FLUID MECHANICS ' INCLUDING HYDRAULICS MACHINES Dr. P.N. MODI Dr. S.M. SETH STANDARD BOOK HOUSE (SINCE 1960)HYDRAULICS AND FLUID MECHANICS Including HYDRAULIC MACHINES (In SI Units) Pp ARUN Kum Ae | By c\vur1e AWM Dr. P.N. Modi BE, ME, Ph.D Former Professor of Civil Engineering, MR. Engineering College, (Now M.N.L.T), Jaipur Formerly Principal, Kautilya Institute of Technology and Engineering, Jaipur (60111132090 and Dr. S.M. Seth ; | BE, ME, MLE, Ph.D (Manchester) | Former Director, National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee | Presently Principal, Kautilya Institute of Technology and Engineering, Jaipur | DOWNLOADED FROM www.CivilEnggForAll.com STANDARD BOOK HOUSE Unit of: RAJSONS PUBLICATIONS PVT. LID. 1705-A, Nai Sarak, PB, No. 1074, Delhi-110006 Ph. +9101) 23255508 Show Room: 4262/3, First Lane, G-Floor, Gali Punjabian, Ansari Rowe 100 220} New Delhi-110002 Ph: #91-(011)43551085 Tele Fax :+91-(012) : Fax: +91-(011)-23250212 Enmail: sbh10@hotmail.com www.standar dbookhouse.comDOWNLOADED FROM wygw.CivilEnggForAll.com Contents CHAPTER 1, PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 7A1_Introduction ™ YH Definition of «Fd 12 Development of Fluid Mechanics AA Units of Measurement “25. Mass Density, Specific Weight, Specific Volume HR Specific Gravity, YA, Equation of State: The Perfect Gas ‘YB Viscosity 4" Vapour Pressure 346 Compressiblity and Elasticity Jat Surface Tension and Capillarity ‘Sumary of Main Points Problems CHAPTER 2. FLUID PRESSURE AND ITS MEASUREMENT 2.1. Fluid Pressure ata Point 22. Variation of Pressure ina Fluid 23, Equilibrium of a Compressible Fuid—Atmospheric Equilibeum. (24 Pressure, Same inal Directions — Pascal's Law 5 atmosphere, Absolute, Gage and Vacuum Pressures 26 Mesurement of Pressure 27 General Conaments on Connections for Manometers and Gages Sumary of Main Points Problems CHAPTER 3. HYDROSTATIC FORCES ON SURFACES 3A Total Pressure and Centre of Pressure 32 Total Pressure on a Plane Surface z st sek teal eee Ee eesense &a 33. Pressure Diagram wd Contents 34. Total Pressure on Curved Surface 10g CHAPTER 7. EQUATIONS OF MOTION AND Es 35. Practical Applications of Total Pressure and Centre of Pressure 105 71 bitiedootion IHRGY HQUATION 286-350 Suma of Pes i 7a Fens Aci id in Mat = Proteome 12 72 Euler's Equation of Motion a CHAPTER 4, BUOYANCY AND FLOATATION 155-180 | 7 me a bane te aegacl Cian ” (AA Baoyancy, Baoyant Force and Cente of Buoyancy 155 7 Kinetic Energy Correction Factor om “12 Metacentre and Metacontic Height 197 2727 Berol's Equation fr» Compressible Fd - 443 Stablty of Submerged and Floating Boies 158 7 Preseue Velocity ealtonte = 444 Determination of Metacentric Height 161 79. Applications of eroull’s Equation ws Metacentric Height for Floating Bodies Containing Liquid 165 7410 Venturi Meter us 46 Time Period of Transverse Oscillation ofa Floating Bly 166 731 Once Meter 310 Sumary of Man Points 187 7.12 Nozzle Meter or Flow Nozle cy Problems 188 7.13 Other Flow Measurement Devices 33 724 Pitot Tube ue CHAPTER 5. LIQUIDS IN RELATIVE EQUILIBRIUM 190-228, 745. Free Liquid Jet M7 3.1 Introduction: 190 7.16 Vortex Motion a8 Fluid Mass Subjected to Uniform Linear Acceleration. 190 7.17 Radial Flow or Radial Motion = Liquid Containers Subjected to Constant Horizontal Acceleration 193. 7.18; Spiral Vortex Motion = Liquid Containers Subjected to Constant Vertical Acceleration 196 Surry of Main Points 6 Fluid Containers Subjected to Constant Rotation 199 Problems Sing) fa Bans a CHAPTER 8. IMPULSE MOMENTUM EQUATION AND Probleme a TTS APPLICATIONS ae FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUID FLOW 229-285, 81 Inroduction ee : 6 It came = saiastvaeR " 83 Momentum Correction Factor . 3s ee a 184. Applications of the Impulse-Momentum Equation 63 Typesof Fluid ow za oh eral = 6.44 Description of the Flow Pattern 2 eg JerPropusion Reaction oft =. 65. Basic Principles of Fluid Flow ST rach 66 Continutty Equation 26 Sn re natin Ean xs 67 Acceleration ofa Fluid Particle 246 ee den Po 2 {68 Rotational and Irrotational Motions = rere 69 Circulation and Verticity ORIFICES AND MOUTHPIECES 3488 6.10. Velocity Potential ae hid mall = 611 Stream Function 9a ; 6.12. Streamlines, Equipotential Lines and Flow Net 260 92 Classifiations of Orie and Mouthpieces “ 6.13. Methods of Drawing Flow Nets 282 93 Shanpadged Crier ECMO et fora Cc - 6:14 Use oftheFlow Net a a epee Oot in a et tone 7 281 946 Flow Under Pressure Trough Orifices ~ Problems. 284 97. Flow Through Submerged (or Drowned) OrificeContents ai De to Salton Change in Velo ‘Mouthpiece coat Mouthpiece wor Re Entrant or Borda's Mouthpieve 9A2 Flow Through an Orificeor.a Mouthpiese Under Variable Hosts 943. Flow of Liquid From one Vessel to Another 944. Time of Emptying and Filling of a Canal Lock Sumary of Main Povts Protlems 920 Flow Through AC SAT Flow Through tate CHAPTER 10, FLOW OVER NOTCHES AND WEIRS 10.1 Introduction 102 Classification of Notches and Weirs 10.3 Flow Over Rectangular Sharp-Crested! Weir or Notch, 104 Calibration of Rectangular Weir or Notch 105 Empirical Fomula for Discharge over Rectangular Weirs 106 Ventilation of Weirs 107 Flow Overa Triangular Weir (v-Notch Weit) or Triangular Notch (v-Notch) 108 Flow Overa Trapezoidal Weir or Notch 108 Time Required to Empty a Reservoir with Rectangular Welr 10.10 Effect on Computed Discharge over a weit or Notch Due to Error inthe Measurement of Head 10.11. Broad Crested Weir 10.12 Submerged Weis 10.13 Spillway and Siphon Spillwa 1014 Proportional Weir or Sutro Weir Sumary of Main Points Problems CHAPTER 11, FLOW THROUGH PIPES 11,1 Introduction 11.2 Two Types of Flow—Reynolds’ Experiment 113. Laws of Fluid Friction 114 Froude’s Experiments 11.5 Equation for Head Loss in Pipes Due to Friction—Darey-Weisbach Equation 11.6 Other Formulae for Head Loss Due to Friction in Pipes, 1L7 Other Energy Losses in Pipes 118 Hydraulic Grade Lineand Energy Grade Line 11.9 Flow Through Long Pipes 11.10 Pipes in Series or Compound Pipe 1111 Equivalent Pipe 1.12 Pipes in Parallel 113. Flow Through a Bye-Pass Contents oueceeny LI Tranehed Pipes 11.15 Siphon 1146 Lon of Head Duet Friction in Tapering Pipe 1.17_ Lows of Head Duta Feet in Pipe wih Side Tappings 11418 Timw of Emptying a Reseroie Through Pipe 11.19 Transmission of Power Theavgh Pipes 11.20 Flow Through Nozzle at the end of Pipe 1121. Water Hammer in Pipes 11.22 Pipe Networks ‘Sumury of Main Points Problems CHAPTER 12. BOUNDARY LAYER THEORY 12.1 Introduction 122 Thickness of Boundary Layer 123 Boundary Layer along a Long Thin Plate and its Characteristics 124 oundary Layer Equations 125 Momentum integral Equation of the Boundary Layer 126 Laminar Boundary Layer 127 Turbulent Boundary Layer 128 Laminar Sublayer 129 Boundary Layer on Rough Surfaces 12.10, Separation of Boundary Layer 12.11 Methods of Controlling the Boundary Layer 1211.1 Motion of Solid Boundary 1211.2 Acceleration ofthe Fluid in the Boundary Layer 12.113 Suetion of the Fluid from the Boundary Layer 12.1144 Streamlining of Body Shapes ‘Sumary of Main Points Problems CHAPTER 13. LAMINAR FLOW 1341 Introduction 132. Relation between Shear and Pressure Gradients in Laminar Flow 133 Steady Laminar Flow in Circular Pipes—Hagen-Poiseuille Law 134 Laminar Flow Through Inclined Pipes 335. Laminar Flow Through Annalus 136 Laminar Flow between Parallel Plates-Both Plates at Rest 137 Laminar Flow between Parallel Flat Plates—one Plate Moving ‘and Other at Rest—Couette Flow 138 Laminar Flow of Fluid in an Open Channel 139 Laminar Flow Through Porous Media 13.10 Laminar Flow Around a Sphere—Stokes! Law > 13.11 Lubrication Mechanics 512 sis 317 sy 520 2 53 526 5 560 564 367-600 se 567 g Sv aegeaeeeneeas z ga 288 2 as a9Contents 13.11. Slipper Bearing 13.112 Journal Bearing 1311.3 Properties of Lubricant 32 Dash-Pot Mechanism (3.13 Measurement of Viscosity —Viscometers Sumary of Main Pats Prodems 8888888 HAPTER 14, TURBULENT FLOW IN PIPES. 14.1 Introduction 142 Shear Stresses in Turbulent Flow . 143 Formation of Boundary Layer in Pipes—Establishment of Flow in Pipes 4 Hydrodynamically Smooth and Rough Boundaries 145. Velocity Distribution for Turbulent Flow in Pipes 146 Velocity Distribution for Turbulent Flow in Hydrodynamically Smooth and Rough Pipes—Karman Prandtl Velecity Distribution Equation, 147 Velocity Distribution Equation for Turbulent Flow in Terms of Mean ‘Velocity, for Smooth and Rough Pipes 1148 Resistance to Flow of Fluid in Smooth and Rough Pipes 149 Types of Problems in Pipeline Designs 3 3 8 8 88288 a 1420 Friction in Non-Cireular Conduits on Sumary of Man Pints 698 Protlens 700 SHAPTER 15, FLOW IN OPEN CHANNELS 701-781 1511 Introduction 7m 152. Typesof Flow in Channles 70 153. Geometrical Properties of Channel Section 703 184. Velocity Distribution ina Channel Section 75 155. Uniform Flow in Channles 706 156 Most Economical or Most Efficient Section of Channel m™m 157 Open Channel Section foe Constant Velocity at all Depths of Flow no 15.8 Computation of Uniform Flow ni 189. Specific Energy and Critical Depth 72 15.0 Momentum in Open- Channel Flow-Specific Force 75 15.1 Critical Flow and its Computation a 1512 Application of Specific Energy and Discharge Diagrams to Channel Transitions BL 15.13 Metering Flumes 75 15.14. Determination of Mean Velocity of Flow in Channels 738 1518 Practical Channel Sections 740 |5.16 Measurement of Discharge in Rivers mt ‘Sumary of Main Points Problems DOWNLOADED FROM W CHAPTER 16, NON-UNIFORM FLOW IN CHANNELS 16.1 Introduction 162. Gradually Varied Flow 163 Classification of Channel Bottom Slopes 164 Classification of Surface Profiles 165. Characteristics of Surtace Profiles 166 Integration ofthe Varied Flow Equation 167 Hydraulic Jump 168 Location of Hydraulic Jump 169 Surges in Open Channels ‘Sumary of Main Points Problems CHAPTER 17. DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS, HYDRAULIC SIMILITUDE AND MODEL INVESTIGATION YA Introduction 72. Dimensions 173 Dimensional Homogeneity 174 Methods of Dimensional Analysis 175 Outline of Procedure for Buckingham Method 17.6 Number of Dimensionless Groups in a Complete Set of Variables 177 Superfluous and Omitted Variables 17.8. Use of Dimensional Analysis in Presenting Experimental Data 17.9 Model Investigation 17.40 Similitude—Types of Simiarties 1741. Force Ratios—Dimensionless Numbers A742 Similarity Laws or Model Laws 1713 Types of Models. 17.14 Merits and Limitations of Distorted Models Y7AS_ Seale Effect in Models 7.6 Application of Dynamic Similarity to Specific Model Investigations ‘Sumary of Main Points Problems CHAPTER 18. FLUID FLOW AROUND SUBMERGED ‘OBJECTS—DRAG AND LIFT 418A Introduction 182 Typesof Drag saemsorOrAll.com BESRERSRERR i SRRESEGGRSRER REESE i Baeaasat) 187 Drag owan Airfoil 188 Fiect of Free Surface on Drag 189 Fifect of Compressibility on Drag, 18.10 Development of Lifton Immersed Boxties ISA1_ Induces Drag ot an Airfoil of Finite Length 812 Polar Diagram for Liftand Drag of an Airfoil Suuaary of Main Points Protlems CHAPTER 19. FLOW OF COMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS 191 Introduction 192. Basic Relationship of Thermodynamics 193 Continulty Equation 184 Momentum Equation 195 Energy Equation 196 Propagation of Elastic Waves Due to Compression of Fluid, Velocity of Sound 197 Mach Number and its Significance 198 Propagation of Elastic Waves Due to Disturbance in Fluid 199 Stagnation Pressure in Ceompressible Flows 19.0 Flow of Compressible Fluid with Negligible Friction Through a Pipe of varying, ‘Cross-section 191 Flow of Compressible Fluid in Convergent-—Divergent Passages 19.2 Normal Shock Waves 19.13. Measurement of Compressible Fluid Flow Sumary of Main Points Problems CHAPTER 20, IMPACT OF FREE JETS 20.1 Introduction 202 Force Exerted by Fluid Jet on Stationary Flat Plate 203 Force Exerted by Fluid Jet on Moving Flat Plate 204 Force Exerted by a Fluid Jet on Stationary Curved Vane 205 Force Exerted by a Fluid Jet on Moving Curved Vane 206. Torque Exerted on a Wheel with Radial Curved Vanes Sumary of Main Points Problems CHAPTER 21. HYDRAULIC TURBINES 21.1 Introduction 21.2. Elements of Hydroelectric Power Plants 213 Head and Efficiencies of Hydraulic Turbines 21.4 Classification of Turbines 21.5. Pelton Wheel 1021 oe 216 lec eh Flin Whee 217 Working Proportions Plum Whe bea 218 Designct chon Turbine Renner 219. Mali Jt elon Whee 21.40 Radll Fw imple Testine BLA Reaclon Turbines 2112 Francs Turbine 21.13 Work Done and Effikeneis of Francs Turbi a 2114 Working Moporonsot Fanta ” 21.15 Design of Francis Turbine Runner io 21.16 Dat Te Theory oa ‘21.17: Shape of Francis Turbine Runner and Development Turbine Runner F 2118 Kaplan Turbine lacs no 2119 Working Proportions of Kaplan Turbine tou 2120 New Typeset Turbines ‘06 2121 Goveing of Tine te ‘2122 Runaway Speed 1080 2128 Surge Tanks oo Sry of ai Pons toes Protons x CHAPTER 22. PERFORMANCE OF TURBINES rost-ni20 221 Introduction 1 222 Performance Undre Unit Head—Unit Quaitis 3 ior 225 Performance Under Speci Contons ‘m0 aA tapreans fo Spee Spedsin Terms of Kown Cots for Diet Trtines 105 225 Performance Charcieistle Curves 1% 226 Model Testing of Tusbines ot ‘227 Cavitation in Turbines ws 228 Selection of Turbines: a ‘Sumary of Main Points uz Problems a CHAPTER 28. RECIPROCATING PUMPS ua1-1176 23.1 Introduction bss 232 Main Components and Working of Reciprocating Pump eh 233 Typesof Rexiprocating Pumps is 234. Work Done y Reciprocating Pump % 335: Coufcient of Discharge, Sip, Percentage Slip and Negative Slip of Reciprocating mp, 1 D6 ifect of Acceleration of Piston on Velocity and Pressure in the Suction and pater rs he 237 Inds Dogeas ne 228 AirVexls239 Multi-Cylinder Pumps = 23:10. Operating Characteristic Curves of Reciprossing Pumps ‘Surg of Main Points Problems CHAPTER 24. CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS 24.1. Introduction 242. Advantages of Centrifugal Pumps over Reciprocating Pumps 243 Component Parts of a Centrifugal Pump 244 Working of Centrifugal Pump 245 Types of Centeifugal Pumps 246 Work done by the Impeller 247 Head of Pump 248 Losses and Efficiencies 249. Minimum Starting Speed 24.10 Loss of Head Due to Reduced or Increased Flow 24.11 Diameters of impeller and Pipes 24.12 Specific Speed 24.13, Model Testing of Pumps 24.14 Pump in Series—MultiStage Pumps 24.15, Pumps in Parallel 24.16 Performance of Pumps—Characterstic Curves 2417 Limitation of Suction Lift 24.18. Net Positive Suction Head (npsh) 24.9: Cavitation in Centrifugal Pumps 24.20 Computation of the Total Head of Pumping—System Head Curves 2420.1 Operating Point or Operating Range of a Centrifugal Pump 24202 Selection of a Pumping Unit 24203 Pumps Operated in Series 24204 Pumps Operated in Parallel 24.21 Priming Devices 24.22. Centrifugal Pump-Troubles and Remedies ‘Sumary of Main Points Problems (CHAPTER 25. MISCELLANEOUS HYDRAULIC MACHINES 25.1. Introduction 252. Hydraulic Accumulator—Simple and Differential Types 25.3 Hydraulic Intensifier 254 Hydraulic Press 255 Hydraulic Crane 256 Hydraulic Lift 257 Hydraulic Ram T7145 [a 258 Hydraulic Couplings and Torque Conv 259 AicLitPump se Camvertes Sumary of Main Points Problems CHAPTER 26. ELEMENTS OF HYDROLOGY 26:1 Definition 262 The ydtologieCyele 253 Precipitation 264 Measurement of Rainfall and Snowall 264.1. Measurement of Rainfal 26.5 Mean Depth of Rainfall over an Area 2651. Ariel Mean Method 2652 Theiesen Polygon Method 2653 Jachyetal Method 266, Evaporation, Trareplttion and Evapo-Transpiration 267 Tofilation 268 Runoff and Factors Asecting Runoff 268.1 Factors Affecting Runoff 269 Hydrograph 2610 Methods of Determination of Rago Sumary of Man Pits ProMens CHAPTER 27. WATER POWER ENGINEERING 271 Introduction 272. Hydroelecttic Power Development of India and The World 273. Comparison of Thermal and Hydroelectric Power Costs 27A Assessment of Available Power 275 Storage aril Pondage 276 Essential Stream Flow Data for Water Power Studies 277 Flow Duration Curve 278 Mass Curve 279. Types of Hydropower Plants 27.30. Typical Hydroelectric Developments of India ‘27.0. Bhakra-Nangal Hydroelectric Project 27102 Chamba Valley Development Scheme 27.1 Firm (or primary) and Secondary Power 27.12 Load Factor, Ulisation Factor and Capacity Factor 27.13. Components of Hydropower Plants ‘Sumary of Main Points Problems 1237 ra ws 1276 1278-1297 178 18 129 iz amy v8 1282 1298-1521, 1298, x98 130 1300 101CHAPTER 28. FLUVIAL HYDRAULIC 281 232 283 284 285 286, 287 288 289) CHAP ya 208 25 Antroduction Sediment Transport in Channels Sevliment Properties Mexles of Sediment Movement Types of Sediment Load Initiation of Sediment Motion Bed Deformations in Alluvial Resistance to Flow in Alluvial Streams Design of Unlined Alluvial Channels—Kennedy’s and Lacey's Theories 289.1 Kennedy's Theory 289.2 Lacey’s Regime Theory ‘Sumary of Main Potts PTER 29. FLOW MEASUREMENT AND LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS: Introduction Fluid flow Measurements Flow Visualization Techniques List of Experiments, Writing of Report ‘Multiple Choice Questions “Appendix (Main Relations of Fluit Mechanics in Vector Notation) Appendix ~ I (Typical Computer Programme) “Appendix Il (Comparative Stuy of Flow of incompressible and Compressible fluids) ‘Appendix ~1V (Some Inportant Conversion Factors) Appenix ~ V (Source, Sink and Doublet) Appendix ~ VE (Cavitation) Appenalx~ VIL (Flow in Curved Channels) Appendix — VIM (Control Vatves for Pipes) Appendix ~1X (Hydraulic Transport of Solid Material in Pipes) Bibliography Author Index Index 1822-199 133 132 cer} 1324 1325 1335, 1339 1300 132 132 1333 | 1339 | 1340-1946 1340 | 1340 1344 134 136 1347. 1373 1376 1378 1381 1384 1387 1389 J 1391 1394 1396 1398 1399 Properties of Fluids 1.1. INTRODUCTION < ‘A matter exists in ether the solid stator the Mid state. The fui states hrther divided into the lguid and de gaseous sates. In fat the same mtr may exist any neo he the ates solid, liquid and gaseous. For example water, which ordinarily occurs in iq tate, may 50 ‘cur under natural conditions in solid state sie and ina gaseous state a vapour Tre sles, lgoids nd gases exhib ferent charac on account of th diferent molecular sacae All substances consist of vast numbers of molecules separated byeropy space. The molecules ae ‘continuously moving within the substance and they have an attraction foreach they, but when the distance between thera becomes very small ofthe order ofthe diameter ofthe molecule) tere i force of repulsion between the molecules which pushes them apart Insalide the molecles are ver? closely spaced, bun liquids the spacing between the molecules fs relaively large and in gases the space between the molciles stil largee Assuchina given volume solid contains lage nszber of molecules, igud contains relatively les numberof molecules and a gas contains rch less ‘numberof molecles. It thus follows that in slid the force of attraction between the malecules & Tage on acount f which here ven ite movement of moles wn he ald ms an hence solids possess compact and igi form. Inliquids the force of atacion between the molecules istelatively less due to which the molecles can move fely within the liquid mass, but the force of attraction Between the molecules is sufficient to Keep the liquid together in a dente volume In gases the force of attraction between the moleculesis much less du to which the malecubes of gases Fave greater freedom of movements that the gases fill completly the container in which they are aced. Itmay, however be stated that inspite of the larger mobility and spacing ofthe molecules of Fld ornare snaps ld scesderedtecontimunrieaontnues acutonal matter with no voids or empty spaces. This assumption is justifiable because ordinal the fads {Involved in most of the engineering problems have large numberof molecules and the distances between them are small s "Another difference that exists between the solids and the uid isin ther relative abies to resist the extemal forces. A sold can resist eile, compressive and shea forces uptoa certain iit ‘Raid ioe no tell strength or very litle oft andi can resist the compresive forcs ony when itis kept ina container, When subjected toa shearing force, a uid deforms continuous song 35 this fone sapped. The aby ofthe Musto resist shentingstres gives them thei carck property tochange shape ort ow. This however, does not mean tat the Mids do nt fer ayermal pi wr ontinary condi usd may be defined as a substance which is capable of flowis but conforms to the shape of the containing vessel. Further crted on Haid will case to undengoa deformation which cont tobe applied, dnich postessesa definite volume, which varies only slightly with tem ‘Acceleration due to gravity = 322 ft/see it = Mass density of carbon-tetra chloride in the English gravitational system of units Properties of Fluids = 1005 17 HY As) ee Specific weight ~ 99.51 Specific gravity = Mas density of carbon tetra chloride Mass density of water Mass density of carbon tetra chloride in SI units = 1594 k = 1594 kg/m? Mass density of water in Sl units = 1000 kg/m? ° 1594 kg/m? O00 kg /m™ Example 14. A plate (0254 nim distant froma fixed plate, moves at 61 cme ard requires frceef0-2 hehe ‘to maintain this sped. Determine the dynamic viscosity ofthe lid beter te pats. ‘lution From Eq. 13, shear stress «Specific gravity 21.594 amd a F == 202 im? tea kg (f/ V = 61em/sec= 0.61 m/sec and Y = 00254 mm =254x 105m By substituting in the above equation, we get 061 ae eae THe ‘ y= SBS 0/8 = 8328 x 10 kg(f}-sec/m? = 8328 x 10° kg(f)-see/em? Example 15. Ala certan pot in castor othe sear srs is 0.216 Nit and te sity ratint Contes te mas density ofcastor oi 958.42 hy? find kinematic iscsi Solution From Eq. 13 shear stress dv) vol {av a x =0.216N/m*y (8) =oz6stBy substitution, we get 216 = #0210) ye INS/M Kinematic viscosity 121.042 1 mi/s Example 1.6 [f certain liquid bs stokes, at i its specific gravity? Solution a cdumiicintate , 220 Kinematic viscosity . . - orMacdenity 8 = 4.910 Rg(-see/m™ 3.49 «107 stakes = 3.49 x 10% m?/sec : 49x10" = 140.4 mst/m? 349x10 ‘Mass density of iquicl +Sp-geoftheliquid = i355 density of water M04 102 + “The kinematic viscosity and specific gravity ofa certain liquid are 5.58 stokes 5.58» tively. Calculate the viscosity of this liquid in both metric; gravitational and SU 138 Example. sis) and 2.00 rs Solution (a) Metric gravitational units ‘Sp. ge ofthe liquid = 2.00 Mass density of water of the liquid = (2 x 102) viscosity of the liquid Mass density ‘ = 558% 10" m?/sec 2 Viscosity of the liquid weDKp = (658 10-204) kg(f)-sec/m? = 0.114 kg(f}-sec/m? (b) Sl nits Specific gravity of the liquid = 2.00 Mase dey of water = 100g fm? sien tts desi ofthelgid = (y= ag nematic viscosity ofthe liquid = 5.58 + 10+ m/s . Vics ofthe aud eae = (5.58 « 104+ 2000) N-s/m? = LM6Ns/m? Example LB A netenguer ple 2c by Sorel righ 28: surface al a uniform velocity of 2 msec. ifthe ‘mam va fri dpt rae Fed wt ode ie acest of heals nn ue ed eed uh Satation When the plates moving witha uniform velocity of? m/sec, he viscous resistence taezual ote component el fia wate atte plve slong thccloping mtn: Csenees of te ‘weight the plate slong the slope =25 in 30° 125 kg( pm er Viscous sistance = (€ = oy 083 Y 106 Nin (68 Ti > daixaat “OSH amp LW bet der ofl of ote eri Agilent greater than the ouside? Cloen theo of surface tension often coat wth ait 20°C as 0.0075 kg(f\im.Hydraulics aad Fluid Meclantcs Solution. ide sure is give y ‘The internal pressure intensity’p in excess of the outside press ‘siven by BG. 1.6 a5 Properties Fats From Eq. 1.7 the capillary rise (or depression) is given as hx 22¢038 & 7 (a) For water © = 0,cos@=1 7 © = 00075 ig(9/m 2.0075 a re = Tog hstO/em st = 1000 kg(f)/m* 0.001 kg(f fem? r= Imm=0.em © = 0.0075 kg (/m aa p = 0.0018 kg(f}/em* By substitution, we get Dyan ete? sn ()Formercury 0 = 14Pxcos8 = 06428 & = OU52g()/m 4x00075x10 = $x00075x10 ose yooxo.0018 = Top ketO/an 167mm. 3 50 = (136% 1000)kg(0/m Example'.17, What isthe pressure withna droplet of:tater 0.05 mm in diameter at 20°C, if the pe (036 0001) kg(0 fem? r= 1mm=0.en 0052 (06128) outside the droplet is standard atmospheric pressure of .03 kg( fem ? Given = 0.0075 k(n for wal at 20°C. ji subetitu 22,002, _(06t28)_ Solution my sia tod 100 13.60.001x0.1 ae, From Eq. 6 the intemal pressure intensity p in excess of the outside pressure is given a8 ‘The negative sign in the case of mercury indicates that there is capillary depression. a Note. Often the value of contact angle fo mercury is taken as 180 n which cas cos = andthe a= capillary depression becomes r 2«0.052%1 © = 0.0075 kg(f/m "=~ zppxia6xoonixo1 ~~0785.e 0.0075 Example 1.19. Determine the minimum size of glass tubing that can be used to measure water level ifthe = oq B8(O/em ‘capiary risen the tube is motto exceed 0.25 em. Take surface tension of wer in contac with ai as 1073 gifim. . Solution = 08 1025 mm = 29% om From £3.18 apillay rise i= 22-6 = 00075 kg(o/m= “7 pater sw = 1000 kg(f)/m? = 0.001 kg/cm? By substitution we get =2 x20 10 = 906 eto fem? 100 * 0.025 nie a ‘The pressure intensity outside the droplet of water = 1.03 kg(Q/em®? a + The pressure intensity within the droplet of water = (1.03 + 0.06) By substitution, we get 0.25 = Fm 100xr 09 kg( em - Example 1.18. Calculate ‘he capillary rise ina glass ube of 2 mam diameter when immersed it) SPceroury, Both the iui being et 20°C and the values ofthe eurfce tensions, for water 20°C im contact wth air are respectively 00075 kg/m and 0.052 Ag(pyim. Es r= 06cm ‘Thus minimum diameter of the tube is 12em.jeune Fld Meco Aya -cocnongv opine 8 08) Oy he bub sample 120 nig ct wc tm aa airs forveil to form a bubble cern aunt bubbe pressure 15 x(n cm in the wil, Caleutate the Solution ‘The effectiv “attributable to surface tension is fg (OSSIAN E29) Lg a75 kg/m? re I . 100 3 20 From Fy. bo pee sis of the bubbles taker equal to that ofthe tube, thus by substituton, we get "The radius of the bubble is taken ¢ ' 75x10 = 0.001 64 kg(f/m. a ‘ * cateate the epiry eect in ma it als tbe 3 min camer cle a aaa eae guide are at 20°C au te cols ofthe surfice tensions for water (a ter 0) mercura, Bae tively 0.0736 Nin and 0.91 Ni. Contact angler water mercury a and for mercury = 130%, Solution Fecal From Eq, 17 the capillary rise (or depression) is given a8 I= Sy water @ 0,cos0=1 4 () For water ange ; sw = 9B10N/m? ; p= 3o15mm=15«10%m " 20.0736x1 By substitution, we get = Sgiox15a0> 1.00 x 10? m ; = 10mm 3 ; For mercury = 130°, cos 0 =~ 0.6428 ai teens 6 = 0SIN/m ssw = (136 x 9810) N/m? a Sensmmats109m 2x0.51x(-0.6428) i Fox OSIRIS) : By substitution, we get = aot : = -3.276 x10 m 3 = -3276mm ‘The negative (-) signin the case of mercury indicates that there is capillary depressio™ Proyerton f Vaiss SUMMARY OF MAIN POINTS —— 1. Mamensliy oye massa Petit woe hah ado 2. Spe weigh or wat sweat pert volume by wor Thus OPA» 9 "A. Specie volume of fl ithe volume per unit SSH Or whe eit ma oe is lente by o an ite reciprcal ef npc woight (0¢ ypecific mass). : Thus die Jeo arvet 4, Shear stress t is proportional to the velocity dv fi tient © Trus radiant éo iy ‘where ithe constant of proportionality which Is called eoeficient of scotty, or dynamic viscosity. ‘The SI units of are Nis/ms?, kg/ms, of poise © ghems)orPas, (orbere Pa pascal = N/m), 5 Kinematic viscosity osgivenby v= E, ‘TheSI units of v are m/s, or stoke (= m/s), 6. Themass density p ofa perfect gasis relate tots absolute pressure p ancl absolute temperature T by equation of state as P= pRT whore & = gas constant. For aie in Sl units Nm yyy Ja. Be OT pare ‘a in mete ts Re Oar = i Fetwnie 7, Commprenibiity ea fui is encspraal of thee ‘modislus of elasticity K of the fluid whlch I ‘8. Surface tension is the force require to maintain unit length of a film at the liquid saetace in equlibrium Is denoted by . ‘The relation between surface tension 6 and difference of pressure p between inside and bots of; (aliquid drop of radius ris given 23 hs (i) a soap bubble of radius rs piven as ze (Gi) guid jt of radius is vem as e Ee 9. Capillary rise (or depression) kof &liguid of specfieweightivina tubeofradiousrisghenby he Set, or 4 ‘Thevalue of contact angle for water and glassis ‘equal to zero and for mercury an losis 13.1A Ha certain liquid has mass clensity of 129mel/ "mm, what ae the values of is specific weight specific gravity and specific volume in metric gravitational and metric absolute systems of [As.1266 kg()/m’; 1.266; 7.9 x 10+ m’/kg(Ds 122 dynes em’; 1266; 805 x 10¢ em’ Zaye] 1.2, 45.27 m’ofa certainoil weighs $41N, calculate the specific weight smass density and specific gravity of the oll. [ns. 8349 N/m 851.09 kg/m 0851) 13 The specific gravity of a liquid is 30, what are its specific weight, specific mass and specific volume. Vans. 3000 kg/m 305.8 mlm 0.33 = 10° ‘m'/kg(O} 2943 KN/m*; 3000 kg/m; 3.398 » 10° m’/N] 4A Acertainliquid hasa dynamic viscosity of 0.073 poise and specific gravity of 0.87. Compute the Kinematic viscosity of the liquid in stokes and also in m/s. [Ans. 0.0839 stokes; 0.0839 * 10% m/s} 115 Ifa certain liquid has a viscosity of 0.048 poise ‘and kinematic viscosity 3.50 <10* stokes, what ists specific gravity? (ans. 1371] 4.6, Ina stream of glycerine in motion ata certain point the velocity gradient is0.25s". for fluid 1293 mnsl/m’ (12684 kg/m) and 9 = 630 x Tom? calelate the shear stress atthe point. [Ans. 0.02036 kg (f)/mm* ; 0.19977 N/mm] 117 If the equation of a velocity distribution over a plate is given by 0 = 2y -¥, in which vis the Felocity in m/s at a distance y, measured in Inetres above the plate, what is the velocity fgradient atthe boundary and at 75 cm and 15 Ein from it? Also determine the shear stress at these points if absolute viscosity = 8.60 poise. Ans. 2 secs 1.85 sec! 1.70 sec! 0.175 kg()/on; (0.162 ke)/m 0.149 kg(m] 48 Abody weighing 441.45 N with a lat surface greaof 0.093 nv'slides down hibricated inclined plane making a 30° angle with the horizontal For viscosity of 0.1 N/m’ and body speed of ‘3mv/s, determine the lubricant film thickness. ns. 0.126 ma) ae, Aiphone ee aerinch slides ina 25.015 ra nites mr rena athe g(0)/m, What willbe the capillary depression fect ain een inte ah ee Serr at 20°C, Take s for water at 20°C as . im. What wl percep a Baubecy tue a hep 10 Serie ma Probe fefent enter Seer ea alee eat eS ane LAT A glass tube 0.25 mm in smereury column resistance when 3.05 m of the ram i enger at inthe cylinder ore 110 Accylinder 0.1 m diameter rotates nan annuag | sleeve 0.102 m internal diameter at 00 rat The-eylinder is 0.2 m long. Ifthe dyak viscosity of the lubricant between the cylinders 1.0 pols, find Ue torque needed ‘ive the eylinder against viscous rest ‘Aasume that Newton's Law of viscosity Spplicable and the velocity profiles linear [ns 0.1685 Nn 4141 A fluid compressed ina cylinder hasavolune | ff 0,011 32 m’ ata pressure of 70.30 kg()/cm ja 252080 ‘What should be the new pressure in order ut make its volume 0.011 21 m? ? Assume bulk | {in which Os the angle of contact. modulus of elasticity K of the liquid as 750 gi em. (ans. 13861 kg()/en?) a2. Ifthe volume ofa liquid decreases by 02 per cent for anincrease of pressure from 6867 MNP fm to 15.696 MN/mé what is the value ofthe bulk modulus ofthe liquid ? 24 Anns. 4145 x 108N/e4 1113 Obiain an expression for the bulk modus elasticity K ofa fluid in terms ofthe presse fand the mass density p. [Ans K=p(4p/40) 114A soap bubble 51 mm in diameter has internal pressure in excess of outside P (oF 0.000 21 kg(f}/cm’. Calculate the tension the soap film. [Hint. p= (40/N] j [Ans 0.0134 kg(0/ 1145. Ifthe pressure insidea droplet of waters 7 N/m in excess ofthe external pressute isthe diameter ofthe droplet? Given he ‘ofsuriace tension of waterin contact with 20°C as 0.07358N/m. (ans. 15 116 A glass tube 0.25 mm in diametet mercury column with air above the 20°C. Thesurface tension of mercury ‘with aie is 0.051 kg(é)/m. What ence caleuate the maxim cpa ie of water at 20°C to be expected between 0 in air be 120 A capillary tat having aided 1a i 1s Prerties of Fluids ry angle etal ean se pate Takeo «00736 mena bndipredinwatr start tneenese octets cof water which will tae tthe tube “ 8005 glhemand oa Spee ao Sul BTC tym fans Ya ms aes eo a jet of water «mm se diameter sees Pressure of the surrondiny aomcaghine . 0.0075 kgf/mm. - ia tilt ey 18 lass idae Css enim cat ss Lamar ee Ee i wim el @pemeey aa eT Taosral eeu ad an ee Seaswaie 2 cnopcear tats mand 0 ghia he en water @ = 0° and for mercury # = 33% Tan 73 24m Fae i haraneane ad popenee nk te leis pate ae Treeak emaeinton tenes ‘shape of a drop of a liquid: (i) cavitamon: (iv) Rov a dole Shank se NodnceeeFluid Pressure and its Measurement Fluid Pressure and its Measurement 4 fins he men are [p-( 2) : we LSE) yt ae | prestré intemites andthe corresponding wre obtained as shown in Fig. 21, Farha fe ‘element acting vertically me fores, the algebraic sumot igs the forces ating on the closet = 0 2.1. FLUID PRESSURE AT A POINT : ‘Pressure’ or ‘intensity of pressure’ may be defined as the force exerted on a unit area, IF; the total force uniformly distributed over an area A, the pressure at any pointis p = (F/A), if the force is not uniformly distributed, the expression will give the average value only. pressure varies from point to pointon an area, the magnitude of pressure at any pointcan be ob by the following expression aE Po TA $ where dF represents the force acting on an infinitesimal area 4A. In SI units pressure is exp 'N/rm? (or pascal), and in metric gravitational units it is expressed in kg(£)/cm? or kg(f)/m?, ‘The forces so exerted always actin the direction normal to the surface in contact. This is 8b a fluid at rest cannot sustain shear stress and hence the forces cannot have tangential comp The normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area ofthe surface is called the fluid pressure. however, be noted that even if an imaginary surface isassumed within a fluid body, the fluid p and pressure force on the imaginary surface are exactly the same as those acting on any real’ This is in accordance with Newton's third law of motion, viz., action and reaction exist 2.2 VARIATION OF PRESSURE IN A FLUID Consider a small fluid element of size 6x By x 8: at any point in a static mass of fluid ash Fig. 2.1. Since the fluid is at rest, the element is in equilibrium under the various forces ‘The forces acting on the element are the pressure forces on its faces and the self-weight of the’ Let p be the pressure intensity at the mid point O of the clement, Then the pressure intensitY left hand face of the elementis [r-(2)5] and the pressure intensity on the right hand f#. element is [r(% | The corresponding pressure forces on the left hand and the righteatin siya any point a varies only in = direction, Henee tha derivative as follows. Pa where kis unit vector parallel to = axis. “The minus sgn (-) in the above equation signifies thatthe pressure decreases in hed which = increases ie. in the upward direction. ; ons the basic differential equation representing the variation of pressurein rest, which holds for both compressible and incompressible fluids. Equation 2.4 indics ‘a body of fluid at rest the pressure increases in the downward direction at the rate: specific weight w of the liquid. Further if 4 0, then dp is also equal to zero; which m pressure remains constant over any horizontal plane in a fluid. Integration of Eq. Pressure at any point in a fluid at rest, which is discussed separately forthe incomy ech as iquids having constant density and compressible fluids such as gases having Pressure at a Point in a Liquid % _Aliquid maybe considered as incompressible fluid for which wis constant and henc® Eq.24 gives @ p= w+ a in which p is the pressure at any point at an elevation z in the static mass of liquid constant of integration. Liquids have a free surface at which the pressure of tmosF Tai as shown in Fig. 22 for a point lying in the free surface of the liquid 2 = (H+) i atmospheric pressure atthe liquid surface then from Eq, 2.5 the constant © C=[p, +w (H +2,)]. Substituting this value of C in Eq. 2.5, it becomes P= — we [p,+w(H +2] i ata ‘fa point i lying in the liquid mass at a vertical depth ht below the free surtact as shown in Fig. 2:2 for this point z = (H+2,-Hi) and from Eq. 2.6 ay P= pith Figure 22. Pressure ata point in quia is evident from 27 tat th several dhol tpt sno snes pa Upon the shape and seat baundingeneuins This noe eee oe which although the containers of diferent shopesarc nosed cotattoraa nee Figure 2.3. Interconnected containers of diferent shapes of the liquid in each part differs, yet the pressures at points A, B. C and lying on the ene horizontal level and at the same vertical depth h below the fre surface ofthe liquid will be sane ‘Since the atmospheric pressure ata place is constant, at any point ina static mass lige fen only the pressure in excess ofthe atmospheric pressure is considered, in which cas Eq, 27 Rewmnes ° = awh 28) Pressure Head. “Theverteat neightof he freesurtce aboveany pointinaligadatretishrow as pressure head, From Eq, 28 the pressure head may be expresses asratios and Fluid Mechanics is t ason the height of the free sur Since the pressure at any point ina liquid depend i i: points i cenvenient to expeoe a fuk pressure terms of PrVsSAte head, The presune ty Expressed in terms of metre (or centimetres) of ligt! colar : ‘ Tryuation 28 can be ace to obtain a relationship Between he ight of columns of dig liquide which would develop the sume pressure at any point TT and hy are the height Hanae er iguide of specific weight, ane required to develop the sime pressure a any point; then from Eq, 28 ? p= wy 4 15, and Syare the specific gravities ofthe two liquids and wis the specific weight of water since w, =5, w and w, Eq, 2.10 may also be written as inexeanngph the variation of prea ena cern at ra depthere natal nen nie deere aay AT obtain the variation of pressure whe menphee eater oc svaiaton of prasurewihletin nhac * in Eq. 2 areas deserted below te atone oy thermal Stat for Atmosphere orlstherma Amo ai ana pand p ing 0 iothermal condition, ie, the eraperatur of stmoapher s corre havea constant value (which may however be tne onion ge teal dance BL fo oe ay where p and py are the values of the pressure. STS in pyr te vals of he pure ad ey ftp ot ri cdo aoe Further if h, and it, are the depths of two points below the fee surface ina static niass of of epuciic weightso and p, and are the respective pressure intensities at these points, then: Per fecal Bay 28 the pressure diference between these points i obtained 3s may wa ty een preset any vo Fn saan si cavlesdreey ihe difference in depth (or ‘levation) ofthe two points. By substituting forp from Ba, 211 Pressure at any Point ina Compressible Fluid. For a compressible fluid since the density: on. withthe pressure, Eq.2.4canbe integrated only ifthe elation between ‘and p isknown. Mo Pe = gt aan Precsibe fluid there being no free surface, the integration of Ea. 2-4 ‘pressure between any fo points lying in a static mass of fluid. "Ths if p, and p, are the pre Presser at two points which are atelevationsz, and 7, above an arbitrarily asmed dati integration of Eq. 24 yields Since the value of g decreases by only about 0.1% f i about 0.1% for about 300 m increase in: assumed constant. Thus integration of above equation gives pe Pe wgz = tog +c oP 1p; is the pressure at height, then = = Boge ‘Thus eliminating C from these equations tenn) = toy (2) ms nog \p en “The left hand side of the above expression has been evaluated using different relations wand p as indicated in the Section 2.3, 2.3 EQUILIBRIUM OF A COMPRESSIBLE FLUID—ATMOSPHERIC UILIBRIUI E Equation 2.12 expresses the elation between altitude and pressure when the ari isthermal- EQUuILI IM ; ae i ‘The ratio (pp/p,g) represents the height of a fluid column of constant specific weight (ps): [tis Equation 24 expresses the conditions for equilibrium of any fluid, which may be written called the equivalent height ofa uniform atmosphere, dp = ~wis =~pgdz EB Further at z=0 since p= the integration constant “Thisisa general relationship which canbe applied to both incompressible as well as com uid However fora compressible uid the above equation can be integrated, to obtain he ‘of pressure at any point in the fluid, provided it can be assumed that the mass density ond constant or it isa function of pressure (or elevation) only. The mass density p may be ws constant if the variation in elevation is not great. Buf the variation in elevation is great Jonger be considered constant, in wich case the manner in which p varies with P! elevation) must be known. The variation of pressure and mass density of the air in the at (213) HenceHydraulics and Fluid Mechanics Fora perfect gas from equation of state Po = PART s or Bary ‘Thus substituting the values of (p4/p,) in Eq, (2.13) Pome(g) 4 1214) (G2/RT,) is small this expression approximates to that for From Eq. 2.14 it may be seen that when. a fluid of constant density. (b) Adiabatic State for Atmosphere or Adiabatic (or Isentropic) Atmospher \osphere. It is well-known fact that the temperature in the atmosphere decreases rapidly as one goes to higher altitude, Thus it itis assumed that no heat is added or taken away from a certain column of ai, then this column is said to be under adiabatic conditions. For an adiabatic process .& ryt Ps By, we play, (£] O29) oF ohh FP =U) in which kis the adiabatic exponent (or adiabatic index) defined as the ratio ofthe specific heat at | constant pressure C, to the specific heat at constant volume C, Substituting this Value in Eq. 24 one obtains or ire (2) * (2) e pos kro? (Po ting the above express! ited earlierg may pe assumed to be constant and hence by integrating As stated earlier s one obtains Pl Pressure ond is Mesurement fp = Pow where (2) = Az Substituting the value of (p/p) in Eq. (2.15) o-fseay Again for a perfect gas from equation of state Fo = O6RIy; or Thu Ary Substituting the value of (pp/p,) in Ey. (2.17) 2. fect 2.16) 247) 218) (219) ‘fzis small all but the first two terms of the binomial expression of the righthand side of Eq.2.17 ‘may be neglected and then Bony ae nr) or P= Po-Pos dz This corresponds to the relationship p + 1 = constant (eq.2.5) for fluid of constant density. Thus {orsmall differences of height say less than about 300 min theatmosphere the fluid may be considered tobe of constant density without an appreciable error being introduced. Further dividing Eg. 2.17 by Eq.2.18 one obtainsHytraudis ant Fhid Mechanics _ or aT = Bh ns (t)] A220) ¥ me Po since a = RT from the eq. of state. quation 220 gives the relation between the abso aerate absolute temperature Tand altitude, Now fT =Ty RT, = Ps Further if (Ty~1) = AT fora difference in elevation 221) aan = 909 For air, R = 29.27 m-kg(O/kg(m)°C absolute and 7 may be obtained from Eq. 2.21 as |k=1.405, then for Az = 100 m, the variation in temperature 3 9.81% 1000405 ROD = “T4055 R = 29.27 akg (fi /eg (°C absolute 2 29.27 «9.81 m/sec °C absolute : 9.81%100x0.405 =" at = Soyxge as theabsolute temperature’ if the atmosphere is stable, at computed above. pic Atmosphere In more generalized wt) dered according to a polytropic Pro .s that under adiabatic condition, decreases by about 0.985°C in elevation. However, ‘the temperature drop ‘omewhat less than th: ‘Atmosphere or Polytro jure p with p may be consi ‘This show! for each 100 m increase with altitude is generaly s (©) Polytropic State for variation of atmospheric press which case, we have ‘in £=B; oxo=m(2} Po e Pb where n is a positive constant. . a cnet andnegatngsiniaed eer tnefolOWing OT “Again substituting: & may be obtained g(29) =1 iH IR 02) rea a ee ~ ie uel ne LOsand from this ey 2 yee the variation of pressure wlevation whichbas ben dinfig bald esters wlio a i mre aes ae eee ic process). As shown tn Fig 2.4 the value of depends on the temperature la is apse rae i Se gate (ip cea le Th) Combing Ea. 2.2 with he equation of state = pT ‘00a 038d 40 ny —> ; Figure 2.4 Variation of pressure with elevation in the atmosphere Differentiating with respect to z, we obtainSperm yan Pil ane ht rnd L "= aD S ons af} 24 PRESSURE, SAMEIN ALL DIRECTIONS: rte figt end above the gun tetenpetven beamope decently, | rennet teat i ; certirprestire is applic atany pat ins filet M ft asthe sume magnitude nlf icin. nether word, te prestitets cyually transmitted thatis(@72)=2 = * taf) = cont Tess ted valucof inthis egionofatmosphereisabout 6 58°C/ Inall the direcons and to eve French Mathematician in 183, ood accep RR _ BA mks , 65S , Leet opr semen. cane sedogy tt 4 mre” 100m * 981m ip Theelenentt stibaiychen ete 2 ae "toe boly Thelenen asian choc adit dnenenatsahormnig 3 Seas 2927 x0.0656, kee the only fora acingon te fee bodyare he normal ese ‘are the normal pressure — oar kam) m fhuid. This fact was {ii This fact wa established by B. Pascal 9 981 kg (m) Sor RA = 79.27 0.006 56 = 0.192 e 1 and n= hee mom constant at about om about 11 990 m to 32.000 m the temperature i Ne atmosphere remains nei aeethi case n= 1 tats, athermal condition may Pe assumed and then Beyond 32 000 m the temperature rises again. St epends on the temperature lapse rte Ay oye varies with the altitude, itis obvious that in he ‘armosphere n varies with altitude. As such dane Janption of constant value of1 forall healtitudes in the atmosphere may lead to erroneous results Eq,2.14 applies. ane the temperatures inthe bi igure 2.5. Free-body dagram of a wedge-shaped element of full se. Ibis very well known that the deneiti (@) Standard Atmosphe aunbaphere vary continuously. They change Om AY Oy nnd from place t place on the earth. | ae etre too playea patin tis variation newg © S aly umallinfluenceon fe foresexrted by th surround density p and hence it is generally ‘neglected in practical calculations. For aeronautical purpose, | ‘element is in equilibrium, the: ling fluid on the plane surfaces, and the ae afferent locations and on different days the” aia 120-30 the equation of eqlibiom Ee elt gale el Aa cfopulbcan inter mil ditinet ee ee fons are respectively, on of airctatt performance 7, 5, 8y sina =0 ‘rom variations p must beavoided. Therefore, international sian Py By Be Ubficultes that may arise “atmosphere has been chosen. The standard “umosphere is defined by certain values of 1. Py and Ty ates ase of data resanably representative of ‘actual atmosphere. The stand i ab er enal Civil Aviation Organisation) is based ov invehich p,8¢5)~p, 8664 cosa~ w} bey =0 =0.125 msl) inwhich py, p_ p, are the avera he 5s pressures on the three faces and w fs the specific weight of the particularly for compariso aMneaphere as approved by ICAO ( following values at sea level: 7, = 10332 gi im? fps 15°C 1 = 1.226 kg( f/m? Pp tae mms R= 29.27 m.kg(0)/kg(a) °C. in the lower ‘atmosphere or troposphere the ‘temperature of the a | Since de = && sin cv and 8x = & cos a the abe Tecreases linearly with altitude at an average rale fol = 6.56" C/1000 m, which continues UPte pleke- e above equations simplify to deers put I 00 m. Pra considerable distance above this evo the temperature eR ws Wife =O femains constant at about-56.5°C. This uppet region, ‘where constant temperature prevailsis us leben tedyt tered othe tthe Been reef about 11000 to 32000 m, However, there ‘nei ect p, Beby~p, Bry 5 wbx by & =0 areron these two strata, but the transition from one tothe others rather AMC hee ee ie ee is much smaller than the other two! sposhpere the func cpatiely Get Re ne ee ee Laas yan taking the iso tha the iment reduced Point, it follows from the equations that p, sharp demarcation Sa cal anstion scaled the frpopnse. As discussed eae, in he iar between ard p may be assumed to be polytropic with = 1298 while in the stratosPhet relation i ofthe temperate beng constant the functional elation between 7 and p is sot=a yao and Fu ais Idirections hoa atta, thisequation proves that thepressures thesameinal Sinceangle ischose arbitrarily a re ction of machi ddraulic press, hydraulic rc in the construction of machines such as hydraulic press yu Fire hpnlccane hyo retert, whch byte application ofeaivly Frees conser larger oces are developed IRES 2.5 ATMOSPHERIC, ABSOLUTE, GAGE AND VACUUM PRESSU Loheoeimde The amos ier oma pene gon sr wiih sn edt ison oe re. Hearne oe ere ene io eo ditions the eq Satues ofthe atmospheric pressure are 10.1043 x 10*N mt the equivalent values of thea ic ‘under normal condit : vate oF 79cm of METCUY. ° Feri igen? sor 103 mol war :er 76cm ES, dam Te mgmt non id pressure may be measured wi Se pean | as ee pee mats GeV measured above at rae monpherc pressure asa datum called ge pes vad Penarsc ye che ast ohn eene em because practically a fl re ont Mec _ eee From the foregoing discussion itcan be seen that the following relations hold : Absolute Pressure = Atmospheric Pressure + Gage Pressure Absolute Pressure = Atmospheric Pressure - Vacuum Pressure 2.6 MESUREMENT OF PRESSURE ‘The various devices adopted for measuring fluid pressure may be broadly classified under the following two heads: (1)Manometers (@) Mechanical Gages. Manometers. Manometers are those presure measuring devices which are based on the principle of balancing the column of liquid (whose pressure is tobe found) by the same or another celuma of liquid. The manometers may be classified as (@) Simple Manometers, (©) Differential Manometers, ‘Simple Manometers are those which measure pressure ata point ina fluid contained in a pipe or a vessel. On the other hand Differential Manome. 225) (226) a n h ferential fers measure the difference of pressure between any «Bis fuid to which they are connected and thea eae aeeretoet ff “WOPSintsina fluid contained ina pipe ora ves! dic pn of ids below almosphercpresure ti designated 3 saciim ese imple Manomete In general simple manometer consis ofa las tube having one of ts nephew sets Teagan amount by whch {nds connected to the gage point where the pressure i tobe measured ond the other remains open scion pose on este gge est dE ‘o atmosphere. Some ofthe common types of simple manometer areas roted talons that of the atmospheric pressure. A Ba (i) Piezometer. ft G) U-tube Manomete. est form of manometer which can be used for measur; —— Of a lass tube (Fig 2.7) inserted in the wall ef «pipe or ceo i | The tube extends vertically upward to Jere diss itweithout verowing, The pressure at any penn he ight of the liquid inthe tube above that point, which can be read on the : si Weight of the liquid, then the pressure at point m inFig. : wesoure head atm. Piezometers measure gage presi i {s subjected to atmospheric pressure Feeaure in homogeneous liquid at rest, it is obvious tha at it the: iezometer makes no difference, Hence as shown in Fig. 27(a) ‘Or the bottom of the ‘container, but the Pheri) can be measured by means ofthe 'e Pressure in the container is less thi Figure 26 Relationship between absolute, gage and vacuum pressures a ‘ry piezometer. But if the top of the ne ais “ ia containing water ( f absolute pressure are positive, since in the case of fluids the lowest al st ° Nidtorceto hei woition pe youll agenda ealinhereacor capita esti However, gage! eli ne au oe oa heh are positive if they are above that of the atmosphere and negative if they are vacuum pre sheinsetnomantncbaed Figure 26 illustrates the relation between absolute gage and vacuum pressures. jHydrate ant Fluid Mechanics Figure 2.7 Piezometers jon ofthe tube, the pressure on the free tube which from Eg. 2.8 may be express [Neglecting the weightof the air caughtin the port the vessel, Conversely Iris the pr the container is the same as that at free surface in the i where e isthe specific weight of the liquid used in hhead at the free surface in the container. sg Picrometers are also used to measure pressure heads in pipes wher eer ter the pipe ina direction at right angles tothe direction of 20%" ‘and the con rates ald be fash with the faner surface of the pipe. All burrs and ‘surface roughness.near! er nove and it setter to round the edge of the hole slighty. Also, ‘the hole: ‘small, preferably not larger than 3 mm. Th ander to prevent the capillary action fom afecting the height of the column of lig piezometer, the glass tube having an interna diameter les than 1°20 should notbe used. Mer for precise work a low heads the tubes having an internal diameter ‘of 25 mm may be used: i) Utube Manomcter, Piezometers cannot be used when large pressures the lighter li eet since this would require very Tong tubes, which cannot be Randled coy Pathermore gas pressures cannot be measured by mcans of piezometers because 9 Br free atmospheric surface. These limitations imposed on the use of piezometers may be overces Fe ery U-tube manometers. A U-tube manometer consists ofa glass tube bent in liquid is in mation. Fluid Pressure and ite Measurement end of which is connected to the ga SU) Toctabe connate reatnsfage Pent andthe other end remains open tothe a grav isto bemessied Spec gravity greater than thatol the Mus of whch eo sured. The choice i The choice of the manometric liquid, however, depends on the red, For low ‘sed and for high 3 ow presue range, gu pressure ran . quid of lower sp Wii cieat hu titieofheticiteer tere ofthe U-tube nanometers willentr connected cities oie winter theca into he manor hey cana manors ‘ofthe connecting as shown inFig. 28. An airrelif valve Visuisually peovided sothetge tube which permits the expulsion ofallartrom te porte A Pees ae soulseuin en incu tal cue he prow fever sala Due ine penn AB In order to determine the press ae Althoug ‘units of sure at A, a gage equation Atteoghany uit presser ead may bet inte og enon te pep ene toexpres all the tem in mets f the ful winse presse be mena The lowing () Sart emmoneel be adopted to obtain the gage equation is to be measured, The following ica ea eer an acerca ope end of the manom, Kant ie per eert nity metres of wate or oer Qu or N/ epee symbol. On the 8 at A) it may be id oF N/m ok) em? or el i nd ere tt ee cucies Ga ceenaa Oo, ‘Sage pressure. faker as zero. So that equation| iauned Montieaa will pcteseaiee cific gravities areHydra (@) To the pressure found above, add the change in pressure (in the same units) which will be 1} caused while proceeding from one level to another adjacent level of contact of liquids of different specific gravities. Use positive sign ifthe next level of contact is lower than the first and negative if itis higher. The pressure heads in terms of the heights of columns of same liquid may be obtained by using Eq. 2.10 (a). (3) Continue the process asin (2) until the other end ofthe gageis reached and equate the expression to the pressure at that point, known or unknown. ‘The expression will contain only one unknown viz, thepressure at A, which may thus be evaluated. “Thus for the manometer arrangement shown in Fig, 2.8 a) the gage equation may be written as, mentioned below. Starting from A, ifp isthe unknown pressure intensity at, wis the specific weight of waterand. Pa 5 isthe specifi gravity ofthe liquid in the container, then he pressure head at ¢(ntermsof liquid at A). Since al pints lying atthe same horizontal level in the same coninuows sate mass of liquid have same pressure. Pressure at A = Pressure at 4’ From A’ to B’ there being increase in elevation, pressure head decreases, so that pressure head at p= (P42) . Again rom the above enunciation, (vos; 7) Pressure at 8°= From toD therebeingincrease ine gravity ofthe manometzc liquid then Pressure at B = Pressureat C. vase in elevation, pressure head decreases, IS represents the sp ‘ram Eqr2 (a) the pressure head, in terms of liquid at (8}- ‘Thus pressure head -(2 the pressure head = 0, in terms oft lent to the column CD (= y) of the manometric flu cequival b= (2h -v2) pat erepcngatonrer pene iS) " gage pressure. As such equating the pressure heads at D, the gage equation becomes: Pag ME 20 = 8 Pa a Le or Baa Equation2.27 represents the pressure heads in terms ofthe liquid a However, ifthe endl are expreseed in terms of wate the following equation is obtained Pa w Evidently Eq, 2.28 may be obtained directly from Eq.2.27 by multiplying ts both specific gravity of liquid at 4. 25, + 9S, the sidesby: Flu Pressure and its Measurement HA soit ead eps weight bein respect to water) will beso small that £5, may eo a te specifc gravit eas Tara nerms crane as may beep nhc a a hs ys, Figure28 () shows another arrang (228) above the gage equation for this sre AB hy 3 odin enn weteras Again if i oo Ms (231) tS rn ec ry 5 fe ohne ate geal Ph shes, atmospheric pressure) the liquid surfa surface in the PresureatAmaybe determined ote reece sc manometer wil be below A The AtC the pressure head = 0, in terms sure, Further, ie cht G the pressure head = 0 in erm of gage pressure Further, pressure at C= pres ce ing increase in elevation, the pressure head decreases, so that to are} ae co terms of liquid at A). Again, Pressure at A'= Pressureat A nt = low if ps the pressure intensity at A, wis the specific weight of water, and 5, the specific rand Ss savy oftheliguld at 4 then the pressure headat A= 24 terms of liquid at A). Thusin terms of quid at A, Pa =-h hid 233) and in terms of water fee 3 oS 31) Formeasuring negative pressures of larger magnitude a manomet specific . e tri liquid having higher: teary is employed, for which the arangemen shown in Fig, soho Tes may beay xr ad ci Fi Prosi Meret ee THearmngmertt 5 2s geal peering Wo i) Site Calm Konner TheU ae varoeea ee offlid levels at wo ormore pins, sine achangein pase ona cate eng se the manometer and a drop in the other, Ths di “ ees column manometers. A transparent material ane ar manometer i net connected othe container, the surface ofthe manometric lai in the reservoir will stand at level 0-0, and since itis subjected toa pressure due toa column ef had cof eight y and specific gravity 5, , th surface of the manometric iqul id in the tube will stand at B, ata height h, above 0-0, such that from Eq. 210 (a) YS, = IS 239) ‘where fs the specific gravity ofthe manometric liquid. This is knowns the normal psition ofthe manometri liquid. On being connected tothe container at the gnge point the high pressure fant will enter the reservoir, due to which there willbe a drop in the manometric liqed eons teak reservoir bya distance ay and a consequent rsein the tube by a distance, above BI Aandawre the cross-sectional areas ofthe reservoir and the tube respectively, A (ty) = ai 240) iy, isthe pressure intensity at A and wis the specific weight of water then stating rom D the following gage equation in terms of water is obtained pressure by U-tube simple manometer i oft water) and the specific gravity oft rsgement of Fig. 29 (0) may be writen Figure 2.9. Measurement of negative, Ifthe specific gravity of the fluid at Ai Sy {win spe manometric liquid is 5, the gage equation af iguid at Aas, terms of liq 5 0+ (yh + A95,~ (ay 95, = BA a1) a Introducing gs (2.9) and (240) in Equation 2.41) stbecrnes and in terms of water a3 Pa oh, [ +6,-5)4] 2) Pa 2 25,-v5, Ba = bf 5 015, -5)4 242) w ion may be written in ig. 29 the gagectuation may : 2 similarly, fr the arrangement shown in Fig. 29 (6) the 698 By making the reservoirsufficiently large, the ratio (4 )canbemadeso smal thay isnegligble liquid at A as, a and height (+H) isa measure ofthe pressure head at the contact level C~C inthe reser, In Pa “Tye which case Eq. 2.42 reduces to us, eats (243) and in terms of water as 7 PA 2 -2$,-y5, w= sts a sn Fluid Pressure and its Measurement ome Almay (245) ‘Again starting from D the gage equation in this case becomes 0+ Oy +) (in 6) 5, +95, — ay, -y5, = PA (2.46) Introducing Eqs 2-4 and 245 in Eq, 246 it becomes Pan a Fn ty [Ssinovts-sy4] 0.47) Againifthe ratio isnegligible then Eq. 2.47 reduces to 2 = ogsines 2) ‘Single column manometers can also be employed to measure the negative gage pressures. Ifthe pressure at A in the container is negative, the manometric liquid surface in the reservoir will be raised by a certain distance and consequently there will be drop in the liquid surface in the tube. ‘Again by adopting the same procedure the gage equations for the negative pressure measiserent can also be obtained. “ee Differential Manometers. For measuring the difference of pressure between any two points in a pipeline orin two pipes or containers, a differential manometer is employed. In general a differential ‘manometer consists of a bent glass tube, the two ends of which are connected to each of the two ‘gage points between which the pressure difference is required to be measured. Some of the common types of differential manometers are as noted below: (@ Two-Piezometer Manometer. (i) Inverted U-Tube Manometer. (Gi) U- Tube Differential Manometer. iv) Micromanometer. {0 Two-Piezometer Marometer. As the name suggests this manometer consists of two separate iezometers which are inserted at the two gage points between which the difference of pressure is Fequired to be measured. The differencein the levels ofthe liquid raised in the two tubes will denote the pressure difference between the two points. Evidently this method is useful only ifthe pressure at each of the two points is small. Moreover it cannot be used to measure the pressure difference in 8ases, for which the other types of differential manomoters described below may be employed. (Gi) Inverted Ustube Manometer. It consists of a glass tube bent in U-shape and held inverted as shown in Fig. 2.11, Thusitisas f two piezometers described above are connected with each other at top. When the two ends ofthe manometer are connected to the points between which the pressure difference is required to be measured, the liquid under pressure will enter the two limbs of the manometer, thereby causing the air within the manometer to get compressed. The presence of the compressed! air results in restricting the heights of the columns of liquids raised in the two limbs of the manometer. An air cock as shown in Fig. 2.11, is usually provided at the top of the inverted U- tube which facilitates the rising ofthe liquid columns to suitable level in both the limbs by driving ‘out a portion of the compressed air. It also permits the expulsion of air bubbles which might have been entrapped somewhere in the pipeline. If pg and py are the pressure intensities at points A and B between which the inverted U-tube ‘manometer is connected, then corresponding to these pressure intensities the liquid will rise above ‘Aner aud” oS) © Figure 2.10. Single column manometer «co that only one reading ofthe height of level o id in the narrow tube is required tobe Sbtain the pressure head at A. However, ify is appreciable, then since the terms within brackets} ly 8 ish of ligule ver if Ay is app nthe A the right side of Eq, 242are constant, the scale on which 's read can be so graduated as to for Ay so that again only one reading ofthe height of liquid level in the narrow tube is e head at A. | on, which will directly give the pressure he ; = ihn i int Pe by mig ar : er 2.10 (b). With this modification the distance ease al he a a steno combaratively more, even forsmall pressure intensity at. hen he an ce My the container, the manometric liquid surface in the reservoi stant in the tube will stand at B, such ee ¥5,= (h, sin ®) S, — ee ir, the manometric liquid surface wi ressure fluid entering the reservoir, the manomet in aed cocty tdtance y, and it will travel a distance BD equal toh, in the narrow tutHydraulics end Fluid Mechanics Fi Pressure and its Measrement ints A and B upto Cand D in the two limbs of the manometer as shown in Fig: 210. NO itw presents the spenific weight of water and S, represents the specific gravity of the liquid at A oF By if represents the specific weight of water and 5, or Band the manometric liquid as iui in the upperpartatthertonor re a lies of the liquid at 4 respectively, then commencing, Figure 2.11. Inverted U-Tabe diferent manometer Figure. 2.12 Inverted U-tube citfrential ra | manometer with ight manometic liquid st (2-38): re head at C in terms of water is eqh mass of fluid then commencing from A, the press 5 from A, the pressure J Pressure hend Cin eof waters equa to (24 Pays). Since points Cand Care ‘mass of liquid, points C and C’ areat the same horizontal level and in the same continuous static . Pressure at C = Pressure at C” . ; a Between points C’ and D there is a column of compressed ar. Since the specific weight of S158 eglgible as compared with that of liquid the veight of air column between C’ and D may B neglected. Hence, i ieee Lid wise PS me panic From C’to D_ there being de : fn head at Din terms of water ‘elevation, the pressure head is wateris equal to ead increases, so thatthe pressure Pressure at’ = Pressure at D ss From D toB there being decrease in elevation, the press head increases so thatthe pressure] a Fr is equal fo pressure head at D plus (y~!) Fs the gage equation may be expressed . (% v5) ] ‘urther from D to B there is decrez ase in elevation and hence the {gage equation becomes Pa —yS,+¥-M 51 = “ty ¥ FAW ys, + 15,4 (ym) 5, = 2 or Pa _P8 = is, w ” or Pa Pa, Inverted U-tube manometers are suitable fr the measurement Of cial prea imine fa Phen (s,-5,) fu liquids. Somatimes instead of ai, the upper Part of this manometer is filled with a is evident from Eq, 250 thats the specifi gravi (250) vie difference is to be measured the liquid wt Aor B(Gt- 5) approach ora at ere aera tat of values off willbe obtained even for small ) Pressure differences thus increasing the sensitivity of the manometer. Another arrangement for increasing the sensitivity of these manometers is to incline the gage tubes so that a vertical ical gage diffe is i ference his transposed into a reading which is magnified by —, wh fee srg Where Bis angle of inclination liquid which i lighter than the iquid for which the press ingmiscible with it Such an arrangement isshown in Fig, 2.12 ‘Asexplained later the use of mane tiquid inthis manometer results in increasing the sensitivity of the manometer, : ‘Again ifp, and p, are the pressure intensities at points A ‘and B between which the in Pea eer is connected, then corresponding to these pressure intensities the liguid Shove points A and B upto Cand D inthe two limbs of the manometer as shown in Fig. 2171a] tit a Ms sntin U-shape, the two ends of which, (ii) U-Tue Difinentiat Mamometer.Itconsists of glass tubee! a ee eo gage pounts between aehich the presse ference rghit be a eneS Hague 213 shoves shah an arrangement for mast the pressure dferenes OE Shy twe points A and &. The lower part ofthe manometer contains a manomnetic Tiquid which is theavier than the liquid for which the pressure measured ais inumiscible with it differenceistobem ogure 2.13. Utube Diferntial Meromster tothegagepointsAand Bthen comesponding othe gag Pofmanometic qu inthe 63 °° Ghown in Fig. 213-Dy mea (orp maybecomp |When the two limbs of the manometer are connected to the difference in the pressure intensities ?, and Pe soe the manometer will be displaced through a 2SNanet = dis erence in the levels of te manometric liquid, he Prossu as indicated below. 4 115, and S,arethe specific gravitiesoftheliquid orBand the manometricliquid respectively shanty commencing atA where the pressures Pr the PESUS head at C j= which wis the specific weigh se ame level and ae lying inthe same continuous static mass of Pressure at C = Pressure at C’ Further from’ to D there being an increase in the ele the pressure head decreases, 50 the pressure head at D in terms of water is ‘equal to [Beets =x, |. Similarly from D equation becomes tof water. Farther, since points Cand C’ are to [Bae y+ars, liquid, sation, there isan increase in elevation and hence the gage [2ereens--98] Fluid Pressure and a rand Hs Mensurement [w nanometric stdin manometric gud in the two Tbs othe panies te cn ie Tiguitin U-tube rs aulable for measuringluge proces i em Reming ak Pt meus amc ak rerio salsa emg aca en Often the points A ar oer enters Andthaminiatepeontnemaen ote ‘gage equation may be obtaine: sages ‘order to compute the pressure difference between the points A [Berteryei 26-15] = & 1, forexample, the manome <1) then thedliference in prensa eas ny (5, 134 and the or Ma Pe ow 12(5,-5) +y(5,-5,)~25, 252 [x(5,-$) +9 (5,-,)-25,] Equation 252is, however, a general equation, which may’ lerive the equations fo general equation, which may be modified to derive the: € different conditions. Thus, fore Q us, for example, if there issame liquid at A and B, then since S, =, Eq,2.52 Pe ww = FG-8)-25,) 253) Further it and Bare tthe same is quite obvious. the same level, then singe z= 0, Fa. 2.53 becomes sameas Eq, 251 which Figure 2.14 U-tube otterentia! manometer between two points at cite rent levels (iv) Micromanometers. For the meast snait) Miron asurement of very small oa homage peal aac ema ec SSFluid Pressure and ts Measurement of micromaameter consist ofa glass U-tube, provided with ovo transparent basins f wider sens ae Stes teva lr ae shown in Fig, 215, The manometer contains two manor Tiquids sna dann within brackets on ight side of bg 255 fees arte stepucite gravis and immiscible with each other and with hela for hi Depa ‘Thus by measuring and subtituting in Eq. 285 the presure dere for’ particular mar of diferent specific gravis eve the manometer connected tothe pressure points Aan By the pressure difference between any dlference sto Tabjected io the same presare. As such the hesvier manometric liquid of #8 ‘een any two points Swill eccupy the evel DD” and the lighter manometricliguid of sp gr-S5 wil the level CC’. Sypslloccupy the eve net ote pressure points. and 8 where the pressure neste 8 prrund 7, respectively, such tt p> Pp, then the level ofthe lighter manometer ‘wil fallin Ba and Pe TesPost vce inthe right bast by the same aniount Ay, Siar the level of Se Hepes ase ee liquid well fall inthe lft ib to point E and sein the right mb pO WAand manometric Hai ya areas ofthe basin ar te tbe respectively, hen since Ue volury of the fiquid displaced in each basin is equa tothe volume othe Hl ‘Gisplaced in each limb of the tube the following expression may be readily obtained 4 caa)=a(3) ght of water, then, stating from point 4 the following gage equation. Further if w is specific wel a in terms of water column may be obtained, If the cros-ectional area of SF are of the bosin i ange acon tube, then theratoa/As ver small and the Eq 255 reducento ne ome sectonal are of the ms wv = S-s) By solecing the two manometric i (256) srabl re liquids such that their wit maul eased ere saps eres ep oy naam efeier pesotmionaondes he presuredifencobe meme bce meniscus is brought back to its original cores screw) of one arm of the manometer whereby a (258) maiceneas ean ieee ya ere suatleonlyoremplaysogy rene clastic element, which deface eee a those Pressure measuring devices, i Z cay) 5,-,-49 Ss= snechank the action ‘which embody an Bes yoann sie (a -aye8) 5,8, -(4-F ay) SW.“ A = inhaily mapie, srt nde the ston of he applied pres and this movewent simplifying the above equation becomes Geely hse sed fer meauring hgh presutand whorl re subtitutng the value of Ay from Eq.2:54 and simpliying ees eh Sorina tient (Bourdon Tube PremueGae re commonly used areas noted below (Gi) Bellows Press (@) Diaphragm Pressure G re Gage age ) Bourdon ‘ Gv) Dead-we which of elliptic croc neces ees woponsive element in this go «se which was invented andiscurvedintoa dreuar are. Tre abeislosalati cate oce . - 92 is closed at its outer end, Psion of end of be a [s-a(-8)-s Manomatic quid (2) (7.965) Manometi gud (1, (pes) Pressure iat Figure 2.18 Bourdon tube pressuie gage ‘and this end of the tubes free to move. The other end of Fighily fed 6 the femme aa shown in ig, 216. Week eae ns a Figure 2.15. Micromanometer the gage is connected to the gage point, fluidTey spon es under pressure enters the tube. Due to increase in internal pressure, the elliptical cross-section ofthe tube tends to become circular, thus causing the tube to straighten out slightly. The small outward movement of the fv end of the tube is transmitted, through a link, quadrant and pinion, to a pointer which by moving clockwise on the graduated circular dial indicates the pressure intensity Df the fluid. The dial of the gage is so calibrated that it reads zero when the pressure inside the tube Flt Pressure anit ts Measurement eater bay Bele duet tonal faa least permissbleclerancein thesylig co Plunger i careful pe Perrier cearncein tbecylinder Morente tee nae uals the local atmosphere pressure, and the elastic deformation ofthe tube causes the pointer to poke i sv ds of comparison. Henceas shown in ip Si ey Pa ‘be displaced on the dial in proportion to the pressure intensity ofthe fluid. By using tubes of t ed or calibrated shown ing 2180 prosue enue appropriate stifines, gages for wide range of pressures may be made. Furtherby sultably modifying ge Oilunder pressures pumped the graduations f the dial and adjusting the pointer Bourdon tube vacuum gages an alsobe made. ‘When a vacuum gage is eonnected to. partial vacuum, the tube tends to close thereby moving the pointe in anti-clockwise direction, indicating the negative or vacuum pressure. The Fage dials are ‘ually calprated to read newton per square metre (N/m?) pascal (Pa), or kilogram () Per square Contimetre [kg() /em!], However other units of pressure, such as metres of water oF cen mercury, are also frequently used. i ne : clement in this gage is an elastic steel fi) Diaphragm Pressure Gage. The pressure responsive element in a oe ine recap The last deformation ofthe daphregm under pressures anerit fointe by a simular arrangement a inthe case of Bourdon tube pressure 38s G55 95.707) osteo this gage is used to measure relatively low pressure a similar principle. cil F i Bellows resure Gage nthe gage the presueresponsie Sra Se pot tint ‘having deep circumferential corrugations Inresponse esure cha elastic aaa ct thereby moving the pointer ona roduaed circus il ashownin Fi. 218 oma itomanes one Sonera ease a et Spee scands Figure 219 Doad-weight pressure gage ight ape which can esd for mesturng pressure ata pont with ence ever stme ainsomeat the weighing machines ren ocd Adead-wei eight sled song pee ei be contrived automatically byan lect ne 2.7 GENERAL COMMENTS ON CONNECTIONS FOR MANOMETERS AND ea ‘Tae following points should be kept in view while making connections for ‘the various pressure () Atthe gage point the hole ina tthe sage po should be drilled normal tothe surface and itshould flush with the (ii) The diameters of the holes at the a a Tetiecoaainsaeetrelt tats neem, There shouldbe no air pockets let overintheconnestng ei filled with the liquid The presence ef air bubblos eager be Which should be completely ‘made of polythene or similar transparent materia” Pe Sete fe connecting tubes are am Figure 2.17 Diaphragm pressure gage Figure 218 Bellows pressure gage iv) Doud-Weight Pressure Gage. A simple form ofa dead- weight pressure gage consists of pluf of diameter dich ean ia within vertical liner, as shown in Fig, 219. The fi pressure, entering the cylinder, exerts a force on the plunger, which is balanced by the loaded on the top of the plunger. If the weight required to balance the fluid under pressure then the pressure intensity pof the fluid may be determined as, we) P4 P= L006 MNJ? 1.006 + 108 S/n w = (1025 x 9 810)n 1.006 104 N/m? 1.006108 _ ei oosi10? * 1° sxample 23. onvert a pressure head of 100m of tetrachloride of specific gravity 1.6. of 100 m of water fo (a) kerosene of specific gravity he carte 7x10 25810" 551 m of mercury Tsex1000 73273575 10° N/a seer pressure = Gage pressure + Atmospheric PESTS oe om Fq.2.10; ‘Atmospheric pressure = 76cm of mercury . gy = hS; __ 76136 _ 1934 mof water ates Gy gobi - aes @ 100% 1 = fy x081 __76x13621000 _ 5 934 « 104 kg(/m? Ig = 100 = ot 7" 081 ; = 12346 m of kerosen 76x13.6%1000 _ 4.934 kg(f)/om? ®) atone = 00x10" a. 7613649810 _y9 4 .101N/o? een 7100 poeta mi eft leg of a U-tube mercury manometer fe ise 16a pipe-tine conveying water, the level of merci (a) Absolute pressure = C5 a Ne it ee senate 0 blow the centr of Seelitoad the right leg is open to atmosphere, The level of mercury in Oe 2 eaux See ried deoensbe net Absolate presse = 05» ite il og one eee pei get 8) te ie aan Sa nerds Find the pressure in the pipe. rAbedd = 8534 mof water In the accompanying figure the pressures at C 5 : re the pressures at Cand C’are (4) Absolute pressure head= (5.51 +0.76) ‘equal. Thus computing the pressure heads at 651070 Ene cee 627 a a, dient SZ 28406 = 045% 136 +03 x 0.88 = 825 atmospheres : or a = 5.784 m of water () Absolute pressure = (73.58 x 10' + 10.14 10) = 83.72 10!N/m?Hiyaraulies and Fluid Mechanics Pa = G78 x9 810) 5.674% 108 N/m? (5.784 x 1000) = 5.784 10 kg (f/m? 05784 kg (O/em? Example 25. As shown in te accompanying figure, pipe M cr or Pa " is rence x in the pipe N is 1.75 kg (f)/ont? and the manometric fluid is mercury, find the difference mercury. Solution | Equate the pressure heads at Zand Z’ as shownin the fig. Ex. 25 Garton tra chloride (59.97.1594) \ . ; eon ——— NN eis z Zz Mercury Figure Ex. 2.5 Pressure head at Z in terms of water column _ [205*108 o5+15)x1ses+ x34 ~ 1000 Similarly pressure head at 2’ in terms of water column (eee sxasy+x08) 187 +08" 1000 “Thus equating the two, we get 16.876 + 13.6" or 12.8 x mitains carbon tetrachloride of specific 1y 0.8 Ifthe pressure " : = contains ol o ravi ty 1.594 under a pressure of 1.05 kg (P/cm? and pipe N contains: il of specific gravi Screen the coe of Fluid messed by averted Ute, The ata ‘A commercial pressure gage attached dire token attached directly fo the peat Ba Solution = 12.53 m of water 108 Example 27, Two pipes as shown in Fig. Ex. 2.7 convey toluene of specific gravity 0.875 and water respectively. Both the ligtids in the pipes are under pressure. The pipes are ‘conmected toa U-tube manometer and the hoses connecting the pipes tothe tubes are filed with the corresponding liquids. Find the difference of pressure in two pipes ifthe level of manometric liquid having a specific gravity 1.25 is 2.25 m higher in the right int than the foe level of toluene inthe eft Tm ofthe ‘manometer, Solution Let py. and p, be the pressure intensities a the centre of the pipes 4 and B respectively. Since points D and D’ lie at the same horizontal plane jand in the same continuous static mass of liquid, the [pressure heads at these two points will be equal. Pressure head at D = Ps (1x 0.875) Pressure head at D’ = F2-225.+(2.25 125) Py = (12.53 x 1000) kg (f)/mn? Example 26. The pressure between two Pipe conveying elo specifi ‘sands 16 m higher tan ta reas 1.125 4g fem’; determine is points A and B ina i connected to point. tothe pipe at A .125 kg (0) /em? Pa _ 1uasx10¢ Fe = $11.25 mot water ‘Thus by substitution, we get P1125 = 1125 = 128 or Pa = 1.253 kg (D)/om?‘Hiydnautics ant Fluid Meclamics = ‘The pressure heads have been calculated in terms of water column. Equating the pressure: heads, Fluid Pressure and its Measurement weget a G,=p,) = 1395x1000 P8415 x 0978) = PE-225 4(225. 125) i 7 or = 0.1395 kg()/em? = ay 2 ie Pm-Px) = 1.395 9.810 Sea = Sie = 13.685 kN/m?- or ozs sr 75 x 1000) TSK /me or 0759810 73S75N/m = 7357 5EN/me Example 2S. Tao tanks are lla with oater of specie weight 9.81 N/m. The bottoms ofthe tanks are conmected fo an inverted Utube containing oil weighing 7.$5 RN/ am, Find the difference in pressure betaen the ta tanks {hen the manometer gives.a reading of m. Solution Using Eq. 250, the difference of pressuire head in siaroge fii Figure Ex, 2.9 the two tanks is given by Fite mouoncto eo reefee the vessels shown in the Fi aw ha 125 mand 2 cpa f Pee gravity 08, find te ie meen (0 in he same figure inte Sit gravity of 1.6, find the dere a8 (1-28) gue til ‘ Solution 4 981 are (9) Pressure ead at X = Pressure head at X" water= wi usifthe hej casei = 0.16 mof water = 16 cm of water ihe ight of the surface between oil and water in the right limb above poi - point mis Example 29. fn the, ” Compute pressure difference betieeen mand accompanying figure fluid A is water, flyid Bis ol! of specific gravity 0.85, 2: surface above the point m be x. Since pressure head at T Ci) Let the height of the common: head at T ; we have & Be Po = h-2 (1-09) = 5 Fe _y-(Zx085) = .25~03(1-09) » = 12mofwater or cp, = 122x100 of Pa-Pu = Soe = O22 kgf fem = Pu-Pm, = 1229810 395 m of water = 11968.2N/m? =11.968 2 KN/m?Sul ; ; (©) Substituting the comesponding values in Eq () noted above, we get (hey) x 186-2 (16) Pa @eyx 26 Pa Ps = 2036-16)-h (136) = 1.0 (03.6~1.6)-0.6 03.6) Figure Ex2.10 Figure E211 = (120-8.16) =384 mof water aa Sinanty the pressure head at point 2" will beequalto 22-1-(1e¥ or oan) = SEREOR 03st i/on" ‘aay weee wot (lef) 080-103 or Pn Pad = ai x 9810 =37 6704 N/m? = 37.670 4KN/ Pe ; Example 2.11. Figure Ex. 2.11 shows differential gage. Xand Y are connected to two different oe (+4 082 -h (082) of pressure Wit the ual pressure at Xeand Yor of Ker ‘olunins stand atthe common level F] or Feat 0.0. Points Xand Y areat the same evel ese igeence of presse head betaeen Xand Yi Belted of water if his 0.3 m. Take ne reservoir cross-section 100 times that ‘of glass tube. a w +5) 082-h (0.8) Solution ‘i Pr Lot A and abe the cross-sectional ‘areas of the reservoir and the glass tube respectively. a x ~ 3 = (082-080) + yc-082) zi (ava) = 100 Further screene column above inthe right limb. Also let and ee: vel and at height (t/2) jand 203i Let Ibe the vertical height of two points in the lft and the right limbs respectively atthe same lev | fasshownin Fig Ex 211 Pressure head at Z = Pressure head at 2’.nies Hil ema a pee By substituting these values, we Bet Px_Ts . gas? 0.80) + 0.003(1-082) cae * 1 of water. 2 64x 10% m = 6.54 mm of wat _— io manonteter is used to me Sc ire. The basins high precision parity filled wid pein onan ser reser THe a TAT se ecco 0.8 and he vr Pron fe a id he presse ray 136, The ec SN times that of the U- malay 0mm iS tiameter of the sin 250 of! erence if the Utube ring 1 3 ty and pa be the pressure inten vo points 1 and 2 in th ‘Thus equating. pr ‘in the pipeline. Thus eat the two point i tensities a est ; he presoure heads at the two points Zand Z's shown inthe accompanying figure, we Be Example 2.12. A trovtiquid dos 4+ (0.78) +30 (078) Mercury Figure Ex. 2.12 = 1 (C28) + nepo7e +3038) 1000. PL_PL «301136 -078) + y (078-0476 x 10%) a 5 ww = 3846 +y(0.7795) i Further : Axy = 0x0 si y= 97mm but A= (57 a= 2250 wl 4° os by substituting these values, we get wh 30 wp 7586+ (07795) = 384,704 mm of water = 38.4704 em of water Example 2.13. A manometer consists of a inclined glass tube which is connected to a metal cylinder standing upright, and manometric liquid fils the apparatus toa fixed zero mark on the tube when both ayliner and the tube are open to the atmosphere. The upper end of the cylinder is then connected 10a gas supply ata pressure p and the liguid rises in the tube. Figure’ Ex. 2.13 inch expression forthe pressure pin cm of unter when the liquid reads y cm in the tube, én terms of the ination 0 fe ub, espera of hii S and that of te dame othe exe fo he diameter of the tube. Hence determine the value of so that the error due to disregarding the change i {evel in the cylinder will not exceed 0.1% when = 30°, —_—— Solution ‘When the level of liquid rises inthe tube by ycm, the level ofthe liquid will fallin the reservoi certain amount; say x, which will be given by " " oe (2) =s8) . Oe Further the vertical rise corresponding to y cm of rise == (y sin 0). ‘Thus equating the pressure heads at the two points ', ing the hei pune en ‘© points M and M’, and neglecting the height of theoe Haid Pena Mowsurertent ion wd Hid — slut . tress C% rose a Bs as equninns thus aati : (0189 10+ UO 14 4 08), = {Saysino} s thy = U2 w Whyte ° Hetweur ule and wether ean econ wh « yotesntis , ae hie cane neected. Thun vena ee athe pressure ney a the gas ante pe wade wale TTT aus posse dc a eyo tel the it ee yn tegen thers Bea oe 1H pont Gbokig a atin presen gasnilttinte a 1 = Up, bande ~ y= e+ 8 «100010254 a4) «0 07 1108 6S 1000 (068) = 0 Me tee ot Hg inthe ner not toencees at, ating the change! 1077, For the errr due to distegs \ 29) Ve {anor ds which measures the gas pressure at level Btn the Fig. 2.15, wid (usin on = 3x10 = 19s 4A. Example 2:14 Far a gage Presire B in the Fig. Ex. 2.14. “at A of 05 kepiem Figure Ex. 2.15 Solution “Assume thatthe values of specific weightfor air and gas remain constant forthe 100m difference of elevation, Because the specific weights of gas and air are of the same order of magnitude, the change in atmospheric pressure with altitude must be taken into account “Thus Absolute pressure at C= Absolute pressure at Dor Atmospheric pressure? + 10001} = ‘Absolute pressure at A ~ (0.5607 x 100)ey aetna “The absolute pressure at A will now be evaluated in terms of the atmospheric pressure at E, obtaining first the atmospheric pressure at F and then py [Absolute pr. 4 = {atmospheric pr. Py +1.2608 (h +100~0.10)] + (0.10 x 1000) ‘By substituting the value of absolute pr. pin the above equation and cancelling atmospheric Pr- Pe-we get Fluid Pressure and its Mexsurement 1000 x h = 1.2608 (i + 99.9) + (1000 x 0.10) ~ (0.5607 » 100) or (1000 — 1.2608); = (1.2608 x 99.9) + 100 - 56.07 = 169.884 169.884 169.884%100, or bh = Fee motwater= se zapo emf water = 17,0098 cm of water. ; Example 2.16. Point Ais 0.25 m below the surface ofthe ign of specific gravity 2.25 i ¥ shown in Fg, Ex 2.16. What isthe pressure at A aliquid of specific rely 1-36 rises 2.1 m in the tube? Figure Ex. 217 Solution st We the tal weight of the piston and the slab, Pr below the piston = pr. atthe same level in the vertical tube, we have = 2x 104 Eo + (21000 x 0.902) 52 ~ W = (2x 104+ 0.180 4x104) meter reds 99.572 KNimn?. When in Fig. Ex. 2.28 are closed and filed with ai Ex 2:16 Ns the gages A and D read a5 filled with air. The Coes s58eE, if mercury i the manometric iq each cae indie, what should betes of for Solution ‘The pressure of the air in the vessel ‘5 : = = (2.1 « 1.36) mof water = 2856 m of water. 20h ‘Thus pressure at point Ain the vessel 3 Le kr... = [-2.856 + 0.25 x 1.25] m of water = [+2856 + 0.312 5] m of we AW x IF = ~2543.5 mof water r iF = (25435 x 9 810)N/m? 2 D 24.952 KN/m? re 243.5 Kg(D/ mE ae ~0.254 35 kg(f)/em* Example 2.17, The cylinder and tubing shown in Fig, Ex.2.17 contain oil of specific gravity 0.20 Figure Ex.2.18 ‘a gage reading of ? ky (fen what is the total weight of the piston and the stab placed on it ?m0) Hgraulcs and Fluid Mechanics Solution Pressure at F = Pressure at G. Thus if pis the pressure ints terms of absolute units, then 9957210" B yoss $025 «136 025 «13: ae or Pe = (105-34) = 6.75 m of water (absolute) Further pressure at K-= Pressure at H 7 “Thus in terms of absolute units - 110° 2a 675+x(136) = |~9559 ae x 1 1 (5156-675)= 182m 36" z ras is measured ms shown it Example 2.19. The pressure of illuminating ga main shotes a pressure of 73 mm of water. What dif Tight hand clus ofboth gages are open tote a i an toate 100 of cation. Al weighs 1.33 kg/h” ant Figure Ex.2.19 Solution Let p, represent the intensity of the atmospheric pressure in kg(f)/m* reaper ts 2 hat ference he ayo ara say bees bs egos weigh 0.55 ksh. Fig. 2.19. The U-tube atthe in mum of water? at an elevation of ensity of air in the compartment C in tie some clean, wha isthe diene i between A and Cand between Band C? Fluid Pressure and ite Measurement “Thus the absolute pressure ofthe gas at point Z wipe snepreminsipsiitinn eee cme, espera in neg = Prete at Z (100036) ¢¥ 10 0» 086) sn TE 2! = Perea jakeinn se ntenicli a geblaantt nr (133ict00}+ 7 N+ 10 = 10004 = (133 + 75-56) 5 tena h = 0152m smple 2.20, For the multiple diferental manometer shown in Fig. Ex. 2.20, i points A, B mee sho in Fi Ex 220, Band Cares Psu leats rms eer clon Stes Aa, Solution | Prat = Prat ‘Thus ifthe depth ofthe point Pbelow. Prat =x, then Pa. Phe = PB (x 1.08) + (108 x 136) Pe. FE m+ (e-157)+ (157136) Thus ‘ = 108 136-1) = 13.608 mof waterand ale 0 Example 2.21. Foracompoundn fivid is mercury and ifthe fluid in the pipe and Solution Pressure at A, Pa Thus we have Further Pressure at G, Hutdraulies and Fluid Mechanics 1.87 03.6~1) 19.782 m of water (19.782 ~ 13.608) 6.174 m of water Inanonteter shown in Fig: Ex. 2.21, whats in the tubing which connects ti Figure Ex. 2.21 = Pressure at B, Pa Pa, w Pe. w Be Pe 41.72 + 1.695 - 0.065 = 7, w P5._ (1,695 - 0.065) 13.6 w PC 4 (1,72 + 1.695 0.065) - w ese pressure atthe monet? het Utes ane i rs on ene ee TremureatG, Py = Press py and Proureat fo = Pranwesne at Few Be ats-ary mt Bo am-oiyaiss Thus by substitution, we get = FE +1724 1695-0055) (1685-0065)«136 = 173-013) 136- (1695-013) or E4395 2168 = 2176-1565 ie, Po = 39.013 x 10° kg(f/m? 3.901 3 kg em? Example 2.22. An empty cylindrical bucket, 0.3 min diameter and 05 slong whose all thickness and weight cn be cansidered a nelgite i farce ith its open end frst into water wntits ower ege i 4 wr hoe the surface. What force wil required to matin ir fo remain at constant temperature during the entire operation? tm Atmospheric pressure = 1.03 hg) ent ct Solution 7 nisi be theatmospherc pressure and P, betheabsoltepiesure compressed air trapped in the bucket Ifthe depth of water lal ln the buckets, then since the temperature ofthe ar remains tant, according to isothermal condition. SS rx Fospxos = mx Fx O37 05-2) os n= (En Also Py = 7,4 (4~x) «1000 From Eqs. (i) and (i), we get ss) Ha~x) x 1000‘Hydraulics and Fluid Mechanics Since Pa = 103 x 10 kg /me, we get O5=R) * 103 * 108 = 1.08. 108 + 4) x1009 (G95) 109 108 = (4-1) x 1000 i ¥ = 0.1364 m ing the value of xin (i, we get ne —) 1.03108 = 1A16 x 10 kg/m? 1A16 4 kg(O/em? ‘The force tending to move the bucket in the upward direction P= mx FaF = La16 Ax 108 Exo = 1001.194 gi ‘The force acting on the bucket in the downward direction 1 = [1.03% 10" 1000 « 35] 4x (037 = 138x108 Fx 03)? = 975.464 kg() os ‘Thus the force required to maintain the bucket in this position F = (P\-P)) = (1000.194 - 975.464) = 73 kel) 228. etdenedl Example 2.23. Petrol of specific grivity 0.8 flows ypands oat een es 1= : ae in the pi ing 0.3 ne higher than A. Connections are oa abe ee aed Fe nse ete A and B 8 O28 Ken fd h eding mercury differential mercury manometer S08. oo eee pa be the pressuce intensities atthe points Aand rgand Py 1s shown in Fig. Ex. 2.23. Ifthe reading of the gage is +4 PA sersy) 08» Hs 0ssy)08s (x16) (22-8) « sase-om toss an Pa _ Pa 0.18x10" f (24-2) = testo nig 156 = pr 02m oF B2em. Figure €x.222 ramp 224 Aiming eal cnn fi te pie ; fie ing axa f 0 i sitchen Aine testes empee ores eco fc pre adroit pepe rcp Tn ha el altitiae, if iis giver that itis 1.033 kg(Pfeme at earth's surface. Setuton From 223.e, : zl the kita dap given by = 8G-; H RT Th Ty = @73+15) = 288° abs. RM By substituting the given values, we get 7 288-T = 9.812000 288 289258, T = 27486" abs. ‘Temperature drop = 288 ~ 274.86) = 13.14°C, Further from Eq, 2.22 the variation of atmospheric pressure with altitude is given’ as Defy ste=y fen [ tales By substituting the given values, we get 24-1 128 p = 0812 kg(/em*,yrs ard Fi Mechanics uid Pressure and its Measurement Se) Example 228. At she typ ofa mountain the temperature 85°C anda mercury barometer res 56.6 sphernas Hh roading atthe ve of the muta is 74.9 emt, Ang dry adabtic conto with R= 287 soul te) eg C as] cateuate the height ef the mountain, Solution From By. 223 weave R = 287joule /Lkg(em) deg Cabs} = 287 m/sec deg C abs) T = Q73-3)=268°C abs. For dry abishatic conditions, “Thus by substitution, we got Further from Eq, 2.22 2 % By substitution, we get $86 _f,__9stx(eng)xnaxasrod _P 745 ~ |)" @arRTAN(68x257%14)+9.81x(6-x)x0a] 566) [, ___9ax(ensy)x0 a fas) |) peaxaerxid)+91xG——)x04 26828714 i 0923 = Fes N DRX I.A)+981K(2—%) X04 . (e-%) ) = 289m. F Example 226, Figure Ex 226shose deter sels nd lenses ful nk sin the for of U-tube withthe crossing over. The Uctube is partial filled with a manometric fluid of specific weight whichis heavier than the fuel whose specific eight is. When the Utube and idatng tube are vert ‘and the taki fl of fuel the reading on te scale is unity. Figure Ex.225 {0) Determine the relation tetoen i the distance through aohch the fue level is wer in the tank and hy the distance through which the uel level fallin the indicating tube. (For hatte of therato Zl the eng ofthe device remains unalered eke the sytem given sll tin the vertical plane? Solution : (@) When the fuel tankis full let the manometric liquid in the limb of the U-tube connected to the {uel tank be at B and that in the other limb ofthe U-tube be at A (see Fig, 2.26). Equating the pressures at point A and A’, we get wX=w,¥ +z =) {hen the level fuel in the tanks reduced by hy and that in the indicating tube is reduced by hy {he level of manometric liquid inthe limb ofthe U-tube connected to the indicating tube wil Es {fiised from A toCby hand thatin the limb ofthe U-tube connected tothe fuel tank will be reduced from B to D by hy. j ‘Thus equating the pressures at points Cand C’, we get ty(X—2hy) = wy (Y by +p) +022.) Gil)Histreutios and Fluid Mohanios ‘which represents the bs aw of hyrstatin i) A liguid may be consider! a incanpreete (ld for when orp Seen le Integration ofthe above eaten pres atey puna sc aot rgd pe -uesc ‘where Cis the constant of integration. (i) For any point lying ina static mass of liquid (or liquid at rest) ata vertical depth below the ioe surface ofthe quid, ==-h, and alte ree surface ofthe liquid ie.,at= = 0, the pressure sequal the atmospheric pressure p, the sbove equation, ives, p= when, land the pressure in excess ofthe atmospheric pressures etc ‘Thevertiatheightofthe fre sufacesboveary point ia liquid at rests raven as pressure head which tay be expres fom th aboveayuaton ao So hee or 3. Fora compressible ud (ga) since the density p which is the required ‘or wo varies with the pressure p, Eq. (i) can be (b) For the readings of the device to integrated to determine thepressurepatany posit ‘only if relation between p and p or iis known. ‘The following two relations between pand por: are considered, (@ Ifa static mass of compressible Mud is assurned vertical plane, sin 8 or tan ® may be expressed as touncergo isothermal compressible then ‘constant, or ij By introduing this equation in Eq. (0, tis Ben Ba weit Integrated andthe eslingeqution scabies withthe equation oft fo ebtain the presi ata height zn static mass of compressible fu undergoing isothermal compression as Fluid Pressureand We Mowsrmcns — __ SUMMARY OF MAIN PoINTS es ii 1. Presa or intenoly of pessurels defined ay the re foe per uit aren. cay 2. Thepresourepal any pointinastitcmasset fd Steel (orf Aion only norte dirwetion as indicated by the following equation, eae enstuiet Sona ca ‘i Condition at some rence bevel height of the point above te relerenee evel R= gascanstant sand T, = absolute temperatute ote fed titi condition, which, however, tema constant "during the isothermal compression (4) A state mas of compress Ri in anuimet to undergo adiabatic compression, then £ =: ttt sonstant By introducing ths equation in ip (. its integrate and the resulting equation ‘combined withthe aston of tate to etain he Pressure p al s height = in a static mass of compressible fluid undergoing adiabatic compression as \wherek isthe adic exponent adiabatic index, ‘and the other notations are same as indicated eater. Since this case temperatures not constant itis givenby & (4-1) mT) ‘The rate at which the temperature changes with elevation or height = is Known as Temperate Lapse rate A which ie given by | temperature lapse rae = 0. This pertains to isothermal compression during which the temperature remsins constant and henceit doesnot vary withelevaionvoc height 2(8) Fork™1, temperature’ ‘which means tha tem Anerease of heights. 4. The Pascal's law states that the all directions. 5. Pid pressure 4, absotute atmospheric pressine When pressure is measure abe absolute zen ude presi snd irae low atmaspheric jesse tt called Firessute Ifthe pretoure ofa fluid fs bel Ronosph pressure Presuse Thus the eat Stet presoun betwes expresed ts ORS PROBLEMS 5 2.1 Fyplain the terms—intensity of pressure and pressure head. 22 Prove that the pressure is the same in all directions ata point ina static Maid. ate Pascal's L some examples where this principe 24 Define the terms gage pressure, ¥ pressure and absolute pressure. Indl tive positions an a chart. 2.5 Briefly explain the principle nanometers used for the their jeasurement of presure. 26 Differentiate between simple and differential type of manometer, 27 Describe with the help of neat sketches difierent fypes oF manometers 28 State the advantages of mechanical pressure ‘gages over the manometers 2.9 Explain how vacuum pressurecan be measured swith the help of a Ustube manometer. Hydraulics and Fluid Mechanics lapserate isnegative, perature ceereases withthe Pointin aid atret has thenaneemogninien, may be measured with respect to zero pressure, and (i) local imitiscalled abwulute prvsstine, il is below re itis designatat as vacuo DOF negative gage hsolute pressure, atmospheric pressure and sage prestine may Be employe in the Manometers are’ classified as (ay ‘manometer, an (b) Dilferential maton Simple manometry are used for measur eoue ata poi ina hdl contained ine pi Seveel(b) Ditotatinanonmten eae ‘ensuring the diflerence of pressure between ‘hwopeints in Makteontainedina pipeors yeu | 4, bitte liferem pipes two diferent esate, 7. Micronanometersane used forthe measurement differences or for the allferencen with very @ ish precision, 8. Mechanical gages vices which embody ect under the a and this sa hase pressure mes anes lenient wi ton of the applied press "AL mechanically ay Speraes a poier moving aga pred cirumnereal eile. Those pages an gone tse for measuring high pressures ad igh pre Presa is not required. Uourdon Ty 10 is the most commonly ht may be used g both pressures above atmospher pressure as well as pressures below a ‘Pressure or vacuuan pressuncs. 2.10 Describe witha neat sketch a micromanometer: used for very’ previse messiement of small prosuie ditfernse between tee points. ress. pressure intensity of Sy (emi all posible units. Take the barometer meading as 76 em of mercury. Lars, Gage units 5 hy om? 5 = 10°kg(0/ fv SX) moF water; 49.05 x 10° N/a 3.68 m ‘of mercury: Absolute unis 6034 kg() em’; 6034 « 10" (9/5919 10" N/m 60.34 m of waters “4-H m of mercury : 5842 atmospheres} 212 Find the depth of a point below free surface in, 2 tank contin oil where the presse intensity’ is 9 hg (0 em’. Specific gravity of fo ee 10 2.13 Convert a pressure head of 15 m of water to imetresofoilofspexifc gravity 0.750; (0) ‘of mercury of specific gravity 136. - [Ans. (a) 20 my; (b) 1103 a4 AU cig eer ain eee Se cee ke presiee Spe esata sre aes ek ceed A reads 2 kg(f)/em determine its wading a eee ea sie faking a ee ferme cere See etre! Heke mere suemclioenbcraler oie Sra es oes mi Asie sis ene cae ca ans Petpet a ae ae ete rots aula ot a ice Sota Ch OS flo) 1745809 abet eee secre ton Saa SEs sineame auicene eer Samer sart Ug sors sot tener ees Soe eet Soper cioee 4 he esc traiavse std ae Pd odes Steer ot th ery pare cSetipeee rer k ‘elon ic ceig pe Sa eee ees Cee ee Te oniaae seglected ? ans, 4085 kei] uid Pressure and its Measurement Fig.P.2.19 2220 Vessels A and J contain water under pressures (Of 274ABKN [2.8 em] and 137 4KN7 sn? [LA kg( ene respectively. What i the flection ofthe mercury in the dffrental gage ‘shove in Fig. P2207 (ane 123m} Fig. P.2.20 2.21 The tank in the accompanying figure contains oil of specitic gravity 0.780. Determine thereading, of pressure gage A in (a) kg(f)/em? j (b) KN/m’, Ans, (a) ~ 0.096 kg(f)/em’; (b) ~ 9.442 kN/m'] 2.22 In the manometer shown Fig, P. 2.22 the liquid onthe leftsideiscarbon tetrachloride oP fi sravity 1.60 and liquid on the right side is Ferciy. VW (p, pois 525 kg()/m? (5 150.25 N/m) find the specific gravity of the liquid x. [Ans. 0. TITLE AEE. Carbon tetra eee NN E e N 3 3 | Mercury Sse Zoro ot scale Fig. P. 2.22 2.23 In the left hand tank shown in the Fig. P. 2.23, the air pressure is -0.23 m of mercury. Determine the elevation of the gage liquid in the right hand column at A, if the liquid in the right hand tank is water. [Ans, 94.62 m] Hydraulics and Fluid Mechanics ~ 2.25 Neglecting the friction between the piston Aand | 2.24 Asshownin Fig. P.2.24, the pipe and connection B are full of ail of specific gravity 0.9 under pressure. Ifthe U-tube contains mercury fing the elevation of point A in metres. [Ans. 112.76 m) Gage (4) 3x 10° Nim? Elevation i 100-0_y.¥_. —,. — Zero of gage scale Mercury: Fig. P. 2.24 the gas tank, find the gage reading at B in metres | of water. Assuming gas and air to be of constant specific weight and equal to 5.501 N/m’ and 12.267 N/m’ respectively. Ans. 0.101 m) Fig. P. 2.25 2.26 A micro-manometer consists of twoxsin bulbs A and B each 1000 sq.mm cross area which are connected by a U-tube "y) Vertical limbs each of 25 sq.m cross area. A liquid of specific gravity 12 55 fan another liquid of specific gy gt ed in B, the surface of separation Mig! the limb attached to B. Find the dis? Of the surface of separation-when the Pi on the surface in B is greater than thet an amount equal to 15 mm head of " fans 228Hyétrautics and Fluid Mechanics 320 Find the dimension Z so 4 compression in rod! BD shown Will not be more than 88.29 ‘The length of the board Paper may be taken as 1 Figure P.3.18 9 For a 2.5 m length of gate AB shown in Fig. P.3.19 below, find the compression in strut CD due to water pressure if points B,C and D are hinged. [Ans. 6.92 « 10” kg(f) (67.885 kN)] Figure P.3.20 the free surface at depth a Figure P. 3.19 hat the in 029 kN *pendicular 25m. [Ans, 1, [4ns. 2156 4] 3.21 Calculate the depthofcentreof pressurebelow | the free surface of water of a plane lamina having a shape ofa circular ring with outer and innerdiameters 22 anda respectively. Telamina is immersed vertically with its top edge belove tot P39 ue Say iho Buoyancy and Floatation Chapter 4 ee a ee 4,1 BUOYANCY, BUOYANT FORCE AND CENTRE OF BUOYANCY ena body is immersed ina fluid either wholly o partially itis subjected to an upward force which {ends ot (rbuoy) up. Ths tendency ian bene body obec ‘upin the uid, due toan upward force opposite to the action of gravity is known as buoyancy. The fore tending tot up the body under such conditions is known as buoyant fore (or force ofbicymicy or uptrus) The point of application of the force of buoyancy on the body s known as centeof buoyancy . ‘The magnitude of the buoyant force can be determined by the well-known Archimedes’ principle, ‘which states that wher a body is immersed in a fui etter shelly or partially, its Buoyed or lifted up bya {force hich is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body. Iti due to this upward force acting on ‘abody immersed ina fluid, ether wholly or partially, that there occursan apparent lossin the weight Figure 4.1. Buoyant force on a wholly submerged body fore known that the buoyant fo Archimedes’ principleitistherefc ‘abody immersed in ight apy ee. Tenet act tad semcy Mae! Sis . i ties, wi bs discussed below. isegepeadiongies et tied ames joyant force's equal toHudraulics and Fluid Mechanics Setter wholly submerged body ABCD asshownin Fig 41 Fa wholly shown in Fig 4.1. The esultanthon onthe body is equalto zerobecause thehonnnnnt pressurconthe veri Proechoe tlp ihe bedy ieemastitleand opposicincinecion Incese eee inebed in the vertical direction emaider ane tne tthole body. On the topend ofthe prams Nig the vertical downvvard direction Simeels ere isacting in the where is thespecticwelghtor honey downward presure prism MN. Thus resultant fo ‘ertical prism MN of, i Fy = (ndA~p, dA) = wih, 7 =H, )dA = ryt Wad represents the volume ofthe vertical prism MN then a¥ = (yaa) and aEB = wd - ‘The buoy: Y 7 i) S| J \ \ LL between two fluids Figure 4.2 Buoyant forces on a body floating at the surface of separation Zi is n two ‘ible fluids of speci irface of separation (or interface) between two immisc ae Teka coke pt ‘elf 1 M2 ‘is dF, = (p,tA~p,dA) ‘ [ery (h, + yy) 2 ¥_— (to, WMA (ayy + wy, PaeromY 2 Fhtcton inwhich 4B, and 4 represent vou eo the eemertary ri, sseghts 1, and respectively. Teton buayat fence 7 Pa aT ds speci As ssh way. which is the total weight ofthe displaced fds. tn this case it is therefore cbserved that the total buoyant fore coi of th Sum of he to components which coneapecn ar duplacedfids. The centre of buoyancy foreachehiees oe toe wea of he centroid of the corresponding volume offi spaced and may elastic ‘When a body is ating tthe fre surface | tremain partially intetiquld (as shown in Fig 43), with the top portion of Curbs sere rsa suber ligui. Inthis ase dee be fecc magi of as Sacsioeins pare with hespeciicweigh fi hewegctneseietineter et pee inept etic merece ccc a partially submerged body is, equa othe weight ofthe liquid displacedby y acing at Sot noyany wichonioat edie te ee aE eae ri ithe ey at Sect nicer a Sete ane eye wait sienna a Recolor inouttannbcpteenegcatetog ie PY y must hie the Further the ines of ation ofboth the buoyant force and the weightof the body mast along screenees rea Se ec pgnmtabredft Equation ek force which in fur seul tothe weight i ae fat et ateeaemapei a ce renee econo ae thabuoyant toe ebay wenden domdand m5 IC HEIGHT ? ND METACENTRI poate eties 42, METACENTRE A aenes act vite weight ebay Weegee EY the wei eeeHtrauli acting at the Wvdrautics and Fluid Nt Acting a the centee orb Mechanics the tovancy 8. ¢ Points G. Fancy 8. The for 7 Let this boop O84 Bie aton ees Fy and W are e assume go be ited alghalyee eee elie which See Buoy of buoy, \ Position of the ca en teBees small, ae x OA Rig tilted the pag hme eY et does ndt re LY Ge er iy when asubmenge ot sting bodys enany © Portion of the hte Ot FeMaiN fixe, "mains unchange 4 ‘ollowing three conditions, Seivenastight any Gecreases sn ra te body immenedont eae to thebods Thins ‘ among trons fel ee MPa er body the buoyant ne SERCO open pone a eins wh © Tnsiabl equi : FOUgh the oat force ack ina vertoad eves a new pectin Fae atone Dee alanitotonr ou ce oe ew centre of buvanse teal Upward direction eter BT the tt eft (i) Neutral equilibrium, ) itintersects Icy B, (or in of mat B,. Now i Position, ble equilibrium. A bod theaxisoftheboat ther words the Lin ohn Vertical line ig de Gy stale etiam Dv i ad oben tate of sh ; Of acti displacement o Sets upa couple that tends oopponethe mee ee mal angular pose theangular displacement of the body, thereby tending tobring the body back ois ocginl porter ‘ip Unstable equilibrium. A bod leplacement ofthe body sls upacauplethteenae thebody thereby fotalowing thebodytoretre tong aoe ai Neata egltei Atal id oben sect epiian aal anpar spleen loes not set up coupleafany kind, and theretne bboy atop te gostion given to ithytheangular displacement witout ei retening ieee ee increasing the angular displacement. trew Few 2 Figure 4.4 Metacente fora foatng boay may be defined as the point of intersection i f pbc ak ts oa ren ee ele tiny th ! ofthe angle of hee 9, the postion of the metaentre M s practically conotant Pusher the distance tween the centre of gravity G and the metacentre M ofa floating body (ie,GM as 0-0, isknown 4 as metacentric height, As indicated in the next section the poston ofthe metceite atve othe " “ position of the centre of gravity of a floating body determines the stability condition of the floating. Rex ple (ston fet 8 Dody. 1.3 STABILITY OF SUBMERGEDAND FLOATING BODIES ¥y stability of a submerged or a floating body is meant the tendency for the body to return to riginal upright position after it has been displaced slightly. A submerged ora floating body may ive a Sthall linear displacement in horizontal or vertical direction or it may be given small angi isplacement under the action of external forces. Ifa submerged or a floating body which suilibrium, is slightly displaced in the vertical or horizontal direction, then after the: De er tare causing euch displacement, certain unbalanced force is developed onthe body nds to return the body to its original position. m |a floating body, it oesbits in the reduction ofthe buoyant forceacting on the bod anced downward force which tends to return the body tots origin ight horizontal displacement does not change either the ‘magnitude or the local rce, the body is still in equilibrium.Hydraulics and Fluid Mechanics considered tobe or bility of equilibrium ane simp Ingenecala wholly ihren tea wicerneeente wae e n anos state of eguitm ftacent afta el couple produced bya s iple produced by 4 rent of the body tends to rotate hn eine ee tie nee tec aims cheer tenure gc orsider a Moating body which has d lirection as shown in Fig. 4.6. Ifthe new centre of buoyancy B, inex -metacen 3 thecenireof gravity G of thebody, as shown in Fig 46(a) then the tuopas ne above Produce a couple of magnitude (WGA sin 9) acting on the body in the anticlockwise direction, which is thusa restoring couple, tending to restore the body toits original postion. The body is therefore in. stable equilibrium. Hence it may be stated that fora floating body ifthe metacentre lies sboveits centre of gravity, .e., BM > BG. then the body isin astablestate of equilibrium. As shown in Fig. 4.6 (b), if fora floating body slightly tilted in clockwise direction, the metacentee M lies below the centre of gravity G of the body, then the buoyant force and the weight produce couple acting on the body in the clockwise direction, which is thus an overturning couple, tending increase the angular displacement of the body still further. The body is then considered to bei it Wvity of the body i However, if for a floating body the metacentre coincides with the centre of gravity of BM BG, then the body willbe ina neutral state of equilibrium, This ssobecause there wll ben a restoring couple nor an overturning couple developed when the body iste slighty. Ass body will neither return to its original position nor increase its angular displacement, but simply adopt its new position. Stability of lating objet issuch as boats, ships et, s required tobe studied vac that these objects are always acted upon by certain external foees wih ny end lar displacement or heeling ofthese objects. Amongst these forces which are common # sopra ersten cmc mmrng a curved path by rudder or propeller action, anchor line pulls ete. The heeling may 60 ‘any probable shifting of the cargo or ofthe passengers, or by any probable va Buoyancy end Hettion Geusitiono the cargo for example due osama (2) Ratna boy nation Figure 46 Subity o «partly immersed (or fost) ody Saintes fqn Thomay ome aebyiowint ents eee praia the tay by locing&yeeaneny by ago eis matron = bole Rartheror the loco ofthe metceteforthecjce may behnowny deter ‘etacentric height as discussed in Section 44. 44 DETERMINATION OF METACENTRIG HEIGHT ‘There are two methods which may be used to determine he mete Theseare "7Hydraulics and Fluid Mechanics @ Experimental Meth os nl od. Gi) Theoretical Method, again be vertically in line. The movement of the weight w through a distance x causes a parallel shi of the total centre of gravity (that isthe centre of gravity of the whole ship including w) from Gto@ such that wx = w(G) But G@ = (GM) tandand so W(GM)tan® = wx 5 wx. = (Gi) = Wane ‘Now if lis the length of the plumb line or pendulum horizontal scale then and d is the distance moved by it tanO= 7 Since the point Mcoresponds tothe meaner sat drightisthe limiting value of Gif as 6 pm ee ta fonbe tn eteeminctonsgaph pet bemente senile vou ahusf th ponte and agate) and Themelacentrc eight oashipcraboat maybe deemineby he neh iene ip orabost maybe detent ater tag pera och Bt hacer wees ec oe asewoaaaae enti height beforeashiporsben toa : ferthe determination ofthe meacntichgtesdarucel on oo Theol aed rt Dee aes ee melaentc height fora ship or abst maybe demine eaph nce ite nes shows the diferent views of aship At (is shown inl eigen sates te oe ek {inshown te postionoftheshipaterthasbentitedaboutnceegeeae tens eet erat {angle On the led poston ofthe ship he pordon one et AGM as ee View f lee eight by the theoretical method thet issue hat rei te Farah weigh Figure 4.8 Determination of metacenti ‘Whereas the portion DOD’ on the right has moved down into ‘overall verti movement, ths the vertical equim snotHydraulics and Fluid Mechanics is not altered, the volume j forresponding to AOA’ and DOD" wedges on eithe for the equilibrium and the AS the ship is tilted its co Which causes a, *BRX0) Thisshittofthe centreotbu displaced volumeby the submergence o and the emergence ofthe left wedge AO" from the li id negative buoyant force which form vc changein the ma of the buoyant force, amounting to (Fy ‘change in the geometrical form of the ‘oyancy is entirely dua into the liquid cach Prisms (L Ox), where Lis thelengthof theship ting, ime of the liquid equal to that ofthe prismis_ Drismsis (2x x wL@xdx). Thesummation of the moments of such prisms considered in the: ‘wedges must be equal to (Fy xBMx6). Thus FyXBMxO = 20 0+ [x°Lde=200+ [eA in which dA (= Lax) is (4) i atthe location of here V isthe volume of the quid displaced by the ship. Equation 4 he ni tin metacente for any ship iting trough a small engl of hel 8 depen ius. The metacentric height ight. Further the length BAf issometimes known as the metacentric radius. The GM may thenbe determined as Git =( Bo —BHi) (Bi Psy nd Patti 4.5 METACENTRIC HEIGHT Fo bed cldtneigaicte R FLOATING BODIES conTanNG QUID Eo oe con telguidwithatresutae thn sssnory om, tic eigh of tbe iirc emt eet nin serene Consider a ectangularbody of widthb and apy inaliguid of specific weight and contin Hani of pecic week ua down ihg ng 8 ebedy tained byt, Ge the centre of grav body including the inside liquid and B bethecentrte 2 eee iyi aroma} Figure 49 Metacontic ght fora fostng i Loki would Trsthetitng ofthe by asthe tof moving he ego isd DOK'n CO whale eater sare gravity Glos tone pose The moment ole esring op snare cul oa sit HV Ofer eng al wher tml he rig nly gud contindy it Misthe meta Nithepoistterecionberventhe vert gh snd irda bbe A sh or cc ene hgh im al acting on the body n ovement ofthe wedge ofthequ DOK a COH develops eel omega same direction inw! set wits {flted. The moment histumigcomleetothemonse ae? she volume ofthe either wedge and zis the distance centre went Git = DK gnomes gue and = V, = GSN an : ova 20 (O12) =C1h9? ee surtace ofthe ligid contained bythe . ct Inertia of thearea Jwhere = (3/12) isthe moment ofinertio Aoating body about its longitudinal asHyraulics and Fluid Mechanics ‘Thus the restoring couple acting on the body is (WMN 0) = (WGN )—(w,1,0) fromwhich AN o{ah) Further since W = wV, where Vis the volume ofthe liquid displaced! by the Noating body, MN = ou-(2) a Inthe above expression G\j is given by Eq. 4.5 whichis. ‘applicable for this case also. Itis thus seen that whena floating body contains liquid the metacentric height is reduced by an amount (w h/: If the liquid contained by a floating body is put into a number of separate ‘compartments, movement of the liquid within the body is minimized and consequently there would be less red in the metacentric height of the floating body. For this reason whem a liquid is to be carried by a ship itis putintoa number of separate compartments. may beshownby thesameaalyis that when the liquid is put intoa number of eparatecompartments the metacentric height wold be rece bya amount [S( ")/wV] where Is the moment of inertia of thearea of the free surface ofthe ligula each compartment, 4.6 TIME PERIOD OF TRANSVERSE OSCILLATION OF A FLOATING BODY A floating body may be set in a state of oscillation as if suspended at the metacentre M in the same! angular acceleration. Thus we may write ae 2, @o WGM sine = - (93) Fr where Mis the mass of floating body';, is radius of gyration of thebody aboutits centre of g that (Mk, 9) represents the moment of inertia ofthe body about its axs of rotation; and ( us : 6, that is the angular acceleration negative, Thus for smaller angular movements| ,, lar i (5 enters i ae sional to (5 Jas forasimple pend pepe ( a ) is Pendalum Hs srallsotht sind (radars), £46 may semis Gu @e WGM 0 = ~ (dy SF “ 46 ‘The solution of the differential Eq 4.6(a)is as noted below e- Asal +Beos ( FREE vt Aan aeons Let T be the time period of one complete oscillation ofthe lating body from one side tothe other and back again. Then ifat =0,0=0; again att=(T /2}, 80. Introducing these values in the showe ‘expression, weget T [WOM snsas(E ae | Since A 20; me rn where g is acceleration dueto gravity. : umay however be indicated thatthe osillating motion of loating body ultimately dampens ky Uhe frictional forces between the floating body andthe liquid. =47 rerio : a ce realy ton he ea tn ass reget ne eel cafton say \d that for rolling motion of ships or boats the theoreti adic piching movement easonably with the experimental values but the agreementHydraulics and Fluid Mechanics Examples 4.1. A wor sea water. Ifthe specific displaced and the position of the ntre of bt ay tn of the centre of buoyancy, c 8 ay ‘According to Archimedes’ principle wei i Site, 7 rinciple weight ofthe liquid displa = wei My Weightofthe blocks (125 254) 61 1000 net a body weet =a = 6400 kg tas at) ie a Volume of sea water displaced by the block = 490 & 25 oie Let h be the depth of the block under water, then 7 i x 1.25 xh) =624 a & BM * Ge = 824 stg 4x125~ Further 5G 1.288 = (06-08) Centre of buoyancy B isata height of “2° = 0.624 m above thebase. rakes ~ (+814 ample 42 Aide ofl ston and urn des etic gay 83 - Gis ‘float in oil of specific gravity 0.8. Ifthe diameter ofthe cylinder is ‘about 0.8174 for cylinder to float with its longitudinal axis vertical. Solution ‘As shown in the Fig. Ex. 4.2 ifthe depth of immersion isx then nit). 03 = {™ x1 )os 1 4 06 or r= (tgHydraulics and Fluid Mechanics Prample 4.3. Show that aeytindrial busy 1.25 m diameter and a2 float nertically i 25 m high weighing Seu sur exighing 10055 Nie Fin the tnconnaeany ee contre ofthe base of the Puoy that wll just hep the cylinder ene Solution Weight of the buoy: =HIWN Volume of sea water displaced is Depth of immersion BaF Further BG = (0G-08) weofequl sta : ; Tbe the tension requitedobeapplied veal int chain atcha othe ete of base icttotal effective weightofthebedy become attached othe centre B quia7+T) N 2, Volume of sea water displaced is (27st) x64 (10055%7854) 16" is new centre of buoyancy, then the height ofB’ above the base of the buoy is aoumerit), 08 = 3] (a00ss7858) 1 ‘Also aw = 5 mit _xx(1.25) a ar uma) = 1008s nx (1.25) x10055 The fapplyinga tension Tistolower the conte at gravity ofthe buoy. ~ vod tsabout 0, we Sucleags 127 Nand weightactingat G=(11 127+ TN aking momen Weight acting atG =11 ; . 33 (uaa Tye = Wx = (11127 3.25) * > qan+t)Hydraulics and Fluid ‘Mechanics For stable equilibrium the metacentre: BM > EG Since Be = (0G-o8") M' mustbeaboveG’, ie, [suzzss25) (11127 +7) x64 201127 +7) ~ 2(10055%78.53) a 2(1.25)¢ 10055 [111273.25) an127+T)x64 tx (Ua7+T) 201127 +7) 2(10055%78.5, oe (U7 +7) x64 > (1127 %3.25%32)~ (n%1.25" 10055) 2(10055%78.54) (nz7+T)x64 or CN +TP > 4.165 x 108 or (11127 +7) > 20408 or T > 9281 +. Minimum tension in the chain is T = 9281N Fnample A. A cylindrical buoy, diameter15 mand 1.1 migh weighing 4ASORN is flatng in sea with its axis vertical. Find the maximum permissible height above the top ofthe buoy, ofthe centre of gravity 9450 N load which is placed centrally on top of the buoy. Take specific gravity of ea water as 1.025, Solution The weight of sea water displaced = (4.450 + 450) = 4 900 N- =. Volume of sea water displaced is Ve = 0.487 m3 1.025 9810 0.487 ith of immersion = = Zar 0.276 m + The height ofthe centre of buoyancy above thebase z 228 «0:138m F yanks The combined centre of gravity ofthe buoy and the load may be determined by taking the ma above the base ofthe buoy. Thus the distance ofthe centre of gravity ofthe ond fom te base {that ofthe combined centre of gravity G’ is then by taking the moments about the mi poi O,weget aa ‘s, the centre of gravity of the load mustnot bet joel su ‘libri stable? Locate th metacentre lh 7 Bucyncy ond Flatten 4900 F = 4450, Ld z 5 a (2475+ 4500 Ee ee = (0499 +000) Thus BC = OC-oF = T0138 = (0499 + .0524)-0138 = (0361+ 007") +450 x Since gla Be 0510 > (0361 +00%") 0.092% < 0.149 x < 162m 0510m or tsetse ee olBO6, Example 4.5. wooden elintr fame an ure, Scie crmmemmmemmurecintHydraulics and Fluid Mechanics Solution Buoyancy and Fictation = [x (125) x 1x 3542, $x 257 x 1175507 Weight of the cytinder = (Bat eigl cylinder = | Ta? x24 |x 06x 9810N=9245.7.0N ++ Volume of water displaced by the cylinder 9245.74 = 1B 6LAOIN = ep oa In calculating the weight of the body it hasbeen asu 9810 hence the weight ofthe vo end seciorgand ese ote hikes is very smal and 3 1233934 = 122561140 pect here be peony hen Th th of immersi saad’ 140 Dept sion = OMAP ag x= 9816 EF Pole | _ 4 As m=t + Height of the centre of buoyancy above the base i t= 5025 -o12m = j2d=068 # A far 361140 1 * BG = @~06d)=044 and eae, HLeee Since mis © =o 012 0986x109 BM = = 2h, Nosescin® Vv OM met nit T= Fpiva090e “ig = (175-4958!) s Be = Ep goa onsed For the cylinder tobe ustinstable equilibrium ‘EM = 5G In this case since, Bf > BG the metacentre lies below the centre of gravity. As such the cy a in unstable equilibrium. o 0.985 10" (175-4958) ‘The metacentre is ata depth of (0.64 ~ 0.052d) = 0.548d below the water surface. Example 4.6. A holfow cylinder of outside diameter 1.25 m, length 3.5 mand specific weight 75537 “floats justin stable equilibrium in sea water. Find the minimum permissible thicknes of the cylinder. Sa weighs 10 055 N/m’. 4 Solution Let t be the thickness of the cylinder and xbe the depth ofthe portion immersed in sea water by the principle of floatation, weight of the liquid displaced by the body is equal to the weight! body. Weight of sea water or 4958 (21.751 0986 x 10°=0 1 = 000057 or0U3Sen ‘Thus minimum permissible thickness ofthe cylinder = 0.000; Example 4.7. cone foting in water with pe dona has diameter and vertical gt hf ‘he specific gravity ofthe cone is, prove tha for sable quia splaced - [Ex a.a57 xxxo0ss = 1233934xN shia ‘Then webave atthe height ofthe portion ofthecoeunder waterHydraulics and Fluid Mechanics where d, is the diameterof the coneat the water surface level, or (€h)xS = W@xx) Also z h xd ie x (265 +0.18 x 9810 x 4.4 Buoyant force (038498 Substituting the value fd, from Eq, i) in Eq. (), we get ‘Gash see 265 +018 x 9810 x S) = (018 x 5810) (Ph) = ax ( Bae. ‘When the object is immersed in another guid, the total force = (157+018 x 9810 x 025) Buoyant force = (018 x 9810 5)N ‘Thus equating thetwo, we get (157 +0.18 x 9810 x 085)= (018 x 9810 x 5) S, = 094 Metric Units Let S, and $, be the specific gravities ofthe object and theiquid respectively ‘When the objects immersed in water, the total forceactngin the downward direction = (74018 x 1000 x 5,)kg (0) Buoyant force = (018 x 1000) kg) Thusequating the two, we get (27+0.18 x 10005,) = (018 x 1000) actingin the downward direction or x igs As im = $, = 085 ‘When the object immersed in another liquid the tol force acting in the downvard direction om = (16 +0118 1000 0.85) kg (9) Buoyant force = (0.18 x1000 x5,)kg() . ‘Thus equating the two, weget By substituting ford, and x, we get (16 + 0.18 x 1000 x “| = one 1000 5) asia on sided into gua compartments by vertical BM = le: ottoon 4 m square by Im deep is divides my eh dupa nce clone for dal eh 0M Cat eet Forstable equilibrium ‘eight when floating in sea water. BM >BG (With no water insite. x Spc weigh ost teri 10006 oer a 8 {id When se enter is fle nal hecmparmens tad f03 o tay? gents Solution _ is af si (0 The weightof the pontoon along with he diaphragm ‘ 2. Yess « ws alias wre [secoatselotaal ject whic 265 'N [27 ke(f] 10 Example 48. An object which has a volume of 0.18 m? requires a force of 7 i immersed water fa forceof 157 N 6 kg] is requir tke immerse ono igure gravity ofthe liquid, = 3201984N ener neHydraulics and Fluid Mechanics ih {iy Whe se water I Bled nal the ren W = 209M 445 +4 2n 04, = HOTTA N ON» N00, 2 Volume of sea water displaced is, Depth ofimmersion = 128 ., ? wrsion = 5 =08m + Height ofthe centre of buoyancy above tebktomo the pontoon = 14 (05) -04m 3 (08) <04: 93 93 BO194 x05 + 24.2% 03) 10006 x 92 42142403) x 1006 - (05+ (©) Pontoon with compartments filed with soa wator ' ce eee ade tte ee Hae = MIB ar7Asy Figure ex. 4.9 x ae ~ Volume of sea water displaced is Asshown in Fig. Ex. 4.9 (b) when the loaded pontoon heels through 2 small angle @, the centre of v= 3201984 59 na buayaney B moves to Le, the centreof gravity ofthe displaced volume V moves such hat ; Tomeg BW? = Tax0-tx0 DR eet a +. Thecentreof gravites of ach fthe compartments willabobedisplcedby x= Gpr0am ‘h wre ‘where the subscript 1 refersto the compartments. ; ‘These movements will eause the point Gto move toGand if then GG" i given by So the height of the centre of buoyancy above the bottom of the pontoon isthe ightof seawater = 3.¢(02)=01m istespcont ‘ BE = (05-0.1)=-04m eel As iM = 7 VxwxG@ = andHytrnulies and Fluid Mechanics Where N is the point of intersection between the new thug. vertical through G” Boycy and Peay ‘The unbalanced righting couple is now (W HIN sin 8) ie : : leist W = (13005 2 teeta = 2 eit From Fig. Ex.4.9(b) ar py substitution, we get ee) iN —_ 0 : OM = sagiegg = 6m Example 4.11. In finding the melacentr of ship of 98.1 MN (10000 tornes) placement «weigh. = eo tRteemche deepest N00 mem wig peta angle of 3°. What is the metacentricheigh? Hencefnd th ange ofhel adits diveton hen hp going Bi = 7-2-1697 hoa aed 2.833 6 MW (3850 nrc pi being transmitied toa single prope sagt whack rae ots speed of 3 ras (90 rp.) Solution siUnits “The metacentric heights given by Eq.43as BG = (0425-04) =0.025m 1 {4 xaxa? <= _ Ah =o. | Ne => = 0.83: m_ * THIN = (1.670.025 ~0.83) = 0815m Example 4.10. A battle ship weighs 127.53 MN (13 000 tonnes). On filling the ship's oats on ones ‘with water weighing 588.6 KN (60 tonnes) and its mean distance from the centre of the skip being 10m, thea s. By substitution, weget of displacenmnt of the plumb line is 2° 16". Determine the metacentric height. m= eS osm Solution 31x ate STUnits LFTs torque in Nim and ois angular velocity in rad/s thn power transmitted in wats ‘The metacentric height is given by Eq. 4.3. as 2.8336 x o S i an oe om T = 3006543 Nan CM = Wiané (Gis the angle ofheel, then wehave w = 588.6 KN =0.588 6 MN sy mar unpa't: GM tand W = (127.53 -+-0.588 6) = 128.1186 MN dar SE ant = 500 6543 x=10m * & tan6 = 0.005 35 ae © = 2°16', so tan (2° 16") = 0.0396 . 2 ee 2+ By-substitution, we get i 2 ‘Metric Units = 0.5886%10 116m Themetacentricheightis given by £44335 GM = 735,11860%0.0396 EES tie GM = Wend Metric Units tonees = 6% ‘The metacentric heightis given by Eq.4.3as w = SO tonneHydraulics and Fluid Mectanies ~ By substitution, we get a. __50X6 GM = Tp000%0.0524 Horse power transmitted =0573m 2nNT = 75x60 where Nisin rpm, and Tis torque in ke(f} : or (f)-m. Thus by substitution, we get 2nx90xT 75x60 ry T = 30637kg-m 1fGis the angle ofheel, then we have W GM tane = T ©r 10000x 1000>0.573x tan 6 = 30 637 3.850 = 30 637 19 000%1000%0573 = 0.005 35 3 @ = 0°18.4' 3 Example 4.12. A merchant ship coming into port has a draught of 1.25 m, After unloading its cargo it ‘adraught of 1 m, Find the rato ofthe periodic times before and aftr lerving the cargo if the brendth of te i8 7 mand itis assumed that the centre of gravity remains atthe waterline. Solution ‘The periodic timeis given by Fq.4.7as ig)? re af Let T, and T; be the periodic times for the ship before and after leaving the cargo respective In the first case since the centre of gravity lies in the water line, ; 42 - 0625m . tan @ = EG ‘Now if lis the length of the ship at the water level then 1 1 = 5px Lx Pmt V = (x 7x125) m3 m-t BM = and i tn cy hers 327 ‘Thus ‘GM = BM-Gu = 027-0025)- 265m a. By substitution, we get B tien eos pee Similarly after leaving the cargo Thus = (408-05)=358m .& Bysubstitution, we get . Ke (Bs EE a #116 a 7 Y268 ion 0.36 m x 0.36 mand specfc gravity 08 floats in water. One am; A log of wood of square section 0.36 a rll. en cing eg rl Esti el ‘Solutic length en. Lets edhe deptfininenionana betel ee (1 0.36036) x 9 810x08 ot oe = 0.288m 1 tom oftelog ‘Thusheight ofthe centre of buoyancy above the | (home T= cement ee aTHydraulics and Fluid Mechanics BG = (018-0144) =0.036m 1 As mix 4 Mi => 1 T= px Ix 036° V = (0.36 x 0.288 x 1) im pxPet036)) BM = ee seen te ana kage i orreery inka one torr : 2 a5) en(75yx ve [3x0 +n75y ass] 946 307 mm? = 946.307% 104m? whichis very closetto the value of V obtained above by the exact method. "The forceof buoyancy I abtaned as eee 0.8 x 9810 x 946.26 x 10°* 7.426N +3 Since the hinge is frictionless, the moment of the net vertical force acting on the floatabouti is transmitted to the valve A without any loss. The net vertical force acting on the float 5 (F,-W) = (7426-W) ‘Thus taking moments about hinge O, we get (7426-W)0.5.c0s 45° = 10 x 02 W = 1769N Moyency and Flotation 20a. _——__ = SUMMARY OF MAIN POINTS 1. Whena bodys immersed ud i eat ett ey fudontheboy when astra oe the body. This tendency fran immeset belied up inthe adda nsaepr eae apposite to the acion of gravity loon “buoyeney’ 2. Theforce tending tolitupa body immer ina fui either wholly or partially ie brown oe "buoyant force’ oF "force of buoyancy’ or ‘uptheon 3, The point of aplication of the fore of buoyan con the body is known as ‘centre of buoyacy” 4. According to Archimedes’ principe the boyant forces equal tothe weight ofthe Md dipleed by the body. 5. The principle of lose states that the weight sfabty Maingate boyant fos whchin tum melt te ego he fd dpa by ey 6 Foraboyfostngina fd ce otbuyancy coicis with he ood fe value of ida by het. 2. Meter indeed ete pi onesection ‘event aif fatingedy and ete lepesing taught ne evr bran Bia when teflon ts spy hed eritaneroe acannon ot sraleothaede 8 Thedstre etree the eto graity Gand ‘earns toting ty GCS os 0 Gisisewn artnet ha 9. Contest equim of tng by nd ‘elspa searing ee: Conditions of equim Fa Wy ake al @ Stable equilibrium Misabove Bisse {@) Unstablecquiibriam Mistelow G BibelowG () Netalequlibium Mand Geiosde BandGecincde 10. The value ofthe metacentrc height determined 11, The metacentic height determined by analytical experimentally is givenas ried given as 1 GM = Wand om = ¢ where here © = movable weigh "y= distance through which wis moved; W = weight of the ship or flosting body including wand (0 = angle through which the ship oF foi body is tied Further where ; = 1 lento the pluie operand ‘d= distnace moved by the plumbline oF pendulum on the' scale, 7 amet nt rte Zaye pec hag by oat Sitti v= boring bere isang po + eere rneieny in rennin cage marron oot sip ag ey aye 2 A eo pg a rnp tes) Reet accion ae carer meHydraulics and Fluid Mechanics 13. The time period of transverse oscillation (Le, oscillation about the longitudinal axis) or rolling of a ship or a floating body is given by ee onl sou cs PROBLEMS ‘41 Explain the terms: Force of buoyancy and centre of buoyancy. 4.2 Explain the terms: Metacentre and metacentric height 43 Explain the three states of equilibrium of a floating body in terms of the magnitude and direction of righting couple acting on the body 8a result of slight angular displacement. 44 What is meant by stability of a foating body? Explain the stability of a floating body with reference to its metacentic height, Give neat sketches. 45 Define the terms: Stable, unstable and neutral equilibrium 4.6 Describe briefly the experimental method of determination of the metacentric height of a Aoating ject. 4.7 An iceberg weighing 8 976 N/m [915 kg (O/ ‘a volume of 600m? above the surface. Determine the total volume ‘mJ floats in the ocean wit ofthe iceberg if specific weight of ocean water i 10055 N/m? [1025 bg ()/m (Ans. 5591 m') 4.8 An empty balloon and its equipment weighs 441.45 NLS kg (0). When inflated with gas weighing 5.415 N/m’ [0.552 kg(0/m'), the balloon is spherical and 7 m in diameter. What isthe maximum weight of cargo that the balloon can lft, assuming air to weigh 12066N/m? [1.23 kg (0/1. [Ans. 753.08. | 76.76 kg (911 49 Acylinder has a diameter 03 m and a specific gravity of 0.75. What is the maximum permissible length in order that it may float in ‘water with itsaxis vertical? [Ans. 0.245 m ] 4.10 A buoy carrying a beacon light has the upper portion cylindrical 2.5 m diameter and 2m deep. where Hi = metacintscelghsand = acceleration due to gravity. 412 A ship is 80 m long and 12m broad and hasa T = time period oftarvere ands a = ad of prea of he na about its centre of ‘Bravity; ap Yolumeof0.4 m*anditscentreofbucpseey (2 tonnes). Find the metacentric height if the — 4.11 A rectangular pontoon weighing 1 71675 KN (175 tonnes) nasa length of 20m. The centre of ‘gravity i 0.3 m above the centre ofthe cross- section and the metacentric height is tobe 1.25 1m when the angle of heel is 9. The free board ‘must not be les than 06 m when the pontoon is vertical. Find the breadth and the height of the pontoon, if it is loating in fresh water. Ans, 5792, 211 mi) displacement of 4715KN (1500 tonnes). When 1 weight of 490.5 KN is moved 5 m across the deck it inclines the ship 8°. The moment of inertia ofthe section of the ship at water plane about its fore-and-aft axis is 60 per cent of the moment of inertia of the circumscri rectangle, The centre of buoyancy is 25m below the water line. Find the position of the ‘metacentre and the centre of gravity. Specific weight of sea water is 10 055 N/m [1025 kg, (ml. . [4ns. 2.224 m and 0.638 m above waterline] 4.13 A solid cylinder is tobe 0.25 n in diameter. The tal base of axial length 25 mm is to be of etal hich has aspecfc gravity 7,and the emalnde of material whichhasaspecfiegraviy 05,665 the maximum overal length ofthe cyinge | order that it ay ost ter 0 Mbriumwithitsavisvertcal —— ans. oss Al ity 05.Find Bowery and Flettion 44 A ship asa displacement of 05048, he second moment ofareaof the watering about afore-andvaftaxisis 12% 104 me, andthe centre of buoyancy is28 m below thecent gravity. Therediusofgyratiomisdm Caled: the time period of oxcilation. Take the weight ‘of sea water as 10055 N/m (Ars. 1025 hg (Ae (72 5] 4.15 Find thevalucofKforashipwhchhata ped ‘of rolling of 20. The displacements OD] (20000 tonnes) the second morentf heed Iwater-plane above its fore adaft ons 30x 102 mand the ents of buoyancy 8335 below the centro gravity Seawater gh 10085 N/m [2025 kg /o (ars. 374 4.36 A solid conia oat of wood weighing 75537 Nsw? [70 gt} / i to float in liquid sreighing 9817 N/m [60 kg) Fn the Teast apex angle i acer that it sy oat with apexdownanditsans vertical, [Ais.37 37] 4437 A hollow clinical of diameter2mand engih ‘Smweighs 29431 [tones and aster ‘of gravity atthe midpoint of te longitudinal fxd Shove that twill nt ot insea water ith {longitudinal ns vera. Neglecting the thickness ofthe plates find tehat dep the inside ofthe boy shuld be filled with concrete, of specific weight 22 563 N/mv [2 300 kg/m", to give a depth of Immersion of25m and wats then the met ‘lic aight? Seawater weighs 19085 N/a 15 kgm “i dial Vs 04978 0572 ceri! buoy Boating with its apex pointing sovervardis3 5 m high and 2 dametes atu is weight tis ust sabe ben oting in ea water weighing 10053 N/m 105 ig). ns. 29227 4 12 949i 4419 A lating buoy nthe Bombay harbour istobe assised in Neating upright bo scbmerged ‘weight of coer attache fo the but of the buoy. Hove many mf eoncee weghung ZAP 2330 mst provid topetanct downward pullef2217 [est Sram the weigh? Ela th ancl sled (nt 01785 420 A recangular pontoon 6 m by 3 min plan, Aoating in water asa depth of immersion of 09 mands subjected toa torque of 548 Nm {S00 about the longa ne he ‘cee of gravity 07 mp from he bso, ‘Stimale the angle ofhee. Lane 4501 421 Asoldelinder 1m diameter and 075 m high isofunorn specie gravity 085. Calculate the periodic time of small osilaons when the nde oats within eral inl ter e A where Lis the Wine. Take 3 -( length and rs the radius ofthe cylinder] ~ Yans 325 3}fundamentals of Fluid Flow Chapter 6 61 INTRODUCTION Inthepreceding chapters the fluids at rest have been considered, in which case the only fluid property ignificance is the specific weight of the fluids. On the other hand when a fluid is in motion various aiherfluid properties become significant. As such the nature of flow ofa real fluid is complex and not a uubject to exact mathematical analysis, and often recourse to experimentation is required. However, in some cases the mathematical analysis of problems of fluid flow is possible if some smplifying assumptions are made. The science which deals with the geometry of motion of fluids without reference to the forces causing the motion is known as hydrokinematics or simply kinematics. Thus kinematics involves merely the description of the motion of fluids in terms of space-time relationship. On the other hand the sience which deals with the action of the forces in producing or changing motion of fluids is known Slydrokinetics or simply kinetics. Obviously the study of fluids in motion involves the consideration sfboth the kinematics and the kinetics. Afluid unlike solid, is composed of different particles, which move at different velocities and may subject to different accelerations. Moreover, the velocity and acceleration of a fluid particle may change both with respect to time and space. Therefore in the study of fluid flow it is necessary to ‘serve the motion of fluid particles at various points in space and at successive instants of time. ,jheteare in general two methods by which the motion ofa fluid may be described. These are the ‘vangian met Eulerian method. nian — and ae any individual fluid particle is selected, which is pursued throughout Course of sie and the observation is made about the behave of this particle aa iS ae tion through space. In the Eulerian method any point in the space occupied by UA oS and observation is made of whatever nage of yelocity density ae Lapel Gaia at that point. Out of these two methods the Eulerian “chanics and therefore the same is used in the following analysis. iy ‘ 1h VELOCITY OF FLUID PARTICLES yg tion of a fluid like that of solid is described quantitatively in ts lon iss tit 3 vig 8: However, in ease of solids its generally suficient to men tin the case of fluids the motion of fluid may be quite differentat is of the characteristic known. cure the velocity of the body asa different points of observation.mioition ig selected, quantity and henee ith magnitude as well as dire ion, Therefore the components 7 and 1 along hee i of these components can be corresponding direction. Thusifdk, dyand ins, vand = directions respectively then “a ands ropectves Ea Figure 6.1 Velocity at a point in fluid in motion Since the velocity V at any point in a flowing is on x, yand 2, ie fre coordinate position of the point under co ral depend on x, in terms of the foll eration and the time f, Therefore ‘and f. Hence the velocity Vand its com ing functional relationships and w will also in. Ufo one the unit vectors paralieh ey indieate how W, © ae wony ce sla thence 2) may ropa fon will indicate how wand wy ore 63 TYPES OF FLUID FLOW 3 ping to different considerations Bud ws may velo - Mysteady flow and Unsteady fv fi) Uniform flow and Non-uniform fv {i One-dimensional lv, Two dimensional ow and Tre fb {iv} Rotational flow and frottional fw os {e) Laminar flow and Turbulent love Steady Flow. Fluid flow is said to be steady if t any point in the owing Haid vari jarctritis suchas velocity, pressure density, temperature ete, which describe tha beasts theta in motion, do not change with time Inother words astady fe may be Gene tate thick at any point in the flowing Nuid various characteristics which descr the bee ouro he fhidinniotion are independent of time. However, these characteristics may beterent st iterent point in the flowing fluid. Thus the steady flow may be expressed mathematically by the following Expression at any point inthe flowing fluid. (=m (3) =o (F)-0 (B)-0(3) 0 Unsteady Flow, Fluid flow is said to be unsteady if at any pointin the owing fd any one oF allthe characteristics which describe the behavious ofthe fluid in motion change with tre. Thaw 2 flow of fluid is unsteady, if at any point in the flowing Quid (2) conte ot Itmay howeverbe indicated that inthe case of vector quantities suchas veloc of loss ee thechange in the disection of such quanftes with respect otme at any pot i the owing fit yao make the ow unsteady. ow: Moreover mestofthe practic ously a steady flow issimpler to analyse than unsteady flow. Mowe decussion problems ofengineesing 0 dy contions Therefor in hs ook 4asbeen mainly confined to the steady flow conditions only, smagnitade and direction, Uniform Flow Whan the velosty of ow of Mud dosnt change hn FER point to point inthe flowing uid, forany given eee ‘he mathematical form a uniform flow may thereforebs =F be classified in several we as.Hydraulics and Fhuidt Mechanics where time is held constant and s i tant and s represents any direction of displacement of the fuk Ins above expression states that theres nochange in the veloity vector in any ‘cetonane the flowing fluid at any instant of time. For example flow of liquids under pressane througout Pipe lines of constant diameter is uniform flow. ‘Bh ong Non-uniform Flow. Ifthe velocity of flow of fluid changes from point to point i uid at any instant, the ow is said to be non-uniform. In the mathenatied pon he Ho Aut ay stan he rn the mathematical form anom gk + x0 For examp! uniform flow. All these types of flows can exist independent of each other so that any of the four pps ot He Now of liquids under pressure through long pipelines of varying diameter sno. combinations of flows is possible, viz, (a) steady-uniform flow; -non-unifor [unsteady uniform flowand (4) unsteady non-uniform flow.Someelnecaa ke combinations of flows are: flow of liquid through a long pipe of constant diameterat seotetor steady uniform flow; flow of iquid through a long pipe line of constant diameter at ether increstinges decreasing rates steady sr flow glow of guid though a tapering pipe ata constants steady-non-uniform flow nw through a tapering pipe at either in r decreasing ra instead non niorn fl oe ee ‘One-dimensional, Two-di eof hecommon examplesot eo ensional and Three-dimensional Flows. The various characteristics of flowing fluid such as velocity, pressure, density, temperature etc, are in general the functions of space and timei.e., these may vary with the coordinates of any point x, yand z and time. Such flow. isknown asa three-dimensional flow. If any of these characteristics of flowing fluid does not vary with respect to time, then it will be a steady three-dimensional flow. : ()Two dimensional low (2) One dimensional flow (6) Three dimensional flow Figuree 6:2 One, Two and Three dimensional flows Fursdamentaty of Tene nate hen he various chance cosinate drections and tines eat id i troszo Snows nena, og OY Mary PA yy wk re thecoordinate direction, then it wittbeg pel charac iptkid devote in the various planes perpendicular tothe 790A flow the characteristics of flowing fluid do noe oe hi, these may a gnectinensional low. Sirilarly, it willbe) fiuid do not vary with respect one (cen Sites tow ttc ee fui, say velocity of fw V, the folowing expen a difference between these three types of oss ye writen which dary ‘Types of Flow “Tsteaty ‘Three-dimensional V=fo.y,2.t) Two-dimensional vafeyn One-dimensional Vef@t Similar expressions can also be written for various other cha three different types of flows. Figure 62 shows the examples of and three-dimensional flows, Obviously the problems involving three-dimensional low are quite complicated hecsuse of the variation ofthe charactrstcsof owing hid witha yands andl Eveninstacs tea flow the variation of the characteristics of owing tuid with xy and = render the prableme tary complicated to solve. In this respect the assumption of either two-dimensional Tow or ae dimensional flow, considerably simplifies the problem making it amenable to analytical solution. Rotational Flow. A flow is said toberotationalfthe fui particles while movingin the dnc of flow rotate about their mass centres. In Chapter 5, the liquid in the rotating tanks illustrates rotational flow where the velocity ofeach particle vases directly a the distance from the cee rotation. rotational Flow. A low issaid tobe irrotationalif the uid parties while moving in the rection ‘offlow do not rotate about their mass centres. Itmay however be stated that tre rotational flow «xsi only inthe case of flow ofan ideal uid for which no tangent or shear stresses occur Bathe ow of practical fluids, may also be assumed to be irrotational ifthe viscosity ofthe lui has itl significance lyst Laminar Flow. A flow is said to be laminar when the various fluid particles move iy a4 Laing wine layer of fidget eh se) laminar flow, the viscosity of the flowing fluid Hise agate Viscous fluid may in general be treated as laminas ow. artdesmoveinanentiny Turbulent Flow. A fluid motions said tobe ule ten ofthe fd leading, haphazard or ly manner, that resultsin a rapid ané ba tee tec Fa a ti fataar snd ups serena Soetnal snes ae ht random movement give rise to. FeEesent which move ovr lange distances ne whch are news the iodo yal eee pana fens fine Tae atoy pagina ta we SDT Sa the vy tie thereby rendering suche owas unten. Hoh oy ane Ho ul aid pressure considered over silently long Ue Tr remy become : Sow in terms of temporal mean values ofthe