Chapter 1

THE PROBLEM

Background of the Study

Disaster preparedness refers to activities and

measures taken to prepare for and reduce the effects

of disasters. That is, to predict and, where possible,

prevent disasters, mitigate their impact on vulnerable

populations, and respond to and effectively cope with their

consequences (ISDR, 2007).

Disasters have harmfully affected human beings and

because of this, individuals and societies are trying to

make collaborative efforts to decrease their exposure to

the consequences of these disasters. But regardless of the

approach adopted, all of these efforts have the same goal:

Emergency management.

The concept disaster is defined as a serious

disruption of the functioning of a community or a society,

causing widespread human, material, economic or

environmental losses which exceed the ability of the

affected community/society to cope using its own resources

(ISDR, 2007). Paton and Johnston (2010) define disasters as

those events that displace the structural, economic,

organizational, cultural and spiritual well-being of

communities by destroying their means of existence.

 The Problem 13

Disaster could either be human-induced or natural

occurrences. Disasters are natural if they just happen

without being induced by humans like tsunamis, volcanoes,

earthquakes, storms and floods.

Adimola (2008) states that most of the natural

disasters which affect people in Africa are caused by the

weather, drought and floods but fewer disasters are caused

by earthquakes and volcanoes.

South Africa is a country not prone to spectacular

destructive and media intensive disasters such as volcanic

eruptions and massive earthquakes, but has rather been

dominated by localized incidents of veldt fires, informal

settlements fires, seasonal flooding in vulnerable

communities, drought and human made disasters such as oil

spills and mining accidents. According to UN ISDR (2006-

2007), when a natural hazard strikes, children are among

the most vulnerable population group, especially those

attending school in times of disaster. Furthermore during

disasters, school buildings are destroyed, taking away the

precious lives of children and teachers and stalling access

to education in the aftermath of disaster. This is

supported by the Pakistan earthquake in 2005, where over 16

000 children died in a school that collapsed and in a

mudslide in the Philippines, more than 200 school children

 The Problem 14

were buried alive. Therefore children need to be protected

before disaster strikes. Protecting children during natural

hazards requires two distinct yet inseparable priorities

for action: disaster risk education and school safety as

reported by ISDR (2006). Natural and man-made disasters

cannot be prevented, but at least communities can plan for

them through disaster management involving preparedness and

mitigation measures as indicated by UNESCO (2010).

According to Ozmen (2006), to prevent the huge

destructions and to become a disaster resistant society,

schools can play a pivotal role. For disaster preparedness

to be achieved in schools, Disaster Management Act (South

Africa, 2002) requires National Disaster Management Centre

(NDMC) to promote disaster management capacity building,

training and education throughout the country, including

schools. According to section 6.3.3 of the National

Disaster Management Framework of 2005, Disaster risk

reduction education must be integrated in primary and

secondary school curricula. Furthermore the National

Disaster Management Framework of 2005 under the theme “Use

knowledge, innovation and education to build a culture of

safety and resilience at all levels”, states that disasters

can be substantially reduced if people are well informed

and motivated towards a culture of disaster prevention and

 The Problem 15

resilience. With the theme of “Let our children teach us”,

the UNISDR (2007) states that children taught about

disasters can pass on to their parents what they have

learnt about hazards and risk reduction. The National

Disaster Management Framework (NDMF) (2005) encourages the

need to promote a culture of risk avoidance through

education and training throughout the Republic of South

Africa. The National Curriculum Statements also makes

provision for the teaching of hazards and disasters to

Grade 7 learners (DoE, 2008).

Parr (2015) in an article, “When disaster strikes our

campus,” of the Times Higher Education in the Asia

Universities Summit stressed that when fire ripped

through Glasgow School of Art’s historic Mackintosh

building, students looked on in horror. As the flames

engulfed the building, archivists suppressed their emotions

and provided fire fighters with detailed descriptions of

Mackintosh furniture, in the hope of saving it from the

inferno, which was thought to have been caused by flammable

gases from a canister of expanding foam.

He also quoted Greatrix (2015), the University of

Nottingham’s registrar during the Nottingham’s laboratory

for Sustainable Chemistry was destroyed in blaze September

of 2015 who stated that:

 The Problem 16

“At times of genuine crisis like this, people come

together and are very supportive and positive and are

willing to work together for the common good, regardless of

the size of the institution which shows the best of higher

education.”

Similarly, on 22 February 2011, an earthquake

measuring 6.3 on the Richter scale hit Christchurch, New

Zealand, killing 185 people. Four of the dead were students

or recent graduates of the city’s University of Canterbury.

The institution sustained significant damage in the

earthquake, which had been preceded six months earlier by

an even larger earthquake – although the September 2010

event did not claim any lives.

Lack (2018) in a seminar on “Reducing regional water

supply vulnerabilities and multi-city robustness conflicts

when confronting a deeply uncertain future” quoted

Mike Griffith, professor of structural engineering in

Adelaide’s School of Civil, Environmental and Mining

Engineering who mentioned that it was a tremendous

opportunity for the students to receive a first-hand

account of what earthquakes can do – not just to buildings

but also to a city and region and its ability to function.

They will also see the extent of other social impacts. They

were able to see the extent of the demolition necessary in

 The Problem 17

the central business district and the large residential

subdivisions rendered unliveable, as well as the design

features being incorporated into new buildings and the

state-of-the-art approaches being used to repair bridges,

port facilities and culturally significant buildings,”

Griffith explained.

“Campus shootings continue to occur because a very

small percentage of individuals who are motivated to

perpetrate these tragedies exist in the general

population,” says Michael Sulkowski, assistant professor in

the University of Arizona’s department of disability and

psycho-educational studies, who has researched contemporary

responses to violent campus attacks in the US.

When the worst does happen, universities have tried to

ensure that lessons are learned.

According to a 2015 Bureau of Justice Statistics

report, Campus Law Enforcement 2011-12, about 75 per cent

of US campuses had armed officers in the 2011-12 academic

year, compared with 68 per cent in 2004-05 (several years

before the Virginia Tech shooting). The percentage of

public campuses using armed officers (91 per cent) was

significantly higher than that of private institutions (36

per cent).
 The Problem 18

The report also found that “all but a few” campuses

had developed “sophisticated mass notification systems”,

using email, text messages and other methods to contact

students and staff in an emergency. It is also mentioned

that having recovered from a disaster does not make a

community immune. It is important to be in a state of

preparedness consistently.

According to Coppola (2011), the capacity to carry out

disaster management is by no means uniform. Whether it is

because of political, cultural, economic or other reasons,

the sad reality is that some countries and some regions are

more capable than others at addressing disaster problems.

However, regardless of its wealth and influence, no nation

is advanced enough to be fully immune from the disasters’

undesirable effects. He also states that several times each

year, the response requirements of catastrophic events

exceed the disaster management abilities of nations. In

these instances, the government of the affected countries

ask for aid in the international response community. This

cooperative international response is called international

disaster management. To strengthen efforts on international

disaster management, on December 11, 1937, the United

Nations General Assembly declared the 1990’s as the

“International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction

 The Problem 19

(IDNDR). This action was taken to promote internationally

coordinated efforts to reduce material, social and economic

disruptions caused by several disasters, especially in

developing countries.

He further states that research and practice support

the theory that there is a strong correlation between

disasters and poverty. It is well evident that those

developing countries exposed to disasters repeatedly

experience stagnant or negative rates of development over

time. Hurricane Mitch, which devastated as much as 70% of

the structure in Honduras and Nicaragua, is the prime

example, having been blamed with reversing the rates of

development in these areas and other parts of Central

America by at least a decade (UNISDR, 2006).

Further, Nettina (2009) mentioned that in the previous

years, the total number of catastrophic events has almost

doubled, showing a trend line from approximately 450 to 800

major emergencies per year. These emergencies vary from

natural disasters such as tsunamis, earthquake, and

typhoons. The increase is most marked in middle and low-

income countries, where emergency preparedness is often

insufficient. In 2004, after the Indian Ocean tsunami, in

Sri Lanka alone the physical infrastructure losses included

at least 92 partially or fully damaged institutions. In

 The Problem 20

addition, assessment after the Pakistan earthquake in

October 2005 showed that up to half of the health

facilities in the affected areas were non-functional

causing the death of hundreds of people.

At colleges and universities across the nation,

millions of bright young minds regularly bask in a safe

environment of learning and personal. But even though they

are a sanctuary for education, colleges and universities

are just as vulnerable to disasters as anywhere else.

Hurricanes, earthquakes and other disasters can halt

classes, disrupt campus life, damage buildings and leave

students stranded with nowhere to go (Barakat et al.,

2016).

They further stated that in the last decade, disasters

have affected university and college campuses with

disturbing frequency, sometimes causing death and injury,

but always imposing monetary losses and disruption of the

institution’s teaching, research, and public service.

Damage to buildings and infrastructure and interruption to

the institutional mission resulted in significant losses

that can be measured by faculty and student departures,

decreases in research funding, and increases in insurance

premiums. These losses could have been substantially

 The Problem 21

reduced or eliminated through comprehensive pre-disaster

planning and mitigation actions.

Now more than ever before, university and college

students are recognizing the need to be better prepared for

disasters. Students are becoming aware of the risks

associated with emergencies either by experience or by

having seen them in the media. They have realized that

disasters can damage homes, schools, businesses and

ultimately cause long term damage to the country’s economy.

When disaster strikes, it is not just academic staff and

students who are mobilized but also the university’s alumni

in all walks of life. The university made good use of

having a direct line to alumni politicians, to cut through

bureaucracy during a severe emergency. Universities will be

affected by natural disaster (Baker et al., 2011).

Although this is the prevailing situation, yet the

level of awareness and preparedness in meeting these

disasters is still uncertain. However, in order to answer

the question whether universities are prepared for disaster

or not, there are some other questions in mind which are

important to be answered such as - what is the state of

readiness of individuals and organizations to manage

disaster? Are the people in the University ready to face

disaster situations? What if the incident happens during

 The Problem 22

the school day? If it’s a biological or chemical event, do

the security personnel know how to shut down the air units?

What could be done if students have to stay overnight or

beyond the normal dismissal time? Can we feed them? Is it

immediate to feed the students, or keep them safe and

secured in the campus? Are staff members well trained to

deal with such a situation? How are we going to communicate

with the parents and the local government units? What if

cell phones don’t work and land lines are down? Do we have

a back-up system we can use?”

Sinha (2009) indicates that several countries in Asia

were also tormented by different disasters. One of which is

Pakistan which suffered in a 7.7 magnitude earthquake that

killed over 800 people and injured hundreds more in 2011.

Japan also has its fair share of experience during

disasters. The Japanese had a hard time for over a thousand

years from the effects of tsunamis. Almost 200 major

catastrophic events occurred in the last 1300 years alone

or an average of 6.7 years.

The Philippines is not an exemption from these natural

disasters, characterized as frequent, varied and severe, a

combination which has made the country particularly

attentive to disasters reduction.

 The Problem 23

According to Nilo, et. Al. (2007), the vulnerability

of the Philippine archipelago to hazards is due to its

location and natural attributes. It is located along the

typhoon belt in the Western Pacific Basin in the Pacific

Region where 33 percent of tropical cyclones develop.

Normally, the country faces 20 tropical cyclones a year, of

which 5 to 7 are destructive.

Rabonza (2010) mentioned that these natural disasters

which are hydro-meteorological hazards increased the cost

of Government at an average of Php15 Billion per year on

direct damages, excluding the indirect and secondary

impacts which would amount to more than 0.5% of the

national GDP.

While it is important to respond to disasters while

they occur, it is also equally important to look at ways

and means to prevent or, at least, minimize the possible

hazards of these disasters.

Lozada (2014) in his online article “Disaster

Management Chief says agency needs overhaul,” cited

National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council

(NDRRMC) Alexander Palma who said, “Disaster preparedness

must be practiced at the community level. Disaster risk

response and management (DRRM) is not a trend nor a passing

 The Problem 24

interest. It should be a way of life and everyone can and

should do something.”

Pama, who heads the National Disaster Risk Reduction

and Management Council (NDRRMC), delivered the 13th Jaime

V. Ongpin (JVO) annual memorial lecture at the Ateneo de

Manila University on the theme of shifting paradigms in

confronting disasters. He further said the biggest

challenge in building resiliency in the Philippines is that

people have not yet “understood and acknowledged that DRR

is the new norm.” He further emphasized that a shift to a

more proactive stance would be much more beneficial than

merely reacting when it comes to disaster risk management

and that the agency needed a boost in capacity, capability,

and credibility, but stressed that disaster preparedness is

also the business of every Filipino..

The Philippine government made this paradigm shift

with the enactment and implementation of Republic Act 10121

known as the Philippine Disaster Risk Reduction Management

Act of 2010 signed on May 27, 2010, by then President

Gloria Macapagal- Arroyo. The new Act strengthened the

capacity of the government in establishing a national

program on community preparedness. This law created the

National Disaster Risk Reduction Management Council

(NDRRMC. Under this new set-up, the government has four

 The Problem 25

thematic areas of focus: disaster prevention and

mitigation, disaster preparedness, disaster response, and

disaster rehabilitation and recovery (National Disaster

Risk Reduction and Management Council, Office of the Civil

Defense, 2010).

According to the National Disaster Risk Reduction and

Management Plan 2011-2020 (2010), disaster prevention and

mitigation avoid hazards and mitigate their potential

impacts by reducing vulnerabilities and exposure and

enhancing capabilities of the institution. Emergency

preparedness establishes and strengthens capacities of

Higher Educational Institutions (HEI’s) to anticipate, cope

and recover from the negative impacts of emergency

occurrences and disasters. Emergency responses provide life

preservation and meet the basic subsistence needs of

affected population based on acceptable standards during or

immediately after an emergency and emergency preparedness

and recovery restore and improve facilities, livelihood and

living conditions and organizational capacities of affected

communities.

Specific government agencies chair each thematic area.

Department of Science and technology covers disaster

prevention and mitigation. The Department of Interior and

Local Government oversees disaster preparedness, the

 The Problem 26

Department of Social Welfare and Development administers

disaster Relief Operation and the office of Civil Defense

Administer Disaster Response and National Economic

Development Authority directs disaster recovery and

rehabilitation (www.ndrrmc.gov.ph).

Aside from the National Council, various local

governments throughout the country established Local

Disaster Risk Reduction Management Offices at the regional,

provincial, municipal, city and barangay levels as

prescribed by Republic Act 10121. As functional arms of the

local governments, these Offices are mandated for creating

a Local Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Plan

according to the Framework of the NDRRMC.

However, this paradigm shift was put to the test in

2013 as consecutive, and overlapping crisis battered the

country. In October of the same year, a 7.2 Magnitude

earthquake struck Bohol killing 220 individuals and

affecting 671,000 families and hundreds more injured.

Seaports, airports, churches, buildings, schools, and

hospitals were damaged. Moreover, barely two months after

the Zamboanga siege and Bohol earthquake, the country was

not spared from the wrath of super typhoon Yolanda, which

is the most powerful and devastating tropical cyclone that

 The Problem 27

struck the Philippines (Report of the Commission on Audit,

2013).

Larazabal (2006) in his study, “Emergency and Disaster

Preparedness Program of the Bureau of Fire Protection in

Benguet province,” found out that there is a good and

smooth working relationship between the Higher Educational

Institutions when it comes to emergency preparedness.

Emergencies and disaster operations do not select what and

who to serve.

On the contrary, Palaroan’s (2007) study found out

that there is public apathy and non-concern of the

community when it comes to disaster preparedness.

Disasters bring about the loss of lives, property,

employment and damage to the physical infrastructure and

the environment. The number of reported disasters has

increased steadily over the past century and risen very

sharply during the past decade. While knowledge in fire,

earthquake and bomb threat can enhance the process of

disaster management, there is a perceived gap in

information coordination and sharing within the context of

disaster preparedness and management. Identification of key

disaster knowledge factors will be an enabler to prepare

and manage disasters successfully.

 The Problem 28

Disasters have harmfully affected human beings, thus

individuals and societies are trying to make collaborative

efforts to decrease their exposure to the consequences of

these disasters. But regardless of the approach adopted,

all of these efforts have the same goal: Emergency

management.

Coppola (2011) also states that several times each

year, the response requirements of catastrophic events

exceed the disaster management abilities of a single nation

or several nations. In these instances, the governments of

the affected countries ask for aid in the international

response community. This cooperative international response

is called international disaster management. To strengthen

efforts on international disaster management, on December

11, 1937, the United Nations General Assembly declared the

1990’s as the “International Decade for Natural Disaster

Reduction (IDNDR). This action was taken to promote

internationally coordinated efforts to reduce material,

social and economic disruptions caused by several

disasters, especially in developing countries. Moreover, he

also states that research and practice support the theory

that there is a strong correlation between disasters and

poverty. It is well evident that those developing countries

exposed to disasters repeatedly experience stagnant or

 The Problem 29

negative rates of development over time. Hurricane Mitch,

which devastated as much as 70% of the structure in

Honduras and Nicaragua, is the prime example, having been

blamed with reversing the rates of development in these

areas and other parts of Central America by at least a

decade (UNISDR, 2004).

Gamil (2016) of the Philippine Daily Inquirer stated

that the number of fires decreased but casualties had

increased. He further stated that the number of fires

declined in the first two months of 2016 but casualties

increased compared to the same period last year as the

Bureau of Fire Protection (BFP) statistics showed. The BFP

released the statistics as the country observed Fire

Prevention Month. By BFP’s tally, 2,571 fires were recorded

nationwide in January and February, mostly in residential

areas — a significant drop from the 3,103 fire incidents

reported in the same period in 2015. However, the number of

both civilian deaths and injuries rose this year compared

to the same time last year. In January and February, 66

people were killed and 173 were injured in fires, while

only 54 deaths and 158 injuries were recorded in the same

period last year.

BFP public information office chief Supt. Renato

Marcial told the Inquirer that the most vulnerable victims

 The Problem 30

of fatalities and casualties trapped in fires are children

and the elderly. He further stressed that these are

attributed to lack of preparation and when fire hits

certain areas, especially in informal settler sites with no

urban planning and no exit areas, people really get

trapped. “Where will they pass, where will they be

evacuated, who will put out the fire? These situations need

focused planning and preparation,” he added.

“Fire prevention is not just a family concern. It involves

the community. We must have disaster risk reduction

training and preparation; we need to enhance and strengthen

fire prevention and fire safety measures,” the official

said. He encouraged the public to conduct “hazard mapping”

in their homes by identifying and properly storing

flammable materials and ensuring that fire exits are always

accessible. They must also take note of the BFP’s hotline

117, or 7295166 in the National Capital Region.

He further mentioned that the top three causes of

fires nationwide are electrical failure or malfunction,

open flames and cigarette butts. It is also stated that

faulty electrical connections are consistently at the top

of the list. By BFP’s count, fire incidents escalated

nationwide from 15,897 in 2014 to 17,138 in 2015. But hopes

are high that the numbers could be reduced this year after
 The Problem 31

the BFP procured 469 new fire trucks last year to replace

those that were more than 30 years old.

In a report by Diola (2016) in the Philippine Star,

the buildings of the College of Arts and Sciences and

College of Engineering as well as the University Chapel of

the University of the East (UE) in Manila went aflame on

Saturday morning, reaching the eighth highest alarm level

as of 10 a.m.

Emergency dispatch server TXTFIRE Philippines recorded

the start of the fire at 9:35 a.m., moving up to Task Force

Charlie level. Task Force Charlie entails that the deputy

regional director of the Bureau of Fire Protection (BFP)

being alerted and involved in the operations.

The BFP noted in radio reports that the fire started

at the second floor of the College of Arts and Science

building. Fire authorities have managed to control the fire

by 10:39 a.m., TXTFIRE reported.

In Baguio city, a 3-storey high school building was

damaged by fire on Sunday, August 18 in Baguio City leaving

two injured. The old 3-storey University of Baguio (UB)

Preparatory High School went up in flames. Smoke was first

seen at about 11:00 AM but the fire became visible at the

mostly wooden structure only thirty minutes later. Fire

trucks from Baguio and Benguet were augmented by private

 The Problem 32

water delivery trucks. The fire was finally contained at

about 1:30 PM. The monsoon rains helped in putting off the

fire. Two University of Baguio employees were injured

causing the death of the other. This was the second time

the UB Prep High school burned down. Last February 2008,

the main building of the University of wooden structure was

razed to the ground.

Sabordino (2015) in her article, “Top 10 Strongest

Earthquakes to hit the Philippines” stated that in the

Philippines, there had been experiences of earthquakes

which include the following:

1. Magnitude 7.5 earthquake in Luzon (November 30,

1645). The magnitude 7.5 earthquake that crushed Luzon on

November 30, 1645 at about 8:00 pm was called the “most

terrible earthquake” in Philippines history. The Epicentre

of the said quake was in Nueva Ecija caused by the San

Manuel and Gabaldon Faults. The extent of the tremor was

felt as far as Cagayan Valley. It has caused many

landslides which buried many people alive and destroyed

many buildings and churches including Manila Cathedral.

That time, only Spanish are counted so the recorded number

of casualties was only 600 while the injured was 3,000.

2. Magnitude 7.3 earthquake in Casiguran (August 2,

1968). Most of the people in Casiguran, Aurora was still

 The Problem 33

fast asleep when a magnitude 7.3 earthquake struck at 4:19

a.m. of August 2, 1968.

It was another deadly and shocking seismic activity in

the country and the City of Manila got the most severe

damage. Many buildings were either damaged or destroyed

totally.

The said event was also called the Ruby Tower

earthquake after the said six-story building located in

Binondo collapsed, and caused the death of 260 people. A

total of 268 people died that day and 261 more were

injured.

3. Magnitude 8.0 earthquake in Mindanao (August 17,

1976). A magnitude 8.0 earthquake took place near Mindanao

and Sulu a little past midnight of August 17, 1976 that was

felt as far as Visayas. It was then followed by a massive 4

to 5 meters high tsunami covering 700 kilometers of

coastline bordering the island. Because it was dark, the

people were caught by the raging water which claimed 8,000

lives, injuring 10,000, and leaving 90,000 more, homeless.

4. Magnitude 6.5 quake in Ilocos Norte (August 17,

1983). The magnitude 6.5 quake in Ilocos Norte on August

17, 1983 happened around 8:18 p.m. and resulted to 16

casualties and 47 people got injured. It caused damages on

various establishments such as schools, buildings, malls,

 The Problem 34

residences, and etc. There were also landslides and sand

boils that followed the event.

5. Magnitude 7.8 earthquake in Northern and Central

Luzon (July 16, 1990). A total of 2,412 people died and at

least ₱10-billion worth of damages to public and private

properties was reported after a magnitude 7.8 earthquake

struck Northern and Central Luzon at around 4:00 p.m. of

July 16, 1990.

Hyatt Terraces Plaza, Nevada Hotel, Baguio Hilltop

Hotel, Baguio Park Hotel, and FRB Hotel, all in Baguio

collapsed trapping and burying people alive.

Although the epicentre was recorded in Nueva Ecija, it

caused more damage in the City of Pines and the quake that

just lasted for about a minute was one of the tragedies in

the country that would never be forgotten.

6. Magnitude 7.1 earthquake in Mindoro (November 15,

1994). November 15, 1994, at around 3:15 a.m., a magnitude

7.1 earthquake rocked Mindoro. A gigantic 8.5 meters (28

ft) tsunami then followed which devastated the islands of

Baco and Calapan, Mindoro.

A total of 7,566 houses were washed out and some 78

people died because of that tragedy.

7. Magnitude 7.5 earthquake in Central and Southern

Mindanao (March 5, 2002). A magnitude 7.5 Earthquake

 The Problem 35

resulted to the death of 15 people and injuring around a

hundred more in Central and Southern Mindanao on March 5,

2002. The said quake originated near the Cotabato Trench

that was followed by a tsunami. But it was the flood that

was generated by landslides and falling debris that caused

damage to an estimated 800 buildings.

8. Magnitude 6.9 earthquake struck Central Visayas

(February 6, 2012). A total of 51 people died, 62 still

missing and 112 were injured when a 6.9 earthquake Central

Visayas, particularly Negros and parts of Mindanao on

February 6, 2012. It caused a landslide which buried a

barangay, damaged 15,483 houses, and a total damage of

₱383-million on infrastructures and buildings was recorded.

9. Magnitude 7.6 earthquake happened near Guiuan,

Eastern Samar (August 31, 2012). A very strong earthquake

with a magnitude of 7.6 happened near Guiuan, Eastern Samar

on August 31, 2012 that was felt as far as Mindanao. The

Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology

(PHIVOLCS) issued a tsunami warning Level 3, but it was

lifted 5 hours later. The quake caused damage on homes,

bridges, and other infrastructures. There were also power

interruptions in the affected areas. But despite the

intensity only one person was reported dead and one injured

because of the landslide in Cagayan de Oro City.

 The Problem 36

10. Magnitude 7.2 earthquake in Bohol (October 15,

2013). People can still remember how they panicked in the

morning of October 15, 2013. It was around 8:12 a.m. when a

strong earthquake was felt here in Tacloban City with an

epicenter of the magnitude 7.2 earthquake. The quake

affected most of Central Visayas, particularly Bohol and

Cebu. It was felt in the whole area of Visayas and reached

as far as Masbate Island in the north and Cotabato in

Southern Mindanao.

According to the National Disaster Risk Reduction and

Management Council (NDRRMC), a total of 222 people died, 8

went missing and 976 others were injured. An estimated

73,000 structures were damaged wherein more than 14,500 of

which were destroyed totally.

The bad thing about an earthquake is that people cannot

prevent it and cannot predict it. People do not know when

exactly it would happen. Because of that, it would be

better for people to be prepared at all times. Participate

in Earthquake drills conducted by authorities, keep an

emergency kit in the house, don’t panic when it happens and

most importantly don’t forget to pray.

On Monday, 16 July 1990, a killer earthquake

unexpectedly hit and extensively devastated the City of

Baguio. As reported, the powerful temblor measured 7.7 in

 The Problem 37

the open-ended Richter scale and lasted for 45 seconds. It

was said to be the most destructive earthquake on record

within the Cordillera Region. There were numerous

aftershocks that followed and the strongest occurred at

3:15 a.m. of July 18, lasted for eight seconds and measured

5.3 on the Richter scale.

Fearing for their lives, many of Baguio's 120,000

people slept outdoors on Monday night. The city suffered

the most in terms of destruction to properties and numerous

deaths. Many commercial and government buildings, hotels,

inns, and residences were heavily damaged. The death toll

continued to rise as rescuers pulled more bodies from the

rubbles. It was estimated that as many as 1,000 people were

trapped and killed in damaged buildings.

The five-star Hyatt Terraces Plaza sustained the worst

damage when its terraced front collapsed onto the lobby

area, killing about 50 people. The Baguio Park Hotel along

Harrison Road was a total wreck. The luxurious Nevada Hotel

which is located right across from the main gate of Camp

John Hay was ripped in half by the quake, leaving a huge

gash in the middle of the structure. The Saint Vincent

Catholic Church along Naguilian Road was spared by the

strong quake however a portion of its retaining wall and

parking area was damaged and collapsed to the road below.

 The Problem 38

The church, which has withstood typhoons, bombings during

the Second World War, and other disasters, suffered only

minor damage.

Montenegro (2015) in her GMA New, “WATCH: Archive

footage of the 1990 Baguio earthquake” stated that in the

archive footage, the University of Baguio (UB), it was

initially reported that 23 people, mostly students, were

killed when the supporting structure of the commerce

building gave way. Nearby the FRB Building also crumbled to

the ground. The FRB building and UB are both owned by

Fernando Bautista, Sr. and his family. The Philippine

Military Academy at Fort Del Pilar was also one of the

worst hit portions in the city. The parade ground

mushroomed into a tent city where cadets pitched tents

after their barracks was destroyed. There were many other

buildings and familiar landmarks of Baguio which were

damaged and classified as hazards. These included the

Skyworld Condominium and Commercial Center along Session

Road, The Royal Inn at Magsaysay Avenue, and the

controversial Baguio Hilltop Hotel which was constructed on

a hill behind the Baguio Public Market. Because of the

extensive devastation, Baguio City was described to be a

virtual "war zone." Also, it was running low on water,

fuel, food, and other miscellaneous basic necessities to

 The Problem 39

include much-needed medicines for the injured and sick

people.

Rescue crews and relief supplies began to trickle into

Baguio as hope faded for hundreds of people believed

trapped under collapsed buildings as a result of Monday's

earthquake. Thousands of residents of the city huddled in

tattered tents and makeshift shelters in parks and streets.

Drenched by daily rains, many complained that they had no

food, water or medicine. Doctors working under umbrellas

and sheets of plastic had treated nearly 800 of the

injured. The city's three hospitals were all damaged and

without power. Aftershocks continued throughout the day.

Without electric power, rescue work at the Hyatt Terraces

and Nevada hotels stopped as daylight faded. Almost no

rescue operations were evident at the 20 other hotels and

at schools, office buildings and factories.

The three main access roads to Baguio were blocked by

landslides that hundreds of motorists were stuck along the

highways. The roads were totally impassable to vehicular

traffic. People desiring to leave the city had no other

alternative but to hike down Kennon Road, Marcos Highway,

or Naguilian Road. Different portions of Kennon Road were

blocked by landslides. This condition also made the

delivery of critically needed aid to the city impossible.

 The Problem 40

Loakan airport had to be temporarily closed to commercial

flights to allow food, supplies, equipment, and rescue

personnel to be transported by air using military and some

privately-owned aircraft.

This study intends to explore whether disaster

preparedness is achieved by learners and educators in

Higher Educational Institutions of Baguio City. The problem

statement will help the researcher to understand to which

extent Higher Educational Institutions of Baguio City

prepare learners to cope and respond appropriately to

disaster outbreak.

A list of disaster knowledge factors will be first

identified through a comprehensive literature review,

covering the whole disaster management cycle in the

specified disasters.

Based on these literature findings, informal

interviews will conducted among the respondents to explore

the influence and lacking areas relating to these factors

in practices and extent of knowledge of students and

employees of HEI in Baguio city proper procedures and

practices during Fire, Earthquake and Bomb Threat.

Importance of the Study

The objective of this paper is to present the findings

on benefits and challenges related to the disaster

 The Problem 41

knowledge factors. A comprehensive list of benefits and

challenges of disaster knowledge factors in managing

disasters.

The study aims to enhance and improve the

implementation of Higher Education Institution programs for

the protection of their employees, students, clients and

stakeholders within their respective schools. Thus, the

respondents of the study are expected to benefit directly

from the study.

Furthermore, this will also be help future researchers

and students of the University of Baguio who will conduct a

similar study, be a source of related literature on the

management aspects of succeeding studies.

This study is significant in the sense that its

findings will raise awareness to the school’s management on

the need for disaster preparedness. The study may serve as

a benchmark for quality Assurance and standard officers and

supervisors at all levels to advise schools on mitigation

and preparedness measures. The study may also offer the

Higher Educational Institutions information needed to

strengthen the present policies in order to improve on

disaster preparedness in schools. The finding of the study

may create awareness to the stakeholders on issues related

to disaster preparedness and security in schools.

 The Problem 42

Realizing the impact of disasters (natural and human

made) and absence of safety and audit measures in schools,

this research is intended to investigate and advocate, how

culture of safety can be practiced or adopted to enable the

safer environment (internal and external) for the future of

Baguio, the University of Baguio in particular, instead of

making safety and preparedness, a choice. Especially, the

researcher as a security officer of the University of

Baguio will endeavour into the school safety measures to

reduce the impact of natural or man-made hazards; and

develop the indicators on "Culture of Safety" in schools.

Theoretical and Conceptual Framework

Several theories and concepts culled from books,

journals, newspaper clippings and other research studies

provide the underpinnings of the interpretation of the

findings of the study.

The Philippine Disaster Reduction and Management Act

(RA 10121) shifted the policy environment and the way the

country deals with disasters from mere response to

preparedness. RA 10121 provides a comprehensive, all-

hazard, multi-sectoral, inter-agency, and community-based

approach to disaster risk management through the

formulation of the National Disaster Risk Management

Framework (National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management

 The Problem 43

Council, Office of the Civil Defense, 2010). The law also

promotes the development of capacities in disaster

management at the individual, organisational, and

institutional levels. A very important feature of this law

is its call for the mainstreaming of disaster risk

reduction in physical and land-use planning, budget,

infrastructure, education, health, environment, housing,

and other sectors.

RA 10121 also recognises local risk patterns and

trends and decentralisation of resources and

responsibilities and thus encourages the participation of

NGOs, private sectors, community-based organisations, and

community members in disaster management. It inhibits the

full participation of the Local Government Units (LGUs) and

communities in governance. The approach tends to be

“response-oriented” or “reactive.” This is evidenced by the

widespread emphasis on post-disaster relief and short-term

preparedness, such as forecasting and evacuation, rather

than on mitigation and post- disaster support for economic

recovery.

Finally, RA10121 provides for the calamity fund to be

used in support of disaster risk reduction or mitigation,

prevention, and preparedness activities for the potential

 The Problem 44

occurrence of disasters and not just for response, relief,

and rehabilitation efforts.

The “comprehensive emergency management” through a

series of common managerial functions, i.e., mitigation,

preparedness, response, and recovery, emergency managers

can organize their programs for an all-hazard approach

through implementing a series of broad strategies and

specific tactics (Drabek, 2004). Multiyear planning can be

guided by the “integrated emergency management” framework

proposed and numerous other guidance documents prepared.

Specific steps in building a community risk reduction

program may formulated (e.g., Philippine Red Cross) as have

tactical management models. Components of and exercising

strategies be developed for key community structures like

emergency operations centers (EOC’s). All of these

“normative” theories are relevant to emergency management

and provide emergency managers with important theoretical

foundations.

Structural Functionalism Theory

The structural-functional approach is a perspective in

sociological that sees schools as a complex system whose

parts work together to promote solidarity and stability.

Each structure has social functions or consequences for the

operation of school/ institution as a whole. Everyone in

 The Problem 45

the institution must work hand in hand to fulfil the

desired goal. It should not only be the administrators who

are involved but also, the students and employees take part

in any institutional program to be effective (Moffit,

n.d.).

Social Contract Theory

Rachels (2008) stressed Social Contract Theory assumes

that the world in a state of nature makes people’s lives

poor, nasty, brutish and short because of the four features

of the human condition; equality of need, scarcity, the

essential equality of human power and limited altruism. And

so many people have established governments using social

contract where they give up some of their personal freedom

and give the government the authority to enforce laws and

agreements for everyone to follow. Through this, they are

relatively safe from each other and can benefit from the

other social goods that will result.

Based on this theory, it is part of the institution’s

responsibilities to guarantee the safety of its student.

Students have come to expect that their school

administration will intervene in times of disaster and come

to their aid. That is why the institution should assure

their Emergency Management Team will respond to their needs

especially when disaster strikes.

 The Problem 46

Social Cognitive Theory (SCT)

This study utilizes the social cognitive perspective

that posits that a person’s behaviour can be explained in

terms of individual and environmental factors rather than

just being controlled by external stimuli or inner forces

(Bandura, 1978 as cited by Lee & Lemyre, 2009)). It assumes

that factors such as a person’s cognitive, affective, and

physiological aspects, behavioural patterns, as well as

environmental events operate as interacting determinants

and influence one another. Thus, it presents a framework

that highlights the interactive dynamic relationship of

personal and environmental factors, which determines an

individual’s behaviour.

A study that used SCT in the context of disaster

preparedness showed that people’s motivation to prepare for

disasters is a function of the cognitive and affective

reactions to a natural hazard. When individuals are

motivated, intentions to prepare are formed on the basis of

their outcome expectancies and self-efficacy. However,

translating these intentions to actions depend on whether

or not they transfer responsibility of preparedness to

others, have a strong sense of community, trust the sources

of disaster information, and perceive that the hazard

occurs infrequently. The findings of the said study support

 The Problem 47

the idea that individual and community factors contribute

to an individual’s intention to prepare for disasters

(McIvor, Paton, & Johnston, 2009).

Disaster management usually refers to the management

of natural catastrophes such as fire, flooding, or

earthquakes. Related techniques include crisis management,

contingency management, and risk management. It involves

preparing for a disaster before it happens, disaster

response (e.g. emergency evacuation), as well as

supporting, and rebuilding society after natural or human-

made disasters have occurred.

Clearly, the Community involvement is the key.

Building a resilient university with appropriate coping

mechanisms is the basic principle behind any successful

disaster management plan. And the other stakeholders are

like the Local Government and other competent authorities

like National disaster Management Authority; Volunteer

Groups; the Financing Institutions; private/business ; the

media; Red Cross society; hospitals and fire Fighting and

other services; academic community. Timeliness is the

essence and how quickly these stakeholders act and work

together is important ultimately. Each stakeholder has

his/her own responsibility in different phases of

Disasters. Furthermore, in each university, there should be

 The Problem 48

one person appointed by the campus chancellor or president

to be responsible for the assessment effort. This person

should be a high-level administrator who commands respect,

particularly among faculty, and can inspire the cooperation

of others with experience or data relevant to the issue. In

addition to faculty, this may include graduate and upper

division students under the guidance of faculty.

Additionally, campus administrative staff responsible for

planning, facilities management, risk management or

emergency response will have much to contribute to the

initial work.

Miasco (2017) in the Philippine Star “The Freeman,”

stated that Section 14 of the Republic Act 10121 (or the

Philippine Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Act of

2010) requires Department of Education (DepEd), Commission

on Higher Education (CHED), and Technical Education Skills

Development Authority (TESDA) to integrate disaster risk

education in school curricula. She further reiterated that

the law said DepEd and CHED have an important part to play

in the country’s approach to Disaster Risk Reduction and

Management. Moreover, she stressed that the disaster risk

reduction and management (DRRM) has been institutionalized

through its integration into the school curriculum. In the

same article, it was stated that college and university

 The Problem 49

students are further capacitated through civic education

and defense preparedness program.

Dr. Freddie Bernal, CHED-7 regional director, said

disaster mitigation, preparedness and management is among

the topics being taught to students through the National

Service Training Program (NSTP). He said all institutions

are required to organize their respective disaster

responders.

Individual Factors

Learning about the need and benefit of disaster

preparedness comes from personal experiences (Mishra, &

Suar, 2010).

In countries frequently visited by disasters, such as

the Philippines, the severity of previous disaster

experience as well as the level of perceived risks

associated with a disaster might influence how a person

prepares for disasters.

Severity of disaster experience

People who have experienced floods are believed to

most likely take special measures to prepare for it.

Previous disaster exposure is highly associated with the

degree of disaster preparedness in urban places in high

income countries. It can even be argued that preparedness

 The Problem 50

for a hazard depends on the amount of damage from previous

hazard experience (Takao et al., 2009).

Risk perception

Risk perception depends on how much the person

perceives the disaster as a threat and their assessment of

vulnerability to the impending disaster. People with low-

risk perceptions are more likely to poorly adjust to the

threats of natural hazards while those with high-risk

perceptions tend to anticipate the impact of disasters and

prepare more for them (Delfin & Gaillard, 2008).

For a better understanding of the contents of the

study, the following terms are defined either conceptually

or operationally.

Awareness is the continual process of collection,

analysing, and disseminating intelligence, information, and

knowledge to allow organizations and individuals to

anticipate requirements and to react effectively (Emergency

Preparedness 11: Glossary of Terms).

Disaster is defined as a serious disruption of the

functioning of a community or a society causing widespread

human, material, economic or environmental losses, which

exceed the ability of the affected community/society to

cope using its own resources (ISDR, 2012). Paton and

Johnston (2010) define disasters as those events that

 The Problem 51

displace the structural, economic, organizational, cultural

and spiritual well-being of communities by destroying their

means of existence. Disaster could either be human-induced

or natural occurrences. Disasters are natural if they just

happen without being induced by humans like tsunamis,

volcanoes, earthquakes, storms and floods.

Disaster management. According to the Disaster

Management Act (South Africa, 2002), means a continuous and

integrated multi -sectoral, multi-disciplinary process of

planning and implementation of measures aimed at:

(a) Preventing or reducing the risk of disasters;

(b) Mitigating the severity or consequences of

disasters;

(c) Emergency preparedness;

(d) A rapid and effective response to disasters; and

(e) Post-disaster recovery and rehabilitation.

Disaster preparedness refers to activities and

measures taken in advance to ensure effective response to

the impact of disasters, including the issuance of timely

and effective early warnings and the temporary removal of

people and property from a threatened location.

Disaster prevention refers to those activities that

provide outright avoidance of the adverse impact of hazards

 The Problem 52

and related environmental, technological and biological

disasters.

Disaster Risk Reduction is defined as the systematic

development and application of policies, strategies and

practices to minimize vulnerabilities and disaster risks

throughout a society, to avoid (prevention) or to limit

(mitigation and preparedness) adverse impact of hazards,

within the broad context of sustainable development as

reported in ISDR (2002).

An emergency is a situation that poses an immediate

risk to health, life, property, or environment.

Most emergencies require urgent intervention to prevent a

worsening of the situation, although in some situations,

mitigation may not be possible and agencies may only be

able to offer palliative care for the aftermath.

Emergency preparedness is the ability to survive on

your own, without rescuer assistance, for a period of time

after a critical event such as a weather disaster or

terrorist attack. Full preparedness includes a family

safety plan, to reunite family members after the critical

event, who to contact for family information and evacuation

plans.

Hazard is defined as a potentially damaging physical

event, phenomenon or human activity, which may cause the

 The Problem 53

loss of life or injury, property damage, social and

economic disruption or environmental degradation (ISDR,

2002).

Preparedness. It is the range of deliberate, critical

tasks and activities necessary to build, sustain, and

improve the operational capability to prevent, protect

against, respond to, and recover from domestic incidents.

Preparedness is a continuous process involving efforts at

all levels of government and between government and

private-sector and non-governmental organizations to

identify threats, determine vulnerabilities, and identify

required resources (Emergency Preparedness 11: Glossary of

Terms).

Prevention. These are actions taken to avoid an

incident or to intervene to stop an incident from

occurring. Prevention involves actions taken to protect

lives and property. It involves applying intelligence and

other information to a range of activities that may include

such countermeasures as deterrence operations; heightened

inspections; improved surveillance and security operations;

investigations to determine the full nature and source of

the threat; public health and agricultural surveillance and

testing processes; immunizations, isolation or quarantine;

and, as appropriate, specific law enforcement operations

 The Problem 54

aimed at deterring, pre-empting, interdicting, or

disruption illegal activity and apprehending potential

perpetrators and bringing them to justice (Emergency

Preparedness 11: Glossary of Terms).

Stakeholders. This pertains to the employees and

students of the HEIs of the study.

Paradigm of the Study

Since the achievement of disaster preparedness in

schools by learners and educators is critical, and can be

achieved through an integration of disaster education in

the national curriculum, teaching and learning as well as

assessment of learners. This study intends to explore

whether disaster preparedness is achieved by the learners,

employees and educators in the higher educational

institutions of Baguio City.

The content of the paradigm of the study states the

main point of the study which focuses on the perception of

the stakeholders on the emergency management programs in

the higher educational institution in Baguio City.

Figure 1 presents the paradigm of the study.

 The Problem 55

INPUT PROCESS EXPECTED

OUTCOME
Emergency  Extent of

Preparedness knowledge of
educators, To come up
Practices of the
employees and with an
Stakeholders at students about
Enhanced and
HEIs in Baguio the proper
procedures and Effective
City
practices Emergency
during disaster
Management
of the HEIs in
Baguio City Plan for

Higher
 Extent of
Importance of Educational
the Emergency Institutions
Preparedness
of Baguio
Programs of the
HEIs City.

Figure 1. Paradigm of the Study

 The Problem 56

Statement of the Problem and Hypotheses

The study sought to determine the extent to which

emergency preparedness is achieved among higher educational

institutions in Baguio City.

Specifically, the study sought to answer the following

problems:

1. What are the emergency preparedness practices of

the employees and students of the higher

educational institutions of Baguio City?

Hypothesis: There are several emergency

preparedness practices of the employees and

students of the higher educational institutions of

Baguio City.

2. What is the extent of knowledge of the stakeholders

about emergency preparedness education among the

higher educational institutions in Baguio City?

2.1. Are there significant differences in the extent

of knowledge of the stakeholders about emergency

preparedness education among the higher educational

institutions in Baguio City considering group of

respondents and institutions?

Hypothesis: There are no significant differences in

the extent of knowledge of the stakeholders about

emergency preparedness education among the higher

 The Problem 57

educational institutions in Baguio City considering

group of respondents and institutions

3. What is the perceived extent of importance of the

Emergency Preparedness Programs/Policies of the

higher educational institutions of Baguio City?

3.1. Are there significant differences in the

perceived extent of importance of the Emergency

Preparedness Programs/Policies of the higher

educational institutions of Baguio City considering

group of respondents and institutions?

Hypothesis: There are no significant differences in

the perceived extent of importance of the Emergency

Preparedness Programs/Policies of the higher

educational institutions of Baguio City considering

group of respondents and institutions.

4. What programs can be enhanced and developed to

improve the disaster preparedness education among

the Higher Educational Institution in Baguio City?

The Problem 58