj, •Zgyi js, BD‡ivcxq I Avie gymjgvb, mK‡j wg‡j it
has became a synthesis of all religions| e¨vcK msL¨K tribes _vKvi Kvi‡Y
GLv‡b GwbwgRg, GwbgvwURg, gvbv, †Uv‡Ug, cwjw_Rg I g‡bvw_wRg meB Av‡Q|
gyÛv‡`i cvkvcvwk GKwU g½j‡qW aviv GLv‡b Av‡Q| wU‡e‡Uv-PvBwbR fvlv‡Mvôx
fvi‡Zi wngvjq ch©šÍ we¯Í…Z| H †e‡ë g‡½vj‡qWiv wQj| Zviv we¯Ívi jvf K‡i
fviZe‡l©| GB f~L‡Ð †im I ccy‡jk‡bi weKvk (G_&‡bv‡R‡bwmm), Zv `xN©
mg‡qi e¨vcvi, cÖv‣MwZnvwmK| Ab¨w`‡K iv‡óªi weKvk nj Aí mg‡qi e¨vcvi|
BwZnvm I cÖvMBwZnvm Avjv`v Ki‡Z n‡e| evOvwj‡`i GbvUwgK •ewkó¨
Gwiqvb‡`i mv‡_ wg‡j| Lvwmqviv gb‡Lwgwiqvb fvlv‡Mvôx| Giv K‡¤^vwWqvb|
gyÛviv nj Blackish Mongoloid| Yellowed Mongoloid iv cve©Z¨ PÆMÖv‡g|
evsjv‡`k f~L‡Ð wewfbœ fvlv I †iwmqvj ‡Mvôxi †h we¯Ívi jvf K‡i‡Q, Zvi g‡a¨
cÖavb nj, evOvwj| A÷ªvj‡qW, g‡½vj‡qW, Gwiqvb fvlv‡Mvôx (BD‡ivcxq),
wb‡MÖv‡qW (Avwd«Kvb) Ges †fLJqW (mvD_ BwÛqvb) Ñ G‡`i mK‡ji m¤ú‡K©
†jLv GB wbe‡Ü m¤¢e bq| GLv‡b mKj †im, ag© I ms¯‥…wZ we`¨gvb| GB RwUj
Ges `xN© G_wbK cÖwµqvi g‡a¨ evsjv‡`‡k emevmKvix ¯^Kxq Rb‡Mvôx‡`i
Kxfv‡e wPwýZ Kiv †h‡Z cv‡i, †Kvb †g․wjK M‡elYv bv K‡i? GwU GKgvÎ
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GKv‡WwgK cÖkœ| GB iKg GKwU †d«gIqv‡K© ejv hvq, G¸‡jv m¤ú‡K© we¯ÍvwiZ
Dc¯
vcbv GKwU gvÎ wbe‡Ü2 G‡Kev‡iB Am¤¢e| GB M‡elYvwU n‡e b„‣eÁvwbK|
UxKv
1
wbe‡Ü wi‡UvwiK (rhetoric) c`wU‡K Bs‡iwR‡Z ivLvi KviY nj, †h A‡_©
Bs‡iwR‡Z GwU e¨eüZ nq, Gi evsjv cÖwZkã †m A_©‡K h_vh_ wb‡`©k K‡i bv|
wi‡Uvwi‡Ki `yBwU evsjv cÖwZkã nj, ÔAj¼vieûjÕ, ÔevMvo¤^iÕ (Siddiqui,
1993)| A_P Bs‡iwR‡Z GwU‡K msÁvwqZ Kiv n‡q‡Q GB fv‡e: Ôgvbyl‡K cÖfvweZ
Kivi wbwg‡Ë e³…Zv ev †jLv‡jwL, wKš‧ †m¸‡jv cy‡ivcywi mZ¨ ev AK…wÎg bqÕ
(Hornby, 2005)| Speech or writing that is intended to influence people,
but that is not completely honest or sincere It – though it does not aim to
reveal truth – ij_l[n_m [m nlonb. Rb_nilc] ―^_mcl_m ni ]ihp_s ihfs [ doxa
(opinion) not an epistêmê (knowledge)‖, says Nietzsche (2001).
2
eZ©gvb wbe‡ÜI wjwLZ Dr‡mi Am¤ú~Y©Zv wbwðZfv‡e i‡q †M‡Q|
MÖšc’ wÄ
Bmjvg, Rwniæj (2005) cve©Z¨ PÆMÖv‡gi Avw`evmx bvixi Dci iv‡óªi cÖfve|
XvKv: evsjv‡`k d«xWg dvD‡Ûkb|
‡Nvl, my‡eva (1355) fvi‡Zi Avw`evmx| KwjKvZv|
PvKgv, myMZ (2000) evsjv‡`‡ki DcRvwZ Ges Avw`evmx‡`i mgvR, ms¯‹…wZ
AvPvi e¨envi| XvKv: bI‡ivR wKZvwe¯Ívb|
`ªs, mÄxe (2001) evsjv‡`‡ki wecbœ Avw`evmx| XvKv: bI‡ivR wKZvwe¯Ívb|
giMvb, jy. †nbwi (1975) Avw`g mgvR (eyjeb Imgvb KZ©„K Ancient
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Chapter 9
Introduction
Medical anthropology is the specialized field of anthropology, which
studies human health and disease. While medical sciences provide a
thorough bio-medical (anatomy, physiology, pathology) understandings
of health and disease, medical anthropology explains these phenomena
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The roots of medical anthropology lie deep within medicine and other
natural sciences as it is concern with biological phenomena related to
health and disease (Helman, 1994). Medical anthropology is a bio-
cultural discipline concerned with both the biological and socio-cultural
aspects of human behavior, and particularly with the ways in which the
two interacted throughout human history to influence health and disease
(Foster & Anderson, l978). Medical Sciences has moved human
knowledge about health and disease much further than it could have been
thought of, but it has kept these aspects of life attached exclusively to the
body, which necessarily has taken it away from human foundation.
Concept of Sickness
Sickness is an inclusive term that includes all unwanted variations in the
physical, social, and psychological dimensions of health. Robert Hahn
defih_m mc]eh_mm [m ―ohq[hn_^ ]ih^cncihm i` self or substantial threats of
ohq[hn_^ ]ih^cncih i` m_f`‖ (H[bh, 1995: 22). Tb_m_ ]ih^cncihm g[s
ch]fo^_ mn[n_m i` [hs j[ln i` [ j_lmih‖m \i^s, gch^, _rj_lc_h]_, il
relationship (Hahn, 1995: 22).
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Sickness can be further divided into two basic categories: illness and
disease. Disease refers to the outward, clinical manifestations of altered
physical function or infection. It is a clinical phenomenon, defined by the
pathophysiology of certain tissues within the human organisms. Illness,
on the other hand, encompasses the human experience and perceptions of
alterations in health as informed by their broader social and cultural
meanings. The distinction between disease and illness is useful because it
helps to explain the phenomenon of patients who seek medical attention
in the absence of clinically identifiable symptoms (illness without
disease) and those who do not seek medical attention even though they
_rbc\cn mcahm i`‖ j[nbijbsmcifias (^cm_[m_ qcnbion cffh_mm) (Bliqh,
1998). Given the significance, these concepts are discussed in more
detail.
What is Disease?
In the enormous literature of the biomedicine, there is no universally
accepted definition of disease. Like many theoretically important
]ih]_jnm, ‗^cm_[m_‘ cm _mm_hnc[ffs f_`n oh`ioh^_^ [h^ cm om_^ ch
ambiguous ways. For example, it is often defined by what it is not. It is
generally seen as a failure of normal physiological activities and a
departure from a state of health. But such a definition is informative
because within it is hidden the problematic concept of normal. Yet it is
]f_[l nb[n ―hilg[f‖ gomn \_ ]ihmc^_l_^ [m ]ofnol[ffs ]ihmnlo]n_^ [h^
hence variable (Sargent & Johnson, 1996).
Concept of Illness
Alan Radley (1993) explains that over the past twenty years the study of
illness as experienced by the patients has emerged as an approach to
understanding sickness and health in general. This approach stresses the
cultural context in which illness arises and is borne by patients and those
who care for them. It emphasizes the need to understand illness in term
i` j[nc_hn‖m iqh chn_ljl_n[ncih i` cnm ihm_n, nb_ ]iolm_ i` cnm jlial_mm [h^
the potential of the treatment for the condition. How people make sense
of and respond to their disease or disability is a function of the everyday
beliefs and practices. To suffer from a chronic illness is to be faced with
a situation in which, depending upon the nature of the disease, people
continue to live a more or less normal existence. Therefore, it is
necessary to address the question of the basic strategies people use in
order that they might live as normal life as possible.
understandings that specify for an illness episodes its causes, time and
mode of onset of symptoms, patho-physiology, course of sickness and
nl_[ng_hn. Erjf[h[nils gi^_fm [l_ ―`ilg_^ [h^ _gjfis_^ ni ]ij_ qcnb [
specific health problem and consequently they need to be analyzed in
that concrete settings (Klieinman, 1978: 106). Although others have
invoked the concept of explanatory model of illness as a cultural
construct (Fried, 1982), Arthur Kleinman makes it clear that in his
explanatory model attributes of individuals, drawing upon general
cultural knowledge but remaining at least partially idiosyncratic and
mcno[ncih[f. Kf_chg[h‖m qile [h^ nb[n i` g[hs inb_lm chfluenced by his
approach, however, fail to specify in any detail the extent to which
individual explanatory models are shaped by cultural and the extent to
which they are idiosyncratic formulations (Sargent & Johnson, 1996).
The explanatory approach is that the model do not inform about the links
\_nq__h cffh_mm [h^ mi]c[f ]ihn_rn. Iffh_mm l_`f_]nm nb_ j[nc_hn‖m
perspective, which is influenced by the cultural, social and emotional
]ihn_rn ch qbc]b cn i]]olm [h^ \s [h ch^cpc^o[f‖m \[]ealioh^ [h^
personality.
Concept of Health
Ih nb_ 1970'm [h^ f980‖m nb_l_ q[m [ l_pifoncih niie jf[]_ ch nb_ q[s
many people thought about health. As indicated in the unanimous of the
Afg[ An[ D_]f[l[ncih i` ―H_[fnb `il Aff \s nb_ Y_[l 2000‖ of World
Health Organization (WHO) [h^ ch nb_ ―Onn[q[ Cb[ln_l‖ (World Health
Organization, 1988). In b[m \__h mbc`n_^ [q[s `lig ―]olcha ^cm_[m_‖ ni
the prevention of disease (through public health measures such as
jlcg[ls b_[fnb ][l_) [h^ _p_h gil_ `oh^[g_hn[ffs ni nb_ ―jligincih i`
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With this shift in goals, there came a shift in approach away from high
technology and equipment oriented strategy to one that recognizes the
potential role of social and behavioral sciences in the health area. In
public education, there was seen a possibility of guiding the development
of health behaviors or changing unhealthy ones. In the analysis,
improvement, and control of social and environmental conditions (such
as poverty, crowding, technological change and forced migration) there
has been a way to prevent some major health problems.
During this period not only the approach to attending health redefined,
the actual definition of health had been extended. In the Alma Ata
Declaration (WHO, 1978) b_[fnb q[m ^_`ch_^ [m ―[ mn[n_ i` ]igjf_n_
physical, mental, social well-\_cha‖. Tbcm cm hin g_l_fs [\m_h]_ i`
disease or infirmity. It goes beyond the physical into the realms of
psychological and social life. At the same time health was viewed as a
prerequisite for human development, both for individuals and for the
nation and it considered as the responsibility of everyone not just the
professional duty of medical specialists.
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and sense in terms of underlying medical beliefs and secondly, both are
best conceived not as quaint folklorists but as integral part of culture.
The parts of medical pattern like those entire cultures are functionally
interrelated though the degree of functional integration of elements at
both level, varies from one society to another. Primitive medicines are
best understood largely in terms of cultural beliefs and definition.
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The question may arise how does health and disease fit into this model.
A change in any one of the variables can lead to certain ecological and
physical change. Too severe an imbalance will contribute to disease or
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In its early days, medical anthropology was not known for theory
building. Most anthropologists consulting in health care settings used a
practical structural functional theory, concentrating on fieldwork
methods that provided descriptions that were useable and readable by
non-specialists. By the 1990s, there was much more debate about theory
in medical anthropology (e.g., Singer, 1992; Wiley, 1992; Good, 1994).
Ih^__^, ^cm]ommcihm i` nb_ ―\i^s‖ [h^ ―_g\i^cg_hn‖ nb[n \_a[h ch
medical anthropology (Scheper, Hughes & Lock, 1987) set the pace for
theory building in the rest of cultural anthropology. With the growth,
medical anthropology is adding relevant theoretical perspectives to
facilitate grasping of health and disease. Major theories are mentioned.
Child fertility rate is one of the highest in Bangladesh with 171 birth per
1000 women aged 15-19 years (Barkat et al., 1997:45). 96% of the ever
married women are married when they were teenagers (Islam & Islam,
1998: 32-33).
The concept of child has been inconsistently used in literature, and its
meanings often conflated. WHO, UNFPA and UNICEF. However, the
onset of adolescence is usually associated with the commencement of
puberty and the appearance of secondary sexual characteristics, which
vary between individuals.
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1980; Ooms, 1981). Cultural context of pregnancy not only show the
myriad of ways women are pressured to become mothers but also the
broader contexts within which women perform the maternal role. Ann
Oakley's extensive writings (1972, 1980) on the ways motherhood is
socialy and culturally shaped have significantly contributed to
understanding of human reproduction. An universal oppression is rooted
ch qig_h―m g[n_lh[f [h^ ]bcf^ l[lcha lif_ (Olnh_l, 1974). Tbcm [laog_hn
is best manifested in early marriage.
Sbimbn[e ch ―eoha qig_h‖ ^_m]lc\_m nb[n ―sioha aclfm [l_ hin ]ihmc^_l_^
truly adult or expected to assume full responsibility for themselves until
they reach their late teens, have menstruated, married, and are likely to
become mother. Marriage is occurred with puberty. Early marriage is a
common practice in polygynous societies such as Uganda, Cameron,
Tango and Liberia.
However WHO, has defined that a child means every human being
below the age of 18 years. In Latin America and Caribbean countries
nb_l_ cm [ bcmnils i` ―ohi``c]c[f‖ g[llc[a_, known as consensual or
―]ihp_hc_hn‖. Yionb j_ijf_ fcp_ nia_nb_l [h^ b[p_ ]bcf^l_h qcnbion being
formally married. Consensual union among the Ghsii of westem Kenya
and Malawi are widely prevail. In some societies, adolescent sexual
activity has traditionally been tolerated or even encouraged.
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Conclusion
Anthropology conceptualize health and disease to the specific cultural,
social economic, political, ecological, environmental or any other
relevant context and put it into the perspectives of those who is analyzed
and also those who carry out these analysis. It is envisaged that with
medical sciences anthropology will be able to shed light on the deep root
of the health and diseases of human beings.
Bibliography
Ackerknecht, E. H. (1942) Problems of Primitive Medicine, Bulletin of
the history of Medicine, 11:503-21.
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Baer H. A., Singer M. & Susser, I. (1997) Medical anthropology and the
World System. A Critical Perspective. Westport (USA), London: Bergin
& Garvey.
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Chapter 10
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In his book, The Descent of Man (1871) even so, the implication of the
argument of The Origin was plain enough, and it was quickly seized
upon by his critics. Avoiding unnecessary coat-trailing was not
something which cost Darwin much effort, however, he was one of the
least combative of men and was forced into the position of challenging
orthodoxy by intellectual honesty and the desire to substantiate a
scientific theory; he did not, as T. H. Huxley undoubtedly did, actively
enjoy thumbing his nose at the theologians. Nevertheless, there is
perhaps a hint of tension release in his note to Sir Charles Lyell, the
greatest of English geologists, who was wavering and equivocal in his
attitude to evolution: Our ancestor was an animal which breathed water,
had a swim bladder, a great swimming tail, an imperfect skull, and
undoubtedly was a hermaphrodite. Here is a pleasant genealogy for
mankind.
Religion seemed guaranteed by Natural Theology, the demonstration of
the existence and goodness of God by the contemplation of nature and
the benevolent artifice which it seemed everywhere to demonstrate.
Charles Darwin was born in 1809 was a far rougher and more dangerous
society than the one in which he died in 1882. The Origin being the
accumulation of mutations useful in the struggle for existence and hence
selected for preservation. Thus it became vital to Darwin to show that no
organ or arrangement could have been preserved simply to please the
aesthetic sense of mankind, except, of course, in domestic species where
the selection was done by human beings.
According to Darwin, no organism would develop an organ harmful to
itself but useful to others, as the rattlesnakes rattle was taken to be. There
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form the lateral parts of the upper jaw and lip; and two mandibular
processes, which form the lower jaw and lip. N[m[f jf[]i^_m (jf[e‖i^t),
develops at the lateral margins of the frontonasal.
Development of the Organ Systems: The major organ systems appear
and begin to develop during the embryonic period. The period between
14 and 60 days is therefore called the period of organogenesis.
Skin: The epidermis of the skin is derived from ectoderm, and the dermis
is derived from mesoderm, or form neural crest cells in the case of the
face. Nails, hair and glands develop from the epidermis. Melanocytes and
sensory receptors in the skin are derived from neural crest cells.
Skeleton: The skeleton develops from either mesoderm or the neural
crest cells by intramembranous or endochondral bone fromation. The
bones of the face develop from neural crest cells, whereas the rest of the
skull, the vertebral column, and ribs develop from somite-or somitomere-
derived mesoderm. The appendicular skeleton develops from limb bud
mesoderm.
Mom]f_: Msi\f[mnm (gc‖i-blastz) are the early, embryonic cells that give
rise to skeletal muscle fibers. Myoblasts migrate from somities or
somitomeres to sites of future muscle development, where they began to
fuse and form multinuclear cells called myotubes. Shortly after myotubes
form, nerves grow into the area and innervate the developing muscle
fibers. After the basic form of each muscle is established, continued
growth of the muscle occurs by an increase in the number of muscle
fibers. The total number of muscle fibers is established before birth and
remains relatively constant thereafter. Muscle enlargement after birth
results from an increase in the size of individual fibers.
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Nervous System: The nervous system is derived from the neural tube and
neural crest cells. Neural tube closure begins in the upper cervical region
and proceeds into the head and down the spinal cord. Soon after the
neural tube has closed, the part of the neural tube that will become the
brain begins to expand and develops a series of pouches. The central
cavity of the neural tube becomes the ventricles of the brain and the
central canal of the spinal cord.
Special Senses: The olfactory bulb and nerve develop as an evagination
from the telencephalon. The eyes develop as evaginations from the
diencephalon. Each evagination elongates to form an optic stalk, and a
bulb called the optic vesicle develops at its terminal end. The optic
vesicle reaches the side of the head and stimulates the overlying
ectoderm to thicken into a lens. The sensory part of the ear appers as an
ectodermal thickening or placode that invaginates and pinches off from
the overlying ectoderm.
Endocrine System: The posterlor pituitary gland is formed by an
evagination from the floor of the diencephalon. The anterior pituitary
gland develops from an evagination of ectoderm in the roof of the
embryonic oral cavity and grows toward the floor of the brain. It
eventually loses its connection with the oral cavity.
Circulatory System: The heart develops from two endothelial tubes
which fuse into a single, middle heart tube. Blood vessels form from
blood islands on the surface of the yolk sac and inside the embryo. Blood
islands are small masses of mesoderm that become blood vessels on the
outside and blood cells on the inside. These islands expand and fuse to
from the circulatory system. A series of dilations appears along the
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length of the primitive heart tube, and four major regions can be
identified; the sinus venosus, the site where blood enters the heart; a
single atrium; a single ventricle; and the bulbus cordis, where blood exits
the heart.
The elongating heart, confined within the pericardium, becomes bent into
a loop, the apex of which is the ventricle. The major chambers of the
heart, the atrium and the ventricle, expand rapidly. The right part of the
sinus venosus becomes absorbed into the atrium, and the bulbus cordis is
absorbed into the ventricle. The embryonic sinus venosus initiates
contraction at tone end of the tubular heart. Later in development, part of
the sinus venosus becomes the sinoatrial node, which is the adult
pacemaker.
Respiratory System: The lungs begin to develop as a single midline
evagination from the foregut in the region of the future esophagus. This
evagination branches to form two lung buds. The lung buds elongate and
branch, first forming the bronchi that project to the lobes of the lungs and
then the bronchi that project to the bronchopulmonary segments of the
lungs. This branching continues until, by the end of the sixth month,
about 17 generations of branching have occurred. Even after birth some
branching continues as the lungs grow larger, and in the adult about 24
generations of branches have been established.
Urinary System: The kidneys develop from mesoderm located between
the somites and the lateral part of the embryo. About 21 days after
fertilization the mesoderm in the cervical region differentiates into a
structure called the pronephros (meaning the most forward or earliest
kidney), which consists of a duct and simple tubules connecting the duct
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to the open celomic cavity. This type of kidney is the functional adult
kidney in some lower chordates, but it is probably not functional in the
human embryo and soon disappears.
The mesonephors (meaning middle kidney) is a functional organ in the
embryo. It consists of a duct, which is a caudal extension of the
pronephric duct, and a number of minute tubules, which are smaller and
more complex than those of the pronephros. One end of each tubule
opens into the mesonephric duct, and the other end forms a glomerulus.
As the mesonephros is developing, the cadual end of the hindgut begins
to enlarge to form the cloaca (klo-[‖e[, g_[hcha m_q_l), nb_ ]iggih
junction of the digestive, urinary, and genital systems. The cloaca
becomes divided by a urorectal septum into two parts; a disestive part
called the rectum and a urogential part called the urethra. The cloaca has
two tubes associates with it; the hindgut and the allantois (a-f[h‖ni-is,
(meaning sausage).
Reproductive System: The male and female gonads apper as gonadal
ridges along the ventral border of each mesonephros. Primordial germs
cells, destined to became oocytes or sperm cells, form on the surface of
the yolk sac, migrate into the embryo, and enter the gonadal ridge.
In the female the ovaries descend from their original position high in the
abdomen to a position within the pelvis. In the male the testes descend
even farther. As the testes reach the anteroinferior abdominal wall, a pair
of tunnels called the inguinal canals from through the abdominal
musculature. The testes pass through these canals, leaving the abdominal
cavity and coming to lie within the scrotum. Decent of the testes through
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the canals begins about 7 months after conception, and the testes enter
the scrotum about 1 month before the infant is born.
Growth of the Fetus: The embryo becomes a fetus approximately 60 days
after fertilization (a 50-day-old embryo). The major difference between
the embryo and the fetus is that in the embryo most of the organ systems
are developing, whereas in the fetus the organs are present. Most
morphologic changes occur in the embryonic phase of the development,
qb_l_[m nb_ `_n[f j_lci^ cm jlcg[lcfs [ ――aliqcha jb[m_‖‖.
The fetus grows from about 3 cm and 2.5 g at 60days to 50cm and 3300g
at term- more than a 15-fold increase in length and a 1300-fold increase
in weight. Although growth is certainly a major feature of the fetal
period, it is not the only feature. The major organ systems still continue
to develop during the fetal period.
Fine, soft hair called Lanugo (la-ho‖ai) ]ip_lm nb_ `_nom, [h^ [ q[rs ]i[n
of sloughed epithelial cells c[ff_^ p_lhcr ][m_im[ (p_l‖hcem e[-se-i‖m[)
protects the fetus from the somewhat toxic nature of the amniotic fluid
formed by the accumulation of waste products from the fetus.
Subcutaneous fat that accumulates in the older fetus and newborn
provides a nutrient reserve, helps insulate the baby, and aids the baby in
sucking by strengthening and supporting the cheeks so that negative
pressure can be developed in the oral cavity.
Peak body growth occurs late in gestation, but, as placental size and
blood supply limits are approached, the growth rate shows. Growth of
the placenta essentially stops at about 35 weeks, restricting further
intrauterine growth.
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Epestimological Questions
However, some basic epistemological questions are relevant that have
been reaised here. Human birth, growth, continuity of growth, passage
through the entire life span and discontinuity (to be deceesed or pass
away from this world) are the reality, while this reality is intellectually
constructed. Therefore the key queston is how had and has it been
constructed. This is knowledge and academia. It is obvious that these
issues are considered as discourse that is derived from a modern
scientific paradigm. It claims to be a transcendent form of knowledge,
and to reveal discourse and knowledge, see Archeology of Knowledge of
M. Foucault (1969: 107-8). This knowledge presents itself as narrative.
Meaning of something is made through a binary relationship with
something else that it is not. This writing argues that the understanding in
this discourse about the given issues is not indisputable and objective
truth. A colonial trend continues to dominate the discourse.
European scholars started, at least in the eighteenth century, to pay
attention to the first years with the belief that they determine the entire
life (Singer, 1998). This could be marked as the beginning of the
narrative. Later, the expansion of modern sciences and modern education
played a role in perpetuating this. Most of them were religiously inspired
and dreamed of improving society by freeing the child from the bad
influences. The young child, as Hobbes believes, is naturally wild and
unregulated – ―^_p_fijg_hn cm [\ion mi]c[fctcha ]bcf^l_h ni n[e_ their
jf[]_ qcnbch mi]c_ns‖ (Wii^b_[^, 2005: 5). Tabula rasa of Locke and
noble savage of Rousseau (Baird & Kaufmann, 2008) are two theses
[\ion ]bcf^l_h‖m h[nol_ nb[n q_l_ mcahc`c][hn ch g[echa [h
epistemological base for the narrative. Locke viewed the newborn as a
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Bibliography
Behera, D. K. (Ed) (2007) Childhoods in South Asia. New Delhi:
Pearson Education.
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Endnote
Part of the contents of this book has been published earlier. Particularly:
The Jahangirnagar Review, Part II: Social Science, Vols. XIII & XIV, XXV-
XXVI, XXVII;
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