William Alek - Building Free Energy and Exotic Propulsion Devices That Use Gravimetric Mass Fluctuations

HOW TO BUILD
FREE ENERGY
AND
EXOTIC PROPULSION
DEVICES AND SYSTEMS
THAT UTILIZE
GRAVIMETRIC MASS
FLUCTUATIONS
William S. Alek
INTALEK, INC., 3506 43rd Place,
Highland, IN 46322-3129, USA
Phone:(219) 924-2742
http://www.intalek.com/
mailto:alekws@intalek.com
ABSTRACT: The purpose of this paper is to reveal a portion of classical physics that contains an intrinsic relativistic
phenomenon called Gravimetric Mass Fluctuations. A correlation has been established between mass, inductors, and
capacitors, thereby linking gravity with electromagnetism. A simplified gravity-based relativity model called Natural
Relativity Theory is presented and shown to be a primary gravitational effect. This theory is correlated to Einstein's
Special Relativity Theory, and as a consequence, creates a new “Principle of Equivalence Theorem” and a secondary
gravitational effect. The speed of light c, Planck's constant h, permeability µ0, permittivity ε0, Boltzmann's Constant k,
electric charge q, and the Fine Structure Constant α are invariant between equipotential surfaces of gravity because the
fluctuation or curvature of the parameters that compose these constants evaluate to unity gain. Therefore, these
constants remain constant throughout the gravity well. Gravitomagnetic Theory shows that a moving electron produces
a special relativistic mass fluctuation that extends from its’ classic radius to infinity, and couples to gravity. This
motion can either have a typical velocity or a complex (i.e., time-reversed) velocity. If the velocity is complex, then the
special relativistic mass fluctuation of an electron is NEGATIVE, exhibit an antigravitational effect and produce a
complex (i.e., time-reversed) magnetic field. In addition, the total field energy of a complex magnetic field contained
within a volume is NEGATIVE. In the Bohr model of the Hydrogen atom, an Amperian Current is described as an
electron circulating around a nucleus at a relativistic speed. This creates a magnetic induction emerging from the center
of the nucleus. Canceling this field by applying an external magnetic induction causes the velocity of the electron to
become complex. Again, if the velocity is complex, then the special relativistic mass fluctuation of an electron is
NEGATIVE and exhibits an antigravitational effect. The presence of NEGATIVE RESISTANCE, the production of
NEGATIVE ENERGY, and the control of GRAVITY/ANTIGRAVITY occur by fluctuating the mass of an object. The
theory presents a conceptual breakthrough in energy and high-speed field propulsion technology, and explores
solutions based entirely upon classical physics.
INTRODUCTION
Puthoff (1996) coined the phrase, “metric engineering”, and Puthoff, Little and Ibison (2002) consider the vacuum
to be a polarizable medium, and that it can be expressed in terms of tensor formulations of curved space-time. The
bending of light passing near a massive object is caused by induced spatial variation in the refractive index of the
vacuum near the object. This is correlated to changes in permeability µ0 and permittivity ε0 of the vacuum. Changes
occurring in the vacuum also affect the mass of objects, the length and bending of rulers, the frequency of clocks,
the energy of light, etc. This paper links gravity with electromagnetism by presenting formulations of curved space-
time in terms of classical physics, which are caused by relativistic fluctuations of mass M , inductance L , and
capacitance C of an object. For example, when an object with mass M naturally falls downward in a given gravity
well, its’ natural relativistic mass M increases due to Newtonian Gravitation, or universal mass attraction.
Therefore, the new mass M + M of an object is correlated to a new position within this well, and mass-energy
remains conserved. However, by converting this increase in relativistic mass M to energy, a force acts upon the
Gravimetric Mass Fluctuations INTALEK, INC. Rev 2.6
object due to this fluctuation, and the new mass M is now correlated to its’ previous position that was higher
vertically in the well. The object exhibits an antigravitational effect. The rate of change of this fluctuation could
cause the speed of the object to exceed the speed of light. This is because the relativistic mass M of the object is
being removed or converted at a rate that is faster than it naturally accumulates due to gravity and motion.
EVERYTHING IN THIS UNIVERSE IS CURVED!

CURVATURE SAME OBJECT WITH SAME OBJECT WITH
DUE TO MASS OF 1kg AND MASS OF 1kg AND
GRAVITY VOLUME OF 1m3 VOLUME OF 1m3
OBSERVER ON MOON
WOULD SEE SAME
OBJECT ON EARTH AS
BEING MORE MASSIVE
AND SMALLER IN SIZE
gMOON g0
r r
EYE EYE
OBSERVER ON EARTH
SURFACE OF SURFACE OF WOULD SEE SAME
OBJECT ON MOON AS
MOON EARTH BEING LESS MASSIVE
AND LARGER IN SIZE
FIGURE 1. The same sphere changes in mass and size due to changes of gravity.
Shown above are two spheres with equal mass and size. Since the gravity of the Moon g MOON is approximately 1 6
the gravity of the Earth g 0 , an observer on the Moon would measure an identical sphere on the Earth as having more
mass and being smaller in volume. Likewise, an observer on the Earth would measure an identical sphere on the
Moon as having less mass, and larger in volume. This is due to the curvature of space and time caused by universal
mass attraction, or gravity. So, relative to an observer on the Earth, a 1 kg sphere of mass on the Moon has less mass
than the same 1 kg sphere of mass on the Earth. And, a 1m3 sphere of volume on the Moon is larger in size than the
same 1m3 sphere of volume on the Earth. This relativistic change in mass and volume are referred to as
Gravimetric Mass Fluctuations, or GMF.
THE MUTUAL EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE

Marmet (2001) considers “separately” the influence of a gravitational potential upon matter, and assumes for the
moment that kinetic energy is zero. He’s implicitly invoking what I call the mutual exclusion principle, and
therefore, considers kinetic energy and gravitational energy independently. The mutual exclusion principle is a tool
used to compute the curvature or fluctuation of various parameters related to Gravimetric Energy systems. For
Kinetic Energy systems, the following flux-based parameters mass M , inductor L , and capacitor C , are invariant
between equipotential surfaces of gravity gY . However, for Gravimetric Energy systems, and given an
equipotential surface of gravity reference, the following temporal-based parameters relativistic mass ±∆M ,
relativistic inductor ±∆L , and relativistic capacitor ±∆C , fluctuate or curve between equipotential surfaces of
gravity. The kinetic energy of Gravimetric Energy systems is assumed to be zero. By applying the product rule, the
mutual exclusion principle is mathematically expressed as,
d dx dy
z (t ) = ( x y) = y + x = yx+ x y
dt dt dt
Where, the Flux Coupling Term is,
z (t ) = y x
And the Gravimetric Coupling Term or temporal-based fluctuating system is,
William Alek Page 2 1/10/2005

z (t ) = x y
The first term is regarded as kinetic or fluxes, and therefore, couples to inertia and is Newtonian-based. The second
term is regarded as temporal, and therefore, couples to gravity and is non-Newtonian-based. This principle, which
has been implicitly used for several centuries, excludes one term from the other. The fixed distance + y and the
changing distance + y or +∆y are directed towards the center of gravity. The fixed distance + x and the changing
distance + x or +∆x are directed across an equipotential surface of gravity.
GRAVIMETRIC MASS FLUCTUATION

FLUCTUATING
MASS
M ±M
−y
r∓r g0
+y
FIGURE 2. The fluctuating mass of an object.
The complete ideal momentum model is composed of two terms,
dpY d ( M vY ) dv dM
fM (t ) = = = M Y + vY = M vY + vY M (1)
dt dt dt dt
Where, the Flux Coupling Term is M vY , and mass M is invariant within any equipotential surface of gravity gY .
The Gravimetric Coupling Term is vY M , and changing mass M fluctuates between equipotential surfaces of
gravity.
For a “mass fluctuating system”, the Gravimetric Coupling Term is NOT zero Newtons. So, given an object
having mass M moving at constant velocity vY , or vY = 0 m s , the Flux Coupling Term is,
2
fM (t ) = M vY = 0 N (2)
This removes the Flux Coupling Term, leaving only the Gravimetric Coupling Term,
fM (t ) = vY M ≠ 0 N (3)
Since M has units of resistance in mNs m 2 , its direction of change could either be POSITIVE or NEGATIVE. If
M is negative, it has units of negative resistance or,
M < 0 mNs m 2 (4)
Now, the instantaneous gravitationally induced power PM of a fluctuating mass M is,
PM (t ) = vY fM (t ) = vY 2 M (5)

So, for certain values of M , the total instantaneous power PM can be NEGATIVE or,
PM (t ) < 0 Watts (6)
Then, integrating PM with respect to time when the total power is less than zero watts results in NEGATIVE energy
of mass M or,
EM (t ) = ∫ PM (t ) dt = vY 2 ∫ M dt = vY 2 M (t ) < 0 Joules (7)
If M is positive, it has units of positive resistance or,
M > 0 mNs m 2 (8)
Now, the instantaneous gravitationally induced power PM of a fluctuating mass M is,
PM (t ) = vY fM (t ) = vY 2 M (9)
So, for certain values of M , the total instantaneous power PM can be POSITIVE or,
PM (t ) > 0Watts (10)
Then, integrating PM with respect to time results in excess POSITIVE energy of mass M or,
EM (t ) = ∫ PM (t ) dt = vY 2 ∫ M dt = vY 2 M (t ) > 0 Joules (11)
So, the energy equivalent of mass (gravimetric energy) EM is,
EM (t ) = M (t ) vY 2 (12)
By rearranging terms, the mass equivalent of energy M is,
EM (t )
M (t ) = (13)
vY 2
The fluctuating mass equivalent of energy M is,
EM
M = (14)
vY 2
So, the gravimetric momentum model is,
EM E
fM (t ) = M vY = vY = M (15)
vY 2 vY
Letting y = dy dt = vY , the Gravimetric Force Coupling Term is,

EM
fM (t ) = (16)
y
By rearranging terms, the fluctuating energy equivalent of mass EM is,
EM = fM (t ) y (17)
The total energy EM contained within matter is,
EM (t ) = M (t ) c 2 (18)
The change in this total energy EM is,
EM = M c 2 (19)
By rearranging terms, the change in total mass M is,
EM
M = (20)
c2
So, the time derivative form of the Gravimetric Mass Coupling Term is,
fM (t ) y
M = (21)
c2
The derivative form is,
fM dy
dM = (22)
c2
The difference form is,
fM ∆y
∆M = (23)
c2

GRAVIMETRIC INDUCTIVE MASS FLUCTUATION

FLUCTUATING
INDUCTANCE
L±L
−y g0
+y
IL + -
vL
FIGURE 3. The fluctuating inductance of an object.
The complete ideal inductor model is composed of two terms,
d dI dL
ν L (t ) = ( L I L ) = L L + I L = L I L + I LL (24)
dt dt dt
Where, the Flux Coupling Term is L I L , and inductance L is invariant within any equipotential surface of gravity
gY . The Gravimetric Coupling Term is I LL , changing inductance L fluctuates between equipotential surfaces of
gravity.
For an “inductive fluctuating system”, the Gravimetric Coupling Term is NOT zero volts. By applying a constant
current I L through inductor L , or I L = 0 Amps s , the Flux Coupling Term is,
ν L (t ) = L I L = 0Volts (25)
This removes the Flux Coupling Term, leaving only the Gravimetric Coupling Term,
ν L (t ) = I L L ≠ 0 Volts (26)
Since L has units of resistance in ohms, Ω , its direction of change could either be POSITIVE or NEGATIVE. If L
is negative, it has units of negative resistance or,
L < 0Ω (27)
Now, the instantaneous gravitationally induced power PL of a fluctuating inductor L is,
PL (t ) = I L ν L (t ) = I L 2 L (28)
So, for certain values of L , the total instantaneous power PL can be NEGATIVE or,
PL (t ) < 0Watts (29)

Then, integrating PL with respect to time when the total power is less than zero watts results in NEGATIVE energy
of inductor L or,
EL (t ) = ∫ PL dt = I L 2 ∫ L dt = I L 2 L(t ) < 0 Joules (30)
If L is positive, it has units of positive resistance or,
L > 0Ω (31)
Now, the instantaneous gravitationally induced power PL of a fluctuating inductor L is,
PL (t ) = I L ν L (t ) = I L 2 L (32)
So, for certain values of L , the total instantaneous power PL can be POSITIVE or,
PL (t ) > 0 Watts (33)
Then, integrating PL with respect to time results in excess POSITIVE energy of inductor L or,
EL (t ) = ∫ PL dt = I L 2 ∫ L dt = I L 2 L(t ) > 0 Joules (34)
Equate this to the energy equivalent of mass EM ,
EL (t ) = EM (t ) (35)
Then, the energy equivalent of mass (gravimetric energy) EL is,
EL (t ) = vY 2 M L (t ) = I L 2 L(t ) (36)
By rearranging terms, the mass equivalent of energy M L is,
EL (t ) I L 2 L(t )
M L (t ) = = (37)
vY 2 vY 2
I L 2 L(t )
vY 2 = (38)
M L (t )
The fluctuating mass equivalent of energy M L is,
EL I L 2 L
ML = = (39)
vY 2 vY 2
So, the gravimetric inductor model is,
EL EL I L 2 L
fL (t ) = M L vY = vY = = (40)
vY 2 vY vY

Letting y = dy dt = vY , the Gravimetric Inductive Force Coupling Term is,
EL (t )
fL (t ) = (41)
y
By rearranging terms, the fluctuating energy equivalent of mass EL is,
EL = fL (t ) y (42)
The total energy EL contained within matter is,
EL (t ) = M L (t ) c 2 (43)
The change in this total energy EL is,
EL = M L c 2 (44)
EL fL (t ) y I L 2 L I 2L M (t ) L
ML = 2
= 2
= 2 = 2L = L (45)
c c y I L L(t ) L(t )
M L (t )
So, the time derivative form of the Gravimetric Inductive Coupling Term is,
fL (t ) L(t ) y
L= (46)
M L (t ) c 2
fL L dy
dL = (47)
M L c2
f L L ∆y
∆L = (48)
M L c2

GRAVIMETRIC CAPACITIVE MASS FLUCTUATION
FLUCTUATING
CAPACITANCE
C ±C
−y
g0
+y + -
VC
iC
+ V -
FIGURE 4. The fluctuating capacitance of an object.
The complete ideal capacitor model is composed of two terms,
d dV dC
iC (t ) = (C VC ) = C C + VC = C VC + VC C (49)
dt dt dt
Where, the Flux Coupling Term is CVC , and capacitor C is invariant within any equipotential surface of gravity
gY . The Gravimetric Coupling Term is VC C , and changing capacitance C fluctuates between equipotential
surfaces of gravity.
For a “capacitive fluctuating system”, the Gravimetric Coupling Term is NOT zero amps. By applying a constant
voltage across capacitor C , or VC = 0Volts s , the Flux Coupling Term is,
iC (t ) = C VC = 0 Amps (50)
This removes Flux Coupling Term, leaving only the Gravimetric Coupling Term,
iC (t ) = VC C ≠ 0 Amps (51)
Since C has units of conductance in mhos, , its direction of change could either be POSITIVE or NEGATIVE. If
C is negative, it has units of negative conductance or,
C<0 (52)
Now, the instantaneous gravitationally induced power PC of a fluctuating capacitor C is
PC (t ) = iC (t ) VC = VC 2 C (53)
So, for certain values of C , the total instantaneous power PC can be NEGATIVE or,
PC (t ) < 0Watts (54)

Then, integrating PC with respect to time when the total power is less than zero watts results in NEGATIVE energy
of capacitor C or,
EC (t ) = ∫ PC dt = VC 2 ∫ C dt = VC 2 C (t ) < 0 Joules (55)
If C is positive, it has units of positive conductance or,
C>0 (56)
Now, the instantaneous gravitationally induced power PC of a fluctuating capacitor C is,
PC (t ) = iC (t ) VC = VC 2 C (57)
So, for certain values of C , the total instantaneous power PC can be POSITIVE or
PC (t ) > 0 Watts (58)
Then, integrating PC with respect to time results in excess POSITIVE energy of capacitor C or,
EC (t ) = ∫ PC dt = VC 2 ∫ C dt = VC 2 C (t ) > 0 Joules (59)
Equate this to the energy equivalent of mass EM ,
EC (t ) = EM (t ) (60)
Then, the energy equivalent of mass (gravimetric energy) EC is,
EC (t ) = vY 2 M C (t ) = VC 2 C (t ) (61)
By rearranging terms, the mass equivalent of energy M C is,
EC (t ) C (t ) VC 2
M C (t ) = = (62)
vY 2 vY 2
VC 2 C (t )
vY 2 = (63)
M C (t )
The fluctuating mass equivalent of energy M C is,
EC VC 2 C
MC = = (64)
vY 2 vY 2
So, the gravimetric capacitor model is,
EC E V 2C
fC (t ) = M C vY = v = C = C
2 Y
(65)
vY vY vY

Letting y = dy dt = vY , the Gravimetric Capacitive Force Coupling Term is,
EC
fC (t ) = (66)
y
By rearranging terms, the fluctuating energy equivalent of mass EC is,
EC = fL (t ) y (67)
The total energy EC contained within matter is,
EC (t ) = M C (t ) c 2 (68)
The change in this total energy EC is,
EC = M C c 2 (69)
EC fC (t ) y VC 2 C V 2C M (t ) C
MC = 2
= 2
= 2
= 2C = C (70)
c c y VC C (t ) C (t )
M C (t )
So, the time derivative form of the Gravimetric Capacitive Coupling Term is,
fC (t ) C (t ) y
C= (71)
M C (t ) c 2
fC C dy
dC = (72)
M C c2
fC C ∆y
∆C = (73)
M C c2

THE GRAVITATIONAL COUPLING OF A

FLUCTUATING MASS, INDUCTOR OR CAPACITOR
Y
1kg OBJECT
22,500.0
(BEFORE)
GRAVITATIONAL
REFERENCE
19,920
KILOMETERS
Me
15,000.0 gY = G NATURAL MASS
Y2 FLUCTUATION DUE
TO FREE FALL +∆y
1kg OBJECT
(AFTER)
INCREASED
GRAVITY
7,529
6,378.1
2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 g
0.0
gY = 1.0 METERS g +∆y = 7.0 g0 = 9.8
SECOND2
FIGURE 5. The natural mass fluctuation of an object due to gravitational free fall.
Natural universal mass attraction or classic Newtonian gravity is a force f that acts through a center of mass
distance d between two objects with mass M 1 and M 2 ,
M1 M 2
f =G = g M2 (74)
d2
Given the gravitational constant G , the mass M 1 equated to the mass of the Earth M e and distance d equated to
the radius of the Earth re plus the distance between the Earth and the center of mass of the object, which is position
Y , the gravity gY at the GRAVITATIONAL REFERENCE position is,
( 5.9742 ×1024 kg ) = 3.9863 ×1014 N m2 kg

gY = G
Me
Y2
= ( 6.67260 × 10 −11
N m 2
kg 2
) Y2 Y2
(75)
So, the gravitational force fY acting upon mass M (t ) above the surface of the Earth with respect to time is,
M e M (t )
fY (t ) = G = gY M (t ) (76)
Y2

Marmet (2001) equates gravimetric force fM produced by a fluctuating mass M to the gravitational force fY ,
fY (t ) = fM (t ) (77)
So, the time derivative form of a fluctuating mass M is,
fM (t ) y gY M (t ) y
M = = (78)
c2 c2
So, the time derivative form of the RED SHIFT (or BLUE SHIFT) of mass M M displaced y within a given
gravity well gY is,
M E g y
= M = Y2 (79)
M (t ) EM (t ) c
Marmet states the equation above shows a “calculated change of energy levels as a function of gravitational
potential is in perfect agreement with the Pound and Rebka and also the Pound and Snider experiments”. Therefore,
energy increases as a function of positive displacement within a given gravity well.
The derivative form of a fluctuating mass dM is,
fM dy gY M dy
dM = = (80)
c2 c2
So, the derivative form of the RED SHIFT (or BLUE SHIFT) of mass dM M displaced dy within a given gravity
well gY is,
dM dEM gY dy
= = 2 (81)
M EM c
The difference form of a fluctuating mass ∆M is,
fM ∆y gY M ∆y
∆M = = (82)
c2 c2
So, the difference form of the RED SHIFT (or BLUE SHIFT) of mass ∆M M displaced ∆y within a given gravity
well gY is,
∆M ∆EM gY ∆y
= = 2 (83)
M EM c
The Pound and Rebka experiment used Mossbaurer spectroscopy to measure the electromagnetic RED SHIFT (or
BLUE SHIFT) of 14.4 keV gamma rays emitted from Fe57 . They showed the RED SHIFT was within one percent
(1%) of this result,
g 0 ∆y (9.80665 m s 2 )(22.6m)
= = 2.466 × 10−15 (84)
c2 (2.99793 m s ) 2

Now, the gravimetric force fL produced by a fluctuating inductor L is equated to the gravitational force fY ,
fY (t ) = fL (t ) (85)
So, the time derivative form of a fluctuating inductor L is,
fL (t ) L(t ) y gY L(t ) y
L= = (86)
M L (t ) c 2 c2
So, the time derivative form of the RED SHIFT (or BLUE SHIFT) of inductor L L displaced y within a given
gravity well gY is,
L E g y
= L = Y2 (87)
L(t ) EL (t ) c
The derivative form of a fluctuating inductor dL is,
fL L dy gY L dy
dL = = (88)
M L c2 c2
So, the derivative form of the RED SHIFT (or BLUE SHIFT) of inductor dL L displaced dy within a given
gravity well gY is,
dL dEL gY dy
= = 2 (89)
L EL c
The difference form of a fluctuating inductor ∆L is,
fL L ∆y gY L ∆y
∆L = = (90)
M L c2 c2
So, the difference form of the RED SHIFT (or BLUE SHIFT) of inductor ∆L L displaced ∆y within a given
gravity well gY is,
∆L ∆EL gY ∆y
= = (91)
L EL c2
Now, the gravimetric force fC produced by a fluctuating capacitor C is equated to the gravitational force fY ,
fY (t ) = fC (t ) (92)
So, the time derivative form of a fluctuating capacitor C is,
fC (t ) C (t ) y gY C (t ) y
C= = (93)
M C (t ) c 2 c2

So, the time derivative form of the RED SHIFT (or BLUE SHIFT) of capacitor C C displaced y within a given
gravity well gY is,
C E g y
= C = Y2 (94)
C (t ) EC (t ) c
The derivative form of a fluctuating inductor dC is,
fC C dy gY C dy
dC = = (95)
M C c2 c2
So, the derivative form of the RED SHIFT (or BLUE SHIFT) of capacitor dC C displaced dy within a given
gravity well gY is,
dC dEC gY dy
= = 2 (96)
C EC c
The difference form of a fluctuating inductor ∆C is,
fC C ∆y gY C ∆y
∆C = = (97)
M C c2 c2
So, the difference form of the RED SHIFT (or BLUE SHIFT) of capacitor ∆C C displaced ∆y within a given
gravity well gY is,
∆C ∆EC gY ∆y
= = (98)
C EC c2
NATURAL RELATIVITY THEORY

M − ∆M
DECREASED
GRAVITY
CURVATURE
DECREASING DUE TO −∆y
MASS GRAVITY
GRAVITATIONAL
gY
REFERENCE
MASS M
AT REST
INCREASING +∆y
MASS
INCREASED
GRAVITY
M + ∆M TOWARDS CENTER
OF GRAVITY
FIGURE 6. A change of relativistic mass due to gravity.
The establishment of a GRAVITATIONAL REFERENCE is defined as a fixed point of reference within a given
gravity well gY . This point may be located in a plane of equipotential surface of gravity, and is used throughout this
paper. Natural relativistic changes of mass, volume, frequency, energy, etc. fluctuate or curve as a function of
displacement ±∆y from this point of reference. This displacement defines a new point within a new plane of

equipotential surface of gravity g ±∆y , and the gravity at that point may be increased or decreased based upon the
sign of the displacement. Marmet (2001) invokes the principle of mass-energy conservation regarding the
displacement of matter between planes. For example, an object of mass M displaced a distance ∆y changes back
to its original mass when returned to its original position within a given gravity well. Therefore, a new and
simplified relativity model is introduced. For gravimetric energy systems, and given an equipotential surface of
gravity reference, the following parameters including relativistic mass ±∆M , relativistic inductance ±∆L , and
relativistic capacitance ±∆C , fluctuate or curve between equipotential surfaces of gravity by displacement ±∆y .
Again, the kinetic energy of gravimetric energy systems is assumed to be zero. So, given a common equipotential
surface of gravity reference gY , an increase in gravity causes a natural relativistic increase in mass, energy
equivalent of mass (gravimetric energy), inductance, and capacitance. Likewise, a decrease in gravity causes a
natural relativistic decrease in the same metrics.
The difference forms of the natural relativistic mass M Y model, energy equivalent of mass EY model, inductor LY
model, and capacitor CY model at position ±∆y within a given gravity well gY are,
⎛ g ∆y ⎞
M ±∆y = M ± ∆M = M ⎜ 1 ± Y 2 ⎟ (99)
⎝ c ⎠
⎛ g ∆y ⎞
E±∆y = EM ± ∆EM = EM ⎜ 1 ± Y 2 ⎟ (100)
⎝ c ⎠
⎛ g ∆y ⎞
L±∆y = L ± ∆L = L ⎜ 1 ± Y 2 ⎟ (101)
⎝ c ⎠
⎛ g ∆y ⎞
C±∆y = C ± ∆C = C ⎜ 1 ± Y 2 ⎟ (102)
⎝ c ⎠
In summary, Natural Relativity (NR) Theory is the primary gravitational effect.
A NEW PRINCIPLE OF EQUIVALENCE THEOREM
TIME t TIME
REVERSED FORWARD
DECREASED jvx
GRAVITY
M − ∆M
−∆y
GRAVITATIONAL
gY
REFERENCE
CURVATURE
INITIAL MASS M, DUE TO
AT REST AND t = 0 sec VELOCITY
+∆y
INCREASED vx
GRAVITY
M + ∆M
t
FIGURE 7. A change of relativistic mass due to velocity.

The special relativistic mass M v model presented by Einstein (1905) shows an object moving at velocity vx is,
M
Mv = =γM (103)
v2
1 − x2
c
This equation can be expressed in difference form as M v = M + ∆M by implementing the binomial expansion of the
equation,
1 v 2 3 v 4 5 v 6 35 v8
γ = 1+ + + + + ... (104)
2 c 2 8 c 4 16 c 6 128 c8
Using the 1st order term of the expansion shown above where vx c,
1 v2
γ = 1+ (105)
2 c2
The difference form of the special relativistic mass M v model moving at velocity vx is,
⎛ v2 ⎞
M v = γ M = M ⎜ 1 + x 2 ⎟ = M + ∆M (106)
⎝ 2c ⎠
Equate a change of mass of an object due to velocity vx with a change of mass of the same object due to gravity gY
M vx 2 gY M ∆y
∆M = = (107)
2 c2 c2
A new Principle of Equivalence Theorem is therefore determined as,
vx 2
= gY ∆y (108)
2
So, an object at position ±∆y within a given gravity well gY is equivalent to the same object moving at velocity vx ,
vx = 2 gY ∆y (109)
If the displacement ∆y is POSITIVE, then the object is moving at a real velocity vx . However, if the displacement
∆y is NEGATIVE, then the same object is moving at a complex (i.e., time-reversed) velocity −1 vx , or
velocity j vx , where j = −1 . The real and imaginary components of a velocity are rotated about the temporal axis
as a complex particle. The rotation is given as 0° ≤ θ ≤ 90° , where the real axis is θ = 0° and the imaginary axis is
θ = 90° . The complex number uses the Euler’s identity e jθ , which functions as a temporal rotation operator. So,
given an object moving at a real velocity vx , the equivalent position +∆y is,
vx 2
∆y = (110)
2 gY

However, given the same object moving at a complex (i.e., time-reversed) velocity jvx , the equivalent position −∆y
is,
( j vx )
2
vx 2
∆y = =− (111)
2 gY 2 gY
The complete complex displacement ∆y is,
(v e ) jθ 2
∆y =
x
(112)
2 gY
In summary, this new Principle of Equivalence Theorem describes an object moving at one-half the square of a
real velocity vx is equivalent to the same object having fallen down a displacement +∆y in a given gravity well gY .
On the other hand, the same object moving at one-half the square of a complex velocity jvx is equivalent to the
same object having fallen up a displacement −∆y in the same gravity well.
FIGURE 8. Radiation reaction invalidates the equivalence between a gravitational mass and an inertial mass.
As shown above, the natural relativistic mass fluctuation of an elevator at rest on the surface of the Earth is zero, or
∆M ± y = 0 . However, the special relativistic mass fluctuation of the same elevator accelerating in space is non-zero
or ∆M v ≠ 0 , and as a consequence, radiates electromagnetic waves. According to Woodward (1998), radiation
reaction is observed in bodies being accelerated based upon Newton’s second law of motion, f = m a . Therefore,
the gravitational mass can’t be equivalent to its’ inertial mass due to how their masses are fluctuating, or not
fluctuating. An elevator traveling distance +∆y in free fall and the same elevator moving at a constant velocity vx
at right angles to free fall produce virtually no radiation reaction. So, given this second scenario, these mass
fluctuations are considered equivalent, hence, validating the new Principle of Equivalence Theorem.

The difference form of a moving object with a fluctuating mass ∆M is,
M vx 2
∆M = (113)
2 c2
So, the difference form of the RED SHIFT (or BLUE SHIFT) of mass ∆M M , energy equivalent of mass
∆EM EM , inductor ∆L L , or capacitor ∆C C of an object moving at a real velocity vx or a complex velocity jvx
is,
∆M ∆EM ∆L ∆C vx 2
= = = = 2 (114)
M EM L C 2c
The difference forms of the special relativistic mass M v model, energy equivalent of mass Ev model, inductor Lv
model, and capacitor Cv model of an object moving at a real velocity vx or a complex velocity jvx are,
⎛ v2 ⎞
M v = M ± ∆M = M ⎜1 ± x 2 ⎟ (115)
⎝ 2c ⎠
⎛ v2 ⎞
Ev = EM ± ∆EM = EM ⎜ 1 ± x 2 ⎟ (116)
⎝ 2c ⎠
⎛ v2 ⎞
Lv = L ± ∆L = L ⎜ 1 ± x 2 ⎟ (117)
⎝ 2c ⎠
⎛ v2 ⎞
Cv = C ± ∆C = C ⎜ 1 ± x 2 ⎟ (118)
⎝ 2c ⎠
These equations show that the mass, inductance, and capacitance of an object moving at a real velocity vx in flat
space-time is equivalent to the same object having fallen down a displacement +∆y in gravity well gY . This object
naturally acquires more relativistic mass, inductance and capacitance as it moves at a real velocity vx , and
augments its’ own gravitation with other objects. Likewise, an object moving at a complex velocity jvx in flat
space-time is equivalent to the same object having fallen up a displacement −∆y in the same gravity well. This
object naturally loses more relativistic mass, inductance and capacitance as it moves at a complex velocity jvx , and
diminishes its’ own gravitation with other objects. This is the secondary gravitational effect.
HOW GRAVITY AFFECTS THE VOLUME OF OBJECTS
An object of volume VY (length LY , width WY , and height HY ) contracts as a function of position +∆y within
gravity well gY . Likewise, the same the volume VY dilates as a function of position −∆y in the same gravity well.
So, the difference form of the RED SHIFT (or BLUE SHIFT) of an object of volume ∆V V displaced ∆y within a
given gravity well gY is,
∆V ∆L ∆W ∆H g ∆y
= = = =− Y2 (119)
V L W H c

The natural relativistic object of volume VY at position ±∆y is,
⎛ g ∆y ⎞
L±∆y = L ∓ ∆L = L ⎜ 1 ∓ 0 2 ⎟ (120)
⎝ c ⎠
⎛ g ∆y ⎞
W±∆y = W ∓ ∆W = W ⎜ 1 ∓ 0 2 ⎟ (121)
⎝ c ⎠
⎛ g ∆y ⎞
H ±∆y = H ∓ ∆H = H ⎜ 1 ∓ 0 2 ⎟ (122)
⎝ c ⎠
HOW VELOCITY AFFECTS THE VOLUME OF OBJECTS
An object of volume Vv (length Lv , width Wv , and height Hv ) contracts moving at a real velocity vx . Likewise,
the same object of volume Vv dilates moving at a complex velocity jvx .
So, the difference form of the RED SHIFT (or BLUE SHIFT) of an object of volume ∆V V moving at a real
velocity vx or a complex velocity jvx is,
∆V ∆L ∆W ∆H v2
= = = =− x2 (123)
V L W H 2c
The special relativistic object of volume Vv moving at a real velocity vx or a complex velocity jvx is,
⎛ v2 ⎞
Lv = L ∓ ∆L = L ⎜ 1 ∓ x 2 ⎟ (124)
⎝ 2c ⎠
⎛ v2 ⎞
Wv = W ∓ ∆W = W ⎜ 1 ∓ x 2 ⎟ (125)
⎝ 2c ⎠
⎛ v2 ⎞
Hv = H ∓ ∆H = H ⎜ 1 ∓ x 2 ⎟ (126)
⎝ 2c ⎠
HOW GRAVITY AFFECTS AN INTERVAL OF TIME
An object vibrating with an interval of time tY dilates (i.e., slows down) as a function of position +∆y within
gravity well gY . Likewise, the same interval of time tY contracts (i.e., speeds up) as a function of position −∆y in
the same gravity well.
So, the difference form of the RED SHIFT (or BLUE SHIFT) of an object vibrating with an interval of time ∆t t
displaced ∆y within a given gravity well gY is,
∆t gY ∆y
= (127)
t c2
The natural relativistic time interval tY at position ±∆y is,
⎛ g ∆y ⎞
t±∆y = t ± ∆t = t ⎜ 1 ± 0 2 ⎟ (128)
⎝ c ⎠

HOW VELOCITY AFFECTS AN INTERVAL OF TIME
An object vibrating with an interval of time tv dilates (i.e., slows down) while moving at a real velocity vx .
Likewise, the same object vibrating with an interval of time tv contracts (i.e., speeds up) while moving at a complex
velocity jvx .
So, the difference form of the RED SHIFT (or BLUE SHIFT) of an object vibrating with an interval of time ∆t t
while moving at a real velocity vx or a complex velocity jvx is,
∆t vx 2
= 2 (129)
t 2c
The special relativistic time interval tv of a vibrating object moving at a real velocity vx or a complex velocity jvx
is,
⎛ v2 ⎞
tv = t ± ∆t = t ⎜ 1 ± x 2 ⎟ (130)
⎝ 2c ⎠
HOW GRAVITY AFFECTS LINEAR MOMENTUM
The momentum pY of an object of mass M moving at velocity vx decreases as a function of position +∆y within
gravity well gY . Likewise, the momentum pY of the same object increases as a function of position −∆y in the
same gravity well.
So, the difference form of the RED SHIFT (or BLUE SHIFT) of momentum ∆p p of an object displaced ∆y
within a given gravity well gY is,
∆p g ∆y
=− Y2 (131)
p c
The natural relativistic momentum pY at position ±∆y is,
⎛ g ∆y ⎞
p±∆y = p ∓ ∆p = p ⎜1 ∓ 0 2 ⎟ (132)
⎝ c ⎠
HOW VELOCITY AFFECTS LINEAR MOMENTUM
The momentum pv of an object of mass M decreases moving at a real velocity vx . Likewise, the momentum pv of
the same object increases moving at a complex velocity jvx ,
So, the difference form of the RED SHIFT (or BLUE SHIFT) of momentum ∆p p of an object moving at a real
velocity vx or a complex velocity jvx is,
∆p v2
=− x2 (133)
p 2c

The special relativistic momentum pv of an object moving at a real velocity vx or a complex velocity jvx is,
⎛ v2 ⎞
pv = p ∓ ∆p = p ⎜ 1 ∓ x 2 ⎟ (134)
⎝ 2c ⎠
THE SPACE-TIME MEDIA OR THE AETHER
Zε
E
M
TI
ZG Zµ
t B
FIGURE 9. The space-time media or aether.
According to Puthoff (1996) and Puthoff, Little and Ibison (2002), the vacuum is described as having magnetic
permeability µ0 and dielectric permittivity ε0, and acts to impede the propagation of light and the motion of matter.
Direct modification of these components changes the nature of light and matter.
gY
+∆y
+∆y '
CURVATURE DUE TO GRAVITY
r1 r1 − ∆r1 RAREFYING OF r2 − ∆r2 r2

SPACE-TIME MEDIA
INCREASING INCREASING
MASS M1 + ∆M1 MASS M2 + ∆M2
INITIAL MASS M1 INITIAL MASS M2

GRAVITATIONAL REFERENCE
FIGURE 10. Two similar objects undergoing natural universal mass attraction.
The “active vacuum” of space, or space-time media (i.e., the aether) is composed of uncondensed relativistic mass.
An object M 1 made of matter (i.e., atoms) and given a GRAVITATIONAL REFERENCE point undergoes
universal mass attraction (i.e., gravitational free fall) with another object M 2 . Both objects acquire relativistic mass
by a natural means from the surrounding space-time media as a function of displacement +∆y between the two
objects. This media condenses onto both objects as more relativistic mass, thereby increasing their total mass
M n + ∆M n , inductance Ln + ∆Ln , and capacitance Cn + ∆Cn . This action changes the relativistic momentum of both
objects resulting with increasing force of attraction. The space-time media between these objects rarefy or
relativistic mass condenses out of the media thereby affecting both the magnetic permeability µ0 and the dielectric
permittivity ε0 of free space. This rarefaction of media is referred to as a gravity well, and as a consequence, causes
the volume of space occupied by both objects and the space between them to be reduced. The space-time media in a
rarefying state means gravity between these objects is increasing, which causes light passing near these objects to

amplify in energy EY and increase in frequency fY as proven by the Pound and Rebka experiment (1964). This
behavior of space-time media acts as an impedance upon the natural motion of matter and the propagation of light.
THE GRAVITATIONAL COUPLING OF AN ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE
DECREASED
GRAVITY
PHOTON A
RED SHIFTING:
DECREASING
−∆y
FREQUENCY
AND ENERGY
MONOCHROMATIC
GRAVITATIONAL
gY LIGHT
REFERENCE
SOURCE
BLUE SHIFTING:
INCREASING
+∆y
FREQUENCY
AND ENERGY
PHOTON B
INCREASED
GRAVITY
TOWARDS
CENTER OF
GRAVITY
FIGURE 11. Electromagnetic waves propagating within a given gravity well.
Shown above is the BLUE SHIFTING of an electromagnetic wave due to gravity. Relative to a GRAVITATIONAL
REFERENCE point or equipotential surface of gravity within a given gravity well gY , PHOTON A decreases in
energy EY and frequency fY as it propagates through decreasing gravity g −∆y . Likewise, PHOTON B increases in
energy EY and frequency fY as it propagates through increasing gravity g +∆y . This effect was demonstrated in the
Pound and Rebka experiment, which used Mossbaurer spectroscopy to measure the electromagnetic RED SHIFT (or
BLUE SHIFT) of 14.4 keV gamma rays emitted from Fe57 . Using the difference form of fluctuating energy ∆E of
an electromagnetic wave propagating through gravity well gY , the experiment showed the RED SHIFT was within
one percent (1%) of this result,
∆E g 0 ∆y (9.80665 m s 2 )(22.6m)
= 2 = = 2.466 × 10−15 (135)
E c (2.99793 m s ) 2
The natural relativistic electromagnetic energy EY at position ±∆y is,
⎛ g ∆y ⎞
E±∆y = E ± ∆E = E ⎜ 1 ± 0 2 ⎟ (136)
⎝ c ⎠
Since the energy E of a single photon is,
E =h f (137)

Then, the Planck's constant h is,
E
h= (138)
f
The difference form of the RED SHIFT (or BLUE SHIFT) of frequency ∆f f of an electromagnetic wave
propagating ∆y within a given gravity well gY is,
∆f gY ∆y
= (139)
f c2
The natural relativistic electromagnetic frequency fY at position ±∆y is,
⎛ g ∆y ⎞
f ±∆y = f ± ∆f = f ⎜1 ± 0 2 ⎟ (140)
⎝ c ⎠
So, the natural relativistic Planck's constant hY ranging from position −∆y to +∆y evaluates to unity gain or,
E±∆y
h±∆y = =h (141)
f ±∆y
Therefore, the natural relativistic Planck's constant hY is invariant between equipotential surfaces of gravity or,
hY = 6.6260755 × 10−34 Joule ⋅ s (142)
The speed of light c is,
c=λf (143)
The difference form of the RED SHIFT (or BLUE SHIFT) of the wavelength ∆λ λ of an electromagnetic wave
displaced ∆y within a given gravity well gY is,
∆λ gY ∆y
=− (144)
λ c2
The natural relativistic wavelength λY at position ±∆y is,
⎛ g 0 ∆y ⎞
λ±∆y = λ ∓ ∆λ = λ ⎜1 ∓
c 2 ⎠⎟
(145)
⎝
The difference form of the RED SHIFT (or BLUE SHIFT) of frequency ∆f f of an electromagnetic wave
propagating ∆y within a given gravity well gY is,
∆f gY ∆y
= (146)
f c2

The natural relativistic electromagnetic frequency fY at position ±∆y is,
⎛ g ∆y ⎞
f ±∆y = f ± ∆f = f ⎜1 ± 0 2 ⎟ (147)
⎝ c ⎠
So, natural relativistic the speed of light cY ranging from position −∆y to +∆y evaluates to unity gain or,
c±∆y = λ±∆y f ±∆y = c (148)
Therefore, the natural relativistic speed of light cY is invariant between equipotential surfaces of gravity or,
cY = 2.99792458 × 108 m s (149)
HOW GRAVITY AFFECTS THE PERMEABLILITY

OF SPACE-TIME MEDIA
The permeability µ0 of space-time media is given as,
µ0 = 4π × 10−7 H m (150)
The difference form of the RED SHIFT (or BLUE SHIFT) of inductance ∆L L displaced ∆y within a given
gravity well gY is,
∆L g ∆y
=− Y2 (151)
L c
The inductance LY of space-time media at position ±∆y is,
⎛ g ∆y ⎞
L±∆y = L ∓ ∆L = L ⎜ 1 ∓ 0 2 ⎟ (152)
⎝ c ⎠
The difference form of the RED SHIFT (or BLUE SHIFT) of length ∆L L displaced ∆y within a given gravity
well gY is,
∆L g ∆y
=− Y2 (153)
L c
The length LY of space-time media at position ±∆y is,
⎛ g ∆y ⎞
L±∆y = L ∓ ∆L = L ⎜ 1 ∓ 0 2 ⎟ (154)
⎝ c ⎠
So, the natural relativistic permeability µY of space-time media ranging from position −∆y to +∆y evaluates to
unity gain or,
L±∆y
µ±∆y = = µ0 (155)
L±∆y

Therefore, the natural relativistic permeability µY of space-time media is invariant between equipotential
surfaces of gravity or,
µY = 4π × 10−7 H m (156)
HOW GRAVITY AFFECTS THE PERMITTIVITY

OF SPACE-TIME MEDIA
The permittivity ε 0 of space-time media is given as,
ε 0 = 8.85419 × 10−12 F m (157)
The difference form of the RED SHIFT (or BLUE SHIFT) of capacitance ∆C C displaced ∆y within a given
gravity well gY is,
∆C g ∆y
=− Y2 (158)
C c
The capacitance CY of space-time media at position ±∆y is,
⎛ g ∆y ⎞
C±∆y = C ∓ ∆C = C ⎜ 1 ∓ 0 2 ⎟ (159)
⎝ c ⎠
The difference form of the RED SHIFT (or BLUE SHIFT) of length ∆L L displaced ∆y within a given gravity
well gY is,
∆L g ∆y
=− Y2 (160)
L c
The length LY of space-time media at position ±∆y is,
⎛ g ∆y ⎞
L±∆y = L ∓ ∆L = L ⎜ 1 ∓ 0 2 ⎟ (161)
⎝ c ⎠
So, the natural relativistic permittivity ε Y of space-time media ranging from position −∆y to +∆y evaluates to
unity gain or,
C±∆y
ε ±∆y = = ε0 (162)
L±∆y
Therefore, the natural relativistic permittivity ε Y of space-time media is invariant between equipotential surfaces
of gravity or,
ε Y = 8.85419 × 10−12 F m (163)

HOW GRAVITY AFFECTS THE VIRTUAL RESISTANCE

OF SPACE-TIME MEDIA
The space-time media has virtual resistance or impedance Z 0 , and therefore, isn't capable of absorbing or
dissipating electromagnetic energy. Its REAL resistance is infinite or, R0 = ∞ . This media serves to impede the
propagation of light and the motion of matter and is calculated as,
µ0
Z0 = (164)
ε0
Since it has been shown the permeability µY and permittivity ε Y of space-time media are invariant between
equipotential surfaces of gravity, it follows the natural relativistic impedance ZY of space-time media ranging from
position −∆y to +∆y evaluates to unity gain or,
µ±∆y
Z ±∆y = = Z0 (165)
ε ±∆y
Therefore, the natural relativistic impedance ZY of space-time media is invariant between equipotential surfaces
of gravity or,
ZY = 376.730 Ω (166)
HOW GRAVITY AFFECTS THE SPEED OF LIGHT

The speed of light c between space-time media is,
1
c= (167)
µ 0ε 0
Since it has been shown the permeability µY and permittivity ε Y of space-time media are invariant between
equipotential surfaces of gravity, it follows the natural relativistic speed of light cY through space-time media
ranging from position −∆y to +∆y evaluates to unity gain or,
1
c±∆y = =c (168)
µ±∆y ε ±∆y
Therefore, the natural relativistic speed of light cY through space-time media is invariant between equipotential
surfaces of gravity or,
cY = 2.997924 × 108 m s (169)
HOW GRAVITY AFFECTS BOLTZMANN'S CONSTANT
The Boltzmann's Constant k is given as,
R
k= (170)
N0

Since the Ideal Gas Constant RY and Avogadro's Number NY are invariant between equipotential surfaces of gravity,
it follows the natural relativistic Boltzmann's Constant kY ranging from position −∆y to +∆y evaluates to unity
gain or,
R±∆y
k±∆y = =k (171)
N ±∆y
Therefore, the natural relativistic Boltzmann's Constant kY is invariant between equipotential surfaces of gravity
or,
kY = 1.380658 × 10−23 Joules ° K (172)
HOW GRAVITY AFFECTS AN ELECTRIC CHARGE

A fundamental electric charge q is given as,
f
q= (173)
E
The electric force fY increases with the square of a decreasing distance, and the electric field E Y also increases with
the square of a decreasing distance at position +∆y . Likewise, the electric force fY decreases with the square of a
increasing distance, and the electric field E Y also decreases with the square of a increasing distance at position
−∆y , it follows the natural relativistic electric charge qY ranging from position −∆y to +∆y evaluates to unity
gain or,
f±∆y
q±∆y = =q (174)
E ±∆y
Therefore, the natural relativistic electric charge qY is invariant between equipotential surfaces of gravity or,
qY = 1.60217733 × 10−19 Coul (175)
HOW GRAVITY AFFECTS THE FINE STRUCTURE CONSTANT

The Fine Structure Constant α is,
q2
α= (176)
2ε0 h c
Since an electric charge qY , the speed of light cY , the permittivity ε Y , and Planck's constant hY are invariant
between equipotential surfaces of gravity, it follows the natural relativistic Fine Structure Constant αY ranging
from position −∆y to +∆y evaluates to unity gain or,
q±∆y 2
α ±∆y = =α (177)
2ε ±∆y h±∆y c±∆y

Therefore, the natural relativistic Fine Structure Constant αY is invariant between equipotential surfaces of
gravity or,
1
αY = 7.29738 × 10−3 = (178)
137.0356
A TYPICAL ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE
FLAT
SPACE-TIME
MEDIA
FIGURE 12. Propagation of electromagnetic wave in flat space-time.
E B
t t
FIGURE 13. Typical B and E Fields.

AN AMPLIFIED ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE
E
NOTE: SPACE-TIME MEDIA IS
MODELED AS UNCONDENSED
RELATIVISTIC MASS, INDUCTANCE
AND CAPACITANCE THAT CAN BE
COMPRESSED OR RAREFIED.
RAREFYING
SPACE-TIME
MEDIA
FIGURE 14. Propagation of electromagnetic wave in rarefied space-time.
E B
t t
FIGURE 15. Increasing magnitude and frequency of B and E Fields by gravimetric function.

AN ATTENUATED ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE
E
NOTE: SPACE-TIME MEDIA IS
MODELED AS UNCONDENSED
RELATIVISTIC MASS, INDUCTANCE
AND CAPACITANCE THAT CAN BE
COMPRESSED OR RAREFIED.
COMPRESSING
SPACE-TIME
MEDIA
FIGURE 16. Propagation of electromagnetic wave in compressing space-time.
E B
t t
FIGURE 17. Decreasing magnitude and frequency of B and E Fields by gravimetric function.

GRAVITOMAGNETIC THEORY
P
dB
θ
CURRENT
ELEMENT
MAGNETIC
INDUCTION
I dx
FIGURE 18. The magnetic induction produced by a current element.
A constant positive electric current I must create a stable magnetic field B around a wire. This stable field is due
to the flow of electric current shown above. The change of magnetic induction dB at a fixed point P produced by a
current element dx is calculated using the Biot-Savart’s Law,
µ0 I dx × r
dB = (179)
4π r3
Or,
µ0 I sin (θ ) dx
dB = (180)
4π r2
Since charge q is quantized in a single electron e − then, electric current I is defined as quantity N of charges e −
passing a fixed point per change of time dt or,
dq d ( N e )
−
I =q= = (181)
dt dt
And velocity vx of an electron passing a fixed point is defined as change of distance dx per change of time dt or,
dx
vx = x = (182)
dt

Then, the electric current I is redefined as,
d ( N e− )
I = vx (183)
dx
So, the change of magnetic induction dB at a fixed point P produced by quantity N of charges e − moving at
velocity vx is,
µ0 vx sin (θ ) d ( N e )
−
dB = (184)
4π r2
To find the magnetic induction B produced by a single electron at point P when θ = 90 and N = 1 , then
integrate,
µ0 e − vx
B = ∫ dB = (185)
4π r 2
The total energy density uB of magnetic field B contained within volume V is,
UB B2
uB = = (186)
V 2 µ0
Therefore, the total field energy U B of magnetic field B contained within volume V is,
µ0 ( e − ) vx 2
2
B2
UB = V= V (187)
2 µ0 32 π 2 r 4
The change of magnetic field energy dU B contained within a change of volume d V is,
µ 0 ( e − ) vx 2
2
dU B = dV (188)
32 π 2 r 4
The total energy EM contained within matter is,
EM = M c 2 (189)
Equate total magnetic field energy U B to the total energy EM contained within matter,
U B = EM (190)
So, the change of magnetic field energy dU B is,
dU B = dM B c 2 (191)

Therefore, the fluctuating magnetic mass dM B contained within a change of volume d V is,
dU µ 0 ( e ) vx 2 − 2
dM B = 2 B = dV (192)
c 32 π 2 r 4 c 2
ω
rmax
rmin
FIGURE 19. The volume V of an electron is modeled as a hollow spheroid.
Since the energy of an electron is finite, no field component can be present at its’ center. So, the volume of an
electron is modeled as a hollow spheroid,
π rmax rmax
V = 2 π ∫ sin (ω ) d ω ∫ r 2 dr = 4 π ∫r
2
dr (193)
0 rmin rmin
The fluctuating magnetic mass dM B contained within a change of volume d V of a hollow spheroid is,
µ0 ( e − ) vx 2 ⎞ µ0 ( e − ) vx 2 ⎛ rmax 1 ⎞
2 2
⎛ rmax
dM B = d ⎜ 4 π ∫ r 2 dr ⎟ = d ⎜ ∫ 2 dr ⎟ (194)
32 π 2 r 4 c 2 ⎜ r ⎟ 8 π c 2 ⎜r r ⎟
⎝ min ⎠ ⎝ min ⎠
So, given the rest mass of an electron M e , the difference form of the special relativistic mass M v of an electron
moving at velocity vx is
⎛ v2 ⎞
M v = M e + ∆M e = M e ⎜ 1 + x 2 ⎟ (195)
⎝ 2c ⎠
And given a radius of a fluctuating magnetic mass ∆M e ranging from a classic electron radius re to infinity, or
re ≤ r ≤ ∞ , the difference form of a moving electron is,
µ0 ( e − ) vx 2 ∞ 1
2
c 2 r∫ r 2
∆M e = dr (196)
8π e

The fluctuating magnetic mass ∆M e is,
µ0 ( e − ) vx 2
2
∆M e = (197)
8 π re c 2
Test the fluctuating magnetic mass ∆M e with the special relativistic mass,
µ 0 ( e − ) vx 2
2
M v2
⇔ e x2 (198)
8π re c 2
2 c
The equation reduces to,
µ0 ( e − )
2
Me
⇔ (199)
8π re 2
So, given,
Permeability of free space µ0 = 4π × 10−7 H m
Fundamental charge of an electron e − = 1.602177 × 10−19 C
Classic electron radius re = 2.817941× 10−15 m
Rest mass of an electron M e = 9.109390 × 10−31 kg
( 4π ×10 H m )(1.602177 × 10−19 C )

−7 2
9.109390 × 10−31 kg
⇔ (200)
8 π ( 2.817941× 10−15 m ) 2
The fluctuating magnetic mass of a moving electron is identical to the special relativistic mass at any velocity vx ,
4.554693 ⇔ 4.554695 (201)
The magnetic mass M e is,
µ0 ( e − )
2
Me = (202)
4 π re
So, the difference form of the RED SHIFT (or BLUE SHIFT) of magnetic mass ∆M e M e and energy equivalent of
magnetic mass ∆Ee Ee of a particle moving at a real velocity vx , or a complex velocity j vx is,
∆M e ∆Ee vx 2
= = 2 (203)
Me Ee 2c
The difference forms of the special relativistic magnetic mass M v model and energy equivalent of mass Ev model
of a particle moving at a real velocity vx , or a complex velocity j vx are,
⎞ µ0 ( e ) ⎛
− 2
⎛ v2 vx 2 ⎞
M v = M e ± ∆M e = M e ⎜ 1 ± x 2 ⎟ = ⎜ 1 ± ⎟ (204)
⎝ 2c ⎠ 4 π re ⎝ 2 c 2 ⎠

⎛ v2 ⎞
Ev = Ee ± ∆Ee = Ee ⎜ 1 ± x 2 ⎟ (205)
⎝ 2c ⎠
Now, apply the new Principle of Equivalence Theorem where the fluctuating magnetic mass of a moving electron
is equivalent to natural relativistic mass due to gravity,
µ 0 ( e − ) v x 2 g Y M e ∆y
2
∆M e = = (206)
8 π re c 2 c2
Therefore, the displacement ∆y of an electron moving at a velocity vx within a gravity well gY is,
µ0 ( e − ) vx 2 vx 2
2
∆y = = (207)
8 π re M e gY 2 gY
So, an electron at position ±∆y within a given gravity well gY is equivalent to the same particle moving at velocity
vx ,
vx = 2 gY ∆y (208)
If the displacement ∆y is POSITIVE, then the particle is moving at a real velocity vx . However, if the
displacement ∆y is NEGATIVE, then the same particle is moving at a complex (i.e., time-reversed) velocity
−1 vx , or velocity j vx , where j = −1 . The real and imaginary components of a velocity are rotated about the
temporal axis as a complex particle. The rotation is given as 0° ≤ θ ≤ 90° , where the real axis is θ = 0° and the
imaginary axis is θ = 90° . The complex number uses the Euler’s identity e jθ , which functions as a temporal
rotation operator. So, given an object moving at a real velocity vx , the equivalent position +∆y is,
vx 2
∆y = (209)
2 gY
However, given the same particle moving at a complex (i.e., time-reversed) velocity j vx , the equivalent position
−∆y is,
( j vx )
2
vx 2
∆y = =− (210)
2 gY 2 gY
The complete complex displacement ∆y is,
(v e ) jθ 2
∆y =
x
(211)
2 gY
The difference form of a moving object with a fluctuating magnetic mass ∆M e is,
µ0 ( e − ) vx 2 M e vx 2 gY M e ∆y
2
∆M e = = = (212)
8 π re c 2 2 c2 c2

The magnetic mass M e is,
µ0 ( e − )
2
Me = (213)
4 π re
So, the difference form of the RED SHIFT (or BLUE SHIFT) of magnetic mass ∆M e M e and energy equivalent of
magnetic mass ∆Ee Ee of a particle displaced ∆y within a given gravity well gY is,
∆M e ∆Ee gY ∆y
= = (214)
Me Ee c2
The difference forms of the natural relativistic magnetic mass M ±∆y model and energy equivalent of mass E±∆y
model of a particle displaced ∆y within a given gravity well gY are,
⎛ g ∆y ⎞ µ0 ( e ) ⎛ gY ∆y ⎞
− 2
= M e ± ∆M e = M e ⎜ 1 ± Y 2 ⎟ = 1± 2 ⎟
4 π re ⎜⎝
M ±∆y (215)
⎝ c ⎠ c ⎠
⎛ g ∆y ⎞
E±∆y = Ee ± ∆Ee = Ee ⎜1 ± Y 2 ⎟ (216)
⎝ c ⎠
Given a magnetic field B produced by a single electron at radius r , the velocity vx of the electron is,
4π r 2 B
vx = (217)
µ0 e −
And given a complex (i.e., time-reversed) magnetic field j B produced by a single electron at radius r , the complex
velocity j vx of the electron is,
4π r 2 ( j B)
j vx = (218)
µ0 e −
So, the complete complex velocity vx of an electron is,
4 π r 2 ( B e jθ )
vx = (219)
µ0 e −
Given a magnetic field B contained within volume V , the total field energy U B is,
B2
UB = V (220)
2 µ0

And given a complex (i.e., time-reversed) magnetic field j B contained within volume V , the total NEGATIVE
field energy U B is,
( j B)
2
B2
UB = V =− V (221)
2 µ0 2 µ0
So, the complete complex magnetic field energy U B is,
(Be ) jθ 2
UB = V (222)
2 µ0
In summary, Gravitomagnetic Theory shows that a moving electron produces an increase in relativistic mass that
extends from its’ classic radius re to infinity, and couples to gravity. This motion can either have a velocity vx or a
complex (i.e., time-reversed) velocity j vx . If the velocity is complex, then the electron will exhibit an
antigravitational effect, and produce a complex (i.e., time-reversed) magnetic field j B . In addition, the total field
energy U B of a complex magnetic field j B contained within a volume V is NEGATIVE.
COMPLEX AMPERIAN CURRENTS
y
e−
vx e jθ
NUCLEUS
r
Fv
B e jθ MAGNETIC
x
z INDUCTION
CIRCULAR
ELECTRON
TEMPORAL
ORBIT
ROTATION
0° ≤ θ ≤ 90°
FIGURE 20. The complete complex Bohr model of the Hydrogen atom.
In the Bohr model of the Hydrogen atom, electrons move at relativistic speeds in discrete circular orbits around a
nucleus. As a consequence of this motion, a magnetic field B is produced at the center of the orbit. If an opposing
external magnetic field is applied to this field, the velocity of the electron will rotate into the imaginary axis or
becomes complex. The electron moving at a time-reversed velocity j vx will create a time-reversed magnetic field
j B that will emerge from the center. The complete complex Bohr model includes the following characteristic
equations shown below. These equations contain the real and imaginary components of a moving electron that is
rotated about the temporal axis as a complex particle. The rotation is given as 0° ≤ θ ≤ 90° , where the real axis is

θ = 0° and the imaginary axis is θ = 90° . The complex number uses the Euler’s identity e jθ , which functions as a
temporal rotation operator.
So, given,
Direction of time θ
Frequency of orbit f e jθ
Permeability of free space µ0
Fundamental charge of an electron e −
Classic 1st Bohr radius r
Rest mass of an electron M e
Speed of light c
The Amperian Current i is,
i = e − ( f e jθ ) (223)
The magnetic field B at the center axis of the orbit z = 0 m is,
B = µ0
(i e ) r jθ 2
= µ0
e− ( f e jθ ) r 2
(224)
2(r + z ) 2(r2 + z2 )
3 3
2 2 2 2
e − ( f e jθ )
B = µ0 (225)
2r
The angular velocity ω of the electron e − is,
ω = 2 π ( f e jθ ) (226)
The velocity vx of the electron e − is,
vx = r (ω e jθ ) = 2 π r ( f e jθ ) (227)
The magnetic force Fv of the electron e − directed upon the nucleus is,
Fv = e − ( vx e jθ ) × ( B e jθ ) = e− r (ω e jθ ) × ( B e jθ ) = µ0 π ( e − ) (fe )
2 jθ 2
(228)
The direction of electron motion vx is such that the magnetic force Fv is always an attractive force between the
electron and the nucleus.
The fluctuating mass ∆M e of the electron e − is,
(v e jθ ) r 2 (ω e jθ ) 2 π 2 r 2 ( f e jθ )
2 2 2
∆M e = M e = Me = Me
x
(229)
2 c2 2 c2 c2
The special relativistic mass M v of the electron e − is,

M v = M e + ∆M e (230)
The special relativistic radius rv of the electron e − is,
µ0 ( e − )
2
rv = (231)
4π M v
y
e−
vx
NUCLEUS
r
Fv
B MAGNETIC x
z INDUCTION
CIRCULAR
ELECTRON
ORBIT
FIGURE 21. The time-forward Bohr model of the Hydrogen atom.
Example 1. In the Bohr model of the Hydrogen atom the electron e − circulates around the nucleus at a relativistic
velocity vx as shown above. This creates a magnetic induction B emerging from the center of the nucleus.
So, given,
Direction of time is forward θ = 0°
Frequency of orbit f = 6.8 × 1015 Hz
Classic 1st Bohr radius r = 5.291773 × 10−11 m
Speed of light c = 2.99792458 × 108 m s
The Amperian Current i is,
i = e − f = (1.602177 × 10−19 C )( 6.8 × 1015 Hz ) = 1.089481× 10-3 Amps (232)
The magnetic field B at the center axis of the orbit z = 0 m is,

i r2 e− f r 2
B = µ0 = µ0 (233)
2(r2 + z2 ) 2(r2 + z2 )
3 3
2 2
B = µ0
i
= ( 4π × 10 H m )
−7
(1.089481× 10−3 Amps )
= 12.935946 T (234)
2r 2 ( 5.291773 × 10−11 m )
The angular velocity ω of the electron e − is,
ω = 2 π f = 2 π ( 6.8 ×1015 Hz ) = 4.272566 × 1016 Hz (235)
The velocity vx of the electron e − is,
vx = ω r = ( 4.272566 × 1016 Hz )( 5.291773 × 10−11 m ) = 2.260945 × 106 m s (236)
Fv = e − vx × B = (1.602177 × 10−19 C )( 2.260945 × 106 m s ) (12.935946 T ) = 4.685962 × 10 −12 N (237)
The direction of electron motion vx is such that the magnetic force Fv is always an attractive force between the
electron and the nucleus.
The POSITIVE fluctuating mass ∆M e of the electron e − is,
( 2.260945 × 106 m s )
2
vx 2
∆M e = M e 2 = ( 9.1093897 × 10 kg )
−31
= 2.590585 × 10−35 kg (238)
2 ( 2.99792458 × 108 m s )
2
2c
The increased special relativistic mass M v of the electron e − is,
M v = M e + ∆M e = ( 9.1093897 × 10−31 kg ) + ( 2.590585 × 10−35 kg ) = 9.109649 × 10−31 kg (239)
The decreased special relativistic radius rv of the electron e − is,
µ0 ( e − ) ( 4π ×10 H m )(1.602177 × 10−19 C )

2 −7 2
rv = = = 2.817861× 10−15 m (240)

4π M v 4 π ( 9.109649 × 10−31 kg )

y
e−
j vx
NUCLEUS
r
Fv
jB
BEXT
MAGNETIC x
z INDUCTION
CIRCULAR
EXTERNAL ELECTRON
MAGNETIC ORBIT
INDUCTION
FIGURE 22. The time-reversed Bohr model of the Hydrogen atom.
Example 2. In the complex (i.e., time-reversed) Bohr model of the Hydrogen atom, the real magnetic field created
by an electron circulating at relativistic speeds is being cancelled by an externally applied magnetic field BEXT . The
electron reacts by rotating its velocity into the imaginary axis as shown above. As a consequence of this complex
velocity j vx , a complex magnetic field j B emerges.
So, given,
Direction of time is reversed θ = 90°
Complex (i.e., time-reversed) frequency of orbit f = 6.8 j × 1015 Hz
Classic 1st Bohr radius r = 5.291773 × 10−11 m
The complex Amperian Current j i is,
i = e − f = (1.602177 × 10−19 C )( 6.8 j × 1015 Hz ) = 1.089481 j × 10-3 Amps (241)
The complex magnetic field j B at the center axis of the orbit z = 0 m is,
i r2 e− f r 2
B = µ0 = µ0 (242)
2(r2 + z2 ) 2(r2 + z2 )
3 3
2 2
B = µ0
i
= ( 4π × 10−7 H m )
(1.089481 j ×10−3 Amps ) = 12.935946 j T (243)
2r 2 ( 5.291773 × 10−11 m )

The complex angular velocity j ω of the electron e − is,
ω = 2 π f = 2 π ( 6.8 j × 1015 Hz ) = 4.272566 j × 1016 Hz (244)
The complex velocity j vx of the electron e − is,
vx = ω r = ( 4.272566 j × 1016 Hz )( 5.291773 × 10−11 m ) = 2.260945 j × 106 m s (245)
Fv = e − vx × B = (1.602177 × 10−19 C )( 2.260945 j × 106 m s ) (12.935946 j T ) = −4.685962 × 10−12 N (246)
The direction of electron motion j vx is reversed or rotated such that the magnetic force Fv is always an attractive
force between the electron and the nucleus.
The NEGATIVE fluctuating mass ∆M e of the electron e − is,
( 2.260945 j ×106 m s ) = −2.590585 ×10−35 kg

2
v2
∆M e = M e x 2 = ( 9.1093897 × 10−31 kg ) (247)
2 ( 2.99792458 × 108 m s )
2
2c
The decreased special relativistic mass M v of the electron e − is,
M v = M e + ∆M e = ( 9.1093897 × 10−31 kg ) + ( −2.590585 × 10−35 kg ) = 9.109131× 10−31 kg (248)
The increased special relativistic radius rv of the electron e − is,
µ0 ( e − ) ( 4π ×10 H m )(1.602177 × 10−19 C )

2 −7 2
rv = = = 2.817861× 10−15 m (249)

4π M v 4 π ( 9.109131× 10 −31
kg )
In summary, if the real component of the magnetic field is cancelled, or B = 0 T , due to an externally applied
magnetic field BEXT , the velocity of the circulating electron is complex, or j vx and a complex magnetic field j B
emerges. This complex magnetic field is believed to be present in the Aharonov-Bohm Experiment, which affected
the flow of electrons. The complex Amperian Current uses the temporal rotation operator or Euler’s identity e jθ ,
where 0° ≤ θ ≤ 90° . As the motion of an electron rotates from real to imaginary, or θ → 90° , the electrons special
relativistic mass M v decreases and radius rv increases. In addition, the electrons radius of the orbit r (i.e., classic
1st Bohr radius) around the nucleus and the magnetic force Fv acting upon the nucleus remain constant or invariant
during this rotation. If the real and imaginary components of a moving electron precisely match in magnitude, or
θ = 45° , then the atom could absorb and reemit an equal amount of photons and anti-photons, and therefore,
become transparent or invisible.

COMPLEX ELECTRON DRIFT VELOCITY

SEGMENT OF
COPPER WIRE
ELECTRON
DRIFT E e jθ
e−
−
e
vx e jθ A’
jθ
vx e
e−
r
vx e jθ
I e jθ A
x
TEMPORAL
ROTATION
0° ≤ θ ≤ 90°
FIGURE 23. The complete complex electron drift velocity model in a copper wire.
If a copper wire is connected to a battery, an electric field E will be set up at every point within the wire. This field
E will act on electrons and will give them a resultant motion. An electric current I is established if a net charge
qCu passes through any cross sectional area A of the conductor in time t . The electric field that acts on the
electrons doesn’t produce a net acceleration because the electrons keep colliding with the atoms that make up the
conductor. The electrons, therefore, move at an average drift velocity vx . If the electron drift velocity j vx is time-
reversed, the associated electric field j E and magnetic field j B are also time-reversed. The complete complex
electron drift velocity model includes the following characteristic equations shown below. These equations contain
the real and imaginary components of a moving electron that is rotated about the temporal axis as a complex
particle. The rotation is given as 0° ≤ θ ≤ 90° , where the real axis is θ = 0° and the imaginary axis is θ = 90° . The
complex number uses the Euler’s identity e jθ , which functions as a temporal rotation operator.
So, given,
Direction of time θ
Current through conductor I e jθ
Fundamental charge of an electron e −
Radius of copper wire r
Density of conductor material ( 20°C ) Datom
Number of conduction electrons per atom of conductor katom
Avogadro’s Number N 0
Atomic weight of conductor material Watom
Segment length of conductor x
Speed of light c
Rest mass of an electron M e
Resistivity of conductor material ( 20°C ) ρ atom
The current density J is,
J=
(I e ) = (I e )
jθ jθ
(250)
A π r2

The volume V of a segment of a conductor is,
V = A x = π r2x (251)
The quantity of conduction electrons natom in a volume of conductor is,
Datom N 0 katom
natom = (252)
Watom
The net charge qatom in a volume of a conductor is,
qatom = natom V e − (253)
The velocity vx is,
x
vx = (254)
( −t e ) jθ
The current I flowing through a conductor is,
natom V e −
= π r 2 natom e − ( vx e jθ )
qatom
I= = (255)
( −t e )
jθ x
( vx e jθ )
So, the drift velocity vx of an electron through a conductor is,
vx =
(I e )jθ
=
(J e ) jθ
(256)
π r 2 natom e − natom e −
The fluctuating mass ∆M e of the electron e − is,
vx 2
∆M e = M e (257)
2 c2
The resistivity ρ Atom of copper wire is given as,
V
E
ρ Atom = = x (258)
J I
A
The resistance R of a segment of copper wire is,
V x
R= = ρ Atom (259)
I A

SEGMENT OF
COPPER WIRE
ELECTRON
DRIFT E
e−
e− vx A’
vx
e−
r
vx
I A
x
FIGURE 24. The electron drift velocity in a copper wire.
Example 3. An electric current I is established if a net charge qCu passes through any cross sectional area A of
the conductor in time t . The electrons move at an average drift velocity vx .
So, given,
Direction of time is forward θ = 0°
Current through copper wire I = 10 Amps
Radius of 10AWG copper wire r = 1.294 × 10−3 m
Density of copper conductor ( 20°C ) DCu = 8.92 × 106 gm m3
Number of conduction electrons per atom of copper kCu = 1 electron atom
Avogadro’s Number N 0 = 6.0221367 × 1023 atoms mole
Atomic weight of copper conductor WCu = 63.546 gm mole
Segment length x = 1 m
Resistivity of copper conductor ( 20°C ) ρ = 1.68 × 10−8 Ω m
The current density J is,
I I (10 Amps )
J= = = = 1.901× 106 Amps m 2 (260)
A πr π (1.294 × 10 m )
2 −3 2
The volume V of a segment of copper wire is,
V = A x = π r 2 x = π (1.294 × 10−3 m ) (1m ) = 5.261× 10−6 m3

2
(261)
The quantity of conduction electrons nCu in a volume of copper wire is,
DCu N 0 kCu
nCu = (262)
WCu

nCu =
(8.92 ×10 6
gm m3 )( 6.0221367 × 1023 atoms mole ) (1 electron atom )
= 8.4533 × 1028 electrons m3 (263)
( 63.546 gm mole )
The net charge qCu in a volume of copper wire is,
qCu = nCu V e − = ( 8.4533 × 1028 electrons m3 )( 5.261× 10−6 m3 )(1.60217733 × 10−19 C ) = 7.126 × 104 C (264)
The velocity vx is,
x
vx = (265)
t
The current I flowing through copper wire is,
qCu nCu V e −
I= = = π r 2 nCu e − vx (266)
t x
vx
So, the drift velocity vx of an electron through copper wire is,
vx =
I
=
J
=
(1.901× 106 Amps m 2 )
= 1.403 × 10−4 m s (267)
π r nCu e
2 −
nCu e −
(8.4533 ×10 electrons m )(1.60217733 ×10 C )
28 3 −19
The POSITIVE fluctuating mass ∆M e of the electron e − is,
(1.403 ×10−4 m s ) = 9.980 ×10−56 kg

2
v2
∆M e = M e x 2 = ( 9.1093897 × 10−31 kg ) (268)
2 ( 2.99792458 × 108 m s )
2
2c
The fluctuating mass of an electron is almost 25 orders of magnitude below its’ rest mass.
Given a voltage V and a current I , the resistivity ρCu of copper wire is given as,
V
E
ρCu = = x = 1.68 × 10−8 Ω m (269)
J I
A
(1 m )
= ρCu = (1.68 × 10−8 Ω m )
V x
R= = 3.193 × 10−3 Ω (270)
π (1.294 × 10−3 m )
2
I A

SEGMENT OF
COPPER WIRE
ELECTRON
DRIFT jE
e−
e−
j vx A’
j vx
e−
r
j vx
jI
A
x
FIGURE 25. The time-reversed electron drift velocity in a copper wire.
Example 4. A complex electric current j I is established if a net charge qCu passes through any cross sectional area
A of the conductor in complex time − j t . The electrons move at an average complex drift velocity j vx .
So, given,
Direction of time is reversed θ = 90°
Complex current through copper wire I = 10 j Amps
Radius of 10 AWG copper wire r = 1.294 × 10−3 m
Density of copper conductor ( 20°C ) DCu = 8.92 × 106 gm m3
Number of conduction electrons per atom of copper kCu = 1 electron atom
Avogadro’s Number N 0 = 6.0221367 × 1023 atoms mole
Atomic weight of copper conductor WCu = 63.546 gm mole
Segment length x = 1 m
Resistivity of copper conductor ( 20°C ) ρ = 1.68 × 10−8 Ω m
The complex current density j J is,
I I (10 j Amps )
J= = = = 1.901 j × 106 Amps m 2 (271)
A πr π (1.294 × 10 m )
2 −3 2
The volume V of a segment of copper wire is,
V = A x = π r 2 x = π (1.294 × 10−3 m ) (1m ) = 5.261× 10−6 m3

2
(272)
The quantity of conduction electrons nCu in a volume of copper wire is,
DCu N 0 kCu
nCu = (273)
WCu

nCu =
(8.92 ×10 6
gm m3 )( 6.0221367 × 1023 atoms mole ) (1 electron atom )
= 8.4533 × 1028 electrons m3 (274)
( 63.546 gm mole )
The net charge qCu in a volume of copper wire is,
qCu = nCu V e − = ( 8.4533 × 1028 electrons m3 )( 5.261× 10−6 m3 )(1.60217733 × 10−19 C ) = 7.126 × 104 C (275)
The complex velocity j vx is,
x
vx = (276)
t
The complex current j I flowing through copper wire is,
qCu nCu V e −
I= = = π r 2 nCu e − vx (277)
t x
vx
So, the complex drift velocity j vx of an electron through copper wire is,
vx =
I
=
J
=
(1.901 j ×106 Amps m2 ) = 1.403 j × 10−4 m s (278)
π r 2 nCu e − nCu e − ( 8.4533 × 1028 electrons m3 )(1.60217733 × 10−19 C )
The NEGATIVE fluctuating mass ∆M e of the electron e − is,
(1.403 j ×10−4 m s ) = −9.980 ×10−56 kg

2
v2
∆M e = M e x 2 = ( 9.1093897 × 10−31 kg ) (279)
2 ( 2.99792458 × 108 m s )
2
2c
The fluctuating mass of an electron is almost 25 orders of magnitude below its’ rest mass M e .
Given a complex voltage jV and a complex current j I , the resistivity ρCu of copper wire is given as,
V
E
ρCu = = x = 1.68 × 10−8 Ω m (280)
J I
A
(1 m )
= ρCu = (1.68 × 10−8 Ω m )
V x
R= = 3.193 × 10−3 Ω (281)
π (1.294 × 10 m )
−3 2
I A

MASS FLUCTUATION TECHNOLOGIES

Since a theoretical link was established between gravity and electromagnetism, two mass fluctuation technologies
are presently under investigation. Both technologies are electrical devices with the first being inductive-based, and
the second being capacitive-based. Shown below is a simplified schematic diagram that highlights their operation.
TIME-REVERSED TIME-REVERSED
AMPERIAN CURRENTS AMPERIAN CURRENTS
DECREASED DECREASED
INDUCTOR MASS MASS
M ∆L < 0 CAPACITOR
L
C M ∆C < 0
+ - - + + - + -
vL v'L vC v'C
iL i'L
FOR iC FOR i'C
COP > 1.0 COP > 1.0
EL + E∆L EC + E∆C
D1 RLOAD D1 RLOAD RLOAD RLOAD

S1 S1
- + + -
vLOAD vLOAD
S1 S1 RS RS
+ VS - + VS - + VS - + VS -
MAGNETIZATION PHASE DEMAGNETIZATION PHASE CHARGE PHASE DISCHARGE PHASE
INDUCTIVE CAPACITIVE
MAGNETIZATION / DEMAGNETIZATION CHARGE / DISCHARGE
CYCLE CYCLE
FIGURE 26. Two mass fluctuating systems.
These systems are cyclic, and alter the local gravity well. The mass of these systems is converted to excess field
energy during the magnetizing/charging phase. During the demagnetizing/discharging phase, excess electrical
energy is collected, and mass is restored after this phase. Then, the cycle begins again. As a consequence, clocks
runs faster due to broken symmetry of mass-energy conservation in the proximity of these devices because mass is
radiated away as a temporal field.
A CONCEPT VEHICLE THAT UTILIZES

GRAVIMETRIC MASS FLUCTUATIONS
+ + +
+ + + + +
+ + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + VP + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + +
+ ++ + +
+ + + + - - + + +
++ + + +
GRAVIMETRIC
GRAVIMETRIC
+ - - + +
+ + FLUCTUATING +
TUNGSTEN
FLUCTUATING +
ENERGY
ENERGY
- -
+ ++ MASS MASS ++ +
M - - M
+ + ++
+ + - - + +
+ + INSULATING
+ + + + LAYER - - CLOCKS RUN FASTER
+ + ++ + +
+ +
+ +
+ + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + + + + ++ +
+ + + + R + + + + +
+ + + + +
+ + L + + + + +
+ + + +

FIGURE 27. A cutaway view of a capacitive-based mass fluctuating concept vehicle.
Shown above is a concept vehicle for tunneling through vast distances of space. The first step concerning this
exotic propulsion system is the controlled fissioning or disassociation of tungsten metal. This metal is used as a fuel
source of gravimetric energy bound as mass within the element. As the matter of the metal disassociates, it radiates
away this gravimetric energy in the form of a temporal field within the vehicle. This causes clocks to speedup and
the mass of the vehicle to decrease. The second step begins by switching off the fissioning process, thereby turning
off the temporal field. Mass converted to electrical energy is amplified as field energy in the outer hull, which can be
stored, radiated away, or used to power the vehicle. The vehicle seeks a new equipotential surface of gravity that
corresponds to its’ new mass, thus producing lift. Then, the cycle begins again.
ENERGIZING THE GRAVIMETRIC PROPULSION UNIT (GPU)
22,500.0
1kg VEHICLE
(AFTER)
DECREASED
GRAVITY
19,920
KILOMETERS
Me
15,000.0 gY = G VEHICLE
y2
UNDERGOES −∆y
A RELATIVISTIC
MASS REDUCTION
1kg VEHICLE
GRAVITATIONAL (BEFORE)
REFERENCE
7,529
6,378.1
2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 gY
0.0
1.0 METERS 7.0 9.8
SECOND2
FIGURE 28. Vehicle is undergoing a negative mass fluctuation above the Earth.
The diagram above shows a 1 kg vehicle undergoing a negative mass fluctuation in a given an equipotential surface
of gravity reference. A typical gravity profile of the Earth shown above is based on Newton’s gravity. This system
decreases the mass of the vehicle such that it displaces or vectors in height to a new equipotential surface of gravity
above the Earth.
Deactivating this system causes the same vehicle to naturally fall based on universal mass attraction.

CLOSED-LOOP GRAVIMETRIC FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEM
DECREASED
GRAVITY
VECTOR VEHICLE
TO NEW POSITION
IN GRAVITY WELL
−∆y
GRAVITATIONAL
+∆x REFERENCE
ALTIMETER
ACQUIRE
HEIGHT h
MICROWAVES KNOWN SURFACE

GRAVITY g0
SURFACE OF
EARTH
FIGURE 29. Acquire height information, then energize the GPU and vectored to new position.
The first step for a Gravimetric Flight Control System, or GFCS, is to acquire vehicle height h information above a
known surface gravity g 0 . Once this height information is acquired, the second step involves calculating the current
mass fluctuation M cur . The third step requires the pilot to determine what the next desired position will be, so,
predicted mass fluctuation M pre is calculated and transmitted to a Gravimetric Propulsion Unit, or GPU. The GPU
is energized causing the mass of the vehicle to fluctuate, and in turn, vectors to the desired position. This system can
run “closed-loop” by implementing a software algorithm called a high-speed Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID)
control loop. It acquires new height information and computes the error difference between current and desired
position. The PID calculates and transmits in real-time an error value to the GPU. The error value sent to the GPU
determines the rate of mass fluctuation. This rate may exceed the speed of light because the fluctuating mass − M is
moving faster than it naturally accumulates + M . Therefore, warp factor equation shown by Whitfield (1968) could
be used. The warp factor equation is,
v = W 3c (282)
Where, W is the warp factor, c is the speed of light, and v is the velocity.
CONCLUSION
The parameters of space and time identified as mass, volume, frequency, time, temperature, and energy are functions
of gravity. Therefore, controlling the mass of a space vehicle, for example, controls gravity, but more precisely,
controls its’ current position within a given gravity well. The control of how fast mass fluctuates controls the speed
of the vehicle through this well. Whether the vehicle implementing GMF is above the surface of the Earth or

traveling at warp factor 3.5 in deep interstellar space, the physical constants where shown in previous sections to
remain invariant within the vehicle.
The vehicles’ Gravimetric Propulsion Unit, or GPU, using one of the two devices that are under investigation
control mass by an electrical means, thus utilizing the theoretical link between gravity and electromagnetism
presented in this paper. Either device can change its’ own mass by converting it to excess electrical energy, and as a
consequence, the broken symmetry of mass-energy conservation causes the gravimetric energy equivalent of mass to
be radiated away as a temporal field. A force is created and acts antigravitationally on the device. This changes the
frequency of clocks within the vehicle relative to clocks outside of the vehicle.
The vehicle will require a Gravimetric Flight Control System, or GFCS, capable of controlling the GPU. This
control system acts as an interface between man and the GPU. The development of this system can be directly
implemented from the mathematical formulations in this paper. An additional requirement is the development of
real-time navigation software programs that maps the gravity of the entire Sol System, and includes the nearby stars.
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HOW TO BUILD

EVERYTHING IN THIS UNIVERSE IS CURVED!

THE MUTUAL EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE

Where, the Flux Coupling Term is,

And the Gravimetric Coupling Term or temporal-based fluctuating system is,

William Alek Page 2 1/10/2005

GRAVIMETRIC MASS FLUCTUATION

FIGURE 2. The fluctuating mass of an object.

The complete ideal momentum model is composed of two terms,

M < 0 mNs m 2 (4)

Now, the instantaneous gravitationally induced power PM of a fluctuating mass M is,

William Alek Page 3 1/10/2005

PM (t ) < 0 Watts (6)

EM (t ) = ∫ PM (t ) dt = vY 2 ∫ M dt = vY 2 M (t ) < 0 Joules (7)

If M is positive, it has units of positive resistance or,

M > 0 mNs m 2 (8)

Now, the instantaneous gravitationally induced power PM of a fluctuating mass M is,

PM (t ) > 0Watts (10)

EM (t ) = ∫ PM (t ) dt = vY 2 ∫ M dt = vY 2 M (t ) > 0 Joules (11)

So, the energy equivalent of mass (gravimetric energy) EM is,

By rearranging terms, the mass equivalent of energy M is,

The fluctuating mass equivalent of energy M is,

So, the gravimetric momentum model is,

Letting y = dy dt = vY , the Gravimetric Force Coupling Term is,

William Alek Page 4 1/10/2005

By rearranging terms, the fluctuating energy equivalent of mass EM is,

The total energy EM contained within matter is,

The change in this total energy EM is,

By rearranging terms, the change in total mass M is,

The derivative form is,

The difference form is,

William Alek Page 5 1/10/2005

GRAVIMETRIC INDUCTIVE MASS FLUCTUATION

FIGURE 3. The fluctuating inductance of an object.

The complete ideal inductor model is composed of two terms,

Now, the instantaneous gravitationally induced power PL of a fluctuating inductor L is,

PL (t ) < 0Watts (29)

William Alek Page 6 1/10/2005

EL (t ) = ∫ PL dt = I L 2 ∫ L dt = I L 2 L(t ) < 0 Joules (30)

If L is positive, it has units of positive resistance or,

Now, the instantaneous gravitationally induced power PL of a fluctuating inductor L is,

PL (t ) > 0 Watts (33)

EL (t ) = ∫ PL dt = I L 2 ∫ L dt = I L 2 L(t ) > 0 Joules (34)

Equate this to the energy equivalent of mass EM ,

Then, the energy equivalent of mass (gravimetric energy) EL is,

By rearranging terms, the mass equivalent of energy M L is,

The fluctuating mass equivalent of energy M L is,

So, the gravimetric inductor model is,

William Alek Page 7 1/10/2005

Letting y = dy dt = vY , the Gravimetric Inductive Force Coupling Term is,

By rearranging terms, the fluctuating energy equivalent of mass EL is,

The total energy EL contained within matter is,

The change in this total energy EL is,

By rearranging terms, the change in total mass M is,

The derivative form is,

The difference form is,

William Alek Page 8 1/10/2005

GRAVIMETRIC CAPACITIVE MASS FLUCTUATION

FIGURE 4. The fluctuating capacitance of an object.

The complete ideal capacitor model is composed of two terms,

Now, the instantaneous gravitationally induced power PC of a fluctuating capacitor C is

PC (t ) < 0Watts (54)

William Alek Page 9 1/10/2005

EC (t ) = ∫ PC dt = VC 2 ∫ C dt = VC 2 C (t ) < 0 Joules (55)