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A. Sampling Rate
Figure 5: Spectrum of the analog signal x(t) with fc = For a sampling rate equal to the Nyquist rate (k=1), the
100 KHz, (b) Spectrum of the sampled signal xs(t) (fs= relation (6) becomes:
300 KHz).
SNR q = 6.02b + 1.76 (7)
B. Bit Resolution
An ADC, except for taking samples of the analog Decrease of quantization noise: the term 10log10(k) in
signal, quantizes them as well. Quantization, in an (6) indicates that it is preferable to use sampling rates as
ADC, is the procedure of transforming the samples of greater than the Nyquist rate as possible (oversampling)
continuous amplitude range into samples of discrete because the SNRq is increased. In figure 6 we can see
amplitude levels [8]. According to the uniform the SNRq versus k for 4 different bit resolutions 6, 8, 10,
quantization method the area of continuous amplitude 12 bits. From that figure it becomes obvious that an
range is divided in Q=2b parts of width increase of 2 bits in the bit resolution implies an
∆=x(t)max-x(t)min/Q, where x(t)min, x(t)max is the increase of the SNRq of approximately 12 dB. The same
minimum and the maximum values of the analog signal improvement in the SNRq maybe obtained when
respectively and b stands for the number of the bit fs=16fNyquist.
resolution of the ADC.
The process of transforming the sample amplitude of
continuous amplitude range x(nTs) of an analog signal
x(t) into a discrete amplitude qi follows the rule:
In order to survey how the sampling rate, the Keeping the analog input signal frequency fixed at
quantization error and the aperture jitter error affect the fc=100 MHz and assuming that the aperture jitter is
performance of the ADC, we consider it as a physically constant and equal to 2 ps, we let the sampling rate fs
realizable system, having an analog signal, x, as input vary from 200 MHz to 300 MHz in steps of 1 MHz.
and a signal y as output (figure 8(a)). A measure of the Only the aperture jitter error is present in this case, so
ADC performance is the SNR at the system’s output, the SNR ratio is denoted by SNRaj. We estimate the
given by: SNRaj at the system’s output as a function of fs. From
the diagram of figure 9, it is obvious that the SNRaj is
E{ y 2 } independent of the sampling rate, thus complying with
SNR = (10)
E{( x − y ) 2 } the theory (equation (9)).
Keeping the sampling rate fixed at fs=200 MHz and the
where E{y2} is the mean square value of y. aperture jitter error also fixed at taj=2 ps, we let the
2 2 frequency of the analog signal fc vary from 1 to 100
By definition E{y2}= RMS [ y ] , where RMS [ y ] is MHz in steps of 1 MHz. The estimated SNRaj at the
the root mean square value of y. system’s output is shown in figure 10 as a function of fc.
Therefore, the relation (10) can be written as: It is clear that increasing the frequency fc, the SNRaj is
decreasing. In the same figure the plot of
equation (9) is also given where taj equals to 2 ps. The
coincidence of the two curves, representing theory B. Quantization error and no jitter error
(ideal) and simulation, is obvious.
Keeping the sampling rate fixed at fs=200 MHz and the It is assumed that the error is due only to quantization
input analog signal also fixed at fc=100 MHz, we let the and not to aperture jitter. We estimate the SNR at the
aperture jitter taj vary from 1 ps to 100 ps with in steps ADC’s output for an input frequency fc and a sampling
of 1ps. The estimated SNRaj at the system’s output is frequency fs=2fc, while varying the bit resolution. The
shown in figure 11 as a function of taj. From the diagram of the SNRq (SNR due to quantization) as a
diagram, we conclude that an increase in aperture jitter function of bit resolution is shown in figure 12. As we
leads to a decrease of SNRaj. In the same figure the plot can see, the values approach the theoretical (ideal) ones
of the equation (9) is also given where fc equals to obtained from equation (7).
100 MHz. As we can see, the theoretical curve and the For frequencies above the Nyquist rate, the equation (5)
one of the simulation coincide. is valid. An increase in the sampling rate leads to an
increase in the SNRq. That happens because the power
of the quantization noise, which is fixed and
independent of the sampling rate, is spread over a wider
bandwidth when the sampling rate is increased.
1
b0 = −2.94 + 3.32 log (13)
ft
c aj
(b)
(c)
(d)
REFERENCES
IV. NEW GENERATION ADCs
[1] R. Meyer, "Software-Defined-Radio Technology
As previously mentioned, the new technology ADCs (Si Targets 3G Designs ", Wireless Systems Design,
ICs) cannot handle yet RF signals in the band of 3G vol. 5, no. 2, 2000, pp. 16-20.
mobile communication systems. The highest possible [2] J. Mitola III. Author, Software Radio Architecture,
sampling rates that can be accomplished by the state of Object-Oriented Approaches to Wireless Systems
the art ADCs (Si ICs) for bit resolution 8, 10, 12, 14 and Engineering, John Wiley & Sons Inc, ch. 1,
16 bits are shown in figure 16. It can be seen that the pp. 2-4.
maximum sampling rate is 1.5 GHz at a bit resolution of [3] T. Hentschel, M. Henker, G. Fettweis, "The digital
8. Based on the Nyquist criterion, the sampling rate front-end of software radio terminal", IEEE
fs=1.5 GHz limits the input analog signal frequency to Personal Communications Magazine, vol. 6, no .4,
750 MHz. According to equation (7), for bit resolution 1999, pp. 40-46.
b=12 bits the SNRq of the ADC will be approximately [4] C.E. Shannon, "Communication in the Presence of
24 dB higher than the SNRq of the ADC for b=8. On the Noise", in Proceedings of IRE, 1949, vol. 37
other hand, as it is noticed from figure 16, for higher bit pp. 10 -21.
resolution the accomplished sampling rate decreases.
[5] D. Efstathiou, "Re-configurable Basestation
For the specific bit resolution (b=12) the sampling rate
Transceiver for 3G and beyond Wireless Systems",
is only 200 MHz limiting the maximum frequency of
in Proceedings of IST Mobile Communication
the analog signal to 100 MHz.
Figure 16 depicts also the highest sampling rates usable Summit, 2001.
by ADCs of 1997 for the same bit resolutions as above. [6] R.H. Walden, "Analog-to-Digital Converter
From the diagram, the increase in the sampling rate of Survey and Analysis ", IEEE journal on selected
the ADCs accomplished during the last 4 years becomes areas in communications, vol. 17, no. 4, 1999,
obvious. At this point it is noted that the data given in pp. 539-550.
this figure concern exclusively ADCs ICs of Si [7] Linear Technology, LTC1569-7.
technology. [8] S. Haykin, Communication Systems, John Wiley &
Sons Inc, ch. 6, pp. 374-378.
[9] R.M. Gray, D.L. Neuhoff, "Quantization", IEEE
transactions on information theory, vol. 44, no. 6
1998, pp. 2325-2388.
[10] J.A. Wepman, "Analog-to-Digital Converters and
their Applications in Radio Receivers ", Journal,
vol. 33, no. 5, 1995, pp. 39-45.
[11] R. Rosing, H. Kerkhoff, R. Tangelder, M.
Sachden, "Off-Chip diagnosis of aperture jitter in
full-flash analog-to digital converters ", Journal of
electronic testing: Theory and Applications 14,
1999, pp. 67-94.
Figure 16: State of the Art ADCs (Si ICs) for the years
1997, 2001.