Materials Characterization 142 (2018) 406–421

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Materials Characterization
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/matchar

Microstructure and texture evolution of duplex stainless steels with different T

molybdenum contents
⁎
Paula O. Malta , Francislaynne L. Dias, Ana Clara M. de Souza, Dagoberto B. Santos
Metallurgical and Materials Engineering Department, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Antônio Carlos Avenue, 6627, Pampulha, Belo Horizonte, MG CEP 31270-
901, Brazil

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The microstructure and texture evolution of duplex stainless steels with different molybdenum contents were
Duplex stainless steel studied. For this purpose, hot-rolled 2205 and 2304 samples were solution-annealed at 1100 °C for 1800 s and
Microstructure then cold-rolled to a 75% thickness reduction. This was followed by an isothermal annealing at 900 and 1100 °C
EBSD for 180 s. The EBSD technique was used to determine the phase ratio, crystallographic texture, and micro-
Annealing
structural characteristics. The hot-rolled steel had a work hardened microstructure and the samples submitted to
CSL
intermediate annealing presented mainly deformation-free grains. Cold rolling resulted in a substantial reduc-
tion in the phase spacing with the formation of the strain-induced α′-martensite (SIM) from the metastable
austenite. After annealing at 900 °C, the ferrite grains retained the elongated shape of the cold-rolled condition
and the primary recrystallization progressed in the austenite phase. Increasing the Mo content increased the
resistance to strain-induced martensitic transformation and inhibited the grain growth of austenite phase during
annealing at 900 °C. Increasing annealing temperature to 1100 °C promoted the coarsening of both bcc and fcc
structures with the formation of annealing twins in the austenitic grains. The recrystallization kinetics and
subsequent grain growth occur earlier in ferrite than in austenite phase. Differences in Mo content did not
significantly alter the evolution of austenite texture, whereas in the ferrite phase the increase in Mo content
suppressed the γ-fiber development. Oriented nucleation was the predominant mechanism observed during the
recrystallization of ferritic grains in the 2205 samples. The development of ∑19a boundaries was associated with
the selected growth of {554}〈225〉α grains in the annealed 2304 samples. Annealing twins were associated with
the formation of Σ3 boundaries after the heat treatments. Grain coarsening resulted in a larger fraction of the
special boundaries in ferrite phase but inhibited the CSL formation in the austenite phase.

1. Introduction
Duplex stainless steels are a category of high-alloyed steels char-
acterized by a biphasic austenitic-ferritic microstructure [1–5]. Che-
mical composition is usually adjusted to achieve the optimum phase
ratio of approximately 1:1, which provides an attractive combination of
mechanical properties and corrosion resistance [6–11].
Duplex stainless steels, based on their chromium, nickel, and mo-
lybdenum content, can be sub-divided into standard duplex, super du-
plex, hyper duplex, 25 Cr duplex, and lean duplex stainless steels
grades. Lean duplex stainless steels have been developed to minimize
cost fluctuations by reducing expensive elements like Ni and Mo
[6,8,12–14]. Because of its lower Ni and Mo contents than standard
2205 grades, 2304 steels are less sensitive to precipitation of inter-
metallic compounds, which may seriously deteriorate the corrosion and
mechanical properties of such alloys [15–17]. As a ferrite former,
molybdenum increases the yield strength of duplex stainless steels but
decreases their ultimate tensile stress (UTS) [18,19]. Molybdenum ad-
ditions are responsible also by improving the stability of the passive
film and the resistance of duplex stainless steels to chloride-induced
corrosion (pitting, crevice corrosion, and stress-corrosion cracking), in
aqueous environments particularly [20–22].
The morphology and repartition of austenitic and ferritic phases, as
well as conditions of plastic working and annealing treatment, are
important factors which are known to control the final properties of
duplex alloys [23]. The presence of α/γ interfaces affects considerably
the deformation mechanisms of these materials, due to strain in-
compatibilities at phase boundaries and to crystallographic slip in the
bcc and fcc structures [24–27]. Apart from the mechanism of slip or
twinning within the γ-phase and the multiple slips within the α-phase,
plastic deformation can proceed by strain induced γ → α transforma-
tion. Such transformation can be described by favored orientation

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: paula-malta@hotmail.com (P.O. Malta).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matchar.2018.06.006
Received 24 January 2018; Received in revised form 11 May 2018; Accepted 3 June 2018
Available online 05 June 2018
1044-5803/ © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
P.O. Malta et al. Materials Characterization 142 (2018) 406–421

relationships (OR's) between specific planes and directions of the

phases, which allows the best fit of their interfaces [28]. The OR models
were firstly investigated by Bain [29], Kurdjumov and Sachs (K–S) [30],
Nishiyama and Wasserman (N–W) [31,32], Greninger and Troiano
(G–T) [33], and Pitsch [34], and recently by Headley and Brooks (H–B)
[35].
Since for most end applications duplex structures are manufactured
from hot-rolled and annealed sheets, their crystallographic texture re-
sults from the deformation, recrystallization and phase transformation
phenomena occurring in austenite and ferrite phases [23,36]. Re-
crystallization of deformed metals gives rise to changes in the dis-
tribution of crystallographic orientations by nucleation of new non-
deformed grains and their subsequent growth into the deformed matrix
[28,37]. The evolution of the recrystallization texture during annealing
of duplex stainless steels has been the subject of several research studies
[23,36,38–44]. In this sense, oriented nucleation (ON) and selected
growth (SG) theories were associated with the preferential formation of
specific orientations owing to either a frequency (ON) or size advantage
(SG) [45–49]. According to Lee and Han [50], the Goss grains that
persisted after rolling of fcc alloys seem to act as nuclei during the re-
crystallization and develop at the expense of surrounding brass grains.
In the case of bcc alloys, the lower stored energy of the 〈110〉 com-
ponents compared to those of the γ-fibers leads to a favored nucleation
of {111} grains [49,51,52].
Annealing textures of bcc and fcc materials have been reasonably
explained by the correlation between the SG theory and the CSL type-
boundaries. It was established that certain misorientations, namely
~40° 〈111〉 in fcc and 26.5° 〈110〉 in bcc, resulted in high mobility
interfaces that growth preferentially during the recrystallization
[50,53–55]. The superior mobility of ∑7 CSL boundaries, misoriented in
38.2° about 〈111〉, is central to the SG model of fcc recrystallization
texture and seems to be associated with the replacement of deformed S-
grains by recrystallized cube grains [53]. With respect to bcc steels,
Malta et al. [56] observed that during annealing the {554}〈225〉
components formed at the expense of {112}〈110〉 under a 26.5° 〈110〉
misorientation relationship, the same of Σ19a CSL boundaries.
The aim of present work was to evaluate the effect of molybdenum
content and annealing temperature on microstructure and texture
evolution by comparing the results obtained for a standard 2205 alloy
and a lean 2304 alloy. To understand more deeply the morphological
and crystallographic changes of annealed duplex steels, it is essential to
study all the mechanisms involved in their recrystallization kinetics.
Fig. 1. Phase fraction as a function of temperature calculated by using the
Therefore, grain nucleation and growth, as well as the distribution of
Thermo-Calc software for the (a) 2205 and (b) 2304 duplex stainless steels used
phases were evaluated from the initial processing condition. in the present work.

2. Materials and Methods
The duplex stainless steels investigated in the present work, desig-
nated as 2205 and 2304 alloys, were received in the form of hot-rolled
sheets of 4 mm thick. The chemical compositions of the standard and
lean grades are given in Table 1.
The industrial sequence for obtaining duplex stainless steels by
rolling includes two annealing steps: one intermediate after the hot
rolling, and the final one after the cold rolling. In the present work, the
parameters, i.e. temperatures and times, of both annealing treatments
are selected to avoid the formation of precipitates. Furthermore, in the
case of the intermediate annealing, the temperature was higher and
soaking time longer to dissolve the precipitates which may have
appeared during the last hot rolling passes.
The phase fraction as a function of temperature was calculated by
using the Thermo-Calc software for the steels studied in this work, as
shown in Fig. 1. Due to the high number of alloying elements, both
steels showed a rather complex precipitation behavior. In duplex
stainless steels, the precipitation of intermetallic phases is of greater
interest since they seriously deteriorate the corrosion and mechanical
properties of such alloys [15,16]. The χ-phase was observed only in
2205 alloy at a temperature range of 550–750 °C, while the σ-phase was
formed in both 2205 (500–950 °C) and 2304 (500–750 °C) grades.
Specimens aged between 500 and 900 °C were subjected to the pre-
cipitation of hexagonal nitrides (Cr2N), which could lead to a possible

Table 1
Chemical composition of 2205 and 2304 duplex stainless steels (in wt%).
C Cr Ni Mo Mn Si P Cu S N Fe

Standard 2205 0.023 22.43 5.44 3.046 1.82 0.249 0.03 0.191 0.0002 0.169 Bal.
Lean 2304 0.011 22.87 4.20 0.275 1.45 0.201 0.02 0.453 0.0004 0.101 Bal.

407
P.O. Malta et al.
embrittlement of the material. Moreover, up to temperatures of 1400 °C
there was the precipitation of MnS, whose inclusions have been defined
as good initiation sites for pitting corrosion of stainless steels [57–59].
Therefore, in the present work, temperatures below 900 °C were not
used to avoid the formation of these detrimental secondary phases.
Samples with dimensions of 15 mm in length, 10.5 in width and
4 mm in thickness were solution annealed at 1100 °C for 1800 s and
then quenched in water. Plastic deformation of the solution annealed
material was carried out by cold rolling to a thickness of 1 mm on a
laboratory rolling mill. The cold-rolled specimens were isothermally
annealed for 180 s at the temperatures of 900 and 1050 °C followed by
water quenching.
The EBSD technique was used to determine the phase ratio, crys-
tallographic texture, interface character and substructure character-
istics. Specimens for EBSD were prepared by classical procedures of
mechanical grinding and polishing. The final polishing was performed
with colloidal silica suspension using a Buehler Minimet 1000® auto-
matic machine. The EBSD scans were carried out using a FEI InspectTM
S50 SEM by an accelerating voltage of 20 kV and a working distance
close to 20.0 μm. A step size of 0.2 μm was used to scan an area of
approximately 45 × 120 μm. The raw data were post-processed using
EDAX OIM Analysis™ software after a 5–10% grain dilation clean-up.
Microstructural investigations were carried out by image quality
(IQ) maps, which provided information about grain size and shape, as
well as phase partition and twinning. The ODFs were calculated using
the discrete binning method of Bunge [60] with both bin size and
Gaussian smoothing of 5°. Orthotropic sample symmetry for rolled
specimens was assumed in calculating the ODFs. CSL boundaries were
identified following the Brandon's criterion [61] for maximum per-
missible deviation (i.e., Δθ = θ0 (∑)−n degrees, with θ0 = 15° and
n = 0.5). Only the fraction of boundaries up to ∑29 was calculated since
boundaries above this value are considered irrelevant in polycrystals.
First order twin boundaries (TBs) were defined as ∑3 (60° 〈111〉).
3. Results
3.1. Microstructural analysis
Fig. 2 shows the microstructure of the hot-rolled (Fig. 2(a) and (b))
and solution-annealed (Fig. 2(c) and (d)) samples. In the hot-rolled
condition, both phases had a partially work hardened microstructure
and developed a typical band-like arrangement consisting of alternating
bands of austenite and ferrite aligned parallel to the rolling direction
(RD). The elongated shape of the grains was more pronounced in the
2205 samples (Fig. 2(a)) compared to 2304 samples (Fig. 2(b)). This
elongation probably resulted either from the non-homogeneous strain
distribution or from the intrinsic instability of the constituents during
plastic deformation. Intermediate annealing promoted the development
of a deformation-free microstructure with austenitic islands forming
from a coarse ferritic matrix. Besides, the recovery of ferrite phase (bcc)
and recrystallization of austenite phase (fcc) appeared to be sufficient.
The microstructure of 2205 samples was formed by roughly equiaxed
grains, especially the austenite phase (Fig. 2(c)). For 2304 samples
(Fig. 2(d)), both phases presented a pancake structure with the grains
remaining elongated along RD and with a clearly larger size than those
of 2205 steels. Both hot-rolled and solution-annealed materials ex-
hibited a well-balanced microstructure, composed of a slightly larger
volume fraction of ferrite than of austenite. The effects of Mo partition
did not seem to influence, therefore, the distribution of phase fractions
under these conditions. In contrast, the segregation and anchoring
mechanisms of this element promoted a greater impact on the growth of
ferrite and austenite grains after the solution annealing. According to
Wang et al. [62], increasing the Mo content can prevent the growth of
austenite and hence refine the steel structure. Since austenite fraction
have remained stable during hot rolling and annealing, the effects of
any stress-induced phase transformation on the development of the
408
Materials Characterization 142 (2018) 406–421
microstructure and texture can be ignored under these conditions [63].
As shown in Fig. 3(a) and (b), cold rolling resulted in a substantial
reduction in the phase spacing with a considerable increase in grain
flattening, especially of ferrite grains, from the hot- to the cold-rolled
condition. Both phases were plastically deformed in the rolling direc-
tion and a strong grain refining was observed owing to the elongation
and break of grains during deformation at room temperature. The cold
rolling step possibly involved also the formation of the strain-induced
α′-martensite (SIM) from the metastable austenite. This inference is
assigned to the presence of some bcc structure inside austenite grains,
which implies that martensite had formed during plastic deformation.
Although diffraction patterns of ferrite grains (bcc) can easily be dis-
tinguished from austenite grains (fcc), EBSD technique is incapable of
separating martensite regions from the ferrite grains. In this context, the
sharpness of image quality (IQ) maps may be a key to differentiate the
bcc phases since martensite has greater lattice distortion and hence a
more unfocused image compared to ferrite.
Higher magnification images of Fig. 3(a) and (b) are shown in
Fig. 3(c) and (d), in which the image quality was averaged over each
grain and a threshold value was defined. Grains below this threshold
value, with poor diffraction, were distinguished as martensite from
ferrite regions. Besides, the boundaries between the surrounding mar-
tensite and the retained austenite are often described in terms of K–S
(90° 〈112〉) and N–W (95.3° 〈362〉) relationships [7,64,65], as shown
in the right-side images in Fig. 3(c) and (d). In this sense, regions dis-
played in blue were identified as martensite phase, since they presented
both low IQ and OR boundaries typical of martensite-austenite inter-
faces. Further evidence of the correct separation of bcc structures can be
given by the differences in grain size between the two phases, so that
ferrite presented larger grains and martensite was characterized by
smaller grains [64]. The grains defined as belonging to the martensite
phase have been developed from the austenite phase, which corrobo-
rates the strain-induced γ → α′ transformation. The cold-rolled material
was mainly composed of ferrite (bcc) phase, especially the 2304 sam-
ples. Increasing the Mo content slightly suppressed the full formation of
the ferrite phase after rolling, possibly due to its effect on increasing the
strength of the structure [62] and, hence, reducing the degree of de-
formation and flattening of the grains. The uneven partitioning of
phases may also be attributed to the replacement of austenite grains by
plastically induced martensite. Moreover, austenite is commonly con-
sidered as a second phase in duplex steels, so that its deformation is
restricted to an area limited by the surrounding ferrite.
In Fig. 4 the microstructure evolution during the final annealing at
900 and 1100 °C is presented. Annealing at 900 °C (Fig. 4(a) and (b))
promoted the primary recrystallization of the austenite phase, com-
prising a fine grain structure with only some remains of deformed
austenite, mainly in the 2304 samples. Increasing the Mo content had a
pronounced effect on the grain growth phenomenon of the austenite
phase. At 900 °C, the austenite grains of the 2205 samples showed a
significantly smaller size when compared to the austenite grains of the
2304 samples. This may be related to the presence of Mo atoms at the
grain boundaries, which anchored the boundaries and reduced their
mobility. At high annealing temperatures, the Mo retarding effect be-
came weak, so that an equiaxial austenite phase was achieved with the
grains of both samples having similar sizes and shapes. A bamboo-like
morphology was developed in the ferrite phase after the annealing at
900 °C, with the grains retaining the elongated shape of the cold-rolled
condition. The retention of lamellar structure indicates that an ex-
tensive recovery took place in this constituent and that its re-
crystallization was not enough during the annealing at a low tem-
perature. Increasing annealing temperature to 1100 °C promoted the
transformation of the bamboo structure to a more globular morphology.
The breakdown of the flat layered structure into smaller pieces was
initiated by mutual inter-penetration of the phases along the grain
junctions. The triple junctions, marked by circles in Fig. 4, consist of
one grain boundary and two-phase boundaries [36,41,44]. Considering
P.O. Malta et al. Materials Characterization 142 (2018) 406–421

RD

ND

Total Total
Phase Fracon Phase Fracon
Ferrite 0.539 Ferrite 0.535
Austenite 0.461 Austenite 0.465
(a) (b)

Total Total
Phase Fracon Phase Fracon
Ferrite 0.549 Ferrite 0.558
Austenite 0.451 Austenite 0.442

(c) (d)
Fig. 2. IQ combined with phase maps for the (a,b) hot-rolled and (c,d) solution-annealed (a,c) 2205 and (b,d) 2304 samples.

that the diffusion is much faster in the α-grains than in the γ-grains [3],
it is expected that the recrystallization kinetic and the grain growth
occur earlier in the ferrite than in the austenite. In addition to this
coalescence of the ferrite grains, the increase in annealing temperature
intensified the formation of annealing twins in the austenite grains
(Fig. 4(b) and (c)). At 900 °C, the austenite phase reached a larger vo-
lume fraction than the ferrite phase because of the heat-induced re-
version of martensite, generated in cold rolling, to austenite. Mean-
while, there was an increase of ferrite fraction with increasing
temperature. In agreement with the 1:1 phase ratio reached at 1100 °C
by the Thermo-Calc calculations (Fig. 1), a nearly equal volume fraction
of the phases was observed in Fig. 4(c) and (d). Besides, no visible
precipitates were found in the annealed specimens.
3.2. Microtexture Analysis
Fig. 5 show the φ2 = 0, 45 and 65° sections of the orientation dis-
tribution function (ODF) of austenite grains for the hot-rolled (Fig. 5(a)
and (b)) and solution-annealed (Fig. 5(c) and (d)) samples. The auste-
nite texture of 2205 and 2304 hot-rolled steels showed strong S {123}
〈634〉γ and brass {110} 〈112〉γ components, the latter being more in-
tense in 2205 samples. A brass texture spread was observed along the
G/B {110}〈115〉γ to the Goss {110}〈001〉γ orientation in the 2304 hot-
rolled samples and in both solution-annealed samples (Fig. 5(b)–(d)).

409
P.O. Malta et al.
RD
ND
Total
Phase Fracon
Ferrite 0.769
Austenite 0.230
(a) (b)
Phase Boundary
Ferrite K–S
Austenite N–W
Martensite
(c) (d)
Lean steel in the hot-rolled condition also had a stronger copper {112}
〈111〉γ component compared to 2205 steel. Textures originated through
the solution annealing process are known as annealing textures, which
depend on the prior hot rolling textures but generally differ from them.
Annealing the alloys after hot rolling shifted the copper orientation by
about 7° along Φ generating the Dillamore {4 4 11}〈11 11 8〉γ com-
ponent, a twin of the Goss orientation. Except for this displacement, the
solution-annealed texture of 2304 samples remained as its hot-rolled
texture. In both conditions, a propagation of {110}〈001〉γ orientation
along the 〈100〉-fiber towards the cube components was observed in
the lean steel. Goss texture, absent in the 2205 hot-rolled alloy
(Fig. 5(a)), was displayed after the annealing at 1100 °C for 30 min
(Fig. 5(c)). The different Mo contents of the two samples did not sig-
nificantly influence the development of the austenite texture during the
hot rolling and solution annealing.
Fig. 6 shows the ferrite texture of hot-rolled (Fig. 6(a) and (b)) and
solution-annealed (Fig. 6(c) and (d)) specimens. In ODF representation
the ferrite phase exhibited stronger texture intensities than austenite
phase. Hot-rolled 2205 samples (Fig. 6(a)) revealed a strong cube tex-
ture, which became weaker in the solution-annealed condition
(Fig. 6(c)) due to a slight propagation of this component to the {112}
〈110〉α and {111}〈121〉α orientations. In the case of 2304 hot-rolled
samples (Fig. 6(b)) the ferrite grains showed a complete α-phase of
strong intensity from the {112}〈110〉α to the {111}〈110〉α orientation.
410
Materials Characterization 142 (2018) 406–421
Fig. 3. IQ combined with phase maps for
the cold-rolled (a) 2205 and (b) 2304
samples; (c) and (d) higher magnification
images of Fig. 3(a) and (b), respectively,
displaying, in the right-side images, the
special axis-angle phase boundaries as fol-
lows: K–S (90° 〈112〉) in yellow and N–W
(95.3° 〈362〉) in pink with a tolerance of
2.5°. (Separation of ferrite and martensite
was based on grain average IQ parameter;
image quality property was poorer for
martensite than for ferrite; grain dilatation
cleanup was applied before the acquisition
of Fig. 3(c) and (d)). (For interpretation of
the references to colour in this figure le-
gend, the reader is referred to the web
version of this article.)
Total
Phase Fracon
Ferrite 0.892
Austenite 0.108
Phase Boundary
Ferrite K–S
Austenite N–W
Martensite
An extension of α-fiber in the direction of the {111} components was
further observed in the 2304 hot-rolled steel with a declension of γ-fiber
from {111}〈011〉α to {554}〈225〉α component. After the annealing,
there was a strengthening of the {112}〈110〉α orientation in the lean
alloy (Fig. 6(d)) and the displacement of the γ-fiber became more evi-
dent. On the other hand, the 2205 samples did not reach a complete
development of the γ-fiber, even after the annealing (Fig. 6(c)), possibly
due to their higher Mo content compared to 2304 samples. In the bcc
structures, grains with {111} orientation are known to have a greater
capacity to store energy during plastic deformation than grains with
〈110〉 orientation [37]. As this stored energy acts as a driving force for
recrystallization and grain growth, the increase in Mo content was re-
sponsible for suppression of the γ-fiber evolution and, hence, for the
inhibition of the ferrite grain growth observed in Fig. 2.
Fig. 7 shows the texture of austenite phase of the cold-rolled sam-
ples. Cold rolling promoted a reduction in the texture intensity of
austenite grains in relation to the hot-rolled and solution-annealed
conditions (Fig. 5), especially of the 2205 samples. The brass and Goss
components were slightly more intense in the 2304 alloy than in the
2205 alloy. The propagation of {110}〈001〉γ component towards the
〈100〉 direction, previously noted in the lean steel (Fig. 5 (b) and (d)),
was observed in the 2205 cold-rolled samples (Fig. 7(a)). Moreover,
such steel displayed a weak {111}〈110〉γ component accompanied by a
spread orientation along the γ-fiber. The rolling texture of 2304 alloy
P.O. Malta et al. Materials Characterization 142 (2018) 406–421

RD

ND

Total Total
Phase Fracon Phase Fracon
Ferrite 0.462 Ferrite 0.395
Austenite 0.548 Austenite 0.605
(a) (b)

Total Total
Phase Fracon Phase Fracon
Ferrite 0.521 Ferrite 0.519
Austenite 0.479 Austenite 0.481
(c) (d)
Fig. 4. IQ combined with phase maps for the (a,c) 2205 and (b,d) 2304 samples annealed at (a,b) 900 and (c,d) 1100 °C for 180 s.

(Fig. 7(b)) can be interpreted as being essentially a brass-type texture
with a scattering towards the Goss-type texture. Both steels also pre-
sented a low intensity of S-orientation.
Fig. 8 shows the φ2 = 45° section of the ODF of ferrite grains for the
cold-rolled 2205 (Fig. 8(a)) and 2304 (Fig. 8(b)) samples. As in the hot
rolling condition, the 2205 cold-rolled specimens had strong cube
components that propagated to the {112}〈110〉α orientation. The α-
and γfibers, observed under hot rolling and annealing conditions
(Fig. 6(b) and (d)), presented lower intensity in the 2304 cold-rolled
steel (Fig. 8(b)).
Final annealing textures are shown in Fig. 9 for the austenite grains.
Both specimens annealed at 900 (Fig. 9(a) and (b)) and 1100 °C
(Fig. 9(c) and (d)) presented similar austenitic textures, except for the
absence of the Cu and D-component in the 2205 samples annealed at
900 °C (Fig. 9(a)). The austenite phase was composed mainly of the
brass and Goss components comprising the intermediate G/B orienta-
tion. The annealing at 1100 °C promoted the strengthening of all
components of both alloys compared to the 900 °C-annealed condition.
Summing up, the austenite texture of duplex stainless steels after an-
nealing consisted primarily of the brass, Goss, Dillamore and S-or-
ientations.
Fig. 10 shows the texture of ferritic grains of the duplex alloys after
final annealing. Increasing temperature reinforced the ferrite texture,
mainly of the components related to the γ-fiber and especially in the
2304 specimens. The development of γ-fiber was only initiated in the
steels annealed at 1100 °C (Fig. 10(c) and (d)), with no complete for-
mation of that fiber as observed in Fig. 6(b) and (d). The {112}〈110〉α
and cube orientations were found in both alloys and annealing tem-
peratures, being more intense in the 2304 samples annealed at 1100 °C
(Fig. 10(d)). As in the solution-annealing condition (Fig. 6(c) and (d)),

411
P.O. Malta et al. Materials Characterization 142 (2018) 406–421

1 (0.0°-90.0°)

0° 45° 65°
{110}<112>

(0.0°-90.0°) //<100>

{110}<001>

{4 4 11}<11 11 8>

(a) {112}<111>

0° 45° 65° {110}<115>

{123}<634>

(b)

0° 45° 65°

(c)

0° 45° 65°

(d)
Fig. 5. ODF of austenite phase for the (a,b) hot-rolled and (c,d) solution-annealed (a,c) 2205 and (b,d) 2304 samples.

the {111}〈112〉α component was observed in the 2205 alloy (Fig. 10(a)
and (c)) and was replaced by the {554}〈225〉α orientation in the 2304
alloy (Fig. 10(d)). Molybdenum atoms appeared to inhibit the dis-
placement of the γ-fiber and, hence, the formation of the {554}〈225〉α
orientation.
were quantified (Fig. 11(d) and (e)). A smaller fraction of special
boundaries was observed in the 2205 alloy in relation to the lean alloy.
Intermediate and final annealing strengthened the CSL formation in the
ferrite phase of 2304 specimens, except for the ∑19a boundaries in the
900 °C-annealed condition.

3.3. Grain Boundary Character 4. Discussion

The numeric fraction of CSL boundaries up to ∑29 is shown in
Fig. 11(a) and (b). Some boundaries were separately calculated to allow
their individual distribution in each constituent. For the γ-phase, the
∑3, ∑7, and ∑9 boundaries were considered (Fig. 11(c) and (d)). In both
steels, only the ∑3 boundary varied significantly from one condition to
the other. After solution annealing, the 2205 samples had a higher
density of ∑3 boundary compared to the 2304 samples, while after final
annealing at 1100 °C, both samples had a similar fraction of this CSL
boundary. Regarding the α-phase the ∑3, ∑13b, and ∑19a boundaries
4.1. Microstructure Evolution
It is known that the ferrite and austenite phases have their own
characteristic flow stress level, due mainly to their different crystal-
lographic structures and softening mechanisms. The partitioning of al-
loying elements, especially the nitrogen and carbon to austenite, con-
siderably strengthens this phase and increases the flow stress gradients.
Such differences in hot strength are responsible for creating an uneven
strain partitioning between the two phases, with the harder austenite

412
P.O. Malta et al. Materials Characterization 142 (2018) 406–421

1 (0.0°-90.0°)
{001}<110>
45° 45°
{112}<110>

(0.0°-90.0°) {111}<110>

{111}<011>

{554}<225>

{111}<121>
(a) (b) {111}<112>

45° 45° -fiber

(c) (d)
Fig. 6. ODF of ferrite phase for the (a,b) hot-rolled and (c,d) solution-annealed (a,c) 2205 and (b,d) 2304 samples.

offering a greater resistance to deformation than the softer ferrite
[63,66,67]. As both phases coexisted in large volume fractions during
the hot rolling, it is expected that their deformation behavior was in-
fluenced by the presence of the other phase. In addition, since the strain
energy is the driving force for softening processes to occur, the
accommodation of most of the deformation by the α-grains possibly
resulted in a faster dynamic recovery of the ferrite compared to the
dynamic recrystallization of the austenite. Tsuzaki et al. [68], in their
studies on superplasticity of a duplex stainless steel, indicated that the
role of dynamic recrystallization of austenitic grains is to make the fine

1 (0.0°-90.0°)
0° 45° 65° {110}<112>

//<100>
(0.0°-90.0°)
{110}<001>

{111}<110>

{110}<115>

{123}<634>
(a)
-fiber
0° 45° 65°

(b)
Fig. 7. ODF of austenite phase for the cold-rolled (a) 2205 and (b) 2304 samples.

413
P.O. Malta et al.
(0.0°-
1
45°
{001}<110>
(0.0°-90.0°)
{112}<110>
{111}<011>
-fiber
(a)
45°
(b)
Fig. 8. ODF of ferrite phase for the cold-rolled (a) 2205 and (b) 2304 samples.
structure suitable for sliding the grain boundary in the early stages of
plastic deformation. After hot rolling, the microstructure of duplex
steels assumed a linear planar configuration with a fibrous appearance
throughout the longitudinal section. Besides that, some annealing twins
were observed in austenite phase, especially of the 2205 samples
(Fig. 2(a)). The low stacking fault energy (SFE) of the austenite phase is
known to be the main reason for the formation of twinning during hot
rolling, so that the fraction of twins increases with the amount of dy-
namic-recrystallized grains [69–73]. Intermediate annealing further
increased the formation of twins in the γ-phase because of the stacking
errors generated by migrating grain boundaries during recrystalliza-
tion. Jin et al. [71] in their studies about a 304 L austenitic stainless
steel observed that the higher the prior strain level on annealing twin,
the higher the velocity of grain boundary migration and the higher the
annealing twin density in the recrystallized grains.
During cold rolling, the original grains became more elongated
along RD and, consequently, received a larger grain refinement effect.
Plastic deformation led also to the replacement of a fraction of me-
tastable austenite by deformation-induced martensite. The predisposi-
tion to γ → α′ transformation is strongly related to the stability of the
austenite phase and, hence, increases with the decrease of its SFE
[4,74–76]. According to Naghizadeh and Mirzadeh [77], increasing the
content of alloying elements generally increases the austenite stability
with respect to strain-induced transformation. The higher Mo content of
the 2205 alloy than the 2304 alloy was therefore the likely reason for its
greater resistance to this transformation. Tavares et al. [78] defined
that the lean duplex steel 2304 is much more susceptible to martensitic
induced transformation than duplex 2205 because of its lower Ni and
Mo contents. Such transformation was defined in Fig. 3(c) and (d) by
the K–S and N–W relationships, which are the most frequently reported
relationships for bcc-fcc systems and are the only ones that have been
reported for ferrite-austenite microstructures [35]. Kurc-Lisiecka et al.
414
Materials Characterization 142 (2018) 406–421
[79], in their studies about an austenitic stainless steel, reported that
the K-S and N-W relationships described very well the crystallographic
orientation relations between austenite and martensite phases during
the cold rolling.
The effect of annealing temperature on the microstructure and
properties of duplex alloys has been widely discussed [10,80–85]. The
microstructural changes that occur during annealing are based on two
fundamental recrystallization mechanisms, namely: the formation of
nuclei in specific regions of the work-hardened material and the sub-
sequent growth of these nuclei from the deformed regions [86]. During
the cold rolling stage, a larger number of dislocations were generated
near the grain boundaries and between the phase interfaces, thereby
resulting in optimal conditions for nucleation and growth in these re-
gions. It was clear that the band-shaped ferrite grains became wider and
the island-shaped austenite grains grew larger with the enhancement of
annealing temperature. Besides that, the thermally activated grain
boundary migration took place during the annealing at 1100 °C, re-
sulting in the formation of annealing twins in the austenite phase. In the
present work, the austenite fraction decreased with increasing tem-
perature due to the diffusion-controlled γ → α transformation, typical
of high annealing temperatures [80]. Tan et al. [81] reported that, since
raising the annealing temperature resulted in a higher ferrite fraction,
the original α-forming elements (Cr and Mo) were spread over a larger
volume and diluted, leading to a decrease in their concentrations in the
ferrite phase. In another front, Naghizadeh and Mirzadeh [77] reported
that the grain growth of austenite phase was severely retarded in AISI
316 stainless steel containing about 2.0 Mo wt%. Suppression of grain
growth is a phenomenon highly sensitive to temperature, being more
pronounced at low annealing temperatures. This predicts that the
concentration of solute atoms (e.g., Mo) in the boundaries decreases
with increasing temperature, so that the recrystallization and growth of
the austenite grains occur easily due to the free movement of the
boundaries.
4.2. Texture and Grain Boundary Evolution
The crystallographic behavior of duplex alloys results from the de-
formation, recrystallization and phase transformation phenomena oc-
curring in austenite and ferrite at each processing stage. Several in-
vestigations have been argued that the two phases deform
independently and that their texture evolution can be inferred from the
behavior of single-phase austenitic and ferritic stainless steels [23, 36].
The texture components of deformed austenite produced by hot rolling
were described by Hutchinson et al. [87] and Watershoot et al. [88] as
the β-fiber stretching from the copper orientation and via S- to the brass
orientation. Properly, these texture components were observed in both
hot-rolled specimens (Fig. 5 (a) and (b)). Based on the K–S relationships
between the parent austenite phase and its transformation products, the
β-fiber components of austenite can transform into α- and γ-fibers
components of ferrite [88]. In this sense, the {112}〈111〉γ transfor-
mation in austenite phase was probably responsible for the appearance
of the {112}〈110〉α orientation in ferrite phase of both hot-rolled
samples (Fig. 6(a) and (b)). Resulting from the brass transformation
during hot rolling, the {001}〈110〉α and {111}〈110〉α components was
observed in the 2205 (Fig. 6(a)) and 2304 (Fig. 6(b)) specimens, re-
spectively.
Annealing at high temperatures often promotes the microstructure
recrystallization, which may lead to an absence of texture, to the de-
velopment of intense texture components, or even to no modification in
the deformation texture [89]. Despite the changes in the micro-
structure, the austenite phase of the solution-annealed samples pre-
sented similar orientations from those of the hot-deformed material.
The Goss texture in the 2205 alloy (Fig. 5(c)) and the Dillamore com-
ponent in the 2304 alloy (Fig. 5(d)) were the only changes observed.
According to Barella and Mapelli [90], the Goss and Dillamore com-
ponents are probably produced by the twinning of the austenite phase
P.O. Malta et al. Materials Characterization 142 (2018) 406–421

1 (0.0°-90.0°)

0° 45° 65°
{110}<112>

(0.0°-90.0°) {110}<001>

{4 4 11}<11 11 8>

{112}<111>

(a) {110}<115>

45° {123}<634>
0° 65°

(b)

0° 45° 65°

(c)

0° 45° 65°

(d)
Fig. 9. ODF of austenite phase for the (a,c) 2205 and (b,d) 2304 samples annealed at (a,b) 900 and (c,d) 1100 °C for 180 s.

after the solution annealing. In ferrite phase, the texture changes were
more significant, with the weakening of the cube component in the
standard alloy (Fig. 6(c)) and the strengthening of the {112}〈110〉α
orientation and of the displacement of γ-fiber in the lean alloy
(Fig. 6(d)). Such displacement of the γ-fiber, from {111}〈112〉α to
{554}〈225〉α, was identified by Malta et al. [52,56] in the re-
crystallization texture of a ferritic stainless steel. The authors attributed
the presence of this latter component to the mechanism of selected
growth of ferritic grains.
Plastic deformation occurs in metals crystals by slip or twinning
systems, which comprises certain atomic planes and specific crystal-
lographic directions. In bcc metals, the slip direction is always (111)α
and the slip planes are mainly {110}α and {112}α, while the fcc metals
have the slip systems in {111}(110)γ and the mechanical twinning
systems in {111}(112)γ [86]. In the present work, the austenite phase of
the 2205 cold-rolled specimens (Fig. 7(a)) presented, in addition to the
tube-shaped β-fiber, the so-called α-fiber which is formed by
orientations with a common 〈110〉 direction parallel to the sheet
normal [91]. Therefore, the standard duplex steel was deformed by
both twinning and slip mechanisms, while in the lean steel (Fig. 7(b))
the twinning was the predominant deformation mechanism for auste-
nite phase. Jia et al. [92] studied the texture evolution of a 2507 duplex
stainless steel after cold rolling over a range of 25–85% of thickness
reduction. At the highest reduction, very strong brass and Goss com-
ponents were identified, i.e., the typical ones found in the deformed fcc
materials with low SFE [63,91]. Ryś and Zielińska-Lipiec [93] observed
that the {110}〈001〉γ component is a relatively stable orientation in
cold-rolled duplex steels, in cases where it appears as the strongest
austenite texture after the preliminary thermomechanical treatment.
For the ferrite phase, the cold-rolled texture of both samples (Fig. 8(a)
and (b)) was very similar to that of the hot rolling condition, so that the
{001}〈110〉α, {112}〈110〉α and {111}〈110〉α components may have
been inherited from the previous thermomechanical processing. It is
suggested, therefore, that there was a significant influence of the initial

415
P.O. Malta et al.
1 (0.0°-90.0°)
45°
(0.0°-90.0°)
(a)
45°
(c)
Fig. 10. ODF of ferrite phase for the (a,c) 2205 and (b,d) 2304 samples annealed at (a,b) 900 and (c,d) 1100 °C for 180 s.
grain orientation on the texture evolution of the duplex steels in the
subsequent mechanical process. Raabe and Lücke [51] evaluated the
cold deformation texture of single-phase ferritic stainless steels and
found that high levels of reduction lead to the strengthening of the α-
fiber, with maxima occurring at {001}〈110〉α and {112}〈110〉α. This is
consistent with the results obtained for the 2205 specimens as shown in
Fig. 8(a).
After annealing, the austenitic texture of 2304 samples (Fig. 9(b)
and (d)) seemed to be a random sampling of its cold rolling texture with
the nucleation of grains from pre-existing orientations in the deformed
matrix, i.e. the brass, Goss, and S-orientations. Retention of deforma-
tion texture during recrystallization has been attributed either to a
discontinuous recrystallization without preferential orientation selec-
tion [36,40,41] or to a suppressed growth selection, e.g. by a low grain
boundary mobility [44,94]. Discontinuous recrystallization and growth
were also supported by the presence of annealing twins in austenite
[44]. Lindell [95] investigated the texture evolution of warm-rolled and
annealed 304 L (0.5 Mo wt%) and 316 L (2.3 Mo wt%) austenitic stain-
less steels. The rolling texture was maintained in the 304 L alloy, which
was attributed by the author to differences in grain boundary mobility
by solute drag effects, mainly from molybdenum. On the other hand,
the annealing textures of 2205 samples (Fig. 9(b) and (d)) differed
strongly from their cold rolling textures. The disappearance of the
{111} component was correlated by Donadille et al. [94] to oriented
nucleation in shear bands of {110}〈001〉γ grains invading the {111}
〈uvw〉γ domains in which no nucleation was observed. The annealing
textures of both alloys did not show the brass recrystallization (BR)
orientation {236}〈385〉γ, which is typically developed during re-
crystallization of single-phase austenitic steels with low SFE [40,44,94].
Since the BR-oriented grains come from rotations of 40° 〈111〉 with
respect to the brass (rolling) orientation, their boundaries result in high
mobility interfaces that growth preferentially during recrystallization
[28,44,50,53–55,94]. Apparently, the inhibition of shear bands for-
mation in the deformed matrix was the main reason for not developing
the BR orientation. Increasing annealing temperature did not sig-
nificantly alter the recrystallization texture of the austenite phase,
416
Materials Characterization 142 (2018) 406–421
45°
{001}<110>
{112}<110>
{111}<121>
{111}<112>
{554}<225>
(b) -fiber
45°
(d)
except for the noticeable strengthening of the copper and Dillamore
components, especially in the 2205 alloy. Since the {4 4 11}〈11 11 8〉γ
orientation is a first order twin of the deformation texture component
{110}〈001〉γ [44], its increased intensity appeared to result from the
intense twinning during recrystallization favored by the low SFE energy
of austenite phase. Additionally, the displacement of the local max-
imum intensity from the Cu orientation towards the D-orientation was
also observed by Blicharski et al. [42] during the annealing of duplex
steel.
The gradual transition from a lamellar morphology (Fig. 4(a) and
(b)) towards a comparatively more globular morphology (Fig. 4(c) and
(d)) with increasing annealing temperature was indicative of the re-
covery in the ferrite phase [41] and affected the evolution of re-
crystallization texture in this constituent. In single-phase ferritic steels,
the typical rolling orientations {001}〈110〉α and {112}〈110〉α mainly
undergo recovery while the {111}〈112〉α and {111}〈121〉α orienta-
tions preferentially recrystallize during annealing [36,41,44]. It is well
known that the stored energy of the α-fiber components is lower than
that of the γ-fiber components, which makes the {111} nuclei faster in
forming than those of 〈110〉 orientations. Since the {112}〈110〉α de-
formed grains are preferentially consumed by the {111}〈112〉α re-
crystallized grains [49,96], their weakening from the cold-rolled
(Fig. 8) to the annealed condition (Fig. 10) proves the favored nu-
cleation of the γ-fiber grains during recrystallization. In this context, the
annealing textures of the 2205 samples (Fig. 10(a) and (c)) can be
therefore explained in terms of the ON theory by the joint occurrence of
the recovery (retention of α-fiber) and recrystallization (development
of γ-fiber) mechanisms. While only recovery was observed in the 2304
samples annealed at 900 °C (Fig. 10(c)), increasing the temperature
developed further recrystallization behavior with the displacement of
the {111}〈112〉α orientation by 5° along Φ (Fig. 10(d)). Previously
observed in the annealing texture of bcc steels [46,50,52,56,96,97],
such displacement gave rise to the {554}〈225〉α component, whose
grains could (in principle) participate in the selective growth of their
nuclei. Yantaç et al. [97] affirmed that subgrains with {554}〈225〉α
orientations have a high nucleation probability, which ensures an early
P.O. Malta et al.
Fig. 11. Numeric fraction of (a,b) CSL boundaries up to ∑29, (c,d) ∑3, ∑7, and ∑9 in austenite phase and (e,f) ∑3, ∑13b, and ∑19a in ferrite phase of (a.c,e) 2205 and
(b,d,f) 2304 samples. (HR – hot-rolled; SA – solution-annealed; CR – cold-rolled; 900 °C – annealed at 900 °C for 180 s; 1100 °C - annealed at 1100 °C for 180 s).
size advantage and a continuous growth during the annealing cycle.
Kestens and Jonas [98] stipulated, however, that the growth advantage
of a specific component is attributed only to the selection mechanism so
that the first formed nuclei do not necessarily grow faster than the
others. This latter condition seemed to be in greater agreement with
texture formation of the 2304 samples since the {554}〈225〉α orienta-
tion grow preferentially in bcc steels due to an enhanced interface
mobility [46], which was only achieved during annealing at superior
temperatures.
Although the Mo atoms directly influenced the growth of austenite
grains, differences in the Mo content among the samples did not sig-
nificantly alter the development of the austenite texture in the different
conditions evaluated. Regarding the ferrite phase, the increase in Mo
content was responsible for a reduction of the favorable conditions for
recrystallization and grain growth, leading to the suppression of the γ-
fiber development and the selective growth effect in 2205 samples.
The high mobility of certain grain boundaries has been directly
associated with the development of specific CSL type-boundaries during
processing of metallic materials [50,53–56]. In austenite phase
(Fig. 11(a) and (b)), the increasing intensity of Σ3 boundaries after the
417
Materials Characterization 142 (2018) 406–421
heat treatments was closely associated with the formation of annealing
twins resulting from a thermally activated grain boundary migration
[99,100]. Fig. 12 corresponds to higher magnification images of
Fig. 2(c) and (d), highlighting the distribution and fraction of Σ3
boundaries (60° 〈111〉 misorientation relationship) in the austenitic
grains. During the recrystallization development, the enhanced mobi-
lity of Σ3 boundaries usually increases the twin density, whereas the
subsequent grain growth is generally accompanied by an apparent de-
crease of the density of these first-order twin boundaries [100,101].
Therefore, the marked growth of the austenitic grains, clearly observed
in Fig. 12(b), was possibly the main reason for the smaller fraction of
the Σ3 boundaries in the 2304 samples (Fig. 11(b)) compared to 2205
samples (Fig. 11(a)) after solution-annealing. Tikhonova et al. [102]
suggested that the annealing twins are generated mostly during the
beginning of recrystallization regime and that their development slows
down as the recrystallized grains coarsen. In addition, the limited and
slow grain growth in 2205 steel could result from the segregation of Mo
atoms to the austenite moving boundaries [103], further inducing the
dragging of the solute due to its large atomic mismatch with the aus-
tenite matrix [104]. The low intensity of ∑9 boundaries discarded the
P.O. Malta et al.
CSL Total
Boundary Fracon
∑3 0.386
(a)
Fig. 12. Higher magnification images of (a) Fig. 2(c) and (b) Fig. 2(d) showing the distribution and fraction of ∑3 boundaries (60° 〈111〉) in the austenitic grains of
solution-annealed (a) 2205 and (b) 2304 samples.
occurrence of multiple twinning events, which are believed to be pro-
moted by strain-induced boundary migration [105]. The negligible
fraction of the ∑7 boundaries, which is believed to be dominant for the
development of the SG mechanism in fcc recrystallization textures [53],
corroborated the absence of preferential growth of specific γ-grains
during annealing.
In bcc steels, the development of special misorientations relation-
ships has been reasonably related to the favored nucleation and growth
of specific orientations during the recrystallization process [46,52,56].
The apparent numerical disparity between the CSL boundaries in the
ferrite phase of the heat-treated steels (Fig. 11(a) and (b)) could also be
associated with their distinct Mo contents. Since molybdenum usually
diffuses from ferrite to austenite in the absence of carbide formation
[106], there would probably be a depletion in its concentration in the
ferrite near the interface during annealing. In the standard steel, the
superior Mo content may have increased the depletion rate of the ferrite
interfaces and generated unfavorable conditions for the formation of
special grain boundaries. Yan et al. [106], in their studies on the
crystallographic texture of single-phase ferritic steels, proposed that the
∑3 boundaries have low energy and mobility even at high temperatures.
In this sense, its formation in the α-phase is possible only by the
combination of the driving force coming from grain rotation with the
microstructural changes caused by plastic deformation and annealing.
The authors established also a near misorientation relationship between
the ∑13b boundaries (27.8° 〈111〉) and the main γ-fiber components,
namely the {111}〈110〉α and {111}〈112〉α, which are related by a
rotation of 30° 〈111〉 [104]. Additionally, the 26.5° 〈110〉 mis-
orientation relation, referring to the ∑19a boundaries, was closely re-
lated to the SG mechanism in the final stages of recrystallization of the
ferrite phase. As mentioned earlier, grains with {554}〈225〉α orienta-
tion were developed after annealing at 1100 °C for 30 (Fig. 6(d)) and
3 min (Fig. 10(d)) due possibly to a preferential growth of their nuclei
in the ferritic matrix. Several authors [46,52,56,96,97,107,108] corre-
lated the growth advantage of {554}〈225〉α grains with either the de-
crease or the disappearing of the {112}〈110〉α deformation orientation
through the 26.5° 〈110〉 rapid growth relationship. According to Ver-
beken et al. [46], such crystallographic rotation between these com-
ponents enhances the interface mobility of the {554}〈225〉α grains and,
hence, favors their growth during annealing. In this context, a specific
region of Fig. 2(d) was magnified in Fig. 13 to display the ∑19a
boundary typical of interfaces between the {112}〈110〉α and {554}
〈225〉α orientations. As in the austenite phase, there was a more
marked growth of the ferritic grains in the solution-annealed 2304
418
Materials Characterization 142 (2018) 406–421
CSL Total
Boundary Fracon
∑3 0.285
(b)
samples compared to 2205 samples in the same condition. Grain
coarsening resulted in a larger fraction of the ∑3, ∑13b, and especially
of ∑19a boundaries in ferrite phase (Fig. 11(f)) as opposed to austenite,
where such coalescence appeared to inhibit the CSL formation.
5. Conclusions
(i) The band-like morphology of the hot-rolled specimens was re-
placed by a pancake structure after solution annealing. Annealing
twin development was especially marked in the austenite phase of
solution-annealed samples. Despite the changes in the micro-
structure, the crystallographic texture of this phase was similar to
the hot rolling and solution annealing. In the ferrite phase of lean
alloy, the long-time annealing promoted the displacement of γ-
fiber from {111}〈112〉α to {554}〈225〉α owing to the SG me-
chanism.
(ii) Cold rolling promoted a reduction in the phase spacing accom-
panied by a strong grain refining. The γ → α′ transformation
during plastic deformation was based on the K–S and N–W or-
ientation relationships. The cold-rolled texture of austenitic grains
was governed by the α-fiber and the tube-shaped β-fiber. Twinning
was the predominant deformation mechanism in the austenite
phase of the 2304 steel, while the 2205 steel was deformed by both
twinning and slip mechanisms. For the ferrite phase, the de-
formation texture of both samples was inherited from hot rolling
condition.
(iii) After annealing at 900 °C, the austenite microstructure was formed
by fine grains, which coarsened with increasing annealing tem-
perature to 1100 °C. Extensive recovery took place in the ferritic
grains and recrystallization was not enough during the annealing
at 900 °C. Increasing annealing temperature did not significantly
alter the recrystallization texture of the γ-phase in both steels.
Discontinuous recrystallization was responsible for the develop-
ment of the austenitic texture in the 2304 samples after final an-
nealing with the retention of deformation texture and formation of
annealing twins. In the 2205 and 2304 alloys, the annealing tex-
ture of ferritic grains was developed according to the ON and SG
theories, respectively.
(iv) Increasing the Mo content increased the resistance to strain-in-
duced martensitic transformation, as well as suppressed the grain
growth of austenite phase during annealing at 900 °C. In addition,
differences in the texture evolution, especially ferritic, in both
steels were associated with the amount of solute Mo and the
P.O. Malta et al.
Orientaon
{hkl}<uvw>
{112}<110>
{554}<225>
Fig. 13. – Higher magnification image of Fig. 2(d) showing the distribution of ∑19a boundary (26.5° 〈110〉) between ferritic grains with the {112}〈110〉α and {554}
〈225〉α orientations of solution-annealed 2304 samples.
temperature dependence of its retarding effect on recrystallization
and grain growth.
(v) Σ3 boundaries were associated with the formation of annealing
twins in the austenite phase after the heat treatments. For ferrite
phase, the development of ∑19a boundaries in 2304 samples was
associated with the favored growth of {554}〈225〉α grains during
the recrystallization. Grain coarsening resulted in a larger fraction
of the special boundaries in ferrite phase but inhibited the CSL
formation in the austenite phase. The higher Mo content of 2205
samples compared to the 2304 samples may have been the reason
for their smaller fraction of CSL boundaries in the ferrite phase.
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to CAPES-PROEX (0878/2016), FAPEMIG
(APQ-01905-16), and CNPq (404303/2016-1) for research fellowships
made available to students and for their financial support. Thanks, are
expressed to the UFMG Microscopy Center for providing excellent sci-
entific support. We also thank the company Aperam South America SA
for the supply of samples.Data availability
The raw/processed data required to reproduce these findings cannot
be shared at this time as the data also forms part of an ongoing study.
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