Kelvin Emeneka

TITLE PAGE
SEXTING BEHAVIOUR AND RELIGIOSITY AS CORRELATES OF

SEXUAL- RISKY BEHAVIOURS AMONG UNDERGRADUATES
BY
EMENEKA, ARINZE KELVIN
2014144514
A RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF

PSYCHOLOGY, FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES,
NNAMDI AZIKIWE UNIVERSITY, AWKA, ANAMBRA STATE.
IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE

AWARD OF BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (B.Sc.) DEGREE IN
PSYCHOLOGY.
OCTOBER, 2017.
i
CERTIFICATION
I, Emeneka Arinze Kelvin from the Department of Psychology, Nnamdi Azikiwe
University, Awka, with the registration number: 2014144514, have satisfactorily
completed the requirements for the course and research work for the award of
Bachelor of Science degree in Psychology.
________________ __________________
Emeneka, Arinze Kelvin Date
Student
ii
APPROVAL PAGE
This project research report was submitted to the Department of Psychology,
Faculty of Social Sciences, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, Anambra State,
Nigeria. In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of a Bachelor of
Science degree in Psychology is hereby approved.
........................... ....................................
Mr. Anyaegbunam, M.C. Date
Project Supervisor
...................................... ..................................
Dr. Harry Obi – Nwosu Date
Head of Department
.................................. ..................................
External Examiner Date
iii
DEDICATION
This project is dedicated to Almighty God.
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I sincerely want to acknowledge my supervisor, Mr. Anyaegbunam Mike for his
expertise and patience in supervising my work, making necessary corrections and
suggestions to make this work a good one, God bless you.
I also wish to thank the Head of my Department, Dr. Harry Obi –Nwosu. And my
lecturers: Prof. A.C. Mbanefo, Prof. M.O. Ezenwa, Prof. Ugokwe-Ossia, Rev. Fr.
Dr. Ajaelu. Dr. B.C. Chine, Dr. L.N. Eze, Dr. O.A.U. Nnedum, Dr. C.A.F. Okoye,
Dr. N.C. Abamara, Dr. E. Nwafor, Dr. T.M. Oguegbe, Dr. Joe-Akunne, Mr.
Kizito Okonkwo, Mr. Kingsley Nweke, Mr. Mawbia and Mrs. Cynthia Udeze.
I also wish to acknowledge my mom, Mrs. Augustina Emeneka, Uncle James
Aniemeka, my big brother Nnamdi Emeneka and my other siblings for their love
and support.
My special appreciation goes to Mrs. Mmachi Orekwu and Aunty Ogechukwu
Ozoekwe for their prayers, benevolence and hospitality. I cannot forget my dear
friends Kama, Vera (Ponani), Ngo, Excellent and every other person who
contributed in one way or the other throughout my stay in this programme, may
God bless you all.
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TABLE OF CONTENT
Title page i
Certification ii
Approval page iii
Dedication iv
Acknowledgement v
Table of Content vi
Abstract viii
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Background to the Study 1
Statement of the Problem 11
Research Questions 12
Purpose of the Study 13
Operational definition of Terms 13
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Conceptual Review 15
Sexual- Risky Behaviours 16
Sexting Behaviour 16
Religiosity 18
Theoretical Framework and Empirical Review 19
Theory of Planned Behaviour 19

vi
The Expectancy Theory of motivation 29
Criticism of the Theoretical Framework 34
Hypotheses 34
CHAPTER THREE: METHOD
Participants 35
Instruments 36
Procedure 40
Design and statistics 41
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS 42
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
Discussion 45
Limitations of the study 46
Suggestion for further studies 47
Implication of the study 48
Recommendations 49
Conclusion 50
References
Appendix A: Scales for the Study
Appendix B: Reliability score of instruments
Appendix C: Analysis of the Main Study
vii
ABSTRACT
This study investigated sexting behaviour and religiosity as correlates of sexual

risky behaviours among undergraduates. The study adopted the correlational
design and Pearson Product Moment Correlational coefficient was used to
analyze the data with structured questionnaires administered to 200
undergraduate students. Participants consists of eighty one (81) male (40.5%)
and one hundred and nineteen (119) female (59.5%). Their ages ranging from 16-
28years with a mean age of 21.6 and a standard deviation of 2.403. The
instruments used were: Sexting behavior scale-Revised (Weisskirch & Delevi,
2011), Mature religiosity scale (Vries-Schot, Pieper & van Uden, 2008) and
Sexual risky survey (Turchik & Garke, 2009). Two hypotheses were tested and the
theory of planned behaviour was utilized as the framework to explain the
variables under study. The results revealed that the first hypothesis which states
that sexting behavior will positively correlate with sexual risky behaviours was
accepted (r = .55, p<.05) and the second hypothesis which states that religiosity
will negatively correlate with sexual risky behaviours was accepted (r = -.60,
p<.05). This study recommends that the University, government agencies, parents
and the general public should embark on awareness campaign to enlighten the
students on the menance of sexting behaviour and sexual risky behaviours and
also teach students sex education. Limitations and implication of the study were
also discussed in this study.
viii
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Background to the Study

As technology becomes more sophisticated and expands throughout society,
people's desire to understand and utilize the newest technologies is becoming
increasingly predominant. These technological advances has led to a worldwide
craze with regards to sexual exploration and sexual risky behaviours. One of such
behaviours is sexting, a combination of sex and text which elicits or suggests
sexual response to parties involved.
According to Oluwatoyin & Oyetunde (2014), sexual risky behaviours is
commonly defined as behaviours that increases one's risk of contracting sexually
transmitted infections and experiencing unintended pregnancies. They include
having sex especially at an early age, having multiple sexual partners, having oral
and anal sex without protection, and having sex while under the influence of
alcohol or drugs.
Majied (2013) pointed out that there are risks involved in various types of sexual
contact. For example, many youths are unaware that oral herpes and other STDs
can be contracted via oral sex. However, having sexual intercourse versus other
types of sexual contact such as digital stimulation or oral sex is also a risk
behavior that leads to even higher rates of pregnancy and infection. Sex with
1
multiple partners is another risk behavior that places young adults in greater
jeopardy.
Approximately, 19 million new STDs each year occur among young people
worldwide and the bulk is always from developing nations- Nigeria inclusive
(United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2013).
Young adults (especially students) in particular have been found to be group at
the highest risk for negative consequences related to sexual risk taking
behaviours, including STI's like example chlamydia, gonorrhea, syphilis, HIV and
Occurrence of unintended pregnancies. Studies show persons who sext have a
high risk of initiating and engaging in sexual behaviours than persons who do not
sext (Barker, Rizzo, Hancock, Norm, & Brown, 2014, Ybarra & Mitchell, 2012;
Benotsch, Snipes, Martin, & Bull, 2012)
Ahonsi (2013) posited that an increased incidence of HIV infection in adolescents
has led researchers to examine factors that influence young people„s sexual
behaviors. One of these factors is parent-adolescent communication about
sexuality. Although sexual communication is a principal means of transmitting
sexual values, beliefs, expectations, and knowledge between parents and children,
discussions on sex-related matters are a taboo in Africa and believed that
informing adolescents about sex and teaching them how to protect themselves
would make them sexually active.
2
However, lack of knowledge about the consequences of these negative behaviours
and poverty has been identified as factors that increase the chances of
undergraduate students engaging in risky sexual behaviours. This is because
students face different challenges related to sexuality which have an influence on
their perception of the world and themselves. Other psychological factors like
religiousness, self-esteem, wellbeing and personal values have been associated
with an individual's expression and engagement in sexual risky behaviours
(Mann, Hosman, Schaalma, & deVries, 2004). Also, the potential risk associated
with sexual behaviour are mainly linked to the emotional and behavioral
characteristics of this development period (Gabhainn, Baban, Boyce, & Godeau,
2009).
As the day advances, the number of individuals engaging in sexual risky
behaviours keeps on increasing, this is because mobile phones are easily acquired.
There are currently over 500 million cell phones in Africa (International
Telecommunication Union (ITU), 2013). In Nigeria, the proportion of individuals
using internet increased from 0.06% to 3.6%between 2000 and 2005 and
thereafter it increased from 24% to 32.9 percent between 2010 and 2012. The
bulk of these users are young individuals aged less than 25. Adolescents form up
to 22 percent of Nigerian population out of which 48 percent are girls (National
Population Commission, NPC, 2010).
3
While these young adults are adjudged to be biologically matured to become
fathers and mothers, they are socially ill-matured to be responsible fathers or
mothers of responsible children owing to the degree of reproductive health
illiteracy they exhibits and the vulnerability to sexual misdemeanors.
Throughout the past decade, technology and it's role in the way individual's
communicate has expanded rapidly. People meet and converse with other people
from every corner of the world through social media networks such as Facebook,
Whatsapp, Instagram, Snapchat, Twitter and several others. People's instant
access to information has revolutionized how we understand and interact with
others. Additionally, individuals have the benefit of anonymity on social media
networks where they are able to present their selves in desirable ways that can
enhance their self-esteem and perceived individuality (Valkenburg & Peter, 2010,
Waither, 2006). Through the use of the internet, depiction of sex and sexuality
has increased sexual exploration and preoccupancy (Peter & Valkenburg, 2008).
In recent years, with improved access to technology and sexually explicit
media depictions, sexting (defined here as the transfer of sexually explicit
pictures, i.e photos of genitals, buttocks or breasts for women, via cell phone) has
become a major concern. Apart from their conventional use for making calls and
sending SMS, students of tertiary institutions in Nigeria today use mobile phone
to receive and transmit graphic, sexually explicit messages (Okoli, 2015). Sexting
4
according to Chalfen (2009), is defined as the exchange of sexually explicit or
provocative content (text messages, photos and videos) via smart phone, internet
or social networks. As cell phones have become increasingly technologically
advanced, students are now able to not only use their phones but to create it as
well. This phenomenon is not difficult to understand when one takes into account
the importance that the internet media plays in student's lives. A recent review of
sexting (Van Onytsel, Walrave, Ponnet, and Heirman, 2015) showed that several
studies have found the relationship between sexting and sexual risky behaviours
(Drake, Prince, Maziarz, and Ward, 2012, Temple, 2012).
Sexting is fashionable among university students because,"... students feel that
one of the ways of keeping their relationship aflame is by sexting ... apart from
sending pictures, exchanging sexual or amorous love texts by lovers, it is a
modem way of sustaining a relationship.
Sexting could lead to various forms of deviant social interaction (Ostrager, 2010;
Ryan, 2010; Mitchell, Finkelhor, Jones, & Wolak, 2012). This is not to say that
new media or ICT are not useful. However, it is the audience characteristics and
needs that determine their adoption.
Young people are growing up in an increasingly sexualized world driven by
technology. Sending and receiving text messages, taking photos and accessing the
internet are mobile phone activities that have taken up at ever increasing rates by
5
young people. Advances in technology offer many opportunities to improve
relationships. However, this progress also brings potential risks. The introduction
of text, Bluetooth, Flashshare, Xender and Webcam means sexual images can be
forwarded to cyberspace easily and rapidly. These images then become part of a
young persons' digital footprint, which may last forever and potentially damage
future career prospects or relationships. The viral spread of these images and the
associated shame has reportedly led to social psychological and legal
consequences for victims (Diliberto & Mattery, 2009; Katzman, 2010).
Qualitative research further validates the cellular phone as a significant
component of contemporary youth culture. Bond's (2011) study of 30 young
people between the ages of 11 and 17 reveals the importance of the mobile phones
in providing youth with a digital space in which they may explore and construct
their sexual identities with the help of others.
According to Drouin and Landgraf (2012), faster internet, quicker messaging
speeds, picture messaging and video chat have led to an increased use of various
forms of online types of technology. Drouin and Landgraff have also shown that
rather than talking face-to-face, an increasing number of individuals are choosing
to use their cell phones more exclusively to communicate. Additionally they
found that a growing number of individuals are actually choosing texting over
phone calls, indicating that many people are now finding this different personal
6
mode of communication more favorable. The increasing use of phones and mobile
devices for verbal and visual communication (eg texting) has indeed stirred up
much debate. As technology has continued to evolve, it is no surprise that
smartphones and social networks have led to an increase in the accessibility and
immediate connectivity of sexual content and sexual behaviours.
Recently, researchers focus has turned to a new phenomenon referred to as
“Sexting ", in which individuals use mobile devices to send and receive sexually
explicit messages via text or picture message to one another (Drouin and
Landgraff, 2012). The phenomenon of sexting is a culmination of advanced forms
of media technology that further the ability to engage in a new form of sexual
behaviours (Lenhart, 2009). One of the variable that may reduce the influence of
this social menace is religiosity.
Religiosity is an important factor in assessing sexual risky behaviours and
student's vulnerability to HIV and other STIs. Religion always makes a difference
in the context of young people's sexuality, especially undergraduates (Regnerus,
2007). Religiosity not only affect values and attitudes towards sex, but also both
sexual decision-making and sexual behaviours such as sexting (Brewster,
Cooksey, Guilkey and Rindfuss, 1988; Rostosky Wilcox, Laurine, Wright &
Randall, 2004).
7
According to American Heritage Dictionary, religiosity is the belief in and
reverence for a supernatural power recognized as the creator and governor of the
universe. By this , it means that a religious individual is one that adheres to
religious traditions and also believes a supernatural power guides or influences
his/her activities and of which makes the person conscious of what they do.
By reasonable extension, the association between religiosity and sexuality can be
approached at different levels (Bearman and Bruckner, 1999). More precisely,
one or more causal mechanisms underlying this association may be related to;
a. A personal dimension, which consists of specific individuals beliefs
b. A family dimension, where certain values are socialized and imposed
through social control (comparatively, religious parents talk less with their
children about sexuality, but more about sexual morality; Regnerus, 2007).
c. A peer dimension, which is both an arena for building and maintaining
one's personal reputation and a social space think with mutual
expectations, influence and conformity. For example, peers are often that
crucial factor in selection of sources of information about sexuality. These
three levels are often interconnected, as in the case of individuals who
were brought up religiously and as a consequence, have internalized
specific moral norms characteristics of their religion. Such beliefs will
8
directly (by their choice) and indirectly (by other's choice) , guide them in
choosing their friends, which will -assuming they were successful in
becoming a part of a group of like-minded peers- reinforce their beliefs
(Mott , Fondell , Hu , Kowaleski- Jones & Menaghan , 1996).
Several possible risky-reducing and risk-enhancing effects of religiosity on sexual
risk taking among young people emerge in this contemporary time. Religiosity
may delay sexual debut, but it may also negatively affect subsequent
contraceptive use (Rostosky et al, 2004). On the risk-enhancing side, religious
individuals might be less knowledgeable about sexual and reproductive health
issues than their nonreligious peers due to restrictive moral norms in their
respective families. Such upbringing, which encourages discussion on sexual
morality while discouraging conversation about sexuality, may also have a
negative impact on the availability of relevant information (Regnerus, 2005). In
addition , religious young people might hold less positive views regarding
condom use and be less likely to use efficient protection when sexually active, as
the religious norms that they accept and respect reject the use of artificial family
planning methods (Zaleski and Schiaffino, 2000). Furthermore, religious
individuals may be less cognitively susceptible to planning their sexual
encounters, which would in turn make them less prepared and less likely to use
protection (Dodge , Sandfort, Yarber & De Wit , 2005).
9
Many studies have examined the relationship between religiosity and sexting.
Religiosity influences many aspects of a person's life, including engaging in
sexual risky behaviours (Haglund and Fehring, 2009). However, as technology
has changed the way we communicate, it also change the way we engage in
sexual behaviours. Sexting-sending sexually explicit content through whatsapp,
facebook, sms etc with the intent to elicit a sexual response- is one such example.
Sexting is a sexual behaviors that can carry risks with it, such as the possibility
that sexual explicit photos or videos can be shared beyond the intended party.
Ybarra & Mitchell (2014) found that individuals who reported having engaged in
sexting were more likely to use substance and engage in some sexual risky
behaviours (such as having concurrent sexual partners , a higher number of sexual
partners , unprotected sexual intercourse, oral sex, anal sex etc) . It is also
important to note that there is very little research on sexting (likely due to its
newness), and even fewer studies focusing on an adult sample (such as
undergraduates).
More so, because religion influences many aspects of a person's life, it is
reasonable to assume it would also relate to sexting and both possibly predict
sexual risky behaviours. Based on the foregoing, this research is aimed at
investigating sexting and religiosity as correlates of sexual risky behaviours
among undergraduates.
10
Statement of the Problem
The core objectives of using phones and other technological devices in schools/
universities is to enhance the student's capacity to reach out for varying degrees of
information and to equip the students with relevant skills, to be a better person in
character and in learning. But it is quite unfortunate that some students abuse the
use of these technological devices meant to aid their learning experiences and
bring the interactions and communications with their friends and families in one
circle.
In the process of interacting and communicating with friends, they transmit
explicit, romantic, seductive and emotion-arousing texts to other counterparts
whom they perceive as their partners (boyfriends or girlfriends). Some send nude/
semi-nude pictures while some go to the extent of sending nude videos or
seductive voice chats to compensate for their longtime distance in their
relationship. These texts, nude/ semi-nude pictures and videos, when leaked in the
internet cause some form of psychological distress to the individual. For example,
when nude pictures of a Nigerian girl was leaked on social media by unidentified
person. The girl committed suicide because her friends and family were wooing
her (Gmnaija.com, Sept. 2017). In another instant, Jessica Logan committed
suicide in Ohio because her nude pictures was leaked by her ex-boyfriend. Also, a
teacher was fired after her sexy bikini photo leaked online (Gistmania, 8 May,
2013).
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More so, this act of sexting which is the new trend among undergraduates
lead them to engage in certain sexual risky behaviours (such as having
unprotected sex, concurrent sexual partners, oral sex, anal sex, having sex under
the influence of drug/alcohol and several others) of which has its own
psychosocial and legal consequences and in turn endangers the student's health
(such as vulnerability to HIV and other STIs ) , academic pursuit and other social
relations. For example, in 2016, Chidinma Iheanacho reported that a man was
infected with HIV by a girl he met on Facebook. Also, Egbochuku (2009)
revealed that many girls drop out of school because of unintended pregnancies.
On the other hand , a devoted or religious individual might find it difficult
engaging in such risky behaviours because of what he / she believes in or that
such is against his/her faith and thus , detest from it.
For this reason, this research project is aimed at exploring if a relationship
exists between sexting and religiosity with sexual risky behaviours.
Research Questions
To guide the proper conduct of this study, these research questions were raised;
(a) Will sexting behaviour positively correlate with sexual risky behaviours
among undergraduates?
12
(b) Will religiosity negatively correlate with sexual risky behaviours among
undergraduates?
Purpose of the Study

a) To explore if there will be a positive correlation between sexting
behaviour and sexual risky behaviours
b) To investigate if there will be a negative correlation between religiosity
and sexual risky behaviours
Operational Definition of Key Study Variables
(a) Sexual- Risky Behaviours

It is defined as behaviours that increases one's risk of contracting sexually
transmitted infections and experiencing unintended pregnancies. they include-
having unprotected sex , having multiple sexual partners, having oral sex, having
anal sex and having sex under the influence of alcohol or drugs (Center for
Disease Control and P revention, 2010) as measured by Sexual Risky Survey
(Turchik & Garke, 2009).
(b) Sexting Behaviour

The exchange (sending and receiving) sexually explicit messages, pictures, or
videos via internet or mobile phone to elicit a sexual response (Chalfen, 2009) as
measured by Sexting Behaviour Scale-Revised (Weisskirch & Delevi, 2011).
13
(c) Religiosity
It refers to devotion, adherence, involvement, interest or participation in
numerous aspects of religious activity, dedication and belief. As measured by
Mature Religiosity Scale (Vries-Schot, Pieper & van Uden, 2008).
(d) UNDERGRADUATES
A student studying their first degree at a College or University especially,
bachelor's degree.
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CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Conceptual Framework
Sexual Risk Behaviours
Sexual risky behaviours is commonly defined as behaviours that increase one's
risk of contracting sexually transmitted infections and experiencing unintended
pregnancies. They include having sex at early age, having multiple sexual
partners, having sex under the influence of alcohol or drugs and unprotected
sexual behaviours (Center for Disease Control and Prevention 2010). Sexual risky
behaviors can also be seen as those behaviors that place the individual at greater
risk for HIV or STD infection or unwanted pregnancy as well as those behaviors
that place the individual at risk for sexual exploitation. Early sexual debut is itself
a risk behavior, because the earlier children and adolescents have sex, the less
likely they are to be knowledgeable about the risks involved and what they can do
to lower the risks (Ohalete, 2007). It has been found that young adults are less
likely to have the skills to negotiate with their partners about taking steps to
prevent pregnancy and disease. Younger children and adolescents also have a
natural inclination to defer to those older than they, particularly those to whom
they feel close. This often means acquiescence to sexual acts that the youths may
not desire. Substance use and abuse have also been linked to high risk sexual
behaviors (Tubman, Oshri, Taylor, & Morris, 2011; Turchik, Garski, Probst, &
15
Irvin, 2010). The key markers and indicators of sexual risk behaviours include an
early age sexual initiation, inadequate contraception use, promiscuous behaviours
and sexual contact with an unknown partner (Kirby, Potter Raine, Thrush, &
Yuen, 2010).
Sexting Behaviour
Sexting is derived from the words „sex‟ and „texting‟ which connotes
sending or receiving explicit texts, images or videos via cell phone. Sexting is a
relatively new emerging concept in social media circles. It has been defined
variously by different authors, but in all, there is a general consensus that it
involves the exchange of sexually suggestive pictures or messages, including
nudes or seminude photographs, through mobile phones to the opposite sex. For
example, Lenhart (2009), defined '' sexting as the creating, sharing and
forwarding of sexually suggestive nude or nearly nude images by minor teens ".
Ybarra & Mitchell ( 2014 ), also defined sexting as " sending and sharing sexual
photos online, via text messaging and in person "Other authors also defined
sexting as “sending or receiving sexually explicit messages, photographs and
videos through cell phones, computers and other social media " (Van Ouytsel,
Van Gool, Ponnet, & Walrave, 2004 ).
Sexting originated as a media term that generally refers to sending sexual images
via text messaging and can also include uploading sexual pictures to websites.
16
Sexting has received attention from legal scholars because some youth are
creating and disturbing images that meet the definition of child pornography
under criminal statutes. Whether there are health implication, however, sexting is
a prevalent issue in Nigeria today. This is because, the advance in technology has
increased the rate at which people engage in sexting and thus calls for research.
Studies indicate that there are three main reasons that nude or semi-nude images
are sent by students are; to initiate sexual activity between partners (i.e. boyfriend
or girlfriend), as an experimental phase of their sexuality prior to ever having
sexual intercourse, and as a way to enhance current sexual relationships (Lenhart,
2009).Studies have also shown that more than two thirds of students and young
adults have sent nude or partially nude messages to initiate, keep and gain a
male's/female's attention. Two thirds of female teen and young adults have sent
these types of messages as a "sexy" present for boyfriend, while over half of
males sent them to be "fun and flirtatious". In addition, nearly half of females felt
pressure from males and nearly one fifth of males felt pressure from females
(National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy, 2008).0verall results from prior
studies indicate an increase in students and young adult participation with sexual
exploration using current technology (Weisskirch & Delevi, 2011; Theodore,
2011). Sexting is just another method in which nude or semi-nudes are viewed.
Students who viewed internet pornography appeared to have a greater acceptance
ofsexual promiscuity (LoWei, 2005, cited in Okoli, 2015). The internet is an

17
unlimited outlet for pornographic materials (Braun-Courville & Rojas, 2008).
Therefore, nude or semi-nude pictures viewed or sent on cell phones could
potentially be endless, which may also increase the acceptance of sexual
exploration and behaviour, one of which is sexting (Lo Wei, 2005, cited in Okoli,
2015).
Religiosity
Religiosity is a difficult term to define (Fetzer Institute, 1999, Hackney
and Sanders, 2003). All the people who have approached this domain have found
it difficult to define religiosity when this concept is the subject of scientific
research. Thus, there are multiple definitions.
Shafranske & Maloney (1990) define religiosity as representing the adherence to
the practices and beliefs of an organized church or religious institution.
Religiosity is a multi-layered concept involving cognitive, emotional and
behavioral aspects (Hackney & Sanders, 2003). Richards & Bergin (1997) see
religion as a subset of the spiritual. By spiritual, it means having a transcendental
relationship with a superior being. Past research that has examined the influence
of religiosity on adolescent sex finds that religious individuals have first sex at a
later age than their less religious peers. Studies indicate that the number of sex
partners decreases as religiosity increases (Jones, Darroch & Singh, 2005).
Family, schools and religion are examples of institutions that use socialization
18
control because they socialize members to adopt the norms and values of the
institution. Individuals abide by these norms and values because they are bonded
to the agents of socialization and they do not want to Jeopardize the bonds or to
risk being sanctioned by the group. Overtime, those norms and values becomes a
part of the individual and the social control mechanism is self-sustaining. Thus,
the impact of religion on sexual behaviours is largely a function of the values that
it impacts.
Theoretical Framework and Empirical Review

Theory of planned behaviour
This study adopted the theory of planned behaviour, proposed by Icek
Ajzen (1991). It is an extension of the theory of reasoned action proposed by Icek
Ajzen and Fish Bein in 1980. The theory of planned behaviour describes attitudes
towards behaviours. It states that, the most important determinant of a person's
behaviour is a behaviour intent. The individual's intention to perform behaviour is
a combination of attitude towards performing the behaviour and perceived
behavioural control and subjective norm. The constructs are; individual's attitude
towards the behaviour, behavioural belief, evaluations of behavioural outcome,
subjective norm, normative beliefs and the motivation to comply. If a person
perceives that the outcome of performing a behaviour is positive (eg, sexting,
religiosity or engaging in sexual risky behaviours), he/she will have a positive
19
attitude towards performing that behaviour. The opposite can also be stated if the
behaviour is thought to be negative.
In essence, this theory points out that individuals plan their actions. If they
perceive that sexting behaviour has a positive outcome to them such as peer
acceptance, sexual exploration (which includes sexual risky behaviours), romantic
relationships, having sex at will, they will engage in such behaviour. In the same
lane, if a religious individual perceive that engaging in sexual-risky behaviours
has a negative outcome such as going to hell, offending God and several others,
they will detest from it.
The theory also posits that if relevant others see engaging in sexting behaviour as
positive and the individual is motivated to meet the expectations of relevant
others, then a positive subjective norm is expected . If relevant others see sexting
behaviour as negative and the individual wants to meet the expectations of these
"others", then the experience is likely to be a negative subjective norm for the
individual. Perceived behavioural control is determined by two factors, control
beliefs and perceived power. Perceived behavioural control indicates that a
person's motivation to sex is influenced by how difficult sexting is perceived to be
as well as the perception of how successfully the individual can, or cannot sext.
Also, if a person holds strong control beliefs about the existence of factors that
will facilitate the sexual risky behaviour, then the individual will have high
20
perceived control over the behaviour. Conversely, the person will have a low
perception of control if he holds strong beliefs that impede the behaviour. This
perception can reflect past experiences, anticipation of upcoming circumstances,
and the attitudes of the influential norms that surround the individual (Ajzen,
1991).
In support of the above theory, empirical study carried out in Botswana by
Makgale & Plattner (2017) exploring sexting behaviours among undergraduate
students in Botswana. 309 participants (female) ranging from 18 to 27 years of
age were involved in the study. Results revealed that most participants (84.8%)
had received sexts and many (61.8%) had sent sexts at least once in their lifetime.
Reasons for sending sexts were to flirt (42.9%), to have fun (24.6%), and/or to
initiate sexual activity (17.8%). Also, their findings showed that among
participants who had sexual intercourse at least once in their lifetime (N = 164),
an increase in the frequency of sexting was associated with an increase in the
number of sexual partners and with sex under the influence of alcohol and drugs.
However, sexting behaviours were not associated with unprotected sex. This
evidence supports this theory as it pointed out that sexting is associated with
sexual risky behaviours such as having multiple sexual partners, having sex under
the influence of alcohol. However, this evidence has its own flaws as the number
of participants do not represent the population sample in Botswana and thus,
cannot be generalized.
21
In Nairobi, Kenya; Asatsa, Nyagali, Kaithuru, Munywoki (2017), in a
related line of study investigating cell phone sexting and its influence on
adolescent sexual behaviour in Nairobi County, Kenya. A sample of 200 high
school students was selected through simple random sampling technique.
Qualitative data was collected using focused group discussion and analyzed by
use of thematic analysis. Quantitative data was collected by use of questionnaires
and analyzed by use of simple descriptive statistics. The findings show high
prevalence of masturbation, pornography, multiple sex partners and frequent
sexual intercourse among adolescents who engage in sexting in Kenya. This
evidence supports the theory because if individuals who sext are associated with
masturbation, pornography, frequent sexual intercourse and multiple sex partners,
it can also be associated with sexual risky behaviours. But this evidence has its
own flaws because the sample size cannot be generalized among adolescents in
Nairobi County, Kenya.
In Nigeria, Nwabueze, OkoIi, Onuigbo & Chukwu (2015) investigating
the nature and patterns of sexting among Anambra State University undergraduate
Students. The study adopted survey research method and purposive sampling
method was used to study 342 respondents sampled from a population of 34,300.
The study found that sexual pleasure, emotional stability and most of all,
entertainment were the motivations for engaging in sexting by students. The
majority of responses depicted pleasurable and delightful experiences. The results

22
also revealed no considerable difference among the frequency in which females
and males were sending or posting nude or semi-nude pictures of themselves or
sexually suggestive text messages. This studies strengthens the potency of the
theory because if students in Anambra State University derived pleasure (positive
outcome) from sexting, there is every tendency that they'll also engage in sexual
risky behaviours.
In California, Shirlee ( 2015 ) conducted a study on the prevalence and
Acceptance of sexting throughout the Romantic relationship life cycle involving
291 students revealed that individuals who sexted would have more liberal sexual
attitude than those who did not sex. This evidence points out an individual having
a positive attitude towards sexting. However, this evidence has its flaws because
it's only looking at individuals having romantic relationship.
In China, Liao, Lau, Tsui Gu & Wang (2015) investigating the
relationship between sexual compulsivity and sexual risk behaviors among
Chinese sexually active males involving 1,048 participants. Using sexual
compulsivity scale (SCS), an exploratory factor analysis procedure extracted two
factors that were named Controllability and Functional Consequences. Results
revealed higher SCS scores were associated with multiple female sexual
partnerships in the last 6 months, having had sex with either non-regular
partner(s) or female sex worker(s) in the last 6 months, contracted STI in the last
23
6 months, and inconsistent condom use with either non-regular partner(s) or
female sex worker(s) in the last 6 months. Viewing sexual contents is one of the
factors instigating sexual compulsivity.
This evidence has its own flaws as it‟s only looking at male participants and the
sample size did not represent all male in China.
In Brussels, Belgium another study was carried out by Ouytsel, Ponnet &
Walrave (2014 ) investigating the associations between Adolescents consumption
of pornography and music videos and their sexting behaviour with a sample of
329 individuals between the ages of 15 and 21 years demonstrates that sexting
behaviour were significantly associated with the consumption of pornography,
when controlling for age, gender, school track and internet use.
This evidence is significant because since sexting is associated with consumption
of pornography, it is reasonable to say that it will be associated with sexual risky
behaviours.
More so in Antwerp, Belgium a survey was carried out by Walrave,
Heirman, & Hallam (2014) investigating under pressure to sext; Applying the
theory of planned behaviour involving 498 adolescents aged between 15 and 18
years. Analyses revealed that subjective norm is the most important predictor,
followed by adolescent attitudes towards sexting. Perceived behavioural control is
24
significantly but weakly associated with pressure while only positive behavioural
outcomes are found to affect adolescent sexting intentions. The most important
control belief affecting adolescents intention to sex is the belief that it occurs
relatively more often among those whom adolescents feel they can trust entirely.
This evidence supports this theory because it pointed out the intention and attitude
towards sexting behaviour. If an individual have a positive attitude towards
sexting, there is a possibility that they will engage in sexual risky behaviours.
In New Hampshire, a related line of study was conducted by Ybarra,
Kimberly & Mitchell (2014) investigating sexting and its relation to sexual
activity and sexual risk behaviour in a national survey of adolescents involving
3,715 participants randomly selected 13-18 years across the united states revealed
that 7% of youth reported sending or showing someone pictures of themselves, in
which they were nude or nearly nude, online via text messaging, or in person
during the past year. Although females and older youth were more likely to share
sexual photos than males and younger youth, the profile of psychosocial challenge
and sexual behaviours was similar for all youth. After adjusting for demographic
characteristics, sharing sexual photos was associated with all types of sexual
behaviour assessed (for example; Oral sex, Vaginal sex) as well as some of the
risky sexual behaviours examined particularly, having concurrent sexual partners
and having more past year-sexual partners. This evidence supports for sexting as
25
correlates of sexual risky behaviours, however, the researchers‟ sample were
adolescents.
In Lagos, Nigeria; another study was carried out by Olagunju (2013),
examining the effects of adolescents‟ exposure to sexual contents through social
media in Nigeria. Data was gathered using quantitative structured face-to-face
interviews among 305 literate adolescents. They were distributed using Nigerian
age-sex ratio of 51 and 49 between male and female respectively. The result
revealed that those who use social media like Twitter, Facebook, YouTube and
Instagram are 6.932, 4.630, 3.566 and 2.682 times (respectively) more likely to be
exposed to sexual activity compared to their counterparts that use other forms of
media. This evidence strengthens this theory because if exposure to sexual content
can lead to sexual activities, it is reasonable to say that sexting behaviour can also
lead to sexual risky behaviours. This evidence has it's own flaws as exposure to
sexual contents is not exclusive to literate individuals.
In Kentucky, USA another study by Parker, Blackburn, Perry & Hawks
(2013), investigating the effects of sexting on relationship satisfaction and the
conditions under which sexting occurs in adult romantic relationship. Participants
were recruited through social networking websites to participate in an online
survey. The sample (n= 86) included 44 participants who were married or living
together and 42 participants who were in a dating relationship. Results indicated
26
that couples who scored higher on the consensus scale were more likely to have
sexted. Hedonism was found to be a motivator of sexting behaviours. This
evidence has it's own flaws as the sample size is small to generalize the findings
to the targeted population.
Another study conducted in Nigeria by Asogwa & Ojih (2013), using the
survey research design and hinged on questionnaires and personal interview as
instruments, explored the influence of social networking sites as tools for sexual
perversion among students of University of Nigeria, Nsukka (UNN). Anchored on
the technological determinism and uses and gratifications theories, the study
found out that social networking tools actually contribute to UNN students sexual
perversion and that there is an increasing adoption of the use of these tools,
especially black berry messenger, 2go and facebook in that order. The study also
discovered that majority of the students do not consider contents on these sites as
being offensive. This evidence proves that individuals using internet phones are
prone to sexual perversion, thus, if this is the case, individuals using internet
phones are also prone to sexual risky behaviours.
In Slovak, Kalina, Geckova, Jancuska, Orosova, van Dijk & Reijneveld
(2012) study aimed at exploring sexual behavior of university students as well as
the relation between safer onset of sexual life and future safer sexual behavior.
27
A questionnaire was self-administered by 832 first-year university students
(42.7% boys, mean age 20.5). Logistic regression explored:1-respondent's age at
sexual debut; 2-length of relationship preceding sexual debut; 3-condom use
during sexual debut and risky sexual behavior. Results revealed that later sexual
initiation, longer-lasting relationship and condom use during sexual debut
contributed to lower probability of risky sexual behavior. This evidence points out
that individuals who use protection during sexual debut run a lower risk of
contracting sexual transmitted illnesses. However, the sample size cannot be
generalized to all students in Slovak.
In Texas, Ferguson (2010) in his investigation of sexting behaviour among
young Hispanic women: Incidence and association with other high risky sexual
behaviours involving 207 young women enrolled at a Hispanic serving University
in the south, revealed that sexting was not related to other high risk sexual
behaviours with the exception of having sex without use of birth control methods.
But also sexting behaviour correlated with positive attitudes towards sexting. This
evidence has its own flaws as the sample size were only female.
In another study conducted in America by Pew internet project's (2010) a
set of telephone survey using RDD for landlines and cellphones with 2,252 adults
18 years and older (Lenhart , Ling & Campbell 2010 ). The study found that 6%
had sent a" sexually suggestive nude or nearly nude image to someone else by
28
text " and 15% had received 5% of 30 - 49 years olds sent sexts and 17% have
received. As with the teenage study, heavy users of cell phones for texting,
calling, instant messaging, social networking or twittering resulted in being more
likely to send or receive sexts (Lenhart, Ling & Campbell, 2010 ). This evidence
points out that individuals who use social networking sites more frequently are
likely to engage in sexting behaviour.
In contrast, a study carried out by Gordon-Messer, Bauermeister,
Grodzinski and Zimmerman (2013) investigating Sexting among young adults,
using an adapted web version of Respondent-Driven Sampling (webRDS) they
recruited a sample of U.S. young adults (ages 18 to 24; N=3447). They examined
participant sexting behavior using 4 categories of sexting: 1) Non-Sexters, 2)
Receivers, 3) Senders, and 4) Two-way Sexters. They then assessed the
relationships between sexting categories and socio demographic characteristics,
sexual behavior and psychological well-being. This evidence points out that the
results suggest that sexting is not related to sexual risk behavior or psychological
well-being. While sexting is correlated with lifetime and 30-day sexual activity,
the results suggest that this does not necessarily translate into risky behavior.
The Expectancy Theory of Motivation

Another theory adopted by this research project is the expectancy theory of
motivation, pioneered by Victor H. Vroom (1964). This theory provides an
29
explanation why individuals choose one behavioural option over others. The idea
with this theory is that people are motivated to do something because they think
their actions will lead to their desired outcome (Redmond, 2009). This theory is
applicable to this research in the sense that individuals might not engage in sexual
risky behaviour because of their religious inclination which aids in their
perception of what is a desirable outcome.
Thus, highly religious individuals will not engage in sexual risky
behaviour because they are religiously motivated that such behaviour has an
undesirable outcome. In other words, expectancy theory explains why a person
performs at a particular level. It emphasizes individual perceptions of the
environment and subsequent interactions arising as a consequence of personal
expectations (such as religious beliefs in the consequences of good and bad
behaviour .Therefore, the theory states that individuals have different set of goals
and can be motivated if they believe that:
i. There is a positive correlation between efforts and performance.
ii. Favorable performance will result in a desirable reward.
iii. The reward will satisfy an important need.
The desire to satisfy the need is strong enough to make the effort worthwhile
(Lawler, Porter & Vroom, 2009).
30
In support of the above theory, an empirical study was conducted in
Ghana by Doreenda Aliataku (2016) investigating sexting and risky sexual
behaviours among university of Ghana students involving 670 participants
between the ages of 17 and 24 years old. The result revealed that highly religious
individuals do not engage in sexual risky behaviours. This is because they are
motivated by their religious inclinations when compared with their counterparts.
In Delta State, Nigeria another study was carried out by Ofole and Agokei
(2014) examining the extent to which self-esteem, parental involvement and
religiosity predicted risky sexual behaviours among female in-school adolescents
in Delta state, Nigeria. Four hundred (400) adolescents whose age ranged from
15-19 were drawn using multistage sampling technique. Three standardized and
one researcher developed self-report measures were used for data collection.
Pearson Product Moment Correlation and regression statistics were used to
analyze data at 0.05 level of significance. Self-esteem, parental involvement and
religiosity have negative relationship with participants‟ risky sexual behaviours.
The independent variable accounted for 30.3% of the variance in prediction of
risky sexual behavior. This evidence points out that religiosity has a negative
correlation with sexual risky behavior. This evidence has its own flaws as the
number of participants cannot be generalized to all students in Delta State.
31
In related line of study, Ugoji (2013) in his study investigating the
perceived effect of emotional intelligence, self-esteem, religiosity and media on
risky sexual behavior of 300 secondary school students from 10 secondary
schools within Asaba metropolis. Data were analyzed with descriptive statistics
and multiple regression analysis. The result indicated that the relationships among
risky sexual behavior and the independent variables significant, however the
relationships between risky sexual behavior and emotional intelligence/religiosity
were negatively significant. This evidence points out that religiosity, and sexual
risky behaviours are negatively significant. If this is the case, religious individuals
might see sexual risky behaviours as a negative behaviour.
In Marquette University, a study by Haglund and Fehring (2010)
investigating the association of religiosity, sexual education and family structure
with risky sexual behaviours among adolescents and young adults. The nationally
representative sample, from the 2002 National survey of family growth, included
3,168 women and men ages 15-21 years. Those who viewed religion as very
important, has frequent church attendance, and held religious sexual attitudes
were 27-54% less likely to have sex and significantly fewer sex partners than
peers. Participants whose formed and parental sexual education included
abstinence and those from two-parent families were 15% less likely to have had
sex and had fewer partners. This evidence supports the theory because it pointed
out that frequent church attendance can reduce an individual's engagement in

32
sexual risky behaviours owing to the fact that the individual sees it as a negative
behaviour.
In related line of study, Penhollow, Young and Denny (2005) investigating
the impact of religiosity on the sexual behaviours of college students. The data
was collected from a convenience sample of undergraduate students (n-408) at a
southeastern University. Students voluntarily completed a questionnaire in a
regular classroom setting. The questionnaire elicited information regarding the
frequency of attendance at religious services, perceived strength of religious
feelings, perception of God‟s view of sex, and participation in the following
sexual behaviours: sexual intercourse (ever, last year, and last month), giving oral
sex (ever and last month), receiving oral sex (ever and last month), and anal sex
(ever). Data were analyzed using both univariate analysis (chi-square and analysis
of variance) and logistic regression. Results indicated that religiosity variables,
especially frequency of religious attendance and religious feelings, were
significantly predictors of sexual behavior. This evidence has its flaws as the
result should be considered only by those working with college students in the
area of human sexuality.
In all there seems to be a paucity of research on sexting and religiosity as
correlates of sexual risky behaviour maybe because of its newness and because it
is an emerging issue in this modern dispensation. However, the primary focus of
33
the present study is on investigating sexting and religiosity as correlates of sexual
risky behaviours in order to fill part of the existing gap in this little explored
areas.
Criticism of the Theoretical Framework

Theory of planned behaviour (Ajzen, 1991) has improved the predictability of
intention in various health-related fields such as condom use, leisure, exercise,
diet and several others. In addition, it can explain individual‟s social behaviours.
Nevertheless, some scholars claim that the theory is based on cognitive processing
and have criticized it on those grounds. More recently, some scholars criticize the
theory on the basis of ignoring ones needs prior to engaging in a certain action,
needs that would affect his behavior regardless of his expressed attitudes.
Hypotheses
H1: Sexting behaviour will positively correlate with sexual risky behaviours
among undergraduates
H2: Religiosity will negatively correlate with sexual risky behaviours among
undergraduates
34
CHAPTER THREE
METHOD
Participants
200 undergraduates from Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka participated in the
study. These students includes 81 male (40.5%) and 119 female (59.5%). All
participants were enrolled in their respective course-year of study in the regular
program of the University. The ages of the participants ranges from 16-28years
with a mean score (average age) of 21.6 and standard deviation of 2.403.
At the time of this study, the regular undergraduate students‟ population of the
University was 28,981. Taro Yamane (1967) statistical formula was used to
determine the sample size of three hundred and seventy (370). However, due to
limited time and financial constraints, the researcher reduced the margin of error
(allowable error) to 6%; thereby reducing the sample size to two hundred and
seventy eight (278) for the study.
Using multistage sampling technique, two (2) Faculties out of fourteen (14)
Faculties in the University were selected. These Faculties include- Faculty of
Management Sciences and Faculty of Law. Subsequently, four Departments were
chosen using simple random sampling technique. These Departments include the
following: From Faculty of Management Sciences- Department of Accounting:
twenty five (25) respondents (300l), Department of Business Administration:
35
twenty five (25) respondents (200l), Department of Corporative Economics and
Management: twenty five (25) respondents (200l), Department of Public
Administration: twenty five (25) respondents (200l).
From Faculty of Law- 100level: twenty five (25) respondents, 200level: twenty
five (25) respondents, 300level: twenty five (25) respondents, 400level: twenty
five (25) respondents. Although two hundred and fifty questionnaires were
initially distributed, fifty (50) were either missing or invalid thereby leaving the
total of only two hundred (200) retrieved and valid.
Instruments
The instruments used in this study were ; (a)Sexting Behaviour Scale (Revised),
(b)Mature Religiosity Scale, (c) Sexual Risky Survey Measures, and (d)
Demographic Data: which students completed to indicate their gender, age,
departments and ownership of an internet connected device.
(a) Sexting Behaviours Scale - Revised (SBS)

Sexting behaviour scale was revised by Weisskirch & Delevi (2011) consisting of
twelve (12) items. A revised version of the 5 items Weisskirch & Delevi (2011)
survey was used, which was originally designed to assess behaviours of sexting
via cell phone. Each statement was rated using a 5 - point likert scale. 1 (Never) to
5 (Frequently). No reliability and validity analysis was reported in the Weisskirch
& Delevi study for the 5- item measure.

36
The researchers added seven (7) items creating a total of 12 items , the items were
added in order to be more specific about a particular sexting behaviour such as
type of sext sent (pictures , videos , sexual texts ), as well as new items assessing
the frequency of receiving sext messages. The primary reasoning for the revision
of the measure was to determine if the type of message sent or received (pictures,
versus videos, versus sexual texts) would influence sexting behaviour.
The first six (6) items of the revised survey were designed to measure the
participants responses in regards to their behaviour pertaining to the sending of
sext messages. Each items was rated using 5-point likert scale, 1 (Never) to 5
(Frequently). Cronbach's alpha analysis for the portion of the measure indicated
an internal consistency of 88.
The second six items of the survey were designed to measure participant's
responses in regards to their behaviour pertaining to the receiving of sex
messages. Each statement (item) was rated using a 5 - point likert scale, 1 (Never)
to 5 (Frequently). Cronbach's alpha analysis for this portion of the measure
indicated an internal consistency of .092.
To assess the reliability of this scale for use in Nigerian Context, a pilot study was
conducted involving fifty (50) students from Psychology Department (400l)
Nnamdi Azikiwe University, result revealed the Cronbach's alpha reliability of
.93
37
To assess the Phase validity and content validity of the instrument, the researcher
gave the instrument to four (4) professionals in the Department of Psychology,
Nnamdi Azikiwe University and their responses revealed that the instrument
measures what it claims to be measuring.
(b) Mature Religiosity Scale (MRS)

Mature Religiosity Scale was developed by deVries-Schot, Pieper & van Uden
(2008) consisting of 21 items. This inventory was based on a review of scientific
literature, both from a psychiatric/ psychological perspective and a theological
perspective. As mentioned above, the 21 items could be clustered in three factors:
Orientation for higher values out of a sense of inner freedom, trust in God
pervades the entire life, responsibility for fellow humans and creation. The
Cronbach's alpha analysis indicated an internal consistency of .092.
To assess the internal consistency of this scale for use in Nigerian context, the
researcher carried out a pilot test involving fifty (50) participants from
psychology department (400 L), Nnamdi Azikiwe University, the result showed
the Cronbach's alpha reliability of .93.
Nnamdi Azikiwe University and their response revealed that the instrument
38
(c) Sexual Risk Survey (SRS)
The Sexual Risky Survey is a 23 - item open- ended questionnaire developed by
Turchik and Garke (2009), which assess the prevalence of sexual risky behaviour
among a sample of college students. Although Turchik and Garke (2009) reported
the following subscales;
a. Sexual Risk taking with uncommitted partners,
b. Risky sext Act
c. Impulsive sexual behaviours
d. Intent to engage in risky sexual behaviours
e. Risky anal sex acts, with respective reliability coefficients 0.88, 0.80 ,
0.78, 0.89 and 0.61.
To investigate the psychometric properties of the sexual risk survey, internal
consistency and dimensionality were assessed with an items analysis.
To assess the reliability of this scale for use in Nigerian context, a pilot study
involving fifty (50) students from Psychology department (400 L) Nnamdi
Azikiwe University was conducted, result indicated the Cronbach alpha reliability
score of .94.
39
Nnamdi Azikiwe University and their response revealed that the instrument
Procedure
Permission was sought from the course lecture in charge of the class when the
researcher arrived the various departments and was asked to wait behind so that
he/she can conclude their lectures. Thereafter, the research explained the nature
and essence of the study to them and assured them of confidentiality of whatever
response they might have sequel to ethical approval. The researcher also
explained to the participants how to fill out the questionnaires so as not to make
mistakes while answering the questions. Afterwards, they all filled the
questionnaires while the researcher stayed close and available for any questions or
confusion. The instruments were administered together to the students while they
were seated waiting for the next course lecturer of the day. The instruments were
administered in the morning unlike in the afternoon when they will be feeling
tired and eager to go home. The course representative of each department assisted
the researcher and also appealed to the course mates to fill the questionnaires. In
an effort to encourage honest answers, respondents were instructed not to include
their names in the activity. The process of administering the questionnaires took
40
the researcher four (4) days. The researcher went to two (2) departments each day
to reduce the number of missing instrument or incomplete questionnaires. Out of
two hundred and fifty (250) questionnaires that were administered, two hundred
(200) questionnaires were properly answered and returned to the researcher.
Design/Statistics
Correlational design was utilized in this study. This is because Correlational
design is used to correlate two or more different variable.
The statistics used in the study is Pearson Product Moment Correlation
Coefficient which is used to correlate statistical data of two or more variable.
However, descriptive statistics (Mean and Standard deviation was used to
describe the studied variables). SPSS version 23 was used to analyze the data.
41
CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS
In this chapter, the result of the Descriptive Statistics and Pearson Product
Moment Correlation Analysis conducted on sexting and religiosity as correlates of
sexual risky behaviours are shown in table 1 and 2 below:
Table 1: Descriptive statistics

Summary of mean table for key variables
N Mean Std. Deviation

Age 200 21.6450 2.40372
Gender 200 1.5950 .49212
Sexting 200 33.1550 8.02327
Religiosity 200 50.8200 10.63074
Sexual Risky
200 60.3850 14.52625
Behaviour
Valid N (listwise) 200
42
Table 2: Pearson Product Moment Correlation Analysis on sexting,
religiosity and sexual risky behaviours
Correlations
Variables Pearson Correlation N Sig. (1-tailed)
i. Sexting*Sexual Risky Behaviour .550 200 .000
ii. Religiosity*Sexual Risky Behaviour -.598 200 .000
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (1-tailed).
Pearson Product Moment Correlation analysis in table 2i revealed that sexting
correlated positively with sexual risky behaviour among undergraduates (r = .55,
p<.00). This validates the hypothesis which stated that „Sexting would positively
correlate with sexual risky behaviour.‟ Hence, at the probability level of p<.05,
the hypothesis is upheld, suggesting that increase in sexting tendency guarantees
increase in sexual risky behaviour.
On the contrary, table 2ii revealed that religiosity correlated negatively with
sexual risky behaviour among undergraduates (r = -.60, p<.00). This confirms the
hypothesis which stated that „Religiosity would negatively correlate with sexual
risky behaviour.‟ Hence, at the probability level of p<.05, the hypothesis is
accepted. This further implies that increase in one‟s commitment to religious
practice will perhaps cause decrease in sexual risky behaviour.
43
CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
Discussion
The purpose of this study was to examine sexting behaviour and religiosity as
correlates of sexual risky behaviours among undergraduate students in Nnamdi
Azikiwe University. Two hypotheses were tested.
Firstly, the researcher predicted that sexting behaviour will positively correlate
with sexual risky behaviours. In this study, sexting behaviour was found to
correlate positively with sexual risky behaviours. Thus, the alternate hypothesis
which states that sexting behaviour will positively correlate with sexual risky
behaviours was accepted (r = .55, p<.05).
This means that there is a positive correlation between sexting and sexual risky
behaviours among undergraduates. It goes on to say that when sexting behaviour
is increasing, sexual risky behaviours will be increasing among undergraduates.
By reasonable extension, it means that individuals who sext will engage in sexual
risky behaviours. In a nutshell, individuals who exchange (send or receive)
sexually explicit texts, images or videos are prone to engage in sexual risky
behaviours.
This findings is consistent with the studies conducted in Botswana by Makgale &
Plattner (2017) which revealed that sexting behaviour is associated with sexual
44
risky behaviours such as having multiple sexual partners and having sex under the
influence of alcohol. It is also in line with the findings of Asatsa, Nyagali,
Kaithuru & Munywoki (2017) in Nairobi, Kenya which indicated that sexting
behaviour is associated with masturbation, pornography, frequent sexual
intercourse and multiple sex partners.
This findings is also consistent with the findings of Ybara, Kimberly & Mitchell
(2014) which revealed that sexting correlated with sexual risky behaviours.
Meanwhile, it also supports the findings of Ouytsel Ponnet & Walrave (2014)
which indicated that sexting is associated with consumption of porn. Even the
study conducted in Nigeria by Olagunju (2013) which revealed that sexual
content can lead to sexual activities supported the findings of this present study.
Secondly, the researcher predicted that religiosity will negatively correlate
with sexual risky behaviours. However, religiosity was found to negatively
correlate with sexual risky behaviours. Thus, the alternate hypothesis which states
that religiosity will negatively correlate with sexual risky behaviours was
accepted (r = -.60, p<.05).
This means that there is a negative correlation between religiosity and sexual
risky behaviours.
45
It goes on to say that when religiosity is increasing, sexual risky behaviours will
be decreasing. By extension, it also means that individuals who are devoted to
their religious practices will not engage in sexual risky behaviours. This finding is
consistent with the findings of Doreenda (2016) carried out in Ghana which
revealed that individuals who are highly religious will not engage in sexual risky
behaviours. It is also in line with the findings of Haglund and Fehring (2010),
which indicated that individuals who viewed religion as very important, had
frequent church attendance, and held religious sexual attitudes were less likely to
have sex and significantly fewer partners than peers (who do not engage in any
form of religious rites). This implies that student's engagement in sexual risky
behaviours is determined by how religious he/she is.
Limitations of the Study

One of the limitations of this study included the fact that all measures of this
study were self report (which asks questions that are too personal) and pressure
may have existed for the participants to respond in a certain way, thus answering
dishonestly. On this basis, some of the participants may not have fully expressed
their feelings in filling out the questionnaires because they felt that they would be
judged if they expressed themselves especially with regards to sexual risky
behaviours and sexting, this caused some form of bias during the study.
46
Another limitation of this study was the population size; the researcher had to
restrict the population sample to .06 precision instead of the acceptable level of
.05 because of time constraint which did not allow him to involve more
participants. A large sample would give more to the positive correlation and
negative correlation found between the variables.
Therefore, participants may not be the true representation of the population as a
whole. Also, individuals who participated in the study were students of Nnamdi
Azikiwe University and therefore, the results should be used cautiously to infer to
other University campuses. Lastly, due to the purpose of the study which was to
examine whether sexting behaviour will positively correlate with sexual risky
behaviours and whether religiosity will negatively correlate with sexual risky
behaviours, the study failed to establish the level of such significant correlations.
Suggestions for Future Studies

Future studies should utilize a larger sample with participants from different
Universities in order to be able to generalize the study. Another suggestion is that
this study only revealed that sexting behaviour correlated positively with sexual
risky behaviours while religiosity correlated negatively with sexual risky
behaviours without establishing the level of significance of such correlations. On
this basis, a predictive study is suggested in order to indicate whether sexting
behaviour has a significant positive correlation with sexual risky behaviours and
47
also whether religiosity has a significant negative correlation with sexual risky
behaviours. This is because, establishing the level of such correlation will
enlighten researchers on how significant the variables relates, influences, affects
or associates with each other.
Implication of the Study

According to the findings of this present study, implications are elaborated below:
The first implication has shown us that sexting behaviour positively correlated
with sexual risky behaviours. By implication, this means that students who
engage in sexting are predisposed, at the risk of and/or have the tendency of
contracting sexually transmitted illnesses such as HIV, chlamydia, gonorrhea,
syphilis and occurrence of unintended pregnancies. The second implication of the
study also revealed to us that religious individuals should uphold their religious
views/ inclinations as it shields them away from engaging in sexual risky
behaviours and thus, reduce their risk of contracting sexual transmitted diseases
than their counterparts who engage in sexting behaviour.
More so, theoretically speaking, findings of this study will add to the existing
body of knowledge in all areas of psychology. It also generates data that will
support and sustain the interest of researchers across disciplines and also serve as
a resource for further researchers who are interested in exploring sexting
behaviour and religiosity as correlates of sexual risky behaviours.
48
Recommendations
Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations were made:
University administration should regularly educate the students on the menace of
sexting behaviour and sexual risky behaviours. This can be achieved by including
the health implications of sexual risky behaviours and psychosocial implication of
sexting behaviour in the school curriculum.
Awareness campaign and advertisements should be created in televisions, radio
stations, new papers, and all forms of social media networks such as Facebook,
WhatsApp, twiiter, Instagram, Snapchat and several others, to inform the
government and the general public on the menace of sexting behaviour and sexual
risky behaviours.
More so, parents and Universities are advised to teach their children sex
education. This is because when they sext and it eventually leads to sexual risky
behaviours, that they may use protections to avoid unintended pregnancies and
reduce the risk of contracting sexual transmitted diseases.
Furthermore, parents are also advised to inculcate religious morals in their
children so that they would abstain from sexual explorations. As abstinence is the
best remedy to curb sexting behaviour and sexual risky behaviours.
49
Each department should have a counseling psychologist who will be readily
available to offer counseling services to students who might be at risk of engaging
in sexual risky behaviours and/or students who are engaging in sexting behaviour
and sexual risky behaviours but do not know how to get out from it.
Finally, psychologists and other scientists such as doctors, microbiologists,
parasitologists and several others should be aware that sexting behaviour is
positively associated with sexual risky behaviours. Thus, they should embark on
more studies to establish a clearer model of correlating and predicting sexting
behaviour, religiosity and sexual risky behaviours in view of expanding our
knowledge and understanding of the concept developing a good intervention plan
for those who are predisposed to engaging in sexual risky behaviours.
Conclusion
From the findings of this present study, it has been established that sexting
behaviour positively correlated with sexual risky behaviours while religiosity
negatively correlated with sexual risky behaviours. This tells us that sexting
behaviour arouses an atom of emotions and motivations which drives the
individual to engage in sexual risky behaviours. In the case of religiosity, it also
tells us that religiosity plays an important role in sexual exploration of
individuals.
50
In general, it can be claimed that motivation plays an important role in student's
engagement in sexual risky behaviours. Nevertheless, there is still a vacuum
which studies may examine in the future.
51
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57
APPENDIX A
QUESTIONNAIRE
SECTION A: DEMOGRAPHIC DATA

1. Age:
2. GENDER: Male Female
3. DO YOU HAVE A WHATSAPP ACCOUNT?
YES NO
4. DO YOU OWN A SMART PHONE?
YES NO
SBQ
Instruction: The following statements are about usual patterns of behaviour.
Please read each statement carefully and decide the item which is more true. This
is not a test, so there are no right or wrong answers and your responses will be
treated confidentially as it is solely for research purposes.
5 = Always
4 = Very Often
3 = Sometimes
2 = Rarely
1 = Never
S/N ITEMS 1 2 3 4 5
1 How often have you sent a sexually suggestive photo of yourself?
2 How often have you sent a sexually suggestive video of yourself?
3 How often have you sent a photo or video of yourself in underwear

or lingerie?
4 How often have you sent a nude photo or video of yourself?
5 How often have you sent a sexually suggestive text?
6 How often have you sent a text message propositioning sexual

activity?
58
7 How often have you received a sexually suggestive photo?
8 How often have you received a sexually suggestive video?
9 How often have you received a sexually suggestive text?
10 How often have you received a nude photo or video of someone

else?
11 How often have you received a text message propositioning sexual

activity?
12 How often have you received a photo of someone else in

underwear or lingerie
SECTION B
MRS
Instructions:
For each of the following statements, please circle the point on the scale that you
feel is most appropriate in describing your feelings and attitude.
5 = Strongly Agree
4 = Agree
3 = Undecided
2 = Disagree
1 = Strongly Disagree
S/N ITEMS 1 2 3 4 5
1 I have the idea that I entrust myself more and more to God
2 My religion supports my sense of self-esteem and identity
3 Knowing God‟s love is fundamental for my life
4 The meaning and significance of my life is in my relationship with

God
5 The experience of God in my life motivates me to decide for the

good, even if this is difficult
6 I believe sincerely, not mainly out of obligation or fear
59
7 In times of trial and tribulation I trust in God
8 I am willing to be accountable to God and my fellow humans about

my way of life
9 My faith is oriented to values that transcend physical and social

needs
10 Out of my sense that God loves human beings, I pursue to love my

fellow man
11 My faith influences all areas of my life
12 The development of my personality and my faith influence each

other mutually
13 As a person I am only fully complete in a relationship with God
14 For me, praying for and doing justice belong together inextricably
15 I pursue higher values such as love, truth and justice
16 My sense of self-esteem is connected to who I am and not so much

to what I have
SRS
Instruction:
Rate the extent to which these statements are true about you. This is solely for
research purpose and will be treated as about you. This is solely for research
purposes and will be treated as confidential.
5 = Always
4 = Very Often
3 = Sometimes
2 = Rarely
1 = Never
S/N ITEMS 1 2 3 4 5
1 How many partners have you engaged in sexual behavior with but
not had sex with?
60
2 How many times have you left a social event with someone you
just met?
3 How many times have you “hooked up” but not had sex with
someone you didn‟t know or didn‟t know very well?
4 How many times have you gone out to bars/parties/social events

with the intent of “hooking up” and engaging in sexual behavior
but not having sex with someone?
5 How many times have you gone out to bars/parties/social events

with the intent of “hooking up” and having sex with someone?
6 How many times have you had an unexpected and unanticipated

sexual experience?
7 How many times have you had a sexual encounter you engaged in
willingly but later regretted?
8 How many partners have you had sex with?
9 How many times have you had vaginal intercourse without a latex
or polyurethane condom? Note: Include times when you have used
a lambs kin or membrane condom.
10 How many times have you had vaginal intercourse without

protection against pregnancy?
11 How many times have you given or received fellatio (oral sex on a
man) without a condom?
12 How many times have you given or received cunnilingus (oral sex
on a woman) without a dental dam or “adequate protection”?
13 How many times have you had anal sex without a condom?
14 How many times have you or your partner engaged in anal

penetration by a hand
(“fisting”) or other object without a latex glove or condom
61
followed by unprotected anal sex?
15 How many times have you given or received analingus (oral

stimulation of the anal region, “rimming”) without a dental dam or
“adequate protection”?
16 How many people have you had sex with that you know but are not
involved in any sort of relationship with (i.e., “friends with
benefits”, “fuck buddies”)?
17 How many times have you had sex with someone you don‟t know
well or just met?
18 How many times have you or your partner used alcohol or drugs
before or during sex?
19 How many times have you had sex with a new partner before
discussing sexual history, IV drug use, disease status and other
current sexual partners?
20 How many times (that you know of) have you had sex with
someone who has had many sexual partners?
21 How many partners (that you know of) have you had sex with who
had been sexually active before you were with them but had not
been tested for STIs/HIV?
22 How many partners have you had sex with that you didn‟t trust?
23 How many times (that you know of) have you had sex with
someone who was also engaging in sex with others during the
same time period?
62
APPENDIX B
GET
Reliability
Scale: SBQ
Case Processing Summary

N %
Valid 50 100.0
a
Cases Excluded 0 .0
Total 50 100.0
a. Listwise deletion based on all variables in the
procedure.
Reliability Statistics
Cronbach's N of Items
Alpha
.932 12
Reliability
Scale: SBQ

N %
Valid 50 100.0
a
Cases Excluded 0 .0
Total 50 100.0
procedure.
63
Value .928
Part 1 a
N of Items 6
Cronbach's Alpha Value .866
Part 2 b
N of Items 6
Total N of Items 12
Correlation Between Forms .728
Equal Length .842
Spearman-Brown Coefficient
Unequal Length .842
Guttman Split-Half Coefficient .842
Reliability
Scale: MRS

N %
Valid 50 100.0
a
Cases Excluded 0 .0
Total 50 100.0
procedure.
Alpha
.948 16
64
Reliability
Scale: MRS

N %
Valid 50 100.0
a
Cases Excluded 0 .0
Total 50 100.0
procedure.
Value .911
Part 1 a
N of Items 8
Part 2 b
N of Items 8
Total N of Items 16
Equal Length .901
Unequal Length .901
Reliability
Scale: SRS

N %
Valid 50 100.0
a
Cases Excluded 0 .0
Total 50 100.0
procedure.
Alpha
.944 23
65
Reliability
Scale: SRS

N %
Valid 50 100.0
a
Cases Excluded 0 .0
Total 50 100.0
procedure.
Value .900
Part 1 a
N of Items 12
Part 2 b
N of Items 11
Total N of Items 23
Equal Length .865
Unequal Length .866
66
APPENDIX C
GET
Descriptive
Descriptive Statistics
N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation
Age 200 16.00 28.00 21.6450 2.40372
Valid N (listwise) 200
Frequencies
Statistics
Gender
Valid 200
N
Missing 0
Gender
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative
Percent
Male 81 40.5 40.5 40.5
Valid Female 119 59.5 59.5 100.0
Total 200 100.0 100.0
Correlations
Correlations
Sexual Risky Sexting
Behaviour
**
Pearson Correlation 1 .550
Sexual Risky Behaviour Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 200 200
**
Pearson Correlation .550 1
Sexting Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 200 200
67
Correlations
Correlations
Sexual Risky Religiosity
Behaviour
**
Pearson Correlation 1 -.598
Sexual Risky Behaviour Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 200 200
**
Pearson Correlation -.598 1
Religiosity Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 200 200
68

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TITLE PAGE

SEXTING BEHAVIOUR AND RELIGIOSITY AS CORRELATES OF

EMENEKA, ARINZE KELVIN

A RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF

NNAMDI AZIKIWE UNIVERSITY, AWKA, ANAMBRA STATE.

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE

I, Emeneka Arinze Kelvin from the Department of Psychology, Nnamdi Azikiwe

University, Awka, with the registration number: 2014144514, have satisfactorily

Bachelor of Science degree in Psychology.

Emeneka, Arinze Kelvin Date

This project research report was submitted to the Department of Psychology,

Faculty of Social Sciences, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, Anambra State,

Nigeria. In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of a Bachelor of

Science degree in Psychology is hereby approved.

This project is dedicated to Almighty God.

I sincerely want to acknowledge my supervisor, Mr. Anyaegbunam Mike for his

expertise and patience in supervising my work, making necessary corrections and

suggestions to make this work a good one, God bless you.

I also wish to acknowledge my mom, Mrs. Augustina Emeneka, Uncle James

My special appreciation goes to Mrs. Mmachi Orekwu and Aunty Ogechukwu

God bless you all.

Approval page iii

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

Background to the Study 1

Statement of the Problem 11

Purpose of the Study 13

Operational definition of Terms 13

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Sexual- Risky Behaviours 16

Theoretical Framework and Empirical Review 19

Theory of Planned Behaviour 19

Criticism of the Theoretical Framework 34

CHAPTER THREE: METHOD

Design and statistics 41

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS 42

CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Limitations of the study 46

Suggestion for further studies 47

Implication of the study 48

Appendix A: Scales for the Study

Appendix B: Reliability score of instruments

Appendix C: Analysis of the Main Study

This study investigated sexting behaviour and religiosity as correlates of sexual

Background to the Study

people's desire to understand and utilize the newest technologies is becoming

increasingly predominant. These technological advances has led to a worldwide

behaviours is sexting, a combination of sex and text which elicits or suggests

sexual response to parties involved.

According to Oluwatoyin & Oyetunde (2014), sexual risky behaviours is

commonly defined as behaviours that increases one's risk of contracting sexually

transmitted infections and experiencing unintended pregnancies. They include

(United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2013).

Young adults (especially students) in particular have been found to be group at

Occurrence of unintended pregnancies. Studies show persons who sext have a

Benotsch, Snipes, Martin, & Bull, 2012)

Ahonsi (2013) posited that an increased incidence of HIV infection in adolescents

behaviors. One of these factors is parent-adolescent communication about

sexuality. Although sexual communication is a principal means of transmitting

discussions on sex-related matters are a taboo in Africa and believed that

would make them sexually active.

undergraduate students engaging in risky sexual behaviours. This is because

students face different challenges related to sexuality which have an influence on

religiousness, self-esteem, wellbeing and personal values have been associated

with an individual's expression and engagement in sexual risky behaviours