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1
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGIEERING
GOVERNMENT COLLEGE UNIVERISITY FAISALABAD
SUBMITTED TO
SUBMITTED BY
Training Period
01-02-17 to 31-05----
2
GOVERNMENT COLLEGE UNIVERISITY FAISALABAD
CERTIFICATE
I hereby certify that I have completed the Sixteen weeks Training in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
award of BSc ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY .I did my training in National Transmission and
Despatch Company (NTDC) 500kv/220kv Grid Station Gatti Faisalabad from 01-02---- to 31-05----.
The matter presented in this Report has not been submitted by me for the award of any other degree elsewhere.
Signature of Student
---------------------------
Examined by:
_____________________
INCHARGE/HOD
3
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page No.
Acknowledgement 8
List of Tables
Discos Distribution Network 10
Comparison Chart 24
DS Test Result of 500/220kv Auto Transformer T-3 (Blue, Yellow, Red Phase) 44
4
List of Figures
single line diagram of 500kv/220kv grid station of Gatti Faisalabad 13
Symbols of switchgear 13
Surge Arrester 15
CCVT 16
Wave Trap 17
Earth switch 18
Isolator 19
Shunt Reactor 22
Current Transformer 23
Potential Transformer 24
Auto Transformer 26
Portable earthing 27
Transformer ratio test diagram, using a Single phase TTR test set. Photo: Megger. 34
5
Difference Between Neutran,Ground and Earth 54
1. NTDC 9
2.1.2 Six lines 500kv are coming in 500kv/220kv G/S Gatti Faisalabad 13
6
2.2.4 Earth Switch 17
3.2 Neutral 51
ABRIVATIONS 55
7
REFRANCE 55
Acknowledgment:
I also thank the SDO (Control Room) Engr.Zahid and Forman Mr.Arif
for providing me the opportunity to embark on this internship.
Thank You.
AHSAN ALI
8
CHAPTER # 1
Introduction Of Company
1. NTDC
National Transmission & Despatch Company (NTDC) was incorporated on 6th November, 1998
and commenced commercial operation on 24th December, 1998. It was organized to take over all
the properties, rights and assets obligations and liabilities of 220 KV and 500KV Grid Stations
and Transmission Lines/Network owned by Pakistan Water and Power Development Authority
(WAPDA). NTDC operates and maintains fourteen 500 KV and thirty eight 220 KV Grid
Stations, 5110.48 km of 500 KV transmission line and 9686.32 km of 220 KV transmission line
in Pakistan.
1. System Operator
2. Transmission Network Operator
3. Contract Registrar and Power Exchange Administrator
1) System Operator: For secure, safe and reliable operation, control and despatch of generation
facilities.
2) Transmission Network Operator: For Operation & Maintenance, Planning, Design and
expansion of the 500 kV and 220 kV transmission network.
3) Contract Registrar and Power Exchange Administrator (CRPEA): As CRPEA, to record and
monitor contracts relating to bilateral trading system.
1.2.TRANSMISSION NETWORKS
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National Transmission & Despatch Company (NTDC) operates and maintains nine 220 KV Grid
Stations and twenty three 220 Grid Stations KV transmission line in Pakistan.
LESCO http://lesco.gov.pk
KESC http://www.kesc.com.pk
FESCO http://www.fesco.com.pk
MEPCO http://www.mepco.com.pk
IESCO http://www.iesco.com.pk
GEPCO http://www.gepco.com.pk
HESCO http://www.hesco.gov.pk
QESCO http://www.qesco.com.pk
PESCO http://pesco.gov.pk
TESCO http://tesco.gov.pk
NTDC operates and maintains fourteen 500 KV and thirty eight 220 KV Grid Stations, 5077 km
of 500 KV transmission line and 7359 km of 220 KV transmission line in Pakistan.
10
G. Total 14 38 52
500 KV Gatti G/Stn. (Faisalabad) was completed and commissioned on 27.06.1979. 4x450MVA,
500/200KV Auto T/F Banks with four Banks of 500KV Shunt Reactors having total capacity of
3x117.8MVAR (Two Nos. bank of capacity 3x22MVAR) are installed at the G/Stn. The G/S is
being fed through 500KV Muzafargarh G/S, 500KV Roush P.House, 500KV Multan G/S &
500KV Sheikhupura G/S through 500KV Single Circuits and connected with Barotha Power
House through 500KV Double Circuits.
For 500 KV as well as 220 KV bays double bus bar with one & half breaker scheme is used
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CHAPTER # 2
TRAINING WORK
12
2.1.2Six lines 500kv are coming in 500kv/220kv G/S Gatti Faisalabad
13
Earth Switch SF6 C/B Shunt Reactor
Current Transformer
14
Difference between lighting arrester and surge arrester
Lightning arrestor gives the protection against lightning only, as you can see these are installed
on the top of the huge buildings. That lightning arrestor is connected to a conductor which runs
along the walls and goes into the earth.
Whereas
Surge arrestor gives the protection against surge currents or voltages in a circuit. Surges can be
produced because of short circuit, lightning, sparking etc.
Hence, a surge arrestor can also be used as a lightning arrestor but a lightning arrestor can't be
used as a surge arrestor in case of short circuits.
15
CCVT at Gatti Grid station The circuit diagram for a simple capacitor voltage transformer
Construction
Capacitor Voltage Transformers consist of two primary assemblies,
Capacitive voltage transformer’s principal construction Nameplate of CVT at gatti G/S Fsd
Series connected capacitor elements, housed in porcelain shells, each hermetically (in
airtight manner) sealed, are referred to as capacitor sections. The dielectric of the capacitor
elements is made up of high quality polypropylene film/paper and impregnated with highly
processed synthetic fluid.
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Each capacitor section is equipped with a stainless steel below which will allow the
synthetic fluid to expand and contract with changes in ambient operating temperature while
maintaining the hermetic sealing.
Capacitor Voltage Transformers also serve as coupling capacitors for coupling high frequency
power line carrier signals to the transmission line.
CVTs in combination with wave traps are used for filtering high frequency communication
signals from power frequency. This forms a carrier communication network throughout the
transmission network.
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2.2.4 Earth Switch
It's function is to isolate the circuit after operation of circuit breaker and discharge the grapes
charges to earth through earth switch. Also it is very useful in maintenance period. Earthing
switch. Earthing switch is used to discharge the charges that are trapped in line after opening of
line by circuit breaker.
Earth switch
In electrical engineering, a disconnect or, disconnect switch or isolator switch is used to ensure
that an electrical circuit is completely de-energized for service or maintenance. Isolator is a
mechanical switch which isolates a part of circuit from system as when required.
Electrical isolators separate a part of the system from rest for safe maintenance works. Isolators
are used after or before circuit breakers for extra protection. Isolators are not used for load
current break. The work done by electrical isolators is made easier to achieve using an isolator.
An isolator is a mechanical switch that is manually operated. Depending on the requirement of a
given system, there are different types of isolators. With isolators, one is able to see any open
circuit physically as compared to circuit breakers where no physical observation can be made.
Parts of isolator
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1. Poles
2. Isolator Posts
Isolator has two or three poles that Consist two or three isolator posts. Conducting parts connect
at the top of isolator posts. Conducting parts consist fixed and moving part that made of copper
or aluminum.
Moveable part can be operated using a motorized mechanism as well as by hand to open or
closed electrical circuits. Hand operation happens to be cheaper, compared to a motorized
arrangement.
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Types of isolator
Sulfur hexafluoride is an inert, nontoxic, colorless, odorless, tasteless, and nonflammable gas
consisting of a sulfur atom surrounded by and tightly bonded to six flourine atoms. It is about
five times as dense as air. SF6 is used in GIS at pressures from 400 to 600 kPa absolute. The
pressure is chosen so that the SF6 will not condense into a liquid at the lowest temperatures the
equipment experiences.
SF6 has two to three times the insulating ability of air at the same pressure. SF6 is about 100
times better than air for interrupting arcs. It is the universally used interrupting medium for high
voltage circuit breakers, replacing the older mediums of oil and air. SF6 decomposes in the high
temperature of an electric arc, but the decomposed gas recombines back into SF6 so well that it
is not necessary to replenish the SF6 in GIS.
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3) Better heat dissipation than air;
4) Size reduction
5) Weight reduction
6) Reliable operation
7) Ease of installation
8) Ease of handling
9) Ease and reduction of maintenance
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Shunt Reactor at Gatti G/S Fsd
Main Differences
Shunt Reactor and Transformer both appear similar in construction. Reactors are also often
equipped with Fans for cooling similar to Power Transformers.
However, there are major differences between the two. While a Power Transformer is designed
for efficient power transfer from one voltage system to another, a shunt reactor is
intended only to consume reactive VArs (or in other words it can be stated as to produce
lagging VArs).
Thus, there are more than one winding on a Power Transformer with magnetic core which
carry the mutual flux between the two. In reactor there is just one winding. The core is not
therefore meant only to provide a low reluctance path for flux of that winding to increase the
Inductance.
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The line current is too high, and it is very difficult to measure them directly. Thus, the current
transformer is used which decrease the high value of current into a fractional value which is easy
to measure by the instrument.
The primary of the current transformer is connected directly to the line whose value is to
measure. The secondary of the current transformer is connected to the ammeter or meter which
measured the line value regarding fractions.
Current Transformer
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Potential Transformer
The primary terminal of the potential transformer is connected to the line for measuring the line
voltage. The potential transformer reduced the high value of voltage into the small value which
can easily be measured by the voltmeter or meter.
Comparison Chart
Primary Winding It carries the current which is It carries the voltage which is
to be measured to be measured.
Secondary Winding It is connected to the current It is connected to the meter or
winding of the instrument. instrument.
Connection Connected in series with the Connected in parallel with the
instrument instrument.
Primary Circuit Has a small number of turns Has a large number of turns
Secondary Circuit Have a large number of turns Have a small number of turns
and cannot be open circuit. and can be open circuit.
Range 5A or 1A 110v
Transformation Ratio High Low
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Burden Does not depends on Depends on the secondary
secondary burden burden
Input Constant current Constant Voltage
Full line current The primary winding consists The primary winding consists
the full line current. the full line voltage.
Types
Current Transformer Two Two types (Electromagnetic
types ( Wound and Closed and Capacitor voltage)
Core )
Impedance Low High
1. Steel tank
2. Core
3. Winding
4. Conservator
5. Brather
6. Thermometer
7. Pressure relief pipe
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8. Valves
9. Bacull relay
10. LV & HV Bushings
11. Tap changer switch
12. Oil tubes
13. Oil gaje
14. Readiator
15. Cooling fans
16. Oil pumps
17. Insulation oil
Auto Transformer
Disabling powerful live parts electrical, transformer or power lines fragment does not guarantee
full security of the people working on separate elements of the electrical systems of the lesions.
On the site of the power supply is turned off may be unintended or induced high voltage. To
eliminate human exposure to unforeseen factors applied additional means of protection -
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Grounding portable, does not allow appearing on the zone installation voltage hazardous to
human values.
conductive component;
the contact portion;
CHAPTER # 3
SKILL ATTAINED
Testing of Transformer
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5. Transformer turn ratio test
6. Capacitance and dissipation test
7. Dielectric test
1. First disconnect all the line and neutral terminals of the transformer.
2. Megger leads to be connected to LV and HV bushing studs to measure insulation resistance IR
value in between the LV and HV windings.
3. Megger leads to be connected to HV bushing studs and transformer tank earth point to
measure insulation resistance IR value in between the HV windings and earth.
4. Megger leads to be connected to LV bushing studs and transformer tank earth point to measure
insulation resistance IR value in between the LV windings and earth.
NB : It is unnecessary to perform insulation resistance test of transformer per phase wise
in three phase transformer. IR values are taken between the windings collectively as
because all the windings on HV side are internally connected together to form either star or
delta and also all the windings on LV side are internally connected together to form either
star or delta.
Measurements are to be taken as follows:
For auto transformer: HV-IV to LV, HV-IV to E, LV to E.
For two winding transformer: HV to LV, HV to E, LV to E.
Three winding transformer: HV to IV, HV to LV, IV to LV, HV to E, IV to E, LV to E.
Oil temperature should be noted at the time of insulation resistance test of transformer. Since the
IR value of transformer insulating oil may vary with temperature. IR values to be recorded at
intervals of 15 seconds, 1 minute and 10 minutes. With the duration of application of voltage, IR
value increases. The increase in IR is an indication of dryness of insulation. Absorption
coefficient = 1 minute value/ 15 sec. Value. Polarization index = 10 minutes value / 1 minute
value.
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TEMP
1 T-G 5KV 301GΩ 80GΩ 35
2 HXN-G 5KV 380GΩ 1.29GΩ 35
3 HXNT-G 5KV 290GΩ 1.5GΩ 35
4 HXN-T 5KV 343GΩ 1.65GΩ 35
Core Grounding
5 Plug 500V 960GΩ 35
G= ground
T=Tratiary winding
Tratiary winding
In some high rating transformer, one winding in addition to its primary and secondary winding is
used. This additional winding, apart from primary and secondary windings, is known as Tertiary
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winding of transformer. Because of this third winding, the transformer is called three winding
transformer or 3 winding transformer.
It reduces the unbalancing in the primary due to unbalancing in three phase load.
Sometime it is required to supply an auxiliary load in different voltage level in addition to its
main secondary load. This secondary load can be taken from tertiary winding of three winding
transformer.
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There are different methods for measuring of transformer winding, likewise
1- Current voltage method of measurement of winding resistance.
NB:- Transformer winding resistance measurement shall be carried out at each tap.
By applying simple Ohm's law i.e. Rx = V ⁄ I, one can easily determine the value of resistance.
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1. For star connected three phase winding, the resistance per phase would be half of measured
resistance between two line terminals of the transformer.
2. For delta connected three phase winding, the resistance per phase would be 0.67 times of
measured resistance between two line terminals of the transformer.
3. This current voltage method of measurement of winding resistance of transformer should be
repeated for each pair of line terminals of winding at every tap position.
Here we perform winding resistance test of auto transformer and take following reading
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3.1.3 Power Transformer Turns Ratio Test
The turns ratio test is an AC low voltage test which determines the ratio of the high voltage
winding to all other windings at no-load. The turn’s ratio test is performed on all taps of every
winding.
The Transformer Turns Ratio tester (TTR) is device used to measure the turn’s ratio between
the windings (example shown below).
Voltage is applied on the H marked leads and measured of the X marked lead by the test set.
Ratio measurements are conducted on all tap positions and calculated by dividing the induced
voltage reading into the applied voltage value. When ratio tests are being made on three-phase
transformers, the ratio is taken on one phase at a time with a three-phase TTR until the ratio
measurements of all three phases are completed.
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Transformer ratio test diagram, using a Single phase TTR test set. Photo: Megger.
Single-Phase Models: Connect the exciting leads (X1 and X2) to the lower-voltage winding of
the two windings to be compared. Match transformer polarity by connecting the H1 secondary
lead to the higher-voltage terminal which corresponds to the X1 connection. See Figure. Connect
the H2 lead to the other high voltage terminal. Where both windings are grounded on one side,
connect X1 and H1 to the grounded sides. Always excite the entire low-voltage winding. For
polyphase transformers, repeat procedure on each set of windings to be measured
Figure
1 – Three-phase Transformer Turns Rati (TTR) Connection diagram.
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Measured ratio variations should be within 0.5% of the nameplate markings.
Some TTR can perform transformer ratio measurement and also assess if on-load tap
changer contacts are making satisfactorily during its transition from one tap position to the
next position.
Step 1.
Isolate the equipment, apply working grounds to all incoming and outgoing cables and
disconnect all incoming and outgoing cables from the transformer bushing terminals
connections.
Disconnected cables should have sufficient clearance from the switchgear terminals greater
that the phase spacing distance. Use nylon rope to hold cable away from incoming and
outgoing terminals as required.
Step 2.
Connect the H designated three-phase test lead with the military style connector at one end to
the mating connection on the test set marked with an H. Ensure that the connector’s index
notch lines up properly.
Step 3.
Connect the X designated three-phase test of lead military style connector at one end to the
mating connection on the test set marked with an X. Ensure that the connector’s index notch
lines up properly.
Step 4.
Connect the H1, H2, H3 designated test lead to the corresponding H1, H2,
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H3 transformer terminal / bushing. Connect the H0 test lead if H0 terminal/bushing is
present.
Refer to Figure 1.
Step 5.
Connect the X1, X2, X3 designated test leads to the corresponding X1,
X2,X3 transformer terminals / bushings. Connect the X0 test lead if X0 terminal/bushing is
present.
Step 6.
Perform turns ratio measurements for all tap positions.
Step 7.
Confirm that the measured ratios is within 0.5% of the calculated ratios.
Here we perform transformer turn ratio test of auto transformer and take following
reading
TAP
HV LV Calculated Measured
POS.
1 512500 220000 2.329 2.325
Ratio
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3 487500 220000 2.215 2.211
4 475000 220000 2.159 2.155
5 462500 220000 2.102 2.099
TAP
HV LV Calculated Measured
POS.
TW
1 512500 11000 26.9 26.621
2 500000 11000 26.243 25.968
3 487500 11000 25.587 25.31
HV to
4 475000 11000 24.931 24.665
Ratio
5 462500 11000 24.275 24.061
LV to Tertiart
6 220000 11000 11.547 11.439
Ratio
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3.1.4 Dissipation/Power Factor Measurement (Tan Delta)
The condition of the insulation is essential for secure and reliable operation of your transformer.
Measuring capacitance and dissipation/power factor helps you to determine insulation condition
in bushings or between windings.
Changes in capacitance can, for example, indicate mechanical displacements of windings or
partial breakdown in bushings. Aging and degradation of the insulation, coupled with the ingress
of water, increase the amount of energy that is converted to heat in the insulation. The rate of
these losses is measured as dissipation factor.
With our testing systems, you can even determine the capacitance and dissipation/power factor at
variable frequency. Therefore, aging phenomena can then be detected earlier, and corresponding
action such as repair, oil treatment or drying can be initiated
Isolate the equipment, apply working grounds to all incoming and outgoing cables and
disconnect all incoming and outgoing cables from the transformer bushing terminals.
Disconnected cables should have sufficient clearance from the switchgear terminals greater
that the phase spacing distance.
Use nylon rope to hold cable away from incoming and outgoing terminals as required.
Step 2.
Isolate the neutral bushing connection if applicable from the transformer grounding bar.
Step 3.
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Short-circuit all high voltage bushing terminals together.
Step 4.
Short-circuit all low voltage bushing terminals and the neutral bushing terminal together.
Step 5.
Connect the capacitance and dissipation factor test set. Refer to Figure 1 above.
Step 6.
Record the capacitance and dissipation factor values once the null meter is balance for both
phasing position. Record values for the five test-variable selector switch position.
Power Transformer Testing – Measuring capacitance and power factor or dissipation factor
The condition of the bushings and the overall insulation of power transformers can be
investigated by measuring the capacitance and dissipation factor, also known as the tangent
delta, or power factor. Aging and decomposition of the insulation, or the ingress of water,
increases the losses and thus more energy is turned into heat in the insulation.
The level of this dissipation is expressed by the dissipation factor or power factor.
Here we perform C&DF test of auto transformer and take following reading
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C & DF Test Result of 500/220kv Auto Transformer T-3 (Yellow Phase)
Leakage
Sr.No Device Mode Total Cap DF
current
kv pF/nF % mA
1 HV Bush (New) UST 10 395.094pF 0.2701 1.2411
2 LV Bush UST 10 490.261pF 0.0872 1.5401
3 Neutral Bush GST 10 19.2233nF 0.5052 60.401
4 UST-A 10 68.9320pF 0.1569 216.54µ
5 Transformer GST 10 19.2458nF 0.3439 60.467
Body GSTg-
6
A
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3.1.5 Dielectric strength of transformer oil
In physics, the term dielectric strength has the following meanings: Of an insulating material,
the maximum electric field that a pure material can withstand under ideal conditions without
breaking down (i.e., without experiencing failure of its insulating properties).
Transformer oil, a type of insulating and cooling oil used in transformers and other electrical
equipment, needs to be tested periodically to ensure that it is still fit for purpose. This is because
it tends to deteriorate over time. Testing sequences and procedures are defined by various
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international standards, many of them set by ASTM. Testing consists of measuring breakdown
voltage and other physical and chemical properties of samples of the oil, either in a laboratory or
using portable test equipment on site.
For a new insulating transformer oil(called virgin oil), the, value is 70kv for a good satisfactory
level but, where as oil in use (called in service) has values ranging from 25 kv to 50kv ,
depending upon various factors like ,running hours of use, impurities, moisture content, sludge
content etc, but it is advisable to discard old oil, if value does not improve after dehydration and
filtration above 60 KV in laboratory setup or the oil has not passing a compatibility/mixibilty test
with new transformer oil at different ratio to come to at par in usable ranges as per standards, on
the other hand the exact values and correct figures for Virgin oil are available in IEC-60296
AND for oil in service there is a complete guide and specification available as IEC-60247 where
all the nesseccary information’s are available, including the test methods and apparatus required.
Two standard-compliant test electrodes with a typical clearance of 2.5 mm are surrounded by
the dielectric oil. A test voltage is applied to the electrodes and is continuously increased up to
the breakdown voltage with a constant, standard-compliant slew rate of e.g. 2 kV/s
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DES Test Of 500kv Auto T/F T1 at 500kva Gatti grid station.
To assess the insulating property of dielectric transformer oil, a sample of the transformer oil
is taken and its breakdown voltage is measured. The lower the resulting breakdown voltage,
the poorer the quality of the transformer oil.
The transformer oil is filled in the vessel of the testing device. Two standard-compliant test
electrodes with a typical clearance of 2.5 mm are surrounded by the dielectric oil.
A test voltage is applied to the electrodes and is continuously increased up to the breakdown
voltage with a constant, standard-compliant slew rate of e.g. 2 kV/s.
At a certain voltage level breakdown occurs in an electric arc, leading to a collapse of the test
voltage.
An instant after ignition of the arc, the test voltage is switched off automatically by the testing
device. Ultra fast switch off is highly desirable, as the carbonization due to the electric arc
must be limited to keep the additional pollution as low as possible.
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The transformer oil testing device measures and reports the root mean square value of the
breakdown voltage.
After the transformer oil test is completed, the insulation oil is stirred automatically and the
test sequence is performed repeatedly: typically 5 repetitions, depending on the standard.
As a result the breakdown voltage is calculated as mean value of the individual measurements.
Insulating property: –
• Should not interfere with any part. Therefore, it must be completely free from dirt, dust, fibers,
moisture and other solid matters.
• Dust, dirt and moisture are enemies of electricity, remove them.
• Should be stable against oxidation at working temperature of 90 deg. C
• Right viscosity and thermal conductivity to be an efficient coolant.
• Should not have a tendency to dissolve any matter.
• Density of oil is 0.89 gr/cm3 at 29.5 °C.
44
Value of DES test of Spare unit of T1
1 75.7kv
2 73.3kv
3 84.1kv
4 75.0kv
5 80.0kv
Avrage 77.3kv
Ohm’s law defines resistance, “R”, as the ratio of voltage “V” across a component, to the current
“I” passing through it:
R = V/I
To measure resistance, we apply a test current to a wire and detect the voltage drop developed.
From this, we easily calculate the resistance as shown in the following figure.
45
We measure the resistance of interest, RW, between the conductor ’s two mating pins. The entire
circuit, however, includes the resistance of the lead wires, RL1 and RL2, so the voltage drop
used in the calculation includes all three of these resistances. In many situations the lead wire
resistance is much lower than the resistance of the conductor or component we aim to measure
and therefore can be disregarded.
In some situations, however, the resistance of interest, RW, approaches the resistance value of
the lead wires used to measure it resulting in an inaccurate reading. We correct this problem by
moving the voltage measurement points out to the endpoints of the mating pins, thus, bypassing
any voltage drop that may occur in the lead wires. Refer to the figure below:
The Ohmmeter then appears to have four wires coming from it. The image at the right shows
46
these terminals on a typical DMM. Because we now use four lead wires instead of two, we refer
to this approach as “4-wire measurement”, or alternatively “4-Wire Kelvin” measurement in
honor of the 19th century British physicist, Lord Kelvin, who originally developed it.
Note that the current flowing through the voltage-measuring circuit of a 4-wire system is
extremely small, typically on the order of fractions of a micro amp (six or more orders of
magnitude less than the source current), so virtually no voltage drop occurs across these lead
wires, and it’s effect on the resistance measurement is negligible. In summary, if there is no
current flowing through a wire, there is no voltage drop across it regardless of its length. This
important point means that lead wires may now be quite long, sometimes exceeding 10 feet (3
meters), without having any effect on the measurement. Long lead wires become necessary when
testing large, multi-branch wire harness assemblies, so this situation is not as uncommon as it
might seem.
The principal advantage of 4-wire measurement is that it eliminates any effect of fixture
resistance (the lead wires) to obtain a precise resistance value of the UUT. Because 4-wire
measurements typically employ test currents well above those needed for two-wire testing, a
secondary advantage comes through the use of a high-current stress test for wiring by driving a
current of 1 A or more through each conductor, and the ability to set a dwell time from 100 ms to
many minutes –– observing a slowly-increasing resistance during a long dwell period resulting
from thermal heating may reveal problems not detected with a shorter measurement interval.
Software driving a 4-wire measurement system should permit individual conductors within a
UUT to be independently disabled from a 4-wire test by User selection to avoid potential damage
to fuses or other component not intended to carry high test current. Users should also be allowed
to independently set different test currents and dwell times for different conductors.
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Contact Resistance Value
B5Q22 B4Q22
Phas Phas Resul
Contact Apply current Result Contact Apply current
e e t
138µ
R 1 100A R 1 100A 75µΩ
Ω
142µ
Y 1 100A Y 1 100A 76µΩ
Ω
137µ
B 1 100A B 1 100A 75µΩ
Ω
B3Q22 B2Q22
Phas Phas Resul
Contact Apply current Result Contact Apply current
e e t
125µ
R 1 100A R 1 100A 83µΩ
Ω
127µ
Y 1 100A Y 1 100A 78µΩ
Ω
132µ
B 1 100A B 1 100A 79µΩ
Ω
B1Q22
Phas
Contact Apply current Result
e
102µ
R 1 100A
Ω
106µ
Y 1 100A
Ω
B 1 100A 99µΩ
48
normal conductors such as copper wire. Resistance can be very low when area of the path where
current is flowing is larger in size. Hence in this condition Earth is considered as good conductor.
It is important to know earth resistance as it helps in finding the location which is ideal to ground
the equipments and help to protect human beings. It also helps to determine what lies at few
distance below the earth's surface.
The Earth resistance testing will help find the best earth location and depth to fix low resistance
electrodes. The resistivity of earth is used to indicate degree of corrosion useful in underground
pipelines. These pipelines are used for oil, water, gas etc. Typically, locations with low
resistivity values will have higher corrosion.
In earth resistance testing, earth tester generates AC signal. This signal is fed to the SUT (System
under Test). By measuring flow of current and generated voltage will give us system resistance.
The earth resistance can be measured in the range between 0.001 to 20 KOhm.
Figure depicts concepts of earth resistance testing employed in tester equipments. As shown in
the figure, Rod-3 is moved and measurement of voltage and current is recorded at various points
between Rod-1 and Rod-2. By using Ohm's Law (R = E/I), Earth resistance can be determined at
various points and location having low resistance can easily be derived from the plot (earth
resistance versus distance in feet of Rod-3 from Rod-1.
49
ɸ
0.04/0. 0.04/0. 0.04/0. B
T/F Body
04 04 04 ɸ 0.06/0.05 N 0.06/0.06
Fire Fighting 0.04/0. 0.04/0. 0.04/0.
PDE 04 04 04
0.03/0. 0.03/0. 0.03/0.
Earth mat
03 03 03
P.T Bushar 0.04/0. 0.04/0. 0.04/0.
Post 04 04 04
0.03/0. 0.03/0. 0.03/0.
C.T
03 03 03
Droper Post 0.04 0.04 0.04
Control Box
0.03 0.03 0.03
B4Q1
0.04/0. 0.03/0. 0.03/0.
High Gentry
04 03 03
0.03/0. 0.03/0. 0.03/0.
Bridge Gentry
03 03 03
0.03/0. 0.03/0. 0.03/0.
Water Pipe
03 03 03
0.03/0. 0.04/0. 0.03/0.
Earth Switch
03 04 03
0.04/0. 0.03/0. 0.03/0.
C.V.T
04 03 03
0.04/0. 0.03/0. 0.03/0.
Wave Trap
04 03 03
Following are the three test methods used to measure Earth resistance.
1. Fall of potential method OR three terminal test method
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“Dead Earth” Test
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3.2 Neutral
Neutral is return path for an AC circuit which is supposed to carry current in normal condition.
This current may be because of many reasons, primarily because of phase current imbalance and
some time because 3rd and 5th harmonics also
There may be others reasons too but the magnitude of this current is in fraction of phase current
and in few case it can be even double of phase current. So Neutral wire is always assumed to be
charged ( in active circuit). This neutral wire is given to ground (by grounding) to make the
second terminal of neutral wire at zero potential.
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This current is not directly coming from live or phase wire, but is from secondary links which
was not in touch with live system in normal condition. This current is usually much lesser than
main line current or
Phase current and mostly is in order of mA. But this leakage current is good enough to kill
someone or may risk fire. Such current are being provided a low resistance path and sent to earth
via earth wire.
Because of the difference in application we never mix grounding of neutral and earth. However
both are made grounded (of-course the process may be different). If both will be mixed then the
earth wire which is not supposed to carry any current in normal condition, may have some
charges across and will become hazardous.
1.2 From the Distribution side, we start to run the Neutral lines. Neutral in this case would be the
return path of the supply.
1.3 Earth is still available but normally there will be no current flowing, only during supply
leakage
Grounding is the commonly word used for earthing in the North American standards like
IEEE, NEC, ANSI and UL etc while, Earthing is used in European, Common wealth
countries and Britain standards like IS and IEC etc.
In simple words, Earthing and Grounding are synonyms. Both are similar words used for the
same thing
As the neutral point of an electrical supply system is often connected to earth ground, ground
and neutral are closely related. Under certain conditions, a conductor used to connect to a
system neutral is also used for grounding (earthing) of equipment and structures.
While earthing is done not for return path but only for protection of delicate equipments. It is an
alternate low resistance path for current. When we take out the neutral for a three phase
unbalanced connection and send it to ground, it is called grounding
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This gives a small voltage between the grounded metal parts of devices connected to it and
true ground if phases are unbalanced, which is clearly suboptimal, but if you have a faulty device
where a hot wire touches the case, that will at least blow the fuse. It is however wrong to connect
ground to neutral in the wall
No, the neutral and ground should never be wired together. This is wrong, and potentially
dangerous.
When you plug in something in the outlet, the neutral will be live, as it closes the circuit. If the
ground is wired to the neutral, the ground of the appliance will also be live. This can be felt as a
tingling if you touch the grounded casing of the appliance, because most of the current still goes
through the neutral where the lowest resistance is.
However, if there is something wrong and the neutral is disconnected, it will make the appliance
dangerous. If you touch the casing, and some real ground (like a water pipe) at the same time,
you will close the circuit and carry all of the current.
So, connecting the ground to neutral totally defeats the purpose of having a ground, and actually
makes it more dangerous than not having the ground at all.
When the inspector was measuring the ground, he was actually measuring the neutral, which
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naturally shows a current when something is connected somewhere in the circuit
Importance of neutral
In the electrical trade, the conductor of a 2-wire circuit connected to the supply neutral point
and earth ground is referred to as the "neutral". ... All neutral wires of the same earthed
(grounded) electrical system should have the same electrical potential, because they are all
connected through the system ground.
All neutral wires of the same earthed (grounded) electrical system should have the
same electrical potential, because they are all connected through the system
ground. Neutral conductors are usually insulated for the same voltage as the line conductors,
with interesting exceptions
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ABRIVATIONS
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PESCO PESHAWAR ELECTIC SUPPLY COMPANY
G/S GRID STATION
CCVT CAPACITOR COUPLE VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER
CVT CAPACITOR VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER
C/B CIRCUIT BREAKER
CT CURRENT TRANSFORMER
PT POTANTIAL TRANSFORMER
LDS LINE DISCONNECT SWITCH
SF6 SULPUR HEXAFLOURIDE
TTR TRANSFORMER TURN RATIO
C&DF CAPACITANCE AND DESIPATION FACTOR
HV HIGH VOLTAGE
LV LOW VOLTAGE
DES DIELECTRIC STRENGTH
REFRANCE
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