Module 8 Page 1

Wastewater Characterisation
and Treatment
An understanding of the nature of wastewater is essential in the
design and operation of collection, treatment, and reuse
facilities, and in the engineering management of environmental
quality.

1.0 WHAT MAKES WATER POLLUTED?

Untreated water will lead to nuisance conditions: malodourus gas

production, build up of populations of pathogenic organisms, undesirable
algal growth and concentration of mutagenic and carciogenic compounds. It
is necessary to treat wastewater to protect human health and the natural
environment from these nuisances.

1.1 Compounds/bacteria/viruses that are potentially harmful to

human health

Untreated wastewater is a very serious threat to human health. Below is a

summary of the major findings of a World Health Organization (WHO) (2000)
report on water and sanitation.

1.2 Sanitation (disposal of human wastes) and health

Sanitation facilities interrupt the transmission of much faecal–oral disease

at its most important source by preventing human faecal contamination of
water and soil. Epidemiological evidence suggests that sanitation is at least
as effective in preventing disease as improved water supply. Often, however,
it involves major behavioural changes and significant household cost.
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Without improved wastewater treatment facilities current problems will

continue…

Approximately 4 billion cases of diarrhoea each year - cause 2.2

million deaths

Intestinal worms infect about 10% of the population of the

developing world

It is estimated that 6 million people are blind from trachoma

200 million people in the world are infected with schistosomiasis, of

whom 20 million suffer severe consequences

Arsenic in drinking water is a major public health threat.

You can read more about the importance of water and wastewater treatment
at the WHO website

1.2 Compounds/bacteria/viruses that are potentially harmful to

our natural environment

Untreated wastewater is a serious threat to the natural environment. In

excess levels, nutrients over stimulate the growth of aquatic plants and
algae. Excessive growth of these types of organisms consequently clogs our
waterways (a process known as eutrophication), blocking light to deeper
waters. Furthermore, the degradation of some compounds uses up
dissolved oxygen, eventually suffocating aquatic life.

“With freshwater wildlife declining by 50 per cent in the last 30 years,

freshwater ecosystems are by far in worse condition than forest, grassland,
and coastal ecosystems.” Source: World Wide Fund (WWF) for the environment
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2.0 SOURCES OF POLLUTION

Water use by sector

Fig. 1: Rising water use

The agricultural sector is the overall highest user and consequently highest
polluter in terms of volume. Agricultural wastewater is high in nutrients.

3.0 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISATION

Solids concentration

Particle size distribution

Turbidity

Colour

Transmittance

Temperature

Conductivity
Density

Specific gravity

Specific weight
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3.1 Solids
Total solids (TS) Residue remaining after a wastewater temp 103°C ± 105°C
sample has been evaporated + dried at a
specific temperature.
Total volatile solids Those solids that can be volatised and temp 550°C ± 50°C
(TVS) burned off when the TS are ignited.
Total fixed solids The residue that remains after TS are temp 550°C ± 50°C
(TFS) ignited.
Total suspended solids Portion of the TS that are retained on a
(TSS) glass fibre filter
A commonly used filter is the Whatman
glass fibre filter, which has a nominal pore
size of about 1.58 m.
Volatile suspended The solids that can be volatised and burned temp 550°C ± 50°C
solids (VSS) off when the TSS are ignited.
Fixed suspended The residue that remains after the TSS are temp 550°C ± 50°C
solids (FSS) ignited.
Total dissolved solids Solids that pass through the filter and are temp 103°C ± 105°C
(TDS) then evaporated and dried at a specific (this will include colloidal and
(TS-TSS) temperature. dissolved solids).
Total volatile Solids that can be volatised and burned off temp 550°C ± 50°C
dissolved solids when the TDS is ignited.
(VDS)
Fixed dissolved solids The residue that remains after the TDS are temp 550°C ± 50°C
(FDS) ignited.
Settleable solids Suspended solids, expressed as mL/L, that
will settle out of suspension within a
specified period of time (eg 30mins or,
1hr). An imhoff cone may be used.

3.2 Particle size distribution

Sample Imhoff Settleable

Cone solids

Oven
TS
105oC
Filter
(glass fibre)

filtrate
Oven
550oC
TSS TDS

TVS TFS
Oven Oven
550oC 550oC

VSS
eg. bacteria DVS
eg. sugar DFS
eg. NaCl

FSS
eg. sand
 Module 8 Page 5

Imhoff cone: used to determine settleable solids. Solids that

accumulate at the bottom of the cone after 1hr are reported
as mL/L.

3.3 Turbidity

Turbidity is a measure of light transmitting properties of water

It is determined based on a comparison of the intensity of light scattered by

a sample in comparison to the light scattered by a reference suspension
under the same conditions.

Turbidity is used to indicate the quality of waste discharges and natural

waters with respect to colloidal and suspended matter.

3.4 Conductivity

Electrical conductivity (EC) is a measure of a solution to conduct an

electrical current. The electrical current is transported by ions in solution.
As such, conductivity can be related to the total dissolved solids
concentration (TDS):

TDS (mg/L) EC (millisiemens / m) x 10 x (0.55 – 0.70)

High conductivity indicates high TDS.

EC of water is one of the most important parameters used to determine the

suitability of water for irrigation because it is related to salinity.
 Module 8 Page 6

4.0 INORGANIC, NONMETALIC CHARACTERISATION

pH and alkalinity

Nitrogen

Phosphorus

Soluble gases

4.1 pH and Alkalinity

pH is related to the hydrogen ion concentration:

pH log 10 H

The pH range suitable for most biological life is 6 to 9 – this means that it is
difficult to treat some industrial wastewaters by biological means.

Alkalinity is a measure of the resistance to pH drop. Nitrification produces

H+ so reduces alkalinity – but denitrification restores alkalinity.

Calcium and magnesium bicarbonates are the most common forms of

alkalinity in domestic wastewater.

Alkalinity is determined by titrating against a standard acid: the results are

expressed in terms of calcium carbonate (mg/L CaCO3)

4.2 Nitrogen

Nitrogen is a fertilising agent. Elevated quantities of inorganic N can cause

algal blooms. Nitrogen is not often limiting in fresh water but is often
limiting in sea water.

Nitrogen can be found in the environment in the following forms:

nitrogenous compounds of plant and animal origin, including urea

(most significant)
 Module 8 Page 7

sodium nitrate (found in mineral deposits and bird manure)

atmospheric nitrogen (caused by fixation)

Form Notes

Ammonia NH3 In equilibrium with NH4+ NH 4 NH 3 H

(in wastewater, with pH less than 8, most is present as NH4+)

Typical range in domestic WW is 15-40 mg/L. Much higher

in agricultural WW and leachate.

Measured by colorimetry, titrimetrically or by ion specific

electrodes.

Nitrate NO3- Most oxidised form of nitrogen. High concentrations are

harmful to human health (blue baby syndrome).

Typical range in treated effluents is 15-20mg/L.

Measured by colorimetry or by ion specific electrodes.

Nitrite NO2- Relatively unstable – easily oxidised to nitrate. (rarely above

1mg/L).

Extremely toxic to fish and other aquatic life.

Measured by colorimetry.

Organic Bound to carbon material (eg proteins).

nitrogen
Measured by the Kjeldahl method (NH3 is removed first).
(Kjeldahl N)

Total Kjeldahl TKN Organic N + NH3/NH4+

nitrogen
Measured by the Kjeldahl method

Total nitrogen Organic N + NH3 + NH4+ + NO2- + NO3-

 Module 8 Page 8

Organic nitrogen is determined by the following procedure:

drive off ammonia (achieved by raising pH)

digest the organic N to ammonia (achieved with acid addition and

high temperature)

Distil ammonia (achieved by raising pH to 13 so that all NH3 is in

gaseous form)

Capture the ammonia (in a weak acid) and then back titrate to
determine ammonia, which is directly related to the initial organic N
concentration.

TKN (total Kjeldahl nitrogen)

As above except no need to drive of ammonia as TKN is all reduced nitrogen

(organic N + ammonia)

4.3 Phosphorus

Phosphorus is a fertilising agent. Elevated quantities of inorganic P can

cause algal blooms. Phosphorus is often limiting in freshwater.

Phosphorus can be found in the environment in the following forms:

orthophosphate (PO43-, HPO42-, H2PO4-, H3PO4) are directly available

for biological metabolism.

polyphosphate (polyP), which undergo hydrolysis to

orthophosphate; polyp are important for energy storage in biological
phosphorus removal systems.

Typical range for inorganic P in domestic wastewater is 5-15mg/L. Much

higher in agricultural (meat and dairy) wastewater.

Orthophosphate is measured by colorimetry. PolyP needs to be digested to

orthophosphate prior to measurement.
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5.0 METALS

Common metals include:

Cadmium

Chromium

Copper

Iron

Lead

Managanese

Mercury
Nickel

Zinc

6.0 ORGANIC CARBON

About 75% of suspended solids in domestic wastewater are organic. Most

inorganic solids settle out in primary settling. The organic matter consists
of:

proteins (40-60%) – large molecules that may or may not be soluble,

primarily from animals and food, include about 16% nitrogen,

carbohydrates (25-50%) – sugars (readily biodegradable) and

polymers of sugars (sometimes difficult to degrade: eg starch and
cellulose)

fats (8-12%) – can clog pipes, can interfere with biological treatment
systems.

Urea (nitrogen based), the major constituent of urine, is another organic

compound.

Organic compounds are normally composed of a combination of…

carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, together with nitrogen in some cases.

 Module 8 Page 10

Organic carbon is quantified in a number of ways:

BOD Biological oxygen demand It is important to understand

these terms as BOD and COD
COD Chemical oxygen demand are widely used to
characterise wastewaters
TOC Total organic carbon

ThOD theoretical oxygen demand

6.1 BOD

The Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) is a measure of the oxygen needed

to biologically digest a sample. Properly done it is a direct gauge of
pollution.

COHN (organic waste) + O2 + bacteria CO2 + H2O + new bacteria

Arbitrarily defined as 5 days and 200 C as this is characteristic of summer

temp and river flow time in Britain. 7 and 20 days also used sometimes.

BOD Significance

Same biochemical mechanism as occurs in the stream

Integrated index of all carbon sources (can be hundreds)

Universally accepted

Legal and administrative uses for setting limits and monitoring

Comparatively simple

Can use for design

Quantitative measure

BOD/COD ratio = 0.4 - 0.8, but can vary widely with the waste
 Module 8 Page 11

6.2 COD

COD is a measure of the oxygen equivalent of the organic material in

wastewater that can be oxidised chemically using dichromate in an acid
solution.
a 8d 3c
Cn H aOb N c dCr2O72 8d c H nCO 2 H 2O cNH 4 2dCr 3
2
2n a b c
where d
3 6 3 2

COD can be measured by colorimetry as the appearance of the Cr3+ ion

changes during the reaction. The colour change is can be correlated with a
known theoretical oxygen demand.

It would be expected that the value of BODu and COD would be the same –
but this is seldom the case. The reasons for the differences include:

many organic substances that are difficult to oxidise biologically

can be oxidised chemically,

some inorganic substances are oxidised during the COD test

certain organics may be toxic to the micro-organisms used in the

BOD test

The main advantage of the COD test is that it is quick (approx 2-3hrs)

6.3 ThOD

ThOD is a means to predict the O2 consumption required to fully degrade

material (BOD and COD are empirical determinations of O2 demand).

ThOD is very useful for studying wastewaters with known compositions (eg
industrial wastewaters).
 Module 8 Page 12

Method for calculating ThOD

Identify the pollutant

Write the balanced oxidation

Convert moles of O2 to mg O2.

6.4 Fats, Oil and Grease (FOG)

If FOG are not removed, they can interfere with biological life in surface
waters and they can create unsightly films.

Fats, oils and grease are found in domestic wastewaters as the

result of use of butter, lard, marg, and vegetable and animal oils
and fats.

FOG are of particular concern in agricultural wastewaters (eg. dairy

and meat processing wastewaters).

The FOG content is determined by extraction of the wastewater sample with

trichloro-trifluroethane, in which FOG are soluble.

7.0 PRIORITY POLLUTANTS

Known or suspected carcinogenicity, mutagenicity, teratogenicity or

high acute toxicity

Identified by the Environmental Protection Agency

129 pollutants (inorganic and organic)

Many are VOCs (volatile organic compounds)

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8.0 BIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS

8.1 Pathogenic Bacteria, Protozoa, Helminths (worms) and
Viruses

See tables on following pages

8.2 Indicator organisms

Ideal indicator: Fundamental importance for human health!

present when faecal contamination is present

should be at least equal (most often much high) in population with

the target organism

should exhibit similar survival characteristics as the target

organism

should not reproduce outside the host

fast, cheap quantification

should be a member of the intestinal micoflora of warmblooded

animals

* no ideal organism has been found!

Coliform (in particular E.coli) has been used as an indicator. It is a rod-

shaped, gram negative, non spore forming bacteria. Each person discharges
100-400 billion per day.

But now there are concerns over pathogens which may arise from
nonhuman reservoirs eg. crytosporidium parvum and Giardia lambia.
 Module 8 Page 14

Major Water-Related Diseases – mostly from World Health Organisation 1996

Number of Deaths Per
Disease Cause and Route of Transmission Geographic Extent
Casesa Year

Diarrheal
Various bacteria, viruses, and protozoa travel the fecal-oral
disease 4 billion 3-4
route via contaminated water, food, person-to-person Worldwide
(including currently million
contact.
dysentery)
Bacteria travel the fecal-oral route via contaminated water, 384,000 per
Cholera South America, Africa, Asia 20,000
food, person-to-person contact. year
600,000 to
Virus travels the fecal-oral route via contaminated water, 2,400 to
Hepatitis A Worldwide 3 million
food, person-to-person contact. 12,000
per year
Paratyphoid Bacteria travel the fecal-oral route via contaminated water, 80% in Asia; 20% in Latin 16 million
and typhoid food, person-to-person contact. America, Africa currently 600,000
Virus travels the fecal-oral route via contaminated water, 66% in India; 34% in Near East, 82,000
Polio 9,000
food, person-to-person contact. Asia, Africa currently
Fertilized eggs are passed out in human feces. Larvae in eggs
250 million
Ascariasis develop in warm soil. Human ingests soil on food. Hatched Africa, Asia, Latin America currently
60,000
larvae penetrate intestinal wall, where they mature.
After a year, adult worm reaches skin surface of lower 78% in Sudan; 22% in other sub-
Dracunculiasis 153,000 per None
extremities. Female comes in contact with water, then Saharan Africa and a few cases in
(guinea worm) year reported
discharges larvae into water. India and Yemen
Worms living in pulmonary cysts lay eggs in human lungs,
5 million None
Paragonimiasis which are coughed up and then swallowed. Worm eggs are Far East, Latin America
currently reported
passed out in feces and break when in fresh water.
Eggs of the schistosome worm are passed out in human
feces. Eggs hatch on contact with water, releasing the
Africa, Near East, rain forest belt
Schistosomiasis parasite miracidium. From the water it penetrates human 200 million
in Central Africa, Western Pacific, 20,000
(bilharzia) skin within seconds and moves into blood vessels. Within 30 currently
Kampuchea, Laos
to 45 days, miracidium grows into worm, which can lay 200
to 2,000 eggs per day for an average of 5 years.
 Module 8 Page 15

Reducing Water-Related Disease

Impact of Improved Water Infrastructure, Selected Studies

Type of Facilities or Difference in Incidence

Place Type of Study Diseases
Improvement After Improvement

Latrines, communal
taps, laundry facilities, 77% difference between
Northeast Brazil Case-control Schistosomiasis
showers, and hand groups
pumps
Courtyard latrine and 16% difference between
Khuzestan, Iran Case-control Ascariasis
public standpipes groups
Toilets and running 82% difference in infant
Peninsular Malaysia Case-control Diarrheal diseases
water mortality between groups
Cebu, Philippines Private, sanitary latrines Before and after Diarrheal diseases 42% reduction
Household water and 31% difference between
St. Lucia Case-control Ascariasis
latrines groups
 Module 8 Page 17

9.0 SAMPLING

Proper sampling and analytical techniques are of fundamental importance in

the characterisation of wastewater.

Four goals of sampling:

representative (must represent the world wide environment)

reproducible (must be able to be followed by others)

defensible (need good documentation)

useful! (keep the objectives of the monitoring program in mind)

9.1 Sampling types (taken from norweco.com):

Wastewater sampling is generally performed by one of two methods, grab

sampling or composite sampling. Grab sampling is just what it sounds like;
all of the test material is collected at one time. As such, a grab sample
reflects performance only at the point in time that the sample was collected,
and then only if the sample was properly collected. Composite sampling
consists of a collection of numerous individual discrete samples taken at
regular intervals over a period of time, usually 24 hours. The material being
sampled is collected in a common container over the sampling period. The
analysis of this material, collected over a period of time, will therefore
represent the average performance of a wastewater treatment plant during
the collection period.

Numerous industry references list various parameters for wastewater testing

and whether samples should be collected using grab sampling or composite
sampling methods. For example, grab sampling allows the analysis of
specific types of unstable parameters such as pH, dissolved oxygen, chlorine
residual, nitrites and temperature. However, the most widely used indicators
of treatment plant performance, including CBOD5 (five day carbonaceous
biochemical oxygen demand), TSS (total suspended solids) and TN (total
 Module 8 Page 18

nitrogen) require the use of composite sampling techniques. STANDARD

METHODS (20th Edition, Section 1060 § B, "Collection and Sampling")
states "A sample can represent only the composition of its source at the time
and place of collection." Grab samples may be used to represent "some well-
mixed surface waters, but rarely, wastewater streams" for water quality
evaluation. The widely varying flow patterns of residential treatment plants
make it impossible to evaluate performance by analyzing a single grab
sample of effluent. Residential treatment plants receive a frequent number of
short hydraulic surges throughout the day followed by intermittent periods
of no flow whatsoever.

Routine variations in the volume and strength characteristics of incoming

wastewater create fluctuations in the quality of treatment plant effluent.
Therefore, an effluent grab sample taken at one specific time throughout the
daily flow pattern will not be representative of system performance over the
entire day. The CODE OF FEDERAL REGULATIONS (Title 40, Chapter 1, §
133.102) stipulates that treatment plant performance must be evaluated by
tabulating 30-day averages of plant effluent. By definition, a single grab
sample can never be used to evaluate the long-term performance of any
wastewater treatment plant.

While the limitations of determining system performance by grab sampling

are apparent, the use of grab samples for the evaluation of a residential
treatment unit is further compromised if the sample is collected from a
location where the effluent does not have sufficient velocity to keep the
effluent solids in suspension. WASTEWATER SAMPLING FOR PROCESS
AND QUALITY CONTROL (Manual of Practice No. OM-1, § "Representative
Sampling") directs that samples be collected "at points where the sample
stream or tank is well mixed." The manual goes on to say "avoid taking
samples at points where solids settling occurs or floating debris is present.
These situations occur normally in quiescent areas, where the velocity of the
flow has decreased." For this reason, plant performance can never be
evaluated by a sample of effluent taken from a pump chamber, distribution
box, sump, roadside ditch or any device that contains effluent below the flow
line. The intermittent flow pattern of an individual residence intensifies this
problem by allowing effluent solids to settle out within a sump during low
flow periods. Even the few solids present in a high quality effluent will settle
out when retained within a sump. If only a very few solids settle within a
 Module 8 Page 19

sump during a low flow period today, they remain and accumulate with
additional solids settling out over successive days. Any sample drawn from a
sump will contain effluent suspended solids combined with days, weeks,
months or years worth of accumulated solids. A sample of liquid from such
a sump cannot be analyzed for overall system performance, as it is
scientifically impossible to determine what portion of the solids were
suspended in the effluent and what portion of the solids had accumulated in
the sump over a period of time. Using any sample drawn from a sump to
evaluate the performance of a residential wastewater treatment plant is
simply inappropriate. Samples must be taken from a location where the
effluent is free-flowing and has sufficient velocity to keep the effluent solids
in suspension.

Composite samples of effluent collected, stored, analyzed, tabulated and

averaged over an extended period of time provide the only verifiable
indication of treatment plant performance. Collecting and analyzing these
composite samples is often an expensive and time-consuming process. For
these reasons, most regulatory organizations recognize independent third-
party certifiers, who use composite sampling methods to conduct
performance evaluation and accurately measure system performance in a
standardized, reproducible setting. Attempting to evaluate a residential
treatment system in the field by analyzing a grab sample taken from a sump
or any other containment vessel provides a compound degree of error and
will yield erroneous conclusions about system performance. Refer to the
Norweco Technical Bulletin EFFLUENT SAMPLING TECHNIQUES FOR
RESIDENTIAL TREATMENT SYSTEMS for complete, detailed instructions on
effluent sampling and analysis of residential treatment units.

9.2 Should develop a detailed protocol

Sampling plan Time and number of samples + locations

Type and size Catch or grab, composite or integrated + vols

required

Labelling Label and log samples

Methods Some specific techniques need to be followed

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Storage Types of containers, preservation (may need to

inhibit biological activity)

Constituents List the target constituents

Analytical Prepare for the specific analytical techniques

10.0 HOW DO WE TREAT WASTEWATER?

10.1 Case Study: Dairy Wastewater Treatment

What’s in the wastewater?

Milk or milk fractions account for about 90% of the polluting strength of
dairy wastes. The strength of the waste is often characterised by the
biological oxygen demand (BOD) test.

The organic matter (carbon molecules) is used by the microorganisms as a

food source for growth of new cells and to provide a source of energy for
other activities of the organisms.

Ranges of BOD5 and COD concentrations are large, with values for a typical
dairy wastewater for BOD5 being in the order of 2500 mg/l and for COD
about 4000 mg/l.

The BOD5 of whole milk is approximately 100,000 mg/l.

A BOD5 coefficient of 1 kg BOD5/m3 milk received is equivalent to 1% of the

milk received being wasted.

Milk losses of up to 4% of the weight received are not uncommon.

Wastewater volume coefficients show a wide range. Typical values of volume

coefficients that can be achieved are 0.5 to 2.0 m3 water per m3 milk
received.

Dairy wastes generally have low concentrations of settleable solids that can
be removed by gravity settling. The exception may be cheese plants or
casein operations where the concentration of “fines” are high.
 Module 8 Page 21

Characteristics of dairy plant wastes in New Zealand (Marshall and Harper)

Characteristic Concentration
Biochemical oxygen demand 90 - 12,400 (mg/l)
Chemical oxygen demand 180 - 23,000 (mg/l)
Suspended solids 7 - 7,200 (mg/l)
Nitrogen 1 – 70 (mg/l)
Fat 0 – 2100 (mg/l)
Phosphorus (as PO4) 4-150 (mg/l)
pH 3 – 13
Temperature 11 – 72 (oC)

The pH variation of the dairy wastewater varies widely with an average value
around 7.2. The major influence on the waste water pH is the cleaning
compound used.

The main factor affecting wastewater volume and pollution coefficients is the
attention that management pays to the control of waste production.

Plants with low coefficients (0.5 m3 water m-3 milk and 0.5 kg BOD5 m-3
milk) have good waste management control. However plants with high
coefficients (both greater than 3.0) have poor waste management control.

Defining Various Waste Streams ( Blanchard 1991)

 Initial rinse water

 Product spillage
High BOD5 streams
 Centrifugal Separator
Ejection
 Cleaning system water
Medium BOD5 streams  Product wash water
 Wet scrubber overflow
 Evaporator condensate
Low BOD5 streams  Reverse osmosis permeate
 Intermediate wash water
 Process transport water
Used Water streams  Condensing cooling water
 Final rinse water
 Module 8 Page 22

Treatment strategies?

A typical wastewater treatment system can be divided broadly into three

sections:

Waste water

Screening
Solids  Landfill
Grit removal
PRIMARY
Flow balancing (optional)

Dissolved air flotation Sludge

Sedimentation

AEROBIC ANAEROBIC
Suspended culture Suspended culture
Activated sludge Anaerobic lagoon
Aerobic lagoon UASB
SECONDARY
Attached culture Contact process
Trickling filter Attached growth
Rotating biological contactor Anaerobic filter
Grass plots

Sludge

SPECIALISED PROCESSESS SLUDGE THICKENING/

Ultraviolet disinfection DEWATERING
TERTIARY Chemical
coagulation/precipitation
Sand filter
Activated carbon filter
SLUDGE TREATMENT
Ion exchange
Aerobic composting
Reverse osmosis
Anaerobic digestion
DISPOSAL/REUSE
Receiving water
or
DISPOSAL/REUSE
Land application
Incineration
Land application
Landfill
 Module 8 Page 23

Primary Treatment

Can include balancing of flows, screening/settling and fat removal. These

steps are important as they reduce the load on the rest of the treatment
facility.

These first steps always represent the best value in terms of treatment
achieved vs money spent. After primary treatment it gets increasingly
expensive to remove relatively smaller amounts of pollution load.

Balancing/Storage

This simply involves providing some form of storage volume in the form of a
tank or even if ponds are used for treatment by their oversizing. It reduces
the impact of variations in flow rate and strength of the effluent and
precedes treatment or disposal.

Some balance tanks can incorporate automatic pH adjustment. For

biological treatment the optimum pH range for microorganisms is around
6.5 to 8.

A balancing/storage capacity is particularly important if using irrigation, as

it is not always possible to irrigate during wet weather.

A further benefit is the ability to cope with any breakdown in the treatment
system without having to stop production in the factory.

Screening and Settling

Screens with 1-5 mm are typical to remove curd particles and large solid
objects.

A grit chamber can be used to remove debris from yards and tanker washing
areas. These traps allow for settlement of heavier inorganic material while
lighter organic material flows through.
 Module 8 Page 24

If reasonable amounts of solids are present, then it is best to settle these out
of the wastewater as soon as possible to prevent them breaking up into
solution and then requiring secondary treatment. Simple settling is a cheap
compared to biological treatment! „Primary settlement‟ is carried out in a
settlement (or sedimentation) tank like that shown below. However, because
in dairy effluent there is normally a relatively small amount of solids this
gives only a small reduction in BOD.

Typical sedimentation tank

Source: Wastewater Engineering by Metcalf & Eddy, 1991. pg 482

Fat Removal

The presence of fat in the effluent is a significant contributor to the strength

of the effluent. The removal of this fat is an important step before biological
treatment.

The most common modern process for fat removal is the use of dissolved air
flotation (DAF) which also removes some suspended solids. In a DAF
system, air is dissolved into the wastewater under a pressure of several
atmospheres. On the release of this pressurised wastewater into the DAF
tank, through a pressure releasing valve, the dissolved air comes out of the
solution in minute bubbles. These take the fat globules to the surface as the
bubbles rise, where the fat is skimmed off. Sometimes chemicals are added
to aid the floatation process. The chemicals bind the particles together that
easily entrap air bubbles.

The temperature and pH of the effluent streams may also be adjusted as

they affect the efficiency of fat removal.
 Module 8 Page 25

10.2 Conventional Aerobic Biological Treatment

The process of aerobic biochemical oxidation which would take place

naturally in a river or a stream can be accelerated, by supporting a high
concentration of bacteria with adequate oxygen and mixing in a treatment
reactor. These bacteria utilise the waste material as a food source (same as
discussed in the BOD test).

The aerobic process is:

Rapid absorption of the milk constituents by the bacteria

The dairy waste is partially used to produce new cell material and
partly oxidised to supply energy.

organic material + O2 → CO2 + new cells + energy

The result is that the pollutant is converted into simple non-

polluting compounds and a settleable biomass.

Essentially we can divide conventional aerobic treatment systems

into two parts - suspended growth and attached growth.

There are numerous types of aerobic treatment systems. Two common types
- activated sludge and trickling filters, are discussed below. Even for each of
these there are numerous variations.

Activated Sludge Processes (Suspended Growth)

In Activated Out
Sludge Settler

Reactor
Aeration

RAS
WA
S
 Module 8 Page 26

A large concentration of bacteria are held in the reactor where they feed on
the incoming wastewater. The reactor consists of an aerated tank or basin.

After treatment in the reactor, the clean water and bacteria flow to the
settlement tank where the bacteria drop out and are returned to the reactor
to maintain the high concentration (RAS) while the clean water is discharged
to disposal.

The hydraulic residence time of the water in the reactor is in the order of
hours, while the bacteria may be recirculated many times have a residence
time of days (known as the “sludge age”).

Because the bacteria grow, some need to be removed as waste activated

sludge (WAS). This waste “sludge” then needs to be treated/disposed of.

This system is energy intensive and needs good control, but is compact and
gives a good quality effluent.

Trickling Filters (Attached Growth)

In

Trickling Media packing

filter

Out
Settler

Waste
sludge

Trickling filters employ a fixed medium - over which the wastewater to be

treated is trickled to support the growth of a film of active microorganisms.

Older plants employ rock, slag or other low-cost materials as a media for
biological growth.

More modern plants use various types of low mass per unit volume, high
specific surface area, plastic media.
 Module 8 Page 27

Trickling filters are naturally aerated by convection of air up through the

filter bed.

As the bacterial film on the media grows, it eventually gets washed off and
this “biological sludge” is settled out in the settlement tank.

10.3 Anaerobic Treatment

Anaerobic digestion is basically a two-stage bacterial fermentation process.

Organic matter (fat, proteins and carbohydrates) in the waste are converted
by one group of bacteria to organic acids, carbon dioxide and hydrogen. A
second group of bacteria converts the organic acids to methane and more
carbon dioxide.

Essentially anaerobic digestion converts the organic material in the

wastewater into non-polluting or combustible gases, and non-putrescent
sludge which can be used as a soil conditioner.

Because dairy waste usually has high concentrations of organic matter it is

ideally suited to anaerobic treatment.

Gas
Out
UASB Out
Baffles

Bacteria

In

Compared to activated sludge it produces far smaller quantities of waste

sludge and it produces a valuable fuel gas instead of burning-up electricity
for aeration.

It can produce odours if the system is not covered and does not achieve
such high levels of treatment that aerobic systems can do.
 Module 8 Page 28

Again, this system can involve wastewater being treated by suspended or

attached bacteria.

A common example is the upflow anaerobic sludge blanket reactor (UASB).

The wastewater enters uniformly at the bottom of the UASB and flows up
through a bed of bacteria receiving treatment and producing gas.
Deflectors/baffles aid separation of the water, bacteria and gas. The
bacteria is retained in the tank while the cleaned water and gas are collected
and removed at the top. Typical hydraulic retention times are approximately
0.5-1 day.

10.4 Pond Treatment

Used in a number of countries to treat dairy wastewater.

Many different types:

anaerobic;

facultative (combined aerobic/anaerobic);

aerobic.

These systems involve similar treatment mechanisms to the “conventional”

systems but usually rely on natural process for mixing and aeration.

They generally operate at “lower rates” and therefore need more time for
treatment (days) and large land areas.

They can offer cheap and reasonably reliable treatment.

 Module 8 Page 29

Treatment mechanisms in a facultative pond

(Source: Wastewater Engineering by Metcalf & Eddy, 1991, pg 437)

10.5 Irrigation

flow balancing;
pumping and piping to the irrigation site;

irrigation site;

irrigation pipe network;

nozzles;

a control system;

monitoring wells.

Balance tanks with a volume equivalent to 4 to 6 hours of the maximum

flow rate are required Irrigation can provide a high treatment efficiency and
can provide some return via the irrigation and fertilizer value for crops and
farming. It is a method of disposal as well as treatment.
 Module 8 Page 30

Disadvantages are that irrigation systems require large areas of land that
can often be some distance from the dairy factory, and they are not suitable
for freezing temperatures or certain soil types.

If poorly operated ponding can occur (causing odours and attracting insects)
or surface runoff may occur, which can lead to pollution of streams and
waterways.

The application rate (and so the land area required) is determined by

evaluation of flow rate and the pollutant concentrations. The design of the
system should compare the actual hydraulic, organic, solids and nitrogen
loads (kg/ha.d) against what are considered acceptable application rates.

Given good primary treatment, organic and solid loads can be significantly
reduced, therefore making the ability of the land to absorb the water and the
nitrogen the critical factors.

Sufficient removal of fat and suspended solids is required to avoid blocking

of spray nozzles, clogging of the soil matrix and the potential for
development of odours.

In the New Zealand dairy industry, the typical irrigation site is pasture used
for grazing, although crops and trees are also suitable.

In large systems all pipe work is kept underground, with detachable or “pop-
up” spray nozzles being connected to an underground pipe grid. Travelling
irrigators are also used.

The rotation of areas under irrigation is approximately every 20 days. This

allows the soil bacteria to decompose the organic components and pasture
to utilize the nutrients.
 Module 8 Page 31

10.6 Sludge Treatment

As discussed in previous sections, “sludge” is produced from primary

treatment such as settlement and DAF. In biological treatment (for example,
activated sludge and trickling filters) bacteria are grown and this is another
“sludge” which needs to be taken care of.

These sludges can and are applied directly to farmland. However this
practice can result in organic/ nitrogen overloading and odours (as for
irrigation).

The handling of these sludges can be improved by dewatering. These

sludges are really just thick liquids. By use of centrifuges or belt presses a
large amount of excess water can be separated from the solids producing a
solid sludge.

Dewatering can make massive reductions in the volume of sludge to be

transported/disposed of.

The sludge may also be treated by anaerobic or aerobic methods to stabilize

its organic content thereby making it more stable.

Alternatively the dewatered sludge can be mixed with a bulking agent and
composted.

NOTE: An excellent general textbook for further information on

wastewater treatment is “Wastewater engineering -
treatment, reuse, disposal” by Metcalf and Eddy.
 Module 8 Page 32

11.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

You should be familiar with the classification of pollutants (physical,

chemical and biological):

Know what BOD and COD are

Be able to describe the relationship between organic matter and

oxygen demand

Know what pH is

Know what temperature is and why it is an important factor for

wastewater treatment facilities

Know what nutrients are found in wastewaters

Know what FOG stands for

Be able to outline a detailed sampling protocol

You should be familiar with the classification of treatment stages (primary,

secondary and tertiary):

Understand the difference between the terms: „organic loading rate‟

and „hydraulic loading rate‟

Know which pollutants are targeted in each of the classified

treatment stages and be able to describe the mechanism by which
pollutants are removed in each of the classification stages

Be able to identify when equalisation would be beneficial

Understand the application of „separation‟ in wastewater treatment

Understand the difference between aerobic, anoxic and anaerobic

environments
Module 8 Page 33

Be able to sketch „continuous‟ and „SBR‟ activated sludge systems

Understand the advantages and disadvantages of anaerobic

treatment

Be able to outline how nutrients can be removed from wastewaters

Be familiar with the issues associated with disposal by irrigation

Know what sludge is and why „sludge processing‟ is required

Be able to describe the main differences between dairy wastewaters

and domestic wastewater