Lecture 9

MICROSYSTEMS ENGINEERING

Dr.-Ing. Ronny Gerbach

-1-
Contents of Last Lecture

■ Review thin film structuring – etching processes

■ Optical lithography
■ Surface / wafer preparation
■ Resist materials
■ Resist coating

-2-
Course Outline

1) Introduction
2) Clean Rooms and Yield
3) Materials for Microsystem Engineering
4) Thin Film Technology
5) Lithography
6) MEMS Technologies
7) Introduction into Packaging Technologies
8) Alternative Approaches for Microsystem Engineering

-3-
 Overview Semiconductor Manufacturing Process

Film „Lithography“

Lithography -4-
 Optical Lithography – Wafer Process

Substrate Preparation
Resist
Resist Coating
Post Apply Bake
Exposure
Post Exposure Bake
Development
Hard Bake
Control

Lithography -5-
 Optical Lithography – Surface Preparation
■ Included process steps:
■ Thin film deposition / wafer cleaning
■ Dehydration by thermal means  120-160°C  remove of water
molecules and cracking of OH- groups
■ Coating with adhesion promoter  HDMS primer

After wafer cleaning

hydrophilic wafer surface
 good resist wetting
 reduced adhesion
(lifting of small resist lines
during developing)

After HDMS coating

hydrophobic wafer surface
 decreased resist wetting
 improved adhesion

Lithography -6-
 Optical Lithography – Wafer Process

Substrate Preparation
Resist
Resist Coating
Post Apply Bake
Exposure
Post Exposure Bake
Development
Hard Bake
Control

Lithography -7-
 Optical Lithography – Resist Materials

Positive Negative Image

tone tone reversal
Mask
Exposure

Bake
process

Flood
exposure

Development

Source: www.microchemicals.de

Lithography -8-
 Optical Lithography – Wafer Process

Substrate Preparation
Resist
Resist Coating
Post Apply Bake
Exposure
Post Exposure Bake
Development
Hard Bake
Control

Lithography -9-
 Optical Lithography – Resist Coating

Spin-Coating:
1) Deposit fluid (= material + solvent) onto wafer
substrate

2) Accleration of wafer to final radial velocity 

fluid distribution across wafer

3) “Thinning” of fluid to target thickness by radial

velocity

4) Curing / evaporation of solvent  Softbake

5) If needed: “edge bead” removal

Source: Laurell Technologies

Lithography -10-
 Optical Lithography – Resist Coating

■ Resist spinner during the coating sequence:

Lithography -11-
 Optical Lithography – Wafer Process

Substrate Preparation
Resist
Resist Coating
Post Apply Bake
Exposure
Post Exposure Bake
Development
Hard Bake
Control

Lithography -12-
 Optical Lithography – Softbake

■ Post-Apply-Bake = Softbake = Prebake

■ Function of the softbake = reduction of solvent content (10-35%) for
■ Reduction of mask contamination or stiction
■ Reduction of bubbling or softening of the resist during exposure
(N2-formation of positive tone resists)
■ Increase of adhesion
■ Reduction of unexposed material during development
■ Increase of form stability
■ Improve of thermal stability (increase of softening temperature)
■ Reduce / avoid attack of resists during multiple resist coating
■ Typical process parameters:  depend on used resist
■ between 65°C up to 125°C for several minutes

Lithography -13-
 Optical Lithography – Wafer Process

Substrate Preparation
Resist
Resist Coating
Post Apply Bake
Exposure
Post Exposure Bake
Development
Hard Bake
Control

Lithography -14-
 Optical Lithography – Wavelength for Exposure

Source: wikipedia.org

Lithography -15-
 Optical Lithography – Lithography Masks

■ Mask = „templates / patterns” for lithography processes containing

opaque and transparent areas
■ Typical material for photomasks  fused silica covered with Cr film
■ Types of lithography masks:
■ Binary masks / Cr masks

■ Chromeless phase-shift masks

■ Alternating-aperture phase-shifting masks

■ Manufacturing of masks by laser beam or electron beam lithography

■ Protection of the pattern devices by pellicles  thin transparent film

Lithography -16-
 Optical Lithography - Exposure
Projection Proximity
Contact lithography
lithography lithography

Small gap between Mask is in direct

the mask an the contact (vacuum
resist covered contact) to the resist
Mask is projected
substrate covered substrate
with a lens onto
the resist covered 
substrate Scratches on the mask

and on the substrate
Reduced resolution
are possible
due to the

diffraction of the
Shorter mask service
light
life and a lot of defects
in the resist

Lithography -17-
 Optical Lithography – Proximity Lithography

■ Limitation of the optical illumination by light diffraction

(Fresnel diffraction)

UV light

UV light

Light intensity
Proximity gap (caused by diffraction)
𝑔
Resist
Resist
(after development)
(after development)

Lithography -18-
 Optical Lithography – Proximity Lithography

■ Lithography equipment  Mask aligner

Source: Suss Microtec Source: EVG

Lithography -19-
 Optical Lithography – Proximity Lithography

■ Optical resolution  minimum feature size or critical dimensions (CD)

3 𝑡
𝑤min =  𝑔+ with 𝑡 as resist thickness
2 2

and 𝑔 as proximity gap

■ Contact lithography:
3 𝑡
𝑤min = 
2 2

■ Proximity lithography:
3
𝑤min ≈ 𝑔
2

Lithography -20-
 Optical Lithography – Projection Lithography

■ Projection of the reticle to the wafer  downsizing by typical factors

of 1x, 2x, 2.5x, 4x, 5x or 10x  downsizing of min. feature size
■ Use of high-end masks containing one “reticle field”
■ Principal setup: ■ Step-and-Repeat process

Mask /reticle
Objective

Wafer

■ Step-and-Scan process
Mask /reticle

Objective

Wafer
Source: Compugraphics

Lithography -21-
 Optical Lithography – Projection Lithography

■ Optical resolution  minimum feature size or critical dimensions (CD)

 limitation by Rayleigh’s criteria:
𝑘1 
𝑤min =
NA
with
 as wavelength of the used light
NA as numerical aperture of the lens / objective on image side
𝑘1 Constant parameter depending on coherence of the light,
lens illumination, resolution criteria (=minimum contrast
needed by the used resist)

Lithography -22-
 Optical Lithography – Projection Lithography

■ Depth of focus (DOF)

𝑘2 
DOF =
NA2
with
 as wavelength of the used light
NA as numerical aperture of the lens / objective on image side
𝑘2 process related coefficient (𝑘2 = 0.5)

■ Restrictions:
■ DOF must be greater than the thickness of the resist plus the
maximum step size  if not there are areas out of focus
■ High-resolution lithography  use of CMP process steps for
flattening

Lithography -23-
 Optical Lithography – Projection Lithography

■ Lithography equipment  Step-and-Scan system (wafer stepper)

Source: ASML

Lithography -24-
 Optical Lithography – Optical Alignment

■ Alignment of mask and wafer in three degree of freedom  𝑥, 𝑦, 𝜃

■ Realization of optical alignment of mark on wafer and on mask

■ Types of alignment:
■ Frontside alignment
■ Front-to-backside alignment
■ Double-side alignment Wafer

Mask Frontside

Mask backside

Lithography -25-
 Optical Lithography – Wavelength for Exposure

Source: wikipedia.org

Lithography -26-
 Optical Lithography – Next-Generation Lithography

■ EUV Lithography

Source: ASML

Lithography -27-
 Optical Lithography – Wafer Process

Substrate Preparation
Resist
Resist Coating
Post Apply Bake
Exposure
Post Exposure Bake
Development
Hard Bake
Control

Lithography -28-
 Optical Lithography – Post-Exposure-Bake (PEB)

■ PEB = temperature process directly after optical exposure

■ Application of PEB for
■ Reduction of effect of inhomogeneous exposure dose
■ Chemical amplified resists (CAR) = positive tone resists with
chemical additives for improved photosensitivity
■ Negative tone resists
■ Image reversal resists  conversion from positive to negative
tone
■ Mechanical stress relaxation (for thick resist layers)
■ Improve of resist adhesion on wafer
■ Typical process parameters: 30…60 s, 110…120 °C on a hotplate

Lithography -29-
 Optical Lithography – Wafer Process

Substrate Preparation
Resist
Resist Coating
Post Apply Bake
Exposure
Post Exposure Bake
Development
Hard Bake
Control

Lithography -30-
 Optical Lithography – Development

■ Target: formation of the patterned devices in the resist by chemical

removal of the soluble areas  wet-chemical etching process
■ Typical chemicals for development: NaOH-, KOH- or TMAH based
■ Working principle:
■ Positive and image reversal resists: deprotonation  split of proton from acid
formed during exposure  increase of chemical solubility of exposed areas
■ Negative tone areas  unexposed areas have sufficiently higher solubility
■ Types of development:
■ Puddle development
■ Spray development
Incomplete Correct
Underdeveloped Overdeveloped
development development

Lithography -31-
 Optical Lithography – Wafer Process

Substrate Preparation
Resist
Resist Coating
Post Apply Bake
Exposure
Post Exposure Bake
Development
Hard Bake
Control

Lithography -32-
 Optical Lithography – Hard Bake

■ Optional curing process after development

■ Target: increase of physical and chemical “stability” of resists
structures against “attacks” in following processes (e.g. etching or
galvanic processes)
■ Effects / drawbacks:
■ Reduction of elasticity of the resist (embrittlement)  risk of
resist cracks during temperature processes
■ Reflow of resist  rounding of resist edges
■ Crosslinking of resist  decreased removability of resist from
wafer
■ Other application of “hard bake”: formation of microlenses (reflow
lenses)

Lithography -33-
 Optical Lithography – Wafer Process

Substrate Preparation
Resist
Resist Coating
Post Apply Bake
Exposure
Post Exposure Bake
Development
Hard Bake
Control

Lithography -34-
 Optical Lithography – Control / Inspection

■ Target: quality control of patterned resist mark for

■ Critical dimension (of critical layers)  measured by CD-SEM
■ Alignment / overlay of layers to others
Example of test structures

Test structures for Canon i-line steppers

Measurement by using test structures

ideally located in scribe lines

■ Side wall angles of resists  microscopic investigations

■ Defects / residues  microscopic investigations
Lithography -35-
 Optical Lithography – Summary

Lithography -36-
 Optical Lithography – Lithography for MEMS

■ MEMS contains profiles and 3D structures (e.g. etch cavities)

■ Challenges:
■ Homogeneous coating of resists on 3D structures
■ Lithography / exposure of 3D structures / profiles
■ Exceeding of DOF
■ Unwanted reflections or shadowing
■ Development in 3D structures

Lithography -37-