First military era (1958-1971)

The Dominion was dissolved on 23 March, 1956 and replaced by the Islamic Republic of Pakistan
with the last Governor-General, Iskandar Mirza, as the first president. Just two years later the
military took control of the nation. Field Marshal Ayub Khan became president and began a new
system of government called Basic Democracy with a new constitution, by which an electoral
college of 80,000 would select the President. Ayub Khan almost lost the controversial 1965
presidential elections to Fatima Jinnah. During Ayub's rule, relations with the United States and
the West grew stronger. Pakistan joined two formal military alliances — the Baghdad Pact (later
known as CENTO) which included Iran, Iraq, and Turkey to defend the Middle East and Persian
Gulf against the Soviet Union; and SEATO which covered South-East Asia. However, the United
States adopted a policy of denying military aid to both India and Pakistan during the Indo-Pakistani
War of 1965 over Kashmir and the Rann of Kutch.
Between 1947 and 1971, Pakistan consisted of two geographically separate regions, West Pakistan
and East Pakistan. During the 1960s, there was a rise in Bengali nationalism in East Pakistan, and
of allegations that economic development and hiring for government jobs favoured West Pakistan.
An independence movement in East Pakistan began to gather ground. After a nationwide uprising
in 1969, General Ayub Khan stepped down from office, handing power to General Yahya Khan,
who promised to hold general elections at the end of 1970. On the eve of the elections, a cyclone
struck East Pakistan killing approximately 500,000 people. Despite the tragedy and the additional
difficulty experienced by affected citizens in reaching the voting sites, the elections were held and
the results showed a clear division between East and West Pakistan. The Awami League, led by
Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, won a majority with 167 of the 169 East Pakistani seats, but with no
seats in West Pakistan, where the Pakistan Peoples Party led by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, won 85 seats.
However, Yahya Khan and Bhutto refused to hand over power to Mujib.
Meanwhile, Mujib initiated a civil disobedience movement, which was strongly supported by the
general population of East Pakistan, including most government workers. A round-table
conference between Yahya, Bhutto, and Mujib was convened in Dhaka, which, however, ended
without a solution. Soon thereafter, the West Pakistani Army commenced Operation Searchlight,
an organized crackdown on the East Pakistani army, police, politicians, civilians, and students in
Dhaka. Mujib and many other Awami League leaders were arrested, while others fled to
neighbouring India. On 27 March 27 1971, Major Ziaur Rahman, a Bengali war-veteran of the
East Bengal Regiment of the Pakistan Army, declared the independence of East Pakistan as the
new nation of Bangladesh on behalf of Mujib. The crackdown widened and escalated into a
guerrilla warfare between the Pakistani Army and the Mukti Bahini (Bengali "freedom fighters").
Although the killing of Bengalis was unsupported by the people of West Pakistan, it continued for
9 months. India supplied the Bengali rebels with arms and training, and, in addition, hosted more
than 10 million Bengali refugees who had fled the turmoil.
In March, 1971, India's Prime Minister, Indira Gandhi expressed sympathy for the East Pakistani
independence movement, opening India's borders to refugees and providing other assistance.
Following a period of covert and overt intervention by Indian forces, open hostilities broke out
between the two countries on December 3, 1971. In East Pakistan, the Pakistani Army led by
General A. A. K. Niazi, had already been weakened and exhausted by the Mukti Bahini's guerrilla
warfare. Outflanked and overwhelmed, the Pakistani army in the eastern theatre surrendered on
December 16, 1971, with nearly 90,000 soldiers taken as prisoners of war. The figures of the
Bengali civilian death toll from the war vary greatly, depending on the sources. Although
Pakistan's official report, by its Hamood-ur-Rahman Commission, places the figure at only 26,000,
other sources put the number between 1.25 to 1.5 million. Highest figure, reported only in the
media, is 3 million.
The result was the emergence of the new nation of Bangladesh. Discredited by the defeat, General
Yahya Khan resigned. Bhutto was inaugurated as president and chief martial law administrator on
20 December, 1971
Pakistan (1958-1971)
In 1958, military rule was set up in Pakistan by President Mirza and Ayub Khan took control under
martial law. In 1959, Ayub Khan set up a system called the Basic Democracies Order, which was
an indirect elective government system. Some thought of this new way of rule as “representational
dictatorship.” Later in 1962, a constitution was created which consolidated the power to the
president, giving him absolute power. The constitution also tried to make Pakistan to be a secular
state, dropping Islamic from its name The Islamic Republic of Pakistan, although the first
amendment changed Pakistan’s name back to its original state. The constitution was also based off
of the Basic Democracies system of representational government and martial law was officially
ended. In the election of 1965, Ayub Khan was reelected as president despite opposition from
Fatima Jinnah, who opposed Ayub Khan’s rule openly in her campaign. One reason for her defeat
was that in the Basic Democracy System, the president has much influence and has the ability to
manipulate the elected body to choose the favorable candidate. In 1969, Ayub Khan, with great
public opposition to his rule, resigned and put in place the chief of the army, General Agha
Muhammad Yahya Khan. Yahya Khan declared martial law, but promised elections in the near
future. In 1971, general elections were held and the Awami League, with its democratic principles,
was victorious gaining the title of Pakistan’s major political power. Zulifikar Bhutto was president
at the time and refused to accept the fact that Mujibur Rahman (head of the Awami League) had
gained the power to become Prime Minister. This conflict soon rose to noncooperation and then
Civil War between East (Rahman) and West (Bhutto) Pakistan. During this time Yahya Khan went
to Dhaka, East Pakistan to resolve these conflicts. After making no headway on the issues facing
the government, Yahya Khan secretly left Dhaka on March 25 for Karachi, ordering the army to
attack to restore order after he left. That night, the army conducted Operation Searchlight, which
killed thousands East Pakistanis in an uncalled for massacre. They also arrested Mujibur Rahman
and took him to be detained in West Pakistan. As a result of this conflict, on March 26, East
Pakistan, under the guidance of the Awami League, declared themselves independent under the
new name of Bangladesh. This conflict between the Awami League and the Pakistani military
would cost the lives of hundreds of thousands and cause ten million refugees to flee to neighboring
West Bengal. With the situation growing worse, Yahya Khan stepped down from office on
December 6, 1971, which led to a civilian rule in the near future.
Pakistan 1958-1971

Government . In 1958, in East Pakistan governor's rule was introduced. After a military coup d'etat
in Oct. 1958, Gen. Ayub Khan assumed the presidency in 1960. Martial law was introduced.
Constituencies were reorganized. A new constitution was promulgated in 1962. Ayub Khan had
little regard for democratic parties and politicians; he regarded democracy unsuitable for a country
like Pakistan. Reelected in January 1965, resigned in 1969 and was succeeded by General Yahya
Khan, who would be in office until 1971. Yahya Khan, in response to demands of the opposition,
promised "to return power to the people" (BBY 1971); a new constitution was to be prepared
(promulgated in 1973).
In elections in East Pakistan in Dec. 1970 / Jan. 1971, the Awami League lead by Sheikh Mujibur
Rakhman won a resounding victory, taking 167 of 169 seats. Both Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto (PPP) and
Sheikh Mijibur Rakhman (AL) pressed for restructuring Pakistan according federal lines; General
Yahya Khan responded by threatening to use the army in order to prevent the disintegration of
Pakistan. Negotiations were unsuccessful; elections for the National Assembly were postponed.
On March 26th, hostilities between the Pakistani army and pro-autonomy Bengalese broke out,
and the independence of Bangladesh was proclaimed. Yahya Khan resigned following the Indo-
Pakistani War of 1971 and was succeeded by Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto.

Foreign Policy: In 1958 the enclave of Gwadar (hitherto belonging to Oman) was annexed.
Afghanistan, from 1956 to 1972, proposed the establishment of a state to be called Pashtunistan
comprising of the North West Frontier Province and Agency.
In 1960, Nehru, PM of India, visited Pakistan and signed the Indus Water Treaty. In 1962, Pakistan,
Iran and Turkey established RCD (Regional Cooperation for Development, dissolved in 1979).
With the west supporting India in the Sino-Indian War of 1962, Pakistan reassessed her foreign
policy. While Pakistan continued her active membership in Commonwealth, CENTO and SEATO,
the country improved her relations with nations which, like Pakistan, were suspicious of India,
such as the PR China and Nepal. In 1962, Pakistan and the PR China signed an agreement over
their mutual borders. Relations with India deteriorated in the fall of 1963, as both countries
expelled the diplomats of the other. East Pakistan experienced the arrival of a new wave of Muslim
refugees from West Bengal; anti-Hindu riots broke out in East Bengal. Pakistan improved her
relations with the USSR.
Pakistan fought three wars with India, in 1948, 1965 and in 1971. The Second Indo-Pakistani War
of 1965, triggered by India's announcement to change the status of Indian-held Jammu & Kashmir,
was ended by the Tashkent Agreement of Jan. 1966, mediated by the USSR. Now Pakistan
reassessed her foreign policy, placing more importance on her relations with Asian states, most
notably the PR China and Indonesia; Pakistan supported the PR China bid for a seat in the United
Nations. Consequently, the level of foreign financial assistance granted to Pakistan declined.
India's increased military budget (1967), mainly for arms purchased from the USSR, resulted in
deterioration of Pakistan's relations with the USSR. In 1969 Pakistan announced its intention not
to extend the lease for the U.S. base at Peshawar.
The war of 1971 began as a confrontation between the Pakistani military and autonomy-minded
Bengalese. When an anonymous radio broadcast the declaration of an independent Bangladesh
(March 26th), violence escalated. A massive flow of refugees poured into India. India interfered
(Nov. 22nd), Pakistan was defeated, Bangladesh gained independence.
Domestic Policies: The economy of East Pakistan depended heavily on the export of jute. Falling
world market prices required the Pakistani government to subsidize East Pakistan, with revenue
generated in West Pakistan. General Ayub Khan (in charge 1958/1960-1969) implemented a land
reform (1959), breaking the hold of the traditional feudal landowners and granting it to peasants.
In the cities a policy to tear down slums was implemented.
The early years of Pakistani history (1947-1958) were marked by political instability; by imposing
martial law, Ayyub Khan was able to provide a degree of political stability, despite upheaval
caused by the Second Indo-Pakistani War. General Yahya Khan, by the excessive use of force,
caused an opposition to rise in East Pakistan (the Awami League) as well as in West Pakistan (the
PPP, established in 1967); both would succeed him in their respective regions. In October 1968 a
wave of demonstrations and riots began, which continued into 1969 and on March 25th caused
President Ayub Khan to resign.
The Economy: The administration established in Oct. 1958 introduced measures, which caused
market prices to fall, which marginalized the black market, which reduced tax evasion; the budget
was balanced for the years preceding the Second Indo-Pakistani War (1965).
In 1961 the Pakistani Rupee was decimalised. The country's first five year plan ended in 1960,
succeeded by the Second five year plan (1961-1965) and the Third Five Year Plan (1965-1970),
which had to be revised because of the Second Indo-Pakistani War (1965) and because of natural
disasters. "The outstanding feature of 1966 was the speed and resilience of Pakistan's recovery
from the severe strain of the war with India" (BBY 1967). The construction of hydroelectric dams
supported irrigation schemes, which, in combination with the land reform of 1959, resulted in a
considerable increase of agricultural production. The five year plans facilitated the establishment
of new industrial facilities, for instance a steel mill and an oil refinery in East Pakistan in 1966;
the country's industrial production grew from year to year.
The Industrial Regulations Ordinance (1969) granted labour unions the authority to negotiate with
employers on behalf of the employees.
In November 1970 East Pakistan suffered major inundation due to a combination of a cyclone and
tidal wave, causing an estimated 200,000 to 300,000 deaths.