The geometry and distribution of thrust-fold-related fractures in limestones:

implications for the hydrocarbon prospectivity of the Potwar fold belt, northern
Pakistan.
Keele University in collaboration with the British Geological Survey (BGS) and Orient Petroleum Limited (OPL), Pakistan.

Supervisors: Dr Stuart M. Clarke (Keele), Dr Richard Haslam (BGS), Dr Graham Leslie (BGS), Tomas Cain (Keele) & Prof Stuart D. Burley (OPL & Keele).

Overview
Carbonate reservoirs host some of the biggest
hydrocarbon discoveries worldwide. However,
reservoir quality and prospectivity in carbonates is
commonly a function of porosity and permeability
provided by secondary (post-depositional)
characteristics, such as fractures (right), rather
than the primary (depositional) characteristics of
the matrix. Without the presence of fractures,
many carbonates are tight to both oil and gas and
do not typically host viable fields. Consequently,
the structural geological history of carbonates is
an important factor in governing their future
reservoir potential. Post-depositional shortening
by thin-skinned thrusting produces characteristic
fold styles within thrusted blocks that host
spectacular fracture networks, thus dramatically
Fractured limestones of the Potwar Basin, Pakistan
increasing reservoir potential.
This project will use high quality field outcrops to define fracture characteristics in folded limestones for fold
geometries related to thin-skinned thrust tectonics. Those data will be used to develop generic models of
fold-related fractures to provide input for reservoir simulation in thrust-fold-related carbonate reservoirs.
The work will be applied to a series of proven hydrocarbon fields in the Potwar Basin of the Pakistani
Himalayan foreland where thrust-related anticlines host reservoirs within fractured carbonate rocks.

Methodology
A common approach to the modelling of fractures and fracture
distribution in limestones (as well as in clastics) is to construct
Discrete Fracture Networks (DFNs) that statistically predict the
likely distribution of fracturing throughout the potential
reservoir. DFNs can be incorporated into static geocellular
reservoir models, and up-scaled to dynamic simulations to
predict reservoir fluid migration. However, the construction of
reliable and representative DFNs requires good control upon the
geometry, distribution and character of different fracture sets
within the carbonate reservoir, and their relationships to the
Discrete Fracture Network (DFN) modelling geometry of folding and the fold-controlling structures.
Equivalent sections and analogues to hydrocarbon fields in the Potwar Basin are well-exposed at locations
within the Himalayan foreland. These outcrops, along with suitable analogues from areas of Europe, will be
used to collect data on fracture characteristics using traditional field methods, augmented by extensive
drone-based photogrammetry. Field data will be used to develop generic 3D models of fracture properties
in relation to fold and fault geometry.

Field data and interpretations will be integrated with

subsurface data, including seismic and well data, from the
Potwar Basin provided by Orient Petroleum Limited (OPL), an
oil and gas field company based in London and Pakistan. Seismic
data will be interpreted for structural geometry and used to
construct well-constrained geological models. The results of
fieldwork will guide the interpretation of 1D well data within the
framework of the structural geometries provided from the
geological models. The result will be a set of well-constrained
fracture models related to structural style that can form the
inputs to DFN simulations and fluid migration studies for fields
Limestones in the Nammal Gorge,
and new prospects in the Potwar Basin. Himalayan Foreland

Timeline
Year 1: PhD Training; literature review (fracture characterisation, modelling and field data capture; geology
of the Potwar Basin and Himalayan foreland, Pakistan); initial subsurface data familiarisation; construction
of Petrel project and initial evaluation of structural styles; evaluation of structural styles from potential
outcrop analogues and formulation of fieldwork plan; major fieldwork in the Potwar Basin to record
fracture characteristics (principally length, aperture, shape, density, relative history, relations to
stratigraphy and set patterns) using traditional field methods and drones; initial, analysis of fieldwork data
to derive trends and relationships in fracture characteristics and connectivity, and to evaluate the
contribution that drone-based photogrammetry can bring to the analysis; development of initial generic
fracture models.
Year 2: Interpretation of seismic over area of interest to refine and tighten interpretation of structural
styles, and to develop a geological model; further fieldwork to capture further fracture data based on
results and outcomes of 1st field season; sampling of outcrops for laboratory tests and petrography;
analysis of field data including laboratory testing and petrography; incorporation into geological model;
refinement of fracture distributions and models in relation to structure; subsurface fracture interpretation
guided by fieldwork analysis; presentation at major international conference and development of first
paper - fracture relationships in limestone to fold style in thin-skin thrust tectonics.
Year 3: Development of geo-mechanical models (Move™) and restoration; predictions of stress and strain
to better constrain fracture models; progression of models towards DFN and flow simulation, with OPL;
Preparation and submission of a thesis and publications in peer-reviewed journals; presentations to
partners and to a major international conference.
Skills, training and experience
This project will provide the student with high-end
training in a variety of industry-standard modelling
techniques including, geological / geo-mechanical
modelling, structural restoration, seismic interpretation,
well log analysis and interpretation, DFN simulation,
geocellular flow simulation; and industry standard
software packages including Petrel™ and Move™.
Fieldwork forms an extensive part of this project and the
student will gain good experience in field techniques for
structural data collection and analysis, including modern
digital methods of field data capture, as well as
experience in fieldwork planning, logistics and
execution. Additionally, the project provides
opportunities for secondment with OPL for short periods
of time, which will include interaction with OPL
geoscientists and exposure to specialist software in Modelling of thrust-related folds and faults from seismic data
fracture modelling and simulation.
The Basin Dynamics Research Group at Keele has an excellent track record of experience in structural
modelling and fault / fracture prediction in a variety of geological settings. Past members of the group have
investigated fault property modelling, fault relationships, and fracture prediction in clastic successions, and
fracture prediction in response to extensional faulting. Current members of the group work on fracture
prediction and characterisation in mixed clastic and carbonate successions in response to strike-slip
deformation, and fracture and deformation band characterisation in relation to clastic facies. This project
provides a natural extension of past and current work within the group, and the group’s expertise provide a
good grounding for the work.
The British Geological Survey (BGS) is actively researching the effect of fracture networks within the
subsurface and their control upon fluid flow. This project is fully integrated with current BGS research and
the student would work closely with BGS staff. The BGS will provide additional training on fracture
characterisation and data collection in the field, as well as access to its laboratory resources. Keele and BGS
have a long relationship of collaboration and this project marries strong expertise from both institutions.

Funding
This project is a fully funded position for three years. Funding is provided by OPL and Keele University, and
supports RCUK-level stipend, a fees bursary and annual travel and subsistence allowance. Fieldwork is
supported by OPL.
Start Date: May – September 2018

Further information and application

For further information on the project please feel free to contact the lead supervisor, Stuart Clarke:
s.m.clarke@keele.ac.uk +44 (0)1782 733171
www.keele.ac.uk/bdrg/

For further information on applying to study at Keele please see:

http://www.keele.ac.uk/pgresearch/howtoapply/

Applications are handled centrally through Keele University’s central admissions system:
http://www.keele.ac.uk/researchsubjects/earthsciences