Recycled tempered gl ass captures solar energy to heat air, which is circulated by an attic exhaust fan .

The fan and

plywood end wall are removable, permitting end-loading, in this case of 16' -long boa rds stickered in a 4' stack. The kiln
is unloaded when the desired moisture content is reached-15% to 18% for boatbuilding wood. Precautions against
deterioration, such as the use of treated lumber throughout and stepped flashing beh ind the bottom edge of the glass
side panels, help to prolong the kiln's life. Pieces securing the bottom of the wall glass may trap moisture; simple blocks
of wood or UMHW pl astic would work well.

~
o l a r kiln is a cos t-e ffec t ive way to dr y g ree n
lu m b e r. Tod ay, m an y ban dsaw o pe ra t o rs cu t
lu m be r from tr e e s th at g row in ab u n d ance in
much of America , and a solar kiln can not only finish the
d r yin g cycle m ore qui ck ly th an air drying but also avoid
d efects cause d by exp osUl'e to wea the r, m old , an d bugs,
The kiln d ries lum ber by co ntro lling temper ature an d
hum idity. H arnessin g the free ene rgy of th e sun , th e solar
kiln o perat es on th e n atu ral cycle of warm days and cooler
n ig h ts to ge n tly d r y wood and prevent in terna l st resses
that can r u in lu mber dried by ot her m ethods.
T he kiln presented her e is sim ple to bui ld , an d its o n ly
ope rat in g cos t is for e lec tr icity to run th e fan. T hese fac-
tors m ake th is kiln pract ical for the ge neral wo odwo rker,

90 WoodcnBoat 182

-:
and the structu re co u ld easily be length ened- an d per-
ha ps a secon d fan ad de d at th e o p posite en d-to h andl e
th e lo ng boards a n d timb ers needed by the boat b ui ld er,
How It Works
Evaporatio n fro m th e su rface of wood occu rs when su r-
rou nd ing air absorbs the water, The capac ity of air to hold
wat er is d ep e ndent o n te mperatllre , T hi s is exp ressed in
the te rm "relative hu m idi ty," where hu midity is the degr ee
of saturati o n in a given volume of air, co m pa re d to th e
amo unt it ca n hold at any given tem p e ratu re , Wh en tem-
peratures fall, m oi stu re from saturated air precipitat es.
Wh en te mp er at u r es ri se , the a ir ca n hold in cr e ased
a m o u nt s o f m oi sture , A tempe r ature in c re ase fro m
0
70 to 1200-which is th e ra nge in whi ch the so lar kiln
works- in crease s the a irs m oi stu r e-h o ldi n g ca p ac ity
tenfold. T he amb ien t ai r o n a hot , st icky day in summer
at 100% relati ve h u mi d ity, wh ich offers little ca p acity for
d r yin g , becomes desert-dry ai r o f 10% relati ve humid ity
0
when the su n heat s it to 120 in sid e the kiln .
Another operati n g prin cip le is the da ily warming a nd
coo ling cycle, in whi ch th e sun 's ene rgy shu ts o ff at n ight.
T h is is key to the trouble-free o pera tio n of th e solar kiln ,
T he da nger in herent in st a n d ard hot-air dryers is fiber
stress ca use d by shrin kin g of th e wo od 's su r face be fo re
its core ca n d r y. Su ch stress no t o n ly warps lu mber b ut
also ca uses "case h ardening," whi ch is what we encounter
when o u r saw blades b ind when we ' re sawing a board. In
th e sola r kiln , board s h ave a chance to "normalize " eve rv
d ay-what I like to th ink of as smoo thi ng o u t the d iffel:-
ences in m oi stu re level s th roughout the wood. Beca us e
of th is d aily cycle , wood int ended for so me furn itu re an d
ca bin joi ne r y will en d at th eir desired m o isture co ntent
Far left-Metal brackets
secure the t o p glass panels,
which exp and and cont ract
I
with heating a nd cooling , t o
the rafters. Soffit-vent cov ers
at the front and back walls
can be removed or adjusted
when ventilation is needed.
Left-5imple masonry blocks
form a rudim enta ry found a-
tion. An important de t ail is
t he stepped flashing set
behind the w all glass panels .
of 6 % to 8 % with m inima l o pera to r m an agement.
H o wever, for boatbu ild in g it is im portant to m on itor
m ois tu re co ntent to kee p it from going be low the desir-
a ble ra nge o f 15% to 18 %.
Building the So lar Kiln
T he kiln shown here has a ca pacity of 1,000 to 1,500 bd
ft of lumber, which is abou t o ne to n , or abo ut two to three
good-sized p ick up truck loads of ha rdw ood boards. T he
ki ln is b ui lt wid e e no ugh to h ol d a 4 ' stac k a n d long
eno ug h to fit th e longest lo gs we a re likely to have sawn ,
wh ich is usually 16 ', You can adapt th e size to sui t specific
cu tt in g needs, an d boatb uild ers would p rob abl y need a
longer kiln .
The co nstructio n uses sta nda rd 2x4s, Y., " plywood sides,
a Y." plywood fla m', and 4x4s and ca p blocks o r sho rt pOSLs
for a foundat ion . T he so u th wall a nd ro of are mad e from
recycled tempered glass of th e kind used in slid ing pati o
doors. Because th ese ther mopa ne uni ts have a nast)' habi t
of develo p in g air leaks in the sea ls, whi ch fogs the g lass,
used glass is readily availab le fro m co m pa nies that work
in th e replace ment b usiness. T he co n d it io n o f the sea l
d o es no t affec t the kiln , beca use we use single-laye r glass.
We d o n ' t n e e d t h e n ightt im e in sul a tin g qu ali t ie s o f
d ouble-pane glass b eca use th e kiln sh u ts d own an )'way,
an d during the day the seco n d pane wo u ld block 10% of
the su n lig h t. To se pa ra te th e o ld th er m opan e s, run a
util ity knife a ro un d th e edge be twe en th e glass an d th e
seal. Don 't scra pe what re mains of th e rubber sea l off th e
glass; leavin g it th ere will make fo r a be tte r in sta llation .
Before p lan ni ng a str ucture , you must first obtain the
recycled tem pered g lass. T he size of th e panes will det er-
m in e th e spaci ng of studs and rafters as well as th e exact
J anua ry/February 200:; 91
overa ll size o f the bu ildi ng. The standard th ermopan e in
an S '-wide patio door is 46 " x 76 " an d in a 6 '-wid e patio
d oo r 34" x 76 ". Eith er size will work; it is th e 76 " lengt h
that will span the width o f the roof. The edges of the glass
ne ed to b e su p p o rte d o n 2 x4 framin g , wh ich will b e
adjusted acc ord ing to th e size of th e g lass.
I h ave learned from dism antl ing older kilns th at using
pressure-treated wood will add years to a building's life .
Rafte rs , sills, he aders, flo o r pl ywood, and foundati on
framing all need to be rot-resist ant.
Don 't be co ncerne d with sto p p ing u p all th e crac ks
and sea ling the d oors. T his bu ildi ng works well with th e
level of co n str uc tio n used for a hen house . Some air flow
wou ld b e in order. To produce defe ct-fr e e lumber-
esp ec ially fre e from case-h arde n ing-vent the kiln as lit-
tle as possible, usually o nly if the temperature gets ab ove
0
ab ou t 140 The key is to move moisture out of th e wood
• ney" 6 " wide up the middle of th e stack closest to the fan.
by heat but no t cre ate a dry su rface, hen ce to keep th e
air warm bu t moist. Mo istu re will co n de nse o n th e kiln 's
walls at night, so a floo r drain migh t be inst alled.
T h e foot le dge on whi ch th e sou th wall's g lass rests
must be fitt ed with flashin g. bent to h ave a YJ " step so it
ex te n ds be h ind th e glass, over th e top of th e ledge , and
down the front. The ro o f glass ne eds special attent io n ,
too. U n like wood , glass ex p ands an d con trac ts with tem-
p erat ure cha nges. and this resu lts in a tenden cy of th e
roof glass to creep down the slo pe . To co u n te r thi s, a
bracke t mad e from a d ouble fold of flashing I Y.!" x 14 " is
screwed into the rafter near th e eave en d . If th ese scre ws
were set in the facing board o n ly an d not th e raft er, th e
glass ex pa n sio n cou ld push the fascia board a u t.
The kiln works when warm air is circ ula te d through
th e sta ck o f bo ards. Wit h good air circ u la tio n , no vent-
ing sho u ld be need ed un less exceed ingly ho t co n d ition s
prevai l. T he adjustable so ffi ts alo ng th e ea ves provide
ventilat io n when ne ed ed . A high-v olume fan circ u la tes
the air ; a 30 " att ic fan can do the j ob . The fan mounts o n
a removable 2x4 frame near the end o f the kiln th at opens
for load ing . T he frame fits into hol d in g slo ts so it ca n be
lifted out during lo ading or for servicin g. T h e power is
co ntrolle d thro ugh a the r mal switc h o f the sort u sed in
farm silos . This will be se t for seaso nal n ighttime tem-
0
p erature , wh ich in Mich igan is 700 in su mmer and 50 in
sp ring a n d fall .
Op erating the Kiln
Lu mber h as to be st acked in th e kiln by hand. For access
th e thre e 01' four times a yea r th at we load th e kiln , we
rem ove the en d p an el an d one sec tio n o f plywoo d in th e
back , where a man st ands to ad d st ickers durin g stac k-
in g. Having the back open also makes it bearable to wo rk
in there on a sunny day. After loading , th e large en d p anel
is scre wed into place, with a 16 "-wide secti on hinged to
affo rd easy acc ess to chec k th e kiln as drying progresses.
It h as proved co nve n ie nt to re move th e en d panel for
access, but the pan el is str uc tu ra lly necessary to keep the
building fro m sag ging, so it needs to be scre wed in place
excep t when load in g an d unloading.
The kiln co uld be loaded from the rear by a forklift, but
its str uctu re wou ld have to be strengthen ed with a co up le
o f 2 x 12s ac ro ss the top of the back wa ll to allow for th e
sim ulta neous removal of all the back plywood panels.
Scrap s cu t whi le mi lling can b e a so u rce o f stickers
92 Wo o r!CIlBO<1l 182
(the pi eces th at sepa ra te the b oa rd s in th e stac k), but
d on 't u se wet wo od h ere -it ca n ca use m o ld g row t h
known as sticker sta in. Take the time to make st ickers o f
dry wood , an d prot ect them from rain when they're not
in use . Ours are 1.1" thi ck by I " wid e rather th an the full
I " sq ua res that co m me rc ial o pe ra to rs use. When stac k-
ing, space the sticker s about 3 ' ap art and in line o ne ab ove
the other to avoid bending th e unsupported lower boards
with all th e dead we ight of the load above . You will need
ab out 200 sticker s when fillin g a kiln the size of o urs.
Also , when stac king lu m b e r, space the bo ards a few
inches apa rt side-to-side to in crease airflow. We have expe r-
imented wi th various ways o f m ovin g air, and we 've found
that it works best to sim p ly have a large-vol ume fan at o ne
en d flowin g th rough th e stac k with the boards spaced I "
to 2 " apart . However. we ofte n leave an additional "ch im-
If yo u' re drying to a low moisture co nte nt, th en once
th e wood is dry, restack it with out stickers. T he reason for
this is th at wood can ea sily reabs orb moi sture durin g po or
drying months. However, th is is not a prob lem if you are
only drying to the ambi ent o uts ide rel ative humidity.
Everyone asks how lon g it takes to dry lu mber in a solar
kiln. Ther e are many answers, ran ging from four week s
to six months, dep ending on the species of wood , its thi ck-
ness, th e sea so n, an d th e fin al m oistu re co nte nt desired.
Wood u sed in furni ture makin g is ge ne ra lly d ried to 7%
mo isture co nte nt, but for most b oatbui ldin g purpo ses,
15% to IS% is typical. Air dr ying l 'e thick hardwood wou ld
typi cally ta ke a yea r, wh ile so lar dr ying bo at lu mber will
take a month or six week s in summer.
Two other factors affec ting dr)~ n g times are the species
of wood an d its th ickness. Softwoods like pine will dry in
half the time of h ardwoods like oak o r maple . As thi ck-
ness increases, so does the length of time , in proportion:
twice the thi ckness, twice the time .
Because of its ni g ht shutdown charac te r istic, a so lar
kiln takes longer th a n other typ es of kiln s to d ry wood.
The seaso n , predictably, is also a major factor. I-Iere in
Michig an , kiln s wo rk effect ive ly from March through
O ctober. During winter, wood can be dri ed down to about
12 % to 15% moisture co n te n t- be lo w a boat bui lde rs
needs-but it takes wa rmer weather to reach th e lower
mo isture co ntent th at a furn iture maker wou ld prefe r.
Becau se of all these variables, you need to have a mois-
ture met er to tak e the guesswo rk out of de ciding when
to u nl o ad . Also , chec k th e moisture content p eri odically
wh ile unload in g , b ecause th e top layers dry sooner th an
lower o nes do . The qu ality of sun-exposed boards is likely
to be poor, so some kind of screeni ng th at keeps d irect
su n ligh t o ff the boards is de sirabl e .
The ben efits of a so lar kiln for a small shop operato r
are ou tsta n d in g. It provides th e means for co n vert ing
readi ly available gree n lu mb er int o fini shed stoc k. Low
co ns tr uc tion a nd operatin g co sts make it po ssible to eas-
ily b egin wit h a sin gle kiln a n d add another if needed.
Co u p le th ese eco no mics with a se lf-regu la t ing dryin g
cycle, an d you h ave a u ser-fr iendly system for the sm all
bo atshop . ..A..
[olin IFil5011 is a WOOdWOIilel; boatbuildei; and teacher living ill Charlotte,
Michigan. He also has a business sUI/jJlying materials to Shaker oval
box makers. He built his first solar dl)'ing kiln in 1984 and currentls
has fi ve.

Boat Planking-
Too Wet or Too Dry?
by Rich ard Jagels
A ll wood co ntains va rying amounts
of water. So me of thi s is in liquid
o r vapm' for m in ce ll ca vit ie s
(lumen s) ; this typ e is d ispl aced an d
is known as "free water." Wat er in cell
wall s, o n th e o t he r h and , is wea kly
held by che m ica l bonds to ce llu lose ;
termed "b o u n d wa te r," th is typ e is
m ore d iffi cu lt th an fr e e wa te r to
rem ove. If wo od is d r ied in an oven
at a bo u t 215°F (102 °C) , a te mpera-
ture j u st b arel y a b ove the bo ili n g
p o int of water, all Iree wat er an d just
ab o u t a ll bo un d water will b e
remove d . T h e we igh t of oven-d r ie d
( 0 0) wo o d b ecomes th e r eferen ce
p o int fo r d et erm ining the m oi st u re
co nt e nt o f woo d that co nta in s vary-
ing amou nts of free and bound water:
-.. --
I :.l7i"fiT::Ji ilJ
-..
Breaking strength
(modulus of rupture)
Stiffness
(modulus of elasticity)
Toughness
(rapidly applied load)
Tension perpendicular
to the grain
Surf ace hardness
Surface checking
Weight
Decay resistance
Planking or decking seams
* For this table, green wood has an MC above FSP (usually 30%); dry wood has an MC generally below 20%.
WOOD TECHNOLOGY ~
Me (%) = weig h t of wood co nt ain ing
water - 0 0 weigh t / OD weight x lOa,
Green Woo d
"Gree n wood " is a term that describes
wo o d th at h as wa ter-sa turate d ce ll
wa lls an d also co nta ins free water in
th e ce ll lu me n s. If bot h th e ce ll wall s
a n d lu m e n s a r e co m p lete ly fill ed
with water, g reen woo d h as reached
m aximum m oisture co ntent (Mmax) .
T hi s m aximu m is rare ly a ttained in
th e living tr ee , altho ug h the sa pwood
o f so me tall co n ifers suc h as redw ood
and "Vestern red ceda r m ay co me ver y
cl o se , Mm ax can range fro m 267%
for a wood th at has a specific g ra vity
o f 0.30 to as little as 44% fo r a wood
with a spe cific gravi ty o f O.90. Because
-
l'"H:I:lIR'I'IIll't"'
Lower
Lower
Often higher
May be higher, lower,
or the same
Lower
Generally absent
Higher
Low, but improving
toward Mmax
Tight
th e substance tha t co m poses ce ll walls
of wo od is heavi er th a n wat er (sp e-
cific g ra vity 1.5 versus 1.0 for water) ,
woo d ca n h ave a m o isture co n te n t
be low Mm ax a nd still sin k in water.
Various woods h ave varyin g abi li-
ties for a bsorbi ng m oi sture wh en in
d ir ect wa te r co n tact. Ad iro n d ack
g u id eboat builders often a rg ue d the
m e ri ts of pl ankin g th ei r boats with
n ati ve ce dar o r pine, T he advantages
o f cedar were revealed in the newly
co n structed boat, wh ich weighed less
than a boat p lanked with pine . At a
n omin al m oi sture co n te n t o f 16 % ,
ce dar we igh s abo u t 21 Ibs per cu b ic
foo t, whi le pine is closer to 25 Ibs. No t
a h u ge differen ce , but weig h t was a
cr itica l facto r in a bo at th at had to be
L!,li1l'1'!llI •..,
Higher
Higher
Often lower
May be higher, lower,
or the same
Higher
Increasing with
decreasing MC
Lower
Higher
Looser
January/ February 200.'i • 93
WOOD TEC HNO LOGY
ca rrie d on so me onc 's sho u lde rs over
lo n g po rt agcs betwe en lak es in th e
Ad irondacks.
As the seaso n p ro gressed , however,
p in e-p lanked b o a ts began to sho w
th eir su perio rity. T h e ce da r bo a ts
a bso r be d m a rc wate r a n d after sev-
e ra l week s becam e heavier than the
bo a ts pl an ke d with pine . To d ay, o f
co urse, we ca n sea l strip-b ui lt boats
to exclu de wat er- b u t not wit ho ut
ad d ing so me wcight with the cpoxy-
a nd-fi be rg lass sheath ing.
So how m uch wat er is d esirable in
trad iti on al boat p la n king , especially
bel ow th e wat c rl in e ? T he a nswer
depe nds o n th e typ e o f b o a t an d
whet her it will be o n a mo orin g all
seaso n or in and ou t of the water. T he
fo llowing d iscussion app lies mo st
cogc nt ly to a ca u lke d -sea m b o at,
bu t a lso has re levan ce fo r la pst ra ke
co ns tr uc tio n as well as for deckin g.
Fiber Saturation Point
T he table lists some contrasting prop-
ert ies for green a nd d r y wood . Man y
o f th e se p ro p ert ies beco me m o re
d ivergent as the d iffe ren ces in mois-
ture co ntent becom e greater below the
fibe r satu ra tio n po int. Wh at ex ac tly
is the fiber saturatio n point (FSP)? By
de fin itio n , it is g recn wo od th at h as
fully saturated cel l walls, bu t no water
in the ce ll lu me ns. Wo o d technol o-
g ists like th is co nce p tua l, a ltho ug h
somewhat a rt ific ia l, sta te becau se
wo od begins to sh rin k an d stre ngth
p ro perti es cha nge bel ow FSP wh ile
st re ng th a n d dimension al cha nges
rem ain un ch an ged ab ove it. Although
p recisely determin ing FSP is di fficult
(and wood rarely has a uniform mo is-
tu re co n te nt t hro ug ho u t), we ca n
detect whether we are above or below
FSP by how prop ert ies cha nge, or don' t
cha nge. In the ta ble, o nly weigh t and,
to so me d eg re e , d ecay resis ta n ce
cha nge above FSP, Decay resistan ce
is low at FSP, but as water re places air,
less oxygen is available for fu nga l res-
pira ti on unti l fin a lly at Mm ax no
gaseous oxygcn is availab le.
At wh a t m o isture co n te nt is FSP
reach ed ? T he ge ne ra l an swer is about
30%, But in some wood s, suc h as teak,
FSP ca n be as low as 18%-22%. Sin ce
d imensio n al an d stre ngt h p ro pert ies
va ry wi th moi stu re co nte n t, wo o d s
th at h ave a lowe r FSP will p ro d u ce
more sta b le plan king-o r deck ing.
To pu t some numbers to th e co nce p t,
if th e moi sture co ntent of planking
in a boat ra nges fro m 16% to 40%, a
wood like teak would sh rin k an d swell
o n ly be twe en 16% a n d a bout 2 1%
wh ile a wo od like oa k may shr in k and
swell between 16% an d 30%.
Me and Strength
Wo od technol o gists o fte n make th e
all-en co m passing sta te me nt that d r y
wood is stro nge r th an green wood. In
ter ms of stiffness an d breaking
streng th under a static load , the sta te-
men t is tr ue. But so me o the r streng th
properti es m ay be as high or high er
in gree n wood. Tough ness-strengt h
ofa bea m when a load is applied very
ra p id ly- is o fte n h ig h e r fo r g ree n
woo d . Similarly, altho ug h d r y wo od
may require a greater force to achieve
fa ilure u nde r a sta t ic lo a d . m ore
wo rk (fo rce through d ista n ce ) may
be ex pe n de d br eak ing a co mparable
g reen-wood beam . Wh at th ese da ta
sho w is that g reen wo od ben d s more
befo re b rea kin g , a bsorb in g co ns id-
erable ene rgy in the process. For some
species, tou ghn ess of green wood can

be dram ati cally hi gh er than for dry
wood . Southern yellow pines arc goo d
examples. An avcragc of three species
shows that to ug h ness of green wood
is almos t twice as high as wood at 12%
moi sture co ntent. On the o the r hand,
Dou glas-fir sho ws littl e di fferen ce in
to ug h ness re g ardl ess o f m oi sture
co nte nt.
The pmperty o f "tensio n pcrpcn -
di cular to th e g ra in" is o f inter est for
planking th at is fastened in such a way
th at sh rin kage or movem ent aga inst
fram ing can induce stresses across the
grain. Green wood may be more resis-
tant to splitt ing under these stresses,
althou gh in som e cases no d ifferen ces
ar e seen an d in other cases dry wood
is stronger, Amo ng th re e species of
wh ite oak, for exa m ple, stre ng th in
ten sion per pend icu lar to the grain is
hi g her in g ree n woo d of b u r oak
( Q uercu s macroca rpui , lower in gre en
wood of overcup oak ( Q uercus lyrata) ,
and essent ially the same fOI"green and
d ry wood at 12% moisture co nte nt of
po st oak ( Q uercus stella ta ) . Go figur e !
Shrinking and Swelling
One o f th e bi gg est co n cern s a bo at-
bui ld er h as wh en choosing a p p ro -
priate planking is how mu ch the
wood will shrink or swe ll with chang-
ing m oisture co ntent. Wh atever th c
cho ice of wood, quarter-sawn boards
will be more dimensi on all y sta b le
th an nat-sawn . But even quarter-sawn
woo d va r ies co ns ide ra bly betw e en
spec ies . In ge ne l"al, a species that
p rodu ces co p io us extrac tives in th c
hea rt wood will be more dimension-
ally sta ble, assu m ing th at o n ly heart-
wo od , and no sa p wood , is c ho se n .
The reason for th is is that the extr ac-
tives fill so me of the voi ds in th e ce ll
wall that mi g ht otherwise be occ u-
pi ed by wat er. T h erefore , th ese
wo ods re ach fiber satu rat ion at a
lower moisture co ntent. And as p re-
vio usly no ted , th is pro du ces more
stable wo od u nder varying mo isture
co ndit io ns.
U nfortu n a te ly, the p rescn ce of
he ar two od ex trac tives d o es not
precl ude a woo d from abso r bing
large qu an ti ties of water above FSP,
as in the ca se of ce d a r, and , th ere-
fo re , ad d ing co n sid e ra ble wei ght.
Effe ctive se al ers, including tun g
o r linse e d oi l, ca n reduce wat er
WOO D T E C H N O LO G Y
abso r ptio n to a co nside ra ble exte nt.
To summarize an d co me ba ck to
the question of how much moisture
is desirabl e in bo at pl ankin g, a sim-
pl e a nswe r is th at for a sma ll boat
where wei ght is im po rta nt, usu all y
meaning a bo at th at is in and out of
th e water, a low moisture co ntent of,
say, 12% to 16% is desirable, while for
a bo at tha t is larger an d stays in th e
wate r for the season, a h igher m o is-
turc co nte nt (20% to 30%) is gc nc r-
ally appro priate. Above 30% moisture
co nte nt, few advantages accrue. The
o n ly excep tio n is in creased d e cay
resistan ce , but th e sacrifice in terms
of in creased weight is likely not very
acceptab le. For example, ' ''estern red
ce d a r a t Mm ax wo uld have a mois-
tu re co ntent of more tha n 250 %-
qu ite a lo t of ex tra water to h a u l
a ro u nd . Rcga rd less o f boat size , a
woo d wit h h igh ex trac t ive co nte nt
sho uld bo th ret ard decay an d mi n i-
mize move me nt wit h mo istu re con-
tent cha nges. ~
IJl: Richa rd J agels is a professor offo rest
biot ogy at the University of Mai ne, Oron o.
Please send correspondence to D,;Ja geL, to the
care of Wooden Boat.