Book 2 Module 2

CATEGORY B1 B2 B3
PHYSICS 2
MOTION VIBRATION POWER
ENERGY GYROSCOPES

Licence By Post

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issue number.

Licence By Post © Copyright B EASA 66 2.2.2 2.2.3 ISSUE 11 0116

© Licence By Post
No part of this study book may be re-produced or distributed in any form or by any means, or
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AUTHORITY

It is IMPORTANT to note that the information in this book is for study/training

purposes only.

When carrying out a procedure/work on aircraft/aircraft equipment you MUST

always refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual or equipment
manufacturer’s handbook.

You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory authority
(the CAA in the UK) and laid down company policy as regards local
procedures, recording, report writing, documentation etc.

For health and safety in the workplace you should follow the
regulations/guidelines as specified by the equipment manufacturer, your
company, national safety authorities and national governments.
CONTENTS

Page

Kinematics 1
Linear motion 1
Acceleration 4
Free falling bodies 6
Rotational movement 8
Centripetal force 10
Periodic motion 12
Vibration 15
Velocity ratio, mechanical advantage
and efficiency 18
Dynamics 20
Power 24
Energy 25
Momentum 30
Newton’s laws of motion 32
Gyroscopic principles 36
References established by gyros 48
The ring lazer gyro 55
The fibre optic gyro 58
HOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK

The same applies to this book as to book 1 in the module 2 physics series.
That is to say, it is written for the category B technician and he/she should
study the subjects such as to have a thorough knowledge to the level stated in
the syllabus (mostly level 2 for the B1 person and level 1 for the B2/B3 person
– except for gyros and momentum etc which is level 2 for everyone).

Remember, calculators are not allowed in the CAA examinations so actual

calculations would be designed not to be too long-winded. In other words there
should not be any long (or too deep) calculations to be carried out. Never-the-
less, there will be some less lengthy ones to do so be prepared.

We have included all the appropriate formula when required to ensure

completeness of the subject.

Details of scientists/inventors are included for interest only and need not be
committed to memory.
 KINEMATICS
(The study of motion)

LINEAR MOTION

Linier motion is motion in a straight line and it is important to understand the

difference between speed and velocity. These have already been stated
respectively as being scalar and vector quantities. Speed, is a scalar quantity
and possesses magnitude only, velocity however is a vector quantity and
possesses both magnitude and direction.

Note that standard symbols are used throughout this study book to
denote various parameters. They include:

a = acceleration [m/s2]
s = distance [m]
t = time in seconds [s]
u = original velocity [m/s]
v = final velocity (m/s)

Consider a body (figure 1), moving from A to B in a time (t) seconds.

Fig. 1 LINEAR MOTION

Average speed is defined as the distance travelled by a body along the path of
its motion divided by the time taken. Thus if the curved path AB is denoted by
‘s’ and the time taken is ‘t’ then:

distance travelled
average speed =
time taken

s
= m/s
t

If the distance travelled is the same in each successive interval of time then
the speed is said to be constant.

-1-
In figure 1, although the distance travelled by the body is ‘s’ along the curved
path from A to B, the displacement is a straight line from A to B. If x is the
displacement, then since average velocity is defined as the displacement
divided by the time (t) taken then:

displaceme nt
average velocity = x/t m/s
time taken

Its direction is along AB and its sense is from A to B.

The following examples should help reinforce the difference between speed and
velocity.

Example 1. A helicopter leaves point A (figure 2) and travels due east for
18km. It then makes a 90° left turn and continues its journey due north to
point B, a further 40km. The whole journey from A to B takes 15 minutes.

Determine (a) The average speed for the whole journey.

(b) The average velocity.

Fig. 2 VECTOR DIAGRAM

total distance covered

(a) average speed =
total time taken

58 x 10 3 m
= = 64.4 m/s
15 x 60 s

total displaceme nt
(b) average velocity =
total time taken

-2-
 Total displacement AB = 40 2 + 18 2 (by Pythagoras)

= 1600 + 324

= 43.86km

43.86 x 10 3 m
Average velocity =
15 x 60 s

= 48.7 m/s

opposite
and since TAN* θ (theta) =
adjacent

40
=
18

= 2.22 (dividing 40 by 18)

then θ = 65.8° (this value found from TAN

tables)

∴ average velocity = 48.7m/s acting from A to B at 65.8° N of E.

* The TAN ratio is obtained from tables or a calculator (as are other ratios).
Tables or calculators are not used in CAA EASA Part 66 examinations but
some trigonometric ratios are used in these study books so as to give
completeness to problem solving.

Note. If the aircraft flew the hypotenuse route (direct A to B) its flight-deck
compass reading (and hence aircraft heading) would be 65°/66° (for an
analogue instrument) or 65° 48′ (for a digital instrument which is more
accurate - mathematically 65.8 degrees). Travelling due north the heading
(and compass reading) is 0°, travelling due east it is 90°, travelling due south it
is 180° and due west it is 270°).

When a body moves in a straight line then the calculation of speed and velocity
will be the same.

Example 2. An aircraft travels from one DME marker 88km to another (about
50 miles) in 15 minutes. (DME = Distance Measuring Equipment, a ground
based radio navigation aid.)

total distance covered

Average speed =
total time taken

-3-
 88 x10 3
= m/s = 97.7 m/s (about 218 mph)
15 x60

In this example the displacement would be the same as the distance covered
and so the magnitude of the average velocity would also be 97.7 m/s.
However, for it to qualify as a vector quantity the direction (from A to B) must
also be stated.

ACCELERATION

Acceleration is defined as ‘the rate of change of velocity’ or ‘the change of

velocity per unit time’.

change of velocity
In terms of a formula, acceleration (a) =
time

if u = initial velocity in m/s

and v = final velocity in m/s

v-u
then acceleration =
t

m/s
The units would be (ie metres per second per second) and can be
s
m
written as or m/s2 or ms-2. Spoken as metres per second squared).
s2

If a body is slowing down, or decelerating, the value of v will be less than u,

resulting in a negative value of acceleration. So slowing down is in fact
negative acceleration.

The following equations relate to acceleration, velocity etc:

v-u
From a=
t

at = v – u

or v = u + at Equation 1

The second equation is derived from the graphical representation of

acceleration (referred to as a velocity-time diagram). For a body accelerating
uniformly from velocity u to velocity v, the velocity-time diagram would be as
shown in figure 3.

-4-
The shaded area is that of a trapezium whose area is calculated from the
equation:

½ (sum of parallel sides) x perpendicular distance between them

= ½(v + u)t

Fig. 3 VELOCITY-TIME DIAGRAM

m
Considering the units, we have x s . As the ‘s’ on the top line cancels with
s
the ‘s’ on the bottom line, it leaves ‘m’ the units of distance. That is, the
shaded area represents the distance travelled during the acceleration.

The symbol given to distance is ‘s’. Do not confuse this with the abbreviation
for seconds.

∴ s = ½(v + u)t Equation 2

The third equation is obtained by substituting Equation 1 into Equation 2.

ie s = ½[(u + at) + u]t which equals ½[2u + at]t

s = ut + ½at2 Equation 3

The fourth and final equation of this set is obtained by re-arranging Equation
1 and Equation 2 and then multiplying them together.

-5-
 ie from Equation 1 v – u = at

2s
and from Equation 2 v+u=
t

2s
∴ (v – u)(v + u) = at
t
v2 – u2 = 2as Equation 4

Example. A large aircraft has a take-off velocity of 59m/s (about 132 mph). It
starts from rest and accelerates uniformly for 30 seconds before becoming
airborne.

(a) What is the acceleration in m/s2?

(b) What take-off distance is required?

(a) u=0
v = 59m/s
t = 30 seconds
a=?

using v = u + at

v-u
a=
t

59 − 0
=
30

= 1.97 m/s2

(b) using s = ½(u + v)t

= ½(0 + 59)30

= 885m

FREE FALLING BODIES

Between all masses there is a natural force of attraction. This force depends on
the size of the two masses involved and their distance apart (called Newton’s
universal law of gravitation. Sir Isaac Newton English physicist 1642 to 1727).
When one of the masses is the Earth, then its large mass produces a large
force of attraction between it and any other mass on or near its surface.

-6-
This force, known as ‘gravitational force’ will cause bodies, entering its sphere
of influence, to accelerate towards the earth. A body falling freely from a great
height will initially accelerate but will gradually lose this acceleration until it
falls with constant velocity, ie zero acceleration. This is known as the body’s
terminal velocity and depends, mostly, on its air resistance (drag).

The body will continue to accelerate when the gravitational force of attraction
is greater than the drag force, but drag increases as the square of speed. When
the drag force reaches the same value as the force of gravity the body has
reached its Terminal Velocity.

For a streamline shape such as a bomb this is about 1000mph (1600km/h),

for a human body it is about 100mph (160km/h) depending on clothing, body
posture etc.

For most general calculations related to free falling bodies, air resistance is
ignored and the body is considered as falling in a vacuum, where its
acceleration is uniform having a value of 9.81m/s2, ie an increase of velocity of
9.81m/s every second. Gravitational acceleration is given the symbol ‘g’.

The preceding equations 1 to 4 may be used to solve problems involving free

falling bodies by substituting ‘g’ for ‘a’ in the equations.

Example. A pilot uses his explosive operated ejector seat. The initial velocity of
the seat is 40m/s as it leaves the aircraft. Determine:

(a) The maximum height from the aircraft that the seat will reach (s).
(b) The time taken to reach this height (ignore air resistance) (t).

u = 40m/s
v=0
g = -9.81 (deceleration)

(a) v2 = u2 + 2gs

s = v2 - u2
2g

40 2
s= = 81.5m
2 x 9.81

(b) v = u + gt

t=v-u
g

40
t= = 4.1 seconds
9.81

-7-
 ROTATIONAL MOVEMENT

A linear distance is measured in metres (m). However, when a body rotates its
angular distance moved is measured in radians (in the SI system). However the
degree is often used. A radian is the angle produced when the radius of the
circle is drawn around its circumference.

Fig. 4 THE RADIAN

The number of radians in a circle is 2π and π = 3.142 so there are just over 6
radians in a circle and each one subtends an arc at the centre of about 57°
(figure 4).

Angular distance may be envisaged as ‘wedges’ and a body rotating would

move through a number of these wedges. The number moved through would
provide a measure of the angular distance the body has moved.

Figure 5 shows a circle divided into six divisions (wedges) to represent radians.

Fig. 5 THE CIRCLE DIVIDED INTO RADIANS

-8-
Consider the movement of two points ‘a’ and ‘b’, moving in a circular path from
OX, to OY. Both will move through the same number of radians (4) though
point a will move through a greater linear distance (arc length) than point b.

The symbol given to angular distance, is the Greek symbol θ (theta).

If the time taken to move through this angular distance is now considered,
then this allows for the angular velocity ‘ω’ (omega) to be calculated:

θ rads
ω=
t s

(Angular velocity ‘omega’ equals ‘theta’ radians divided by time t in seconds.)

Angular acceleration is defined as the rate of change of angular velocity and is

given the symbol α (alpha). If ω1 = initial angular velocity (rad/s) and ω2 = final
angular velocity (rad/s) then:

ω2 - ω1
α= rad/s2
t

Again, as with linear motion, it is useful to have a set of equations for solving
problems related to angular motion. The format of these is identical to those of
linear motion, only the symbols are different.

ω2 = ω1 + αt Equation 1

θ = ½(ω1 + ω2)t Equation 2

θ = ω1t + ½αt2 Equation 3

ω22 - ω12 = 2 αθ Equation 4

It follows that although the angular velocity of points ‘a’ and ‘b’ are the same,
the linear velocity of ‘a’ is greater than ‘b’ since the linear distance covered is
greater, but covered in the same time. The two velocities are therefore related
by the radius such that:

Linear velocity = angular velocity x radius

v = ωr (m/s)

Linear acceleration = angular acceleration x radius

a = αr (m/s2)

Example. A propeller 3m in diameter rotates at 2,850rpm. Determine its

angular velocity in rad/s and the linear speed of the propeller tip.

-9-
 2π
2850 rev/min = 2850 x rad/s
60

angular velocity ω = 298.45 rad/s

v = ωr

= 298.45 x 1.5

= 447.68 m/s

CENTRIPETAL FORCE

Newton’s First Law states that: ‘Unless there is a resultant external force
acting upon it, a body will move with constant speed in a straight line’. It
follows that to cause a body to deviate from this straight line path and move in
a circular one, that a force must be present.

One only has to whirl something around on the end of a piece of string to
understand the need for this force which at all times is directed towards the
centre of rotation. To think of it another way – it is you holding onto the end of
the string that keeps the body going round. Let the string go and the object
will fly off in a straight line.

This (tension) force in the piece of string is known as ‘centripetal force’ (figure
6) and may be calculated using either the linear velocity (v m/s) of the rotating
body or its angular velocity (ω rad/s).
mv 2
ie centripetal force = mω2r or (Newtons)
r

Fig. 6 CENTRIPETAL FORCE

Ignoring frictional and gravitational forces, the centripetal force is the only
force acting on the rotating body. No outward force acts on the body.

- 10 -
This is easily understood by releasing the string - the body moves in a straight
line tangential to the circle at which it was rotating. It does not fly outward
from the centre of rotation.

Fig. 7 CENTRIFUGAL FORCE

Another force known as ‘centrifugal force’ is also present in the system but it
does not act on the rotating mass. Instead it acts at the centre of rotation and
acts in the opposite direction to centripetal force, that is outwards (figure 7).
mv 2
Its magnitude is also equal to mω2r or Newtons. One can feel centrifugal
r
force, for example, when a vehicle goes round a bend. The force created will
tend to push passengers (and everything else) towards the outside of the bend.

A centripetal force is required to make any object go round a curve. For a

vehicle to go round a corner frictional force is required (usually from the front
tyres). When the vehicle is steered from a straight line the front wheels are
turned towards the centre of the bend creating a frictional force in that
direction. This causes the vehicle to go in a circular path. If there is no
frictional force (as when driving on ice) the vehicle does not respond.

Fig. 8 CENTRIPETAL FORCE ON AN AIRCRAFT IN A TURN

- 11 -
When taxiing an aircraft most pilots rely on this force (nose wheel steering or
differential braking to turn the aircraft (some are turned by the rudder and
engine thrust) but when airborne the pilot must use something else.

When flying, the pilot uses the most powerful force available to him/her for
control of the aircraft (for most aircraft). That is the lift force. On a large
aircraft (A380 for example) this would be in the region of 300 tonnes (about
300 tons) or 2.9MN force. If the pilot banks the aircraft then the lift force is
inclined to the vertical (as viewed from the front) and the horizontal component
of this force (W TAN θ in figure 8) is the centripetal force to bring the aircraft
round the bend.

The pilot will have a turn and slip indicator, ADI or something similar to
indicate the angle of bank to help in obtaining the right amount of bank. If
he/she does not have enough centripetal force for a particular curve then more
aileron will be needed and if the autopilot is engaged it will do the job
automatically.

PERIODIC MOTION

A body that moves to and fro, so that every part of its motion recurs regularly
is said to have periodic motion. An example of this would be the movement of a
piston along the cylinder of an internal combustion engine (figure 9).

Fig. 9 RECIPROCATING MOTION

As the crank revolves with constant angular velocity (constant rpm), the piston
moves backwards and forwards along the cylinder. Its linear velocity, through
one complete revolution of the crank varies from zero at both bottom dead
centre (BDC) and top dead centre (TDC) (the top and bottom ends of the
cylinder), to a maximum at the mid-point of its travel, ie the linear velocity is
continuously changing, it is never constant.

The acceleration of the piston also changes continually throughout its stroke.
At the extremes of travel at BDC and TDC the acceleration is a maximum, that
is when the velocity is zero. At mid travel the acceleration is zero, ie when the
velocity is at a maximum.

- 12 -
Simple Harmonic Motion

The periodic reciprocating motion of the piston is complex but if the

connecting rod is long when compared to the crank, then it approximates to a
simple, but important motion known as Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM).

SHM is defined by two conditions:

1. The acceleration is always directed towards a fixed point in the

path of the object.

2. The acceleration is proportional to its distance from that point.

Other systems which approximate to SHM include a vertically oscillating mass

at the end of a spring and the simple pendulum.

The pendulum arrangement is one with which we are all familiar. It consists of
a body of mass ‘m’ attached to the end of a light cord, rod or wire of length ‘L’.
The cord/rod/wire is supported at a point Q which acts as a pivot (figure 10).
By displacing the mass a small amount to one side and allowing it to swing, it
will move to and fro from a to b and back again. This swinging motion
approximates to SHM.

This swinging motion from a to b and back again can be projected onto a circle
and will show as a point (point P in figure 10). This point will travel around the
circle and if projected vertically onto line AB (point y) will satisfy both the
conditions of SHM, ie its acceleration is always directed to point O, and the
acceleration is proportional to the displacement x, being zero at O and a
maximum at both A and B.

This provides true SHM (provided we ignore losses such as drag), and it can be
seen that the movement of the pendulum approximates to the movement of
point y as it moves across the diameter AB.

With reference to figure 10. The force (gravity) that attempts to restore the
pendulum to an equilibrium position (vertical at point O) is proportional to the
displacement of the pendulum from this point (distance x). The further (higher)
the pendulum is away from the centre the greater the effective restoring force.

Force = Mass x Acceleration, and the Restoring Force = kx where k is a

constant related to the force moving the pendulum (in this case gravity).

The time taken for the pendulum to complete one complete cycle starting and
ending with the same velocity and position is called the period of the motion
(T).

The period is dependant on the restoring force (k) and the inertia of the
oscillating mass (the pendulum) (m).

- 13 -
 Fig. 10 THE PENDULUM

This means that:

m
T = 2π
k

It is important to note that the period time (T) is not affected by the amplitude
of motion (length of distance x). With a freely swinging pendulum this will
slowly decrease (due to aerodynamic drag and possibly friction at Q if it is a
hinge) and the length of each swing will get shorter, but the period time (T) will
remain the same.

The number of complete swings per unit time (swings per minute for a
pendulum clock for example), more correctly, the swings per second (frequency
[f]) is the reciprocal of the period (T), ie:

1
f =
T

Example. What is the frequency of an oscillating system if the time period is 10

microseconds?

- 14 -
 1
f =
T

f = 1/10 x 10-6

= 0.1 x 106

= 100 x 103 Hz

= 100kHz

VIBRATION

Vibration is a periodic motion of a fluid or elastic solid body whose equilibrium

has been disturbed from its original position of rest by some forcing function.
Vibrating bodies or particles have motion and therefore possess kinetic energy
- the energy of motion.

Vibration in engineering is an un-wanted characteristic of structures and

machines. It causes fatigue in structures, wear in moving parts (engines etc)
and noise (in the airframe for example). On the other hand, vibration in
musical instruments, sound reproduction equipment and tell-tale indicators
is essential, without it there would be no audible sound/vibration indication of
an incoming call on the mobile phone etc.

Aircraft structures (which have mass and elastic properties) are capable of
vibration in response to dynamic inputs from rotating masses such as engines
and other inputs such as aerodynamic loads. If this motion repeats itself after
a given interval of time then vibration is present in the arrangement.

On aircraft, vibration can come from many sources including:

* The engines – piston or jet. Vibration monitors may be fitted to jet

engines to give the flight crew indications of engine vibration
levels. It is kept to a minimum by dynamic balancing of propellers
and all rotating parts of the engine. If it increases in frequency
and/or amplitude then it is usually a sign of impending trouble.

Most aircraft piston engines are fitted to the airframe on anti-

vibration mountings (rubber or some other elastomeric material)
as also are some sensitive equipment such as instrument panels
etc.

* Aircraft wheels. These are balanced (wheel and tyre) before

fitment. In severe cases wheel vibration can cause structural
damage during take-off/landing. Nose and tail wheels are
susceptible to this. When it occurs it is called Shimmy.

- 15 -
 * Aerodynamic loads. The airframe/flying controls are buffeted by
the air as it flows passed. This can set up a vibration known as
Flutter, which in its most severe form can destroy the aircraft in
seconds. Static balancing (mass balancing) of the control surfaces
and correct airframe design can help reduce this.

* On helicopters the rotor head and blades (as well as the tail rotor)
are a source of vibration, which require monitoring and regular
maintenance practices to keep to an acceptable level.

Vibration monitoring equipment is fitted to many aircraft engines and some

helicopter structures. The wave-form signals produced from the transducers
are put through band filters (electronic) to filter out the various frequencies so
that indications are provided to the pilot/maintenance crew of which rotating
mass is vibrating (each rotating unit has its own vibration signature).

Vibration is usually considered to be a form of wasted energy and is generally

to be avoided. This is particularly true in engines, rotating assemblies and
structures where noise, which is the result of irregular vibrations, may cause
components to fail as well as transmitting unwanted forces.

Associated with vibration is the term ‘frequency’. Frequency is the number of

complete vibrations or cycles that occur in one second. It is given the unit of
Hertz, (German physicist Heinrich Hertz 1857 to 1894). One cycle per second
is equal to one Hertz (Hz).

To reduce vibration to an acceptable level, rotating components can be both

statically and dynamically balanced. To reduce vibration in non-rotating
systems such as structures some form of damping is used. Damping may
come from friction damping or inertia loading.

Friction is present in all moving systems and this will create a damping force
for the vibration. If high enough it will slow-down the vibration and cause it to
stop eventually – provided the friction is high enough. Structural vibration can
be damped by having thicker (heavier) stringers, skin etc which increases the
inertia loading. Flying control surfaces may be damped by the use of mass
balance weights (inertia loading), the use of powered controls, hydraulic
dampers etc.

Freely vibrating systems, considered as having no friction, vibrate with a

frequency known as ‘the natural frequency’. This natural frequency is
generally dependant on the mass of the vibrating item and its ‘stiffness’.

Systems that vibrate freely in air are generally considered to be un-damped

unless they are particularly sensitive (as the air will cause resistance and
damping). When this friction is considered, then the frequency of vibration is
referred to as ‘damped natural frequency’.

- 16 -
Harmonic oscillations in mechanical structures have a time period (T) related
to the mass (m) and the stiffness (c) of the system and these are related by the
formula:

m
T = 2π
c

The frequency (f) of the system is the reciprocal of the time period (T):

1
f =
T

Note the similarity of these equations with those used in SHM.

Resonance

This, in engineering terms, can be a critical condition and a potential hazard.

It occurs when the frequency of the exciting force (the forcing function that
causes the vibration in the first place) coincides with the natural frequency of
the item, often as a result of the damping forces being small.

If resonance occurs, the vibrations will grow in amplitude and these can get
very large. The result will be a build-up of noise and extreme vibration. If
uncorrected this may lead to possible failure of the part often by fatigue. It is
essential therefore that a knowledge of the natural frequency of structures and
rotating machinery is known at the design stage so the possibility of resonance
is designed out of the component during the initial manufacture.

Harmonics

Any elastic structure, which is deformed by a force and the force released, will
vibrate about a mean position. If the frequencies of vibration are in the audible
frequency range, between approximately 20 and 20,000Hz, then a range of
sounds will be produced - the slower frequencies producing low pitch sounds
and higher frequencies high pitch sounds. This type of vibration is described
as harmonic and used in the production of music.

A whole series of harmonics exist. The series is infinite, but starts with the
fundamental frequency (f) which is equivalent to plucking an open string (no
fingers on the string) on a musical stringed instrument (guitar for example).

The harmonic series is a sequence of frequencies which are all whole number
multiples of the fundamental frequency, the second harmonic being twice the
frequency of the first, and so on.

(For more details on Sound please refer to the LBP book 4 in this module 2
Physics series.)

- 17 -
 VELOCITY RATIO, MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE & EFFICIENCY

We all understand the meaning of work in the general sense, however in

engineering, work is related to force and distance such that work is done when
a force moves through a distance in the direction of the force.

Work = Force (N) x Distance (m) (in the direction of the

force)

The units of work are joules (J) (James Prescott Joule – English physicist 1818
– 1889).

The following section deals with the relationships that emanate from devices
that help man to do work more easily. Such devices are called machines.

One useful task that a machine is able to achieve is to move a large force by
the application of a relatively small effort. This can be of great advantage and
subsequently the relationship between load and effort is known as the
Mechanical Advantage (MA) or Force Ratio.

Mechanical Advantage Load

MM =
(or Force Ratio) Effort

The greater the MA the greater is the load that can be moved by a given effort.
For any particular machine this ratio will not be constant. This is partly
because, except in an ideal machine (with no friction), the effort required to
overcome frictional forces varies with the magnitude of the load applied.

For very small loads (watch movements for example), the effort required to
overcome friction (in gear-wheels etc) may be greater than that required to
move the load (the hands), whereas for large loads, the effort to overcome
friction is usually a small percentage of the whole and may be ignored.

Figure 11 shows a simple lever arrangement and the MA can be worked out by
the ratio of the length of the lever from the pivot to the small force to the
length of the lever from the pivot to the end lifting the heavy load (in this case
the MA is about 4:1). Lever systems are used in many applications, good
examples include tyre levers (removing the tyre from the wheel) and jacking a
formula 1 racing car when doing a wheel change - the whole of one end of the
car is lifted by one person with a lever.

What you should note from figure 11 is that the amount of movement of the
input force is larger than the amount of movement of the load.

- 18 -
 Fig. 11 MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE

A high MA can only be obtained by designing a machine in such a way that the
input displacement (movement) of the effort is much greater than the output
displacement (movement) of the load.

The ratio of input movement to output movement is called the Velocity Ratio
(VR) or ‘Movement Ratio’. In figure 11 the effort will move a long way compared
to the movement of the load, but the load can be very heavy compared to the
input effort.

Velocity Ratio (VR) input distance moved

=
or (Movement Ratio) output distance moved

Since both movements occur in the same time period this is also the ratio of
the input and output velocities.

The VR is governed by the physical form of the machine and for any one
machine remains constant for all loads.

Any practical machine will have energy losses, often occurring in the form of
heat (friction for example). The energy that is ‘lost’ from the machine is ‘gained’
by the surroundings. As a result of this the work output from a machine will
always be less than the work input.

Comparing ‘work-in’ to ‘work-out’ gives the efficiency of the machine.

work output
efficiency (η) =
work input

(the symbol η is pronounced eta)

Efficiency may be expressed as:

MA
η=
VR

- 19 -
This will always be less than unity (1) (less that 100%), since energy will
always be used to overcome friction and other losses.

MA
%η = x 100
VR

Since the MA varies with loading, the efficiency will reflect this.

DYNAMICS

For something to exist it is usual to assume that it possesses ‘mass’. Mass is

defined as the amount of matter contained within a body.

The basic unit of mass in the SI system is the kilogram (kg) (about 2.2lbs).

When larger quantities are involved the mass may be quoted in terms of
‘tonnes’ – called a metric ton.

where 1 tonne = 1000kg

Incidentally the imperial ton is similar to the metric tonne – it is only 40lbs
‘heavier’.

The mass of a body, once stated, is considered to be constant no matter where

it is located, or what physical state it is in.

A mass of, say 5kg, on Earth will also have a mass of 5kg in space. If this 5kg
mass is a solid, it will also be 5kg when melted to a liquid and if heated to a
vapour state, will produce 5kg of vapour.

Between all masses a force of attraction exists, this force is dependent on the
size of the masses involved and the distances their centres are apart. This
force of attraction is known as ‘gravitational force’.

When one of the masses is the Earth itself, then its large mass produces large
gravitational forces between it and bodies near or on its surface.

It is this force of attraction acting on these bodies that give them what we call
weight.

Unlike the mass of a body, the weight of the body varies with any changes in
distance between the centres of the bodies involved. As the earth is not truly
spherical, being flatter at the poles, then the weight of a body varies around
the Earth’s surface.

- 20 -
Taken to the moon the weight of a body becomes approximately one-sixth of
that experienced on Earth, due to the moon’s reduced mass and hence lower
attractive force.

To determine the weight of a body the following formula is used.

Weight = Mass x gravitational acceleration (g) (metres per second squared)

m
As an equation N = kg x
s2

On the Earth’s surface, gravitational acceleration ‘g’ is taken as 9.81m/s2.

QUESTION Terms have been used to describe ‘weight’ such as weight, mass,
and force. Describe the differences between these terms (5 mins).

ANSWER Mass is the amount of substance within a body. Weight and force
are units of measurement used to describe the force that a mass
will exert. For example – take a 1kg bag of sugar – it has a mass of
1kg. Place it on your hand and it will exert a force downwards of
about 10N. Take the same bag of sugar to the moon, it will still
have a mass of 1kg but the force it will exert on the hand will be
about 2N. Weight is really another name for force.

Weighing machines are often designed around this force of attraction which
produces an extension or compression of a spring (Hooke’s law). This, in turn,
is calibrated to read the weight (or more correctly the mass) of the body being
measured (figure 12).

Attaching a mass of one unit to the spring balance will cause the spring to
extend one unit of length. Doubling the mass will cause the extension to
double. By calibrating the spring balance using known masses the unit can be
used to measure the mass of any object.

A balance scale (figure 13) compares an unknown mass to a known mass. In

this arrangement ‘g’, the gravitational acceleration, acts on both masses and
thus is not a consideration when determining ‘mass’.

The operator has a range of standard masses (marked and usually made of
brass) so after putting an unknown mass (say some apples) on the right-hand
scale pan the operator places a number of standard masses on the left-hand
side so as to balance the scale. The operator then adds-up all the known
masses and this equals the mass of the apples.

- 21 -
 Fig. 12 MASS ATTACHED TO A SPRING BALANCE

Fig. 13 BALANCE SCALE

Inertia

All bodies tend to stay in a state of equilibrium and are reluctant to change
their present state of rest or uniform motion.

A body moving with uniform velocity in a straight line, will only change from
this state if a force is applied to it. Only the application of a force will cause it
to accelerate, decelerate or change direction.

- 22 -
This reluctance to change its current state is called inertia. Inertia is
dependent on the mass of the body, the larger the mass the greater the inertia,
ie the more difficult it is to move when at rest or to stop when in motion.

You will probably experience this effect during the take-off and landing of an
aircraft, being respectively, pushed back into your seat when taking-off or
‘thrown forward’ when the aircraft brakes on landing. It is the inertia of your
body that causes this motion.

Fig. 14 TAKE-OFF

On the take-off run the thrust (T) of the engines overcomes the inertia of the
aircraft (ma). Initially the drag component (D) will be small but as the aircraft
gathers speed so the drag increases (increases with the square of speed).

For the aircraft to accelerate T must be greater than D + ma.

Fig. 15 LANDING

On landing the inertia of the aircraft is considerable and to bring it to a stand-

still many factors are brought into play – the main ones include the
aerodynamic drag on the aircraft (at least initially); the reverse thrust of the
engines and the wheel brakes. Equating these forces ma = TR + D + B.

For the aircraft to slow down all the other forces combined must be greater
than ma.

- 23 -
Of the slowing down forces the most effective are the wheel brakes, the next
being reverse thrust (putting the propeller into reverse pitch and revving up
the engine/s, or moving cowlings into the jet efflux of a jet engine to direct the
thrust rearwards and opening up the throttles).

The weakest force slowing the aircraft down is aerodynamic drag. This may be
increased by the use of flaps, spoilers, airbrakes and parachutes (parachutes
on military aircraft only).

The ‘inertia force’ will always ‘act’ to balance the resultant force on the body, ie
in a direction opposite to that of the acceleration ‘a’.

Note that in figure 15 the word ‘acceleration’ is used and not ‘deceleration’. In
scientific terms there is no such thing as deceleration, only acceleration with
slowing down being called negative acceleration (reference the linier
displacement formulas discussed earlier in this book).

POWER

Power is defined as ‘the rate of doing work’.

As a formula

work done
Power =
time taken

= joules = Watts
seconds

So the unit of power is the Watt (W) (James Watt British inventor 1736 to
1819).

To give you some idea of the ‘size’ of a Watt – a television set on standby would
consume about 1W of power, a non-energy saving light bulb would be about
60 to 100W and a small motor car would be about 50kW (50,000W).

force x distance
Power = which, by regrouping, provides an alternative
time taken
formula for power:

ie Power = force x speed

distance
since = speed
time

- 24 -
Example. The engines of a jet aircraft, travelling at a speed of 250m/s, exerts a
thrust of 24.5kN. Determine the power developed.

Power = force x speed

= 24.5 x 103 x 250
= 6125000 Watts
= 6.125MW (Mega Watts)

ENERGY

Energy is defined as ‘the capacity to do work’, and in its many forms the unit
is the same as that for work, ie the Joule (J). Energy exists as chemical energy,
heat energy, nuclear energy, electrical energy, sound energy etc. Energy
cannot be made or destroyed but can only be changed from one form to
another - as occurs in an engine for example, where the chemical energy of the
fuel is released to provide heat energy (and sound energy etc). In a piston
engine the heat energy produces pressure energy in the cylinder which moves
the piston to produce kinetic energy (the energy of motion).

However, the total energy in the system remains unchanged, even though
many changes of form occur. The ‘Principle of Conservation of Energy’ states
that energy can be neither created nor destroyed but only changed from one
form to another.

Two forms of energy that are important are Kinetic Energy (energy due to
motion) and Potential Energy (energy due to position).

Kinetic energy = ½mv2 J

Where ‘m’ is the mass involved and ‘v’ the velocity at which the mass is
moving.

Potential energy = mgh J

Where ‘g’ is gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/s2 near or on the Earth’s

surface) and ‘h’ the height above some datum.

Changes of energy between these two forms often occur, and in some cases are
continuous such as with a pendulum. Figure 16 shows the arrangement.

At the highest point of its swing (positions a and c), the pendulum is at rest for
an instant and has no motion and no kinetic energy (KE). However, it has
gained height ‘h’ from its lowest point thus the potential energy (PE) is a
maximum at mgh.

- 25 -
As the pendulum starts to descend, this height ‘h’ decreases resulting in a
subsequent reduction in PE. The pendulum is, however, gaining speed and
therefore gaining KE.

At the lowest point in its swing (position b) all the height ‘h’ is lost and the PE
is zero, but the velocity of the pendulum is now at its maximum producing the
maximum KE.

From the ‘Conservation of Energy Principle’ the total energy of the system
remains constant and thus the PE at the highest point of the swing equals the
KE at its lowest point – this assumes no energy loss which there is of course,
due to air friction and friction at the pivot.

Fig. 16 POTENTIAL & KINETIC ENERGY OF A PENDULUM

As the pendulum passes through the lowest point, it starts to ascend, gaining
PE as ‘h’ increases, but loosing KE as it slows down.

The connection between work and energy should be remembered. If one can
determine the work done on or by a body then this can be equated to the
amount of energy possessed or expended by the body.

Example 1. A pile driver of mass 1000kg falls 3 metres when released. What is
its kinetic energy as it strikes the pile?

The initial energy is the potential energy:

= mgh
= 1000kg x 9.81m/s2 x 3m
= 29430J

- 26 -
Assuming no loses all the potential energy is converted to kinetic energy which
is:

29430J or
29.430kJ

Example 2. What is the kinetic energy of an aircraft of mass 2 tonnes landing

at a velocity of 2m/s?

Kinetic energy = ½mv2

= ½ x (2 x102) x 22
= ½ x 2000 x 4
= 1000 x 4
= 4000J
= 4kJ

Example 3. Consider a body of mass 5kg raised a vertical distance of 8m above

a datum (figure 17).

Fig. 17 POTENTIAL ENERGY

Work done = force x distance moved in the direction of the force

= 5kg x 9.81 m/s2 x 8m

= 392.4J

If it were allowed to fall, when the datum is reached the work done becomes
the amount of energy the body possesses, ie potential energy = 392.4J.

In this position the mass is capable of doing work and if allowed to fall freely
will strike the ground with 392.4J of energy. Now just before impact all the PE
is converted to KE, ie KE = 392.4J. This allows us to calculate the velocity at
impact:

since KE = 392.4J

½mv2 = 392.4J

- 27 -
 392.4x 2
v =
m

392.4x 2
v =
5

v = 12.53 m/s

Incidentally, on impact the energy would be converted to strain energy of the

body and the surface it impacts with, plus sound energy.

Example 4. (a) What is the total kinetic energy of a commercial airliner of 200
tons landing at a velocity of 120mph at an actual landing angle of 5° to the
horizontal runway (figure 18)? (b) Of this total energy how much energy will
the brakes have to absorb? (c) How much energy will have to be absorbed by
the main oleos (shock absorbers).

Converting all units into SI units

200 tons = 203 200 kg

and 120 mph = 54m/s (approx)

Total kinetic energy = ½mv2

= ½ x 203200 x 542
= 296 265 600 J
= 296 MJ (approx)

Fig. 18 VECTOR DIAGRAM

(SCALE 1” = 50MJ)

Knowing that the total KE is 296MJ, a vector line can be drawn accurately to a
scale at a 5° slope, the right angle triangle can be completed by drawing a
horizontal line and a vertical line as shown in figure 18. The horizontal line
provides a close approximation of the amount of energy absorbed by the
brakes (290MJ) and the vertical line shows the amount of energy absorbed by
the shock absorbers (30MJ).

The accuracy of the answer will, of course, depend on the accuracy of drawing
the vector diagram. However, using trigonometry will provide an accurate
answer:

- 28 -
 Horizontal component = 296 x cos5°
= 294.9MJ

and Vertical component = 296 x sin5°

= 25.8MJ

Answers. (a) The total kinetic energy = 296MJ (approx).

(b) Total energy to be absorbed by the wheel brakes = 296 x
cos5° = 294.9MJ. This assumes that reverse thrust is not
used and any aerodynamic drag is ignored.
(c) Energy absorbed by the shock absorbers = 296 x sin5° =
25.8MJ

Of course, the energy is not really absorbed, it is converted - directly to heat

(caused by friction) in the case of the wheel brakes; to pressure and then to
heat in the case of the shock absorbers.

Efficiency

Associated with how much a machine/mechanism uses energy to operate so

the less energy a machine uses the more efficient it is.

Efficiency is associated with power and energy. It is given the symbol η (called
eta) and may be expressed as:

η = Power output
Power input

or

η = Energy output
Energy input

Example 1. If an electric motor has an output power of 1500W and an input

power of 2000W its efficiency would be:

η = Output power
Input power

= 1500
2000

= 0.75

or 75%.

- 29 -
Example 2. An electric motor has an output power of 4.5kW and is 90%
efficient. How much energy will it use in 20 seconds?

η = Output power
Input power

Transposing the equation for input power:

Input power = Output power

η

= 4.5
0.9

= 5kW

1W = 1J/sec so the energy used in 20 seconds is:

= 5kW x 20s

= 100kJ.

MOMENTUM

Momentum is defined as ‘the quantity of motion’ possessed by a body. It is the

product of the mass of the body and the body’s velocity.

ie, momentum = mass (kg) x velocity (m/s)

Its units are kgm/s, however, you may find Ns (Newton seconds) also used.

It is interesting to note that a large body having a small velocity may possess
the same value of momentum as a small body having a relatively high velocity
(figure 19).

Body (a). Its’ momentum is 20kg x 0.5m/s = 10kgm/s.

Body (b). Its’ momentum is 0.5kg x 20m/s = 10kgm/s.

However, although the momentum of both bodies is the same, each possesses
a different amount of kinetic energy (½mv2)

The 20kg mass has ½ x 20 x 0.52 = 2.5J of KE.

Whereas the 0.5kg mass has ½ x 0.5 x 202 = 100J of KE.

- 30 -
 Fig. 19 MOMENTUM OF DIFFERENT BODIES

Example. What is the momentum of a ball of mass 2 grams travelling with a

velocity of 10cm/s?

(Remember. It is always better to convert all values to standard units before

carrying out any calculations. In this case the kilogram [kg] and the metre
[m].)

Converting 2gs to kg. 2gs = 2kg or 2kg or 0.002kg

103 1000

Converting 10cm/s to m/s. 10cms = 10 or 0.1

100

Momentum = mass x velocity

= 2 x 10
1000 100

= 20
100000

= 2
10000

= 0.0002kgm/s

- 31 -
 NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

As we are considering motion, it is a convenient point to state some important

fundamental laws – Newton’s Laws of Motion. There are three. The first states
that ‘Unless there is a resultant external force acting upon it, a body will move
with a constant speed in a straight line’.

With this law we must appreciate that a body moving in a straight line with
constant velocity is in a state of equilibrium. To alter this state a force must be
applied to produce acceleration (positive [+] or negative [-]).

We are aware of the thrust necessary to accelerate an aircraft to take-off

speed, or the braking and reverse thrust to retard the aircraft on landing, as
well as forces during flight such as the rudder force for directional control.

The second law of motion states that ‘The rate of change of motion of a body is
proportional to the resultant force acting on the body and takes place in the
direction of the force’.

If we consider a body of mass ‘m’ kg moving in a straight line with an initial

velocity of ‘u’ m/s and applying a constant force of F (N) in the same direction
for a period of time ‘t’ seconds, then its velocity will change (figure 20). Let the
final velocity be ‘v’ m/s.

Fig. 20 MOMENTUM OF A SINGLE BODY

Initial momentum = mu
Final momentum = mv
Change of momentum = mv – mu
mv - mu
rate of change of momentum =
t

In equation form Newton’s second law is:

mv - mu
F∝
t

To replace the proportional sign (∝) with an equals sign a constant is

used.

- 32 -
 mv - mu
hence F = x a constant
t

Using a suitable choice of units the constant is made to equal unity (1).

mv - mu
So F=
t

 v − u
or F = m 
 t 

v-u
now = acceleration ‘a’ m/s2
t

therefore F = ma

Force equals mass times acceleration.

If the contact time ‘t’ between the bodies involved is very small (δt), such as
occurs when a body is struck suddenly, then the force applied is known as an
‘impulsive force’.

change in momentum
Impulsive force =
time taken

change in momentum
= (δ = delta = small change)
δt

The change of momentum produced is called the ‘impulse’ (of the force).

ie impulse = impulsive force x δt

= change in momentum.

Finally, Newton’s third law of motion states that ‘The force exerted by one body
(A) on another body (B) is equal in magnitude, opposite in direction and acts in
the same straight line as the force exerted by B upon A. In other words ‘For
every action there is an equal and opposite reaction’.

Example. Sitting on a four legged chair. Each leg has an ‘action’ going
downwards into the floor (about a ¼ of the total mass of the chair and the
person sitting on it). For the chair to be in equilibrium the floor must exert an
equal and opposite ‘reaction’ upwards on each leg.

- 33 -
The three laws:

1. Unless there is a resultant external force acting on a body it will

move with a constant speed in a straight line.
2. The rate of change of motion of a body is proportional to the
resultant force acting on the body and takes place in the direction
of the force.
3. For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

These three Laws of Motion can be used to solve most of the problems that
arise in mechanics. These are enhanced by a further principle - that of ‘The
Conservation of Momentum’, which states that “For a closed system, the total
linear momentum in any given direction remains constant”.

The term ‘closed system’ means all the bodies in a system the boundaries of
which have been defined.

FORCE DIRECTION COMPASS SIGN SIGN

LEFT TO RIGHT EAST POSITIVE +

RIGHT TO LEFT WEST NEGATIVE −

UP NORTH POSITIVE +

DOWN SOUTH NEGATIVE −

TABLE 1 MOMENTUM CONVENTIONS

If a force acts on a body then the sign of the force is shown positive or negative
depending on which direction it acts. In table 1 we have only used forces
acting at the cardinal points of the compass or those acting horizontally/
vertically. If forces act at any other angle the same principle applies but the
force has to be split into its horizontal and vertical components.

Example 1. Consider two bodies of mass mA and mB, moving in the same
straight line, with mass A moving at a greater speed uAm/s than mass B,
which is moving at uBm/s (figure 21). Eventually mA catches up with mB and a
collision occurs. At collision, each delivers the same impulsive force ‘F’ to the
other, for a short time period (δt). After impact the respective velocities are vA
and vB with the bodies continuing in the same direction as before, but with
body A moving slightly slower and body B moving slightly faster.

- 34 -
From Newton’s third law, it can be seen that at impact the impulse received by

B = Fδt

= change of momentum of B

= mBvB – mBuB

Fig. 21 IMPACT OF BODIES

The impulse received by A = -Fδt (the negative sign indicates a force from right
to left).

= change of momentum of A
= mAvA - mAuA

Now since, positive impulse received by B = negative impulse received by A

then:

mBvB – mBuB = -(mAvA – mAuA)

or mAuA + mBuB = mAvA + mBvB

ie
Total momentum = Total momentum
before impact after impact

All the above assumes that the bodies behave perfectly elastically and the total
kinetic energy in the closed system in the same after collision as before. This
cannot happen in reality as some energy is always lost in the deformation of
the colliding bodies.

- 35 -
One system that gets close to a perfect elastic collision is collisions between
snooker balls (billiard balls, pool balls) and steel balls. The best example of an
in-elastic collision is the collision between two snow-balls (almost all the
energy is used in the destruction of the snow-balls on collision).

Example 2. Consider the system of two perfectly elastic masses (A and B)

travelling directly towards each other (figure 22). Calculate the total
momentum after impact.

Fig. 22 EXAMPLE

Total momentum of system before (and after) impact:

momentum A = 50kg x 5m/s = 250kgm/s

momentum B = 10kg x -4m/s = -40kgm/s

total momentum = 250kgm/s – 40kgm/s = 210kgm/s

The positive value in the answer shows that the total momentum is in the
direction west to east (or left to right).

GYROSCOPIC PRINCIPLES

A gyroscope is a spinning mass. Any spinning mass such as a spinning top, a

car wheel, the turbine of a jet engine, a propeller, the rotors of a helicopter and
even the earth will have gyroscopic properties and effectively be a gyroscope.
Most mechanical gyros that are designed to be gyroscopes are mounted in a
pivoted frame called a gimbal (figure 23) and used in instrument systems and
transducers.

Note that with modern aircraft instrument systems the spinning mass gyro
has been replaced by laser gyros or fibre optic gyros. These have no moving
parts and offer a significant improvement in engineering, reliability and
accuracy terms over the mechanical gyro.

With many dictionaries these would not be classed as gyros but they are called
gyros in aircraft related publications so are include here.

- 36 -
When the rotating mass (called a rotor) is stationary it will behave as any other
mass when acted on by an external force. It will obey the laws we have already
discussed above. When the rotor is spun-up it will exhibit properties quite
different from what might be expected. These properties are unique to spinning
masses.

When spun-up it will retain its original spin axis orientation (called rigidity)
when acted on by an external force. If an external force is applied to it, it will
precess (move, in what could be considered to be, an unpredictable direction –
though it can be worked out).

The maths associated with gyroscopes is fairly complicated and will not be
covered here, but a knowledge of the basic terms is necessary. These include:

* Rigidity
* Couple
* Torque
* Moment of inertia
* Angular momentum
* Precession
* Vectors as applied to gyros.

Fig. 23 GIMBALLED GYRO

Rigidity

Sometimes called Gyroscopic Inertia, it is the property of a gyro to maintain its

axis of rotation with its spin axis pointing to a fixed point – a star infinitely far
away in space.

- 37 -
So setting a top spinning on a flat surface will mean that it will stand upright,
even if the surface on which it rests is moved – provided the top remains
spinning. When it stops spinning it will loose its rigidity and fall over.

The amount of rigidity is directly related to the:

(i) Mass of the rotor.

(ii) Speed of the rotor.
(iii) Radius of Gyration or Moment of Inertia of the rotor.

The radius of gyration (Rg in figure 24) of a spinning body can be likened to
the centre of gravity of a stationary body. In fact it is the radius at which all
the mass of a segment of the wheel is said to act when it is rotating. The more
the mass of the wheel is concentrated at its outer edge the greater its radius of
gyration. If the two gyros in figure 24 both have the same mass and the same
outer diameter then the right hand gyro will have the greater rigidity than the
left hand gyro for the same rpm because its mass is more concentrated
towards the outside of the rotor.

Fig. 24 RADIUS OF GYRATION

- 38 -
A Couple

This is the name given to an arrangement of two forces which:

(i) Have their lines of action parallel to each other.

(ii) Are acting in opposite sense.
(iii) Are separate from each other, (ie not acting in-line).
(iv) Are equal in magnitude.

An example of this arrangement of forces is shown in figure 25. Two equal

forces are applied to a beam, each in opposite directions and each one applied
at some distance from the centre. The beam will rotate about the centre of
rotation, as in a key used to wind-up the spring of a clock.

As the two forces (F) are equal in magnitude but of opposite sense, then the
total resultant force is zero and there is no tendency for the beam to move up
or down. There is, however, a ‘resultant moment’ which will turn the beam
about its axis. This resultant moment, or couple, is called Torque which is
produced by the couple.

Fig. 25 A COUPLE

The magnitude of the torque is the product of one of the forces and the
perpendicular distance between the forces.

ie Torque = F x d (Newton metres) (Nm)

In previous work we came across momentum or more specifically ‘linear

momentum’ for bodies travelling in straight lines, and for a change of linear
momentum to occur a force had to be applied over a period of time.

For a rotating body, rotating about its axis, it is an applied torque, acting over
a period of time which is necessary to produce a change of angular
momentum.

- 39 -
 change of angular momentum
ie Torque =
t

If as, with linear momentum, the time involved is very small then

angular impulse = torque x δt = change of angular momentum

Precession

Consider the rotor shown in figure 26. The rotor is mounted on gimballed
bearings, ie it is supported in a frame and the frame is free to rotate in any
sense (not shown in the drawing for clarity but a similar mounting to that
shown in figure 23). Let a couple, as shown by the two vertical forces F, be
applied to the shaft.

First consider it stationary ie not spinning. Under these conditions the whole
assembly will, in accordance with Newton’s second law of motion, move in the
sense of the applied forces (torque), the shaft will ‘topple’ end over end – anti-
clockwise as we look at it – the left-hand spindle going down and the right
hand spindle going up.

Now remove the two forces, place the spindle in a horizontal position (as
shown in the drawing) and let the rotor be spun-up about its spin axis with
angular speed ‘ω’ rads per second. Now re-apply the couple.

Under these conditions the behaviour of the gyro is completely different. First
of all the rotating assembly maintains its rigidity so the shaft will not move up
or down at the ends. It will move, but in a horizontal plane, not vertically at
the ends as you would imagine. The assembly rotates with constant angular
speed in a horizontal plane, at right angles to the forces ‘F’.

Fig. 26 A ROTOR OR GYROSCOPE

- 40 -
That is the shaft will move with the left hand side coming out towards the
reader and the right-hand side going away from the reader into the page.

It appears to defy Newton’s laws in that it will not move in the direction of the
applied forces – but at right-angles to them.

This angular motion is called precession. To try and understand why this
motion occurs, it is best to restate Newton’s second law as it applies to
rotational motion. ‘If a body is acted upon by a couple, its rate of change of
angular momentum is proportional to and in the direction of the applied
couple.’

When the rotor is stationary, the initial angular momentum is zero, so no

special arrangement is needed in interpreting the law, but when the rotor is
spinning the system starts with a quantity of angular motion, to which the
change must be added. Since momentum is a vector quantity then the
addition must be in accordance with the rules.

Initially then, the angular momentum of the rotor is represented by a vector

perpendicular to the plane of rotation, ie parallel to the axis of the shaft, and
in the direction in which a right hand screw thread would travel. In figure 27
this is shown as vector oa.

The applied couple, of magnitude T, is similarly represented by a vector

perpendicular to the plane of these forces, shown as T in figure 27.

If the couple T acts for a short time, δt, we can state:

Change of angular momentum in the direction of T = Tδt

This change can be added to oa to find the angular momentum ob after δt. The
result is to alter the direction of the angular momentum vector by an amount
δθ, without altering its magnitude, and the physical interpretation is that the
axis of the shaft moves in the direction of the vector and the speed of the rotor
is unaltered.

Fig. 27 ANGULAR MOMENTUM

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The rate of precession depends on the:

(i) Strength and direction of the applied force – the greater the force
the greater the rate of precession.
(ii) Speed of the rotor – the higher the speed the less the precession.
(iii) Moment of inertia of the rotor – the higher the moment the less
the precession.

So:

* Any spinning mass has gyroscopic properties. The earth, a bicycle

wheel, the turbine of a jet engine, a propeller, helicopter rotor etc.

* A gyro will exhibit rigidity – the tendency for the rotor axis to stay
pointing to a distant star in space – even when acted on by a force.

* When acted on by a couple a torque is produced and it will move

in a direction at right angles to the direction of the force producing
the torque. This property is called precession. The direction and
magnitude of the precession can be found by calculating the
angular momentum. A simple rule of thumb (Sperry’s Rule of
Precession) can be used.

* Gyros are used extensively in aircraft instrumentation systems to

give the pilot aircraft attitude information about his/her aircraft
and to act as a compass. Modern aircraft have replaced the
conventional gyro with the laser gyro. Its main advantage is that it
has no moving parts. Strictly speaking it is not a gyro at all –
because it has no rotating mass – but it is called that.

Figure 28 shows a rotor mounted in a single gimbal ring, which itself is pivoted
in a supporting frame. The rotor is therefore free to turn (tilt) relative to the
frame, about axis B-B, this axis being at right angles to the spin axis of the
rotor A-A.

The rotor has freedom to rotate about just one axis at right angles to the spin
axis so the gyro is said to have ‘one degree of freedom’.

In figure 23 the rotor is suspended in two gimbals, an inner gimbal and an

outer gimbal. The rotor is free to turn relative to the frame about two axes B-B
and C-C. The gyro is said to have ‘two degrees of freedom’.

Gyros are classified as either a displacement gyro or a rate gyro. The

displacement gyro measures the amount of movement and the rate gyro
measures the rate of change of movement. A rate gyro has a spring or some
other restraint mechanism against which rate is measured.

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 Fig. 28 ONE DEGREE OF FREEDOM GYRO

Displacement gyros are used for such things as gyro compasses, angle of bank
indicators etc and rate gyros are used for such things as rate of turn
indicators.

Gyro rotors may be driven by air or by dc or ac motors with the electric driven
ones usually running faster. The rotor of the motor driven gyro being the
actual rotating mass.

Rigidity in Practice

As previously mentioned, this is the property whereby the spin axis of the
gyroscope will remain pointing to a fixed point in space unless acted on by an
external force. The property of rigidity is used extensively in aircraft gyros. This
means that if the frame is moved (as when the aircraft pitches or rolls) the gyro
rotor axis (if gimballed correctly) will continue to point to the same fixed point
in space.

Figure 29 shows a two degree freedom of movement gyro. With the rotor spun-
up, when the base of the assembly is tilted, or moved (in any direction) the
spin axis of the rotor stays at the same position. It exhibits the property of
rigidity. This can be used in instruments such as artificial horizons.

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 Fig. 29 RIGIDITY

Precession in Practice

Figure 30 shows a force applied to the spin axis of a gyro. To find out how the
gyro would behave Sperry’s Rule of Precession can be applied:

1. As a theoretical model continue the movement of the force in the

same direction onto the rotor at point A.
2. Allow the force to move 90° in the direction of rotor rotation to
point B.
3. Now imagine the force pushing at this position on the rotor and
this is how the gyro would move. With the left hand spindle
moving towards the reader and the right-hand one moving away
from the reader

Fig. 30 PRECESSION

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Figure 31 shows this force applied to a two degree of freedom gyro and how to
work out the resulting gyro movement.

1. The force applied to the inner gimbal (1).

2. Transfer the force theoretically to the rotor at 2 as shown.
3. Rotate the force around the rotor 90° in the direction of rotation.
At this point (3) is where the precessional force will act causing the
outer gimbal to precess. (With a fast enough rotor speed no matter
how hard the inner gimbal is pushed it will not move but the outer
gimbal will precess.)

Fig. 31 PRECESSION TWO DEGREE FREEDOM GYRO - 1

Sperry’s Rule enables the direction of precession to be found provided the

direction of the applied force and the direction of rotation of the rotor is
known.

With reference to figure 32 (a two degree of freedom gyro) the force is applied to
the outer gimbal as shown. Visualise transferring this force onto the rotor,
move it around 90° in the direction of rotation of the rotor, and the
precessional force will be applied at the top of the rotor, causing the inner
gimbal to precess.

Again, no matter how much force is applied to the outer gimbal it will not move
(rigidity) but the inner gimbal will precess – provided the gyro rpm is high
enough.

Note that a force applied to the outer gimbal of a two-degree of freedom gyro
causes the inner gimbal to precess and a force applied to the inner gimbal
causes the outer gimbal to precess.

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Fig. 32 PRECESSION TWO DEGREE FREEDOM OF MOVEMENT GYRO - 2

Types of Gyros on Aircraft

Besides rate and displacement gyros, gyros can be classed as Free or Tied.

A free gyro will be free to move about all three axes and have its spin axis
pointing to a star infinitely far away in space. It will stay in this position
irrespective of any movement of the earth or aircraft. Almost never used on
aircraft.

A tied gyro is one that is ‘tied’ to some reference point. Usually they are tied to
Earth and may-be called an Earth Gyro. Note, in this context do not confuse
the term ‘Earth’ with the termed ‘earthed’. ‘Earthed’ is an electrical term.

A good example of a tied gyro is that fitted to an aircraft artificial horizon. It is

a vertical axis gyro and must remain vertical with reference to the earth no
matter where the aircraft is around the world.

If it were a free gyro then, if at the north pole, for example, the gyro axis
pointed vertically the instrument would show that the aircraft is flying
horizontally (assuming it is anyway). Assume now the aircraft flies around the
world and is flying horizontally at the equator, the spin axis is now horizontal
and the instrument shows that the aircraft is flying vertically – which it is not.
So the gyro is tied so that gravity switches within the instrument ensure that
the spin axis remains vertical (in relation to the earth) no matter where the
aircraft is around the world.

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Methods of Spinning Gyro Rotors

Early gyros and some standby instruments today are driven by air (vacuum)
(figure 33). Air is drawn through the instrument by an engine driven vacuum
pump at a controlled pressure of 4” to 4.5” Hg.

The air impinges on ‘buckets’ cut into the rim of the rotor so causing it to
rotate (typically 15000 – 18000 rpm for two degree of freedom gyros and 4200
rpm for one degree of freedom gyros).

Air enters the otherwise sealed instrument case via a filter. The air comes from
the aircraft cabin.

Fig. 33 VACUUM DRIVEN GYRO

Most mechanical gyros these days are driven by an electric motor. If it is a dc

motor it will be of the permanent magnet type.

If it is an ac motor it will be of the basic induction type or hysteresis motor.

The induction motor usually has a 3 phase supply to its stator which creates a
rotating magnetic field and causes the rotor to turn.

As the rotor is the rotating mass it is put on the outside of the stator. The
hollow rotor forms the motor and will have the majority of its mass
concentrated around its periphery to give a larger radius of gyration and hence
greater rigidity.

Typical speeds are 23,000rpm for induction motors, 12,000 – 24,000rpm for
hysteresis motors. Low friction bearings are employed for the rotor and gimbal
pivot points.

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 Fig. 34 CONSTRUCTION OF A GYRO INDUCTION MOTOR

REFERENCES ESTABLISHED BY GYROS

Displacement Gyros

For use in aircraft this gyro must be able to sense pitch and roll attitude
changes and heading (yaw) changes (figure 35).

The pitch and roll attitude changes are sensed by a two degree of freedom gyro
mounted with its spin axis vertical. Usually called a vertical gyro. This gyro is
used in a gyro horizon instrument (artificial horizon) (figure 36) to give pitch
and roll information to the pilot.

It does this by keeping its spin axis vertical (rigidity) to ensure that the horizon
bar stays level compared to the aircraft symbol which is painted on the glass
cover of the instrument. The gyro is ‘tied to earth’ so its spin axis remains
vertical at all locations around the world. Gravity switches operate small
motors from time to time to move the spin axis so it keeps vertical.

If the gyro is mounted in an instrument with its spin axis horizontal it can be
used in a directional gyro (figure 37) to give directional reference, ie heading
changes.

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 Fig. 35 REFERENCES ESTABLISHED BY GYROS

Fig. 36 GYRO HORIZON

As the aircraft turns so the gyro spin axis (and the compass card) stays
pointing in the same direction (rigidity). This means that the compass card
moves behind the pointer fixed to the instrument glass so giving an indication
of aircraft heading. This gyro is called a directional gyro or horizontal gyro.

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 Fig. 37 DIRECTIONAL GYRO

The Rate Gyro

This is a single degree of freedom gyro which is restrained in some way, by

springs or a torsion bar. This gyro is used to sense rate of angular
displacement and would be used in the turn and slip indicator, autoflight
systems, INS* etc.

* The INS (Inertial Navigation System) is an aircraft based navigation

system using gyros and accelerometers to calculate aircraft location.
Modern Inertial Navigation Systems use laser gyros.

In the turn and slip indicator (figure 38), as the aircraft turns so the effect of
placing a turning force on the gimbal bearings causes the gimbal to precess.
This precession is resisted by a spring. When the aircraft stops turning the
spring will return the gimbal to the horizontal position so centring the turn
indicator.

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 Fig. 38 RATE GYRO USED IN A TURN INDICATOR

Gyro Errors

Unfortunately gyros have errors and if not corrected would lead to instrument
systems providing incorrect details as to aircraft position, heading etc. This
means that provision must be made to have these errors corrected.

The following must be taken into consideration with an earth gyro: real
wander and apparent wander. Wander is defined as ‘any movement of the axis
of spin from its reference position’.

Real Wander. This is actual physical movement of the spin axis. The gyro ought
not to wander away from its original axis position but various forces may act
on the gyro and cause it to precess. Remember, any force on the gimbal rings
will cause precession. Such things as friction in the rotor bearings, friction in
the gimbal pivots, unbalanced rotor or unbalanced gimbal rings will all
produce a force on the gimbal rings causing precession.

Apparent Wander. As the term suggests the gyro spin axis does not physically
wander away from its original spin axis datum and yet to an observer it
appears to have changed its direction. As the gyro maintains its axis pointing
to a fixed point in space we, on the earth, rotate with the rotating earth. The
gyro then appears to wander – in fact it does not, the observer does.

So as we ourselves do not maintain a fixed direction in space the gyro spin

axis appears in time to have altered direction. Apparent wander is due to the
effect of the earth’s rotation and the effect of moving over the curved surface of
the earth.

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We shall now look at this effect on a horizontal and vertical gyro, but just
before we do so two definitions need to be understood. Wander can be broken
down into two components ‘drift’ and ‘topple’. Drift is movement of the spin
axis in the horizontal plane. Topple is movement of the spin axis in the vertical
plane.

Horizontal Gyro (Earth’s Rotation Effect)

Figure 39 shows a horizontal gyro at the North Pole (viewed vertically above
the North Pole). An observer at A is looking down the axis of the gyro at a
certain point in time. Six hours later the earth will have rotated through 90°
and the observer will be viewing from position B. It will appear that the gyro
has moved clockwise in the horizontal plane by 90°. At points C and D to the
observer it will appear that a 180° and 270° movement has occurred. After 24
hours the observer will be back to the original position.

All the apparent wander here is in the horizontal plane and is called drift. So at
the poles the horizontal gyro has a drift rate of 360° in 24 hours.

Consider figure 40 where the gyro is now at the equator with its axis aligned
with the equator at point A at a certain point in time.

Fig. 39 HORIZONTAL GYRO AT NORTH POLE

Six hours later the earth will have moved from A to B and when looking at the
gyro it will appear to the observer as a vertical gyro.

This is an apparent movement in the vertical plane and is called topple. Note
there is no apparent movement in the horizontal plane.

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To summarise. The horizontal gyro at the poles has maximum drift and no
topple and at the equator has maximum topple and no drift.

Fig. 40 HORIZONTAL GYRO AT THE EQUATOR

Horizontal Gyro (Earth’s Curvature Effect)

Figure 41 shows a horizontal gyro at the equator with its spin axis pointing to
a fixed point in space. Imagine moving the gyro to the North Pole, and as the
spin axis will keep pointing to the fixed point in space at the North Pole it will
be a vertical gyro. Notice that no deviation has taken place.

Fig. 41 HORIZONTAL GYRO AT THE EQUATOR

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If the gyro was a vertical gyro at the equator then when it is moved to the pole
it would be a horizontal gyro.

Vertical Gyro (Earth’s Rotation Effect)

Figure 42 shows a vertical gyro at the North pole. As the earth rotates no
apparent movement of the gyro will appear to take place, ie no drift and no
topple.

Now consider the vertical gyro moved to the equator, it will appear to the
observer to have moved in the vertical plane and therefore has toppled, ie
appears to the observer as a horizontal gyro.

So at the poles there is no drift and no topple and at the equator no drift and
maximum topple.

Fig. 42 VERTICAL GYRO AT THE NORTH POLE

The effects of real wander and particularly apparent wander on a ‘free’ or

‘space’ horizontal or vertical gyro make them completely useless for attitude
references in an aircraft. What is required is that the vertical gyro remains
vertical in the aircraft at all times, ie to eliminate real and apparent wander
effects and similarly the horizontal gyro must be kept horizontal at all times.

A system has to be fitted to the gyro to keep it from toppling and keep it
vertical to the earth at all times. Note the vertical gyro has no drift.

Similarly the horizontal gyro must be corrected for drift and topple to keep it
horizontal to the earth at all times. Two systems are fitted one to counteract
drift and one for topple, again the gyro now becomes an earth tied gyro.

An erection system is fitted to the vertical gyro which achieves what we require
and the gyro now becomes an earth tied gyro.

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These systems are described in more detail in the LBP book on aircraft
instruments module 13 (for the B2 engineer), module 11A and B (for the fixed
wing person) and 12 (for the helicopter person).

On modern aircraft the conventional gyro is replaced by the Ring Laser Gyro
(RLG) and the Fibre Optic Gyro (FOG). These have no moving parts so do not
suffer from the same problems as the conventional gyro.

THE RING LASER GYRO (RLG)

This has replaced the mechanical gyro in most modern aircraft and is common
in ships, boats, and some cars. In its turn it is being replaced by the Fibre
Optic Gyro (FOG).

Strictly speaking it is not a gyro at all as there are no moving parts, but it is
called a gyro as it performs the same functions as a real gyro, but using laser
beams. Its main advantage is that it has no moving parts, is very robust and
it’s output is readily convertible to electronic data that can be used in system
computers. Its other advantages include:

* Light
* Short warm-up time
* Low maintenance
* Lower cost

Fig. 43 THE RING LASER GYRO

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The gyro is manufactured from a solid piece of Cervit glass; holes are
machined into the glass to form a triangular cavity. Three mirrors are mounted
on the block as shown in figure 43. Cathodes and anodes are attached to the
sides of the block and the cavity is filled with helium neon gas.

When a high voltage (3,500V to start) is applied between the anodes and
cathodes the helium gas ionises and generates two laser beams of light, each
travelling around the cavity (in the triangle) in opposite directions.

Since both contra-rotating beams travel at the same constant speed (speed of
light), it takes exactly the same time for each to complete the circuit – starting
from the cathode and ending up at the readout detector (the beam lengths are
calibrated so they are the same length).

The axis of the gyro in figure 43 is a line in the centre of the dither motor and
perpendicular to the plane of the laser beam. If the gyro is rotated about this
axis, then on rotation, the two beam lengths will not be the same. It may be
better, for simplicity, to consider the gyro cavity as being circular (figure 74) as
the same principles apply for any shape that encloses the beams.

Assume the gyro is rotated clockwise from A to B. Light beam 1 leaves line A
and (whilst the gyro is turning) travels clockwise round the cavity at the speed
of light until it reaches its starting point, which due to the gyro’s rotation has
moved to position B. Its path length has increased.

Beam 2, however, is travelling counter-clockwise around the cavity and

because its starting point has moved to position B, beam 2’s path length has
shortened. So one beam shortens and the other lengthens.

Fig. 44 LASER GYRO PRINCIPLE

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The frequency of a laser beam is a function of its optical path length. For a
given path length there is an integral number of waves (cycles that occur over
the complete path). If the path length is altered the waves will either be
compressed or expanded, therefore in the case of beam 1 the waves expand
and the frequency decreases.

In the case of beam 2 the waves are compressed and the frequency rises. The
frequency difference between the two beams is directly proportional to the
angular rate of turn. Note that in figure 44 no mirrors are shown – there would
have been too many.

The optical detector (figure 45), has two photocells, and measures the
difference in the two frequencies

Fig. 45 OPTICAL READOUT

The optical detector ‘counts’ the fringes of the fringe pattern generated by the
interference of the two light waves. One photocell will count the rate of
movement, ie the number of fringes moving past in a given time, the other will
note the direction of movement of the fringes (ie, which way the fringes are
moving). Because the photocell ‘sees’ the fringes as pulses it will give a digital
output of angular turning rate and direction (clockwise or anti-clockwise).

Fig. 46 INERTIAL SENSOR ASSEMBLY

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These gyros are used in a strapdown IRS. Three RLGs are mounted with their
axis mutually at right angles to each other to obtain the aircraft’s angular
rotation rates about the lateral, longitudinal and vertical axes. These are
converted to aircraft attitude within a computer. Figure 46 shows an inertial
sensor assembly with the laser gyros – only two can be seen the third is on the
other side of the unit.

THE FIBRE OPTIC GYRO (FOG)

The FOG is a passive intrinsic system – the light beam is placed into the
optical fibre and the phase is modified by the behaviour of the fibre.

Figure 47 shows the basic layout. The ‘black box’ consists of circuitry to
generate two continuous wave (CW) light beams (A and B). Each is transmitted
down a long (in some cases up to 5000m long) fibre optic cable arranged as a
number of loops into a coil. If the coil is held such that it does not rotate, each
beam will get to the end of its travel (back in the black box) without any phase
shift. If the coil rotates about its centre then each beam will experience a
phase shift (called the Sagnac effect). The phase shift of each beam and
subsequence interference is noted by a detector which registers the rate of
rotation of the coil.

The phase shift occurs, effectively, because each beam has experienced a path
length change during rotation of the coil. If the coil in figure 85 rotates
clockwise then light beam A will have further to travel than light beam B
(which will have a shorter path length) and they will show a phase difference.

Fig. 47 SIMPLIFIED FIBRE OPTIC GYRO

Figure 48 shows a more complete FOG system. At splitter 1 the light produced
by the light source (a laser diode) is split to splitter 2 and the detector. At
splitter 2 it is further split into a clockwise (CW) beam and a counter clockwise
(CCW) beam. These two photon beams are passed through a modulator and
then counter propagated around the coil, where there is total internal
reflection. They then emerge to go to the detector via splitter 2 and 1.

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The detector detects the phase shift of the two beams and the subsequent
interference when they combine and converts this to an electrical signal. This
is sent to systems (computers etc) requiring turn and turn-rate data.

Fig. 48 FOG BEAM CONTROL

The intensity of the combined beam depends on the rate of coil rotation.

As the coil rotates about its centre line, or an axis parallel to this line, the
beam travelling in the same direction as the turn will experience a longer path
length around the coil and the beam travelling against the turn will experience
a shorter path length. The combined interference of the two beams is what the
detector picks up.

Fig. 49 FIBRE OPTIC GYRO

Sometimes called an Interference (or Interferometer) Fibre Optic Gyro (IFOG).

There are others, such as the Resonator Fibre Optic Gyro (RFOG).

FOGs are replacing RLGs because of their greater reliability, stability and
higher resolution, and are fitted to the Boeing B777 and some Airbus aircraft.
They are also being offered as a modification to replace RLGs on existing
aircraft.
”””””””

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