ANGLE MODULATION

Introduction

 Angle modulation is the process by

which the angle (frequency or phase)
of the carrier signal is changed in
accordance with the instantaneous
amplitude of modulating or message
signal.
Cont’d…
 classified into two types such as
 Frequency modulation (FM)
 Phase modulation (PM)
 Used for :
 Commercial radio broadcasting
 Television sound transmission
 Two way mobile radio
 Cellular radio
 Microwave and satellite communication system
 Cont’d…
Advantages over AM:
 Freedom from interference: all natural and
external noise consist of amplitude variations,
thus receiver usually cannot distinguish
between amplitude of noise or desired signal.
AM is noisy than FM.
 Operate in very high frequency band (VHF):
88MHz-108MHz
 Can transmit musical programs with higher
degree of fidelity.
 FREQUENCY MODULATION
PRINCIPLES

 In FM the carrier amplitude remains

constant, the carrier frequency varies
with the amplitude of modulating
signal.
 The amount of change in carrier
frequency produced by the modulating
signal is known as frequency
deviation.
Carrier Modulating signal

Resting fc
FM

Increasing fc

Decreasing fc

Increasing fc

Resting fc
 PHASE MODULATION(PM)

 The process by which changing the phase of carrier

signal in accordance with the instantaneous of message
signal. The amplitude remains constant after the
modulation process.
 Mathematical analysis:
Let message signal:
 m t   Vm cos mt
And carrier signal:
 c t   Vc cos[ ct   ]
 PM (cont’d)

 Where  = phase angle of carrier signal. It is changed

in accordance with the amplitude of the message
signal;
 i.e.   KVm (t )  KVm cosmt
 After phase modulation the instantaneous voltage will
be v ( t )  V cos( t  KV cos  t ) or
pm C C m m

v pm ( t )  VC cos(C t  m p cos m t )

 Where mp = Modulation index of phase modulation

 K is a constant and called deviation sensitivities of the
phase
FREQUENCY MODULATION
(FM)

 A process where the frequency of the

carrier wave varies with the magnitude
variations of the modulating or audio
signal.
 The amplitude of the carrier wave is
kept constant.
FM(cont’d)

 Mathematical analysis:
 Let message signal:

 m t   Vm cos mt
 And carrier signal:
 c t   Vc cos[ ct   ]
FM (cont’d)

 During the process of frequency modulations the

frequency of carrier signal is changed in
accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of
message signal .Therefore the frequency of
carrier after modulation is written as
i  c  K1vm t   C  K1Vm cos m t

 To find the instantaneous phase angle of modulated

signal, integrate equation above w.r.t. t

i   i dt   C  K1Vm cos m t dt  C t 

K1Vm
sin m t
m
FM(cont’d)

 Thus, we get the FM wave as:

K1Vm
v FM ( t )  Vc cos 1  VC cos(C t  sin m t )
m

vFM (t )  VC cos(C t  m f sin mt )

 Where modulation index for FM is given by
K1Vm
mf 
m
FM(cont’d)

 Frequency deviation: ∆f is the relative

placement of carrier frequency (Hz) w.r.t
its unmodulated value. Given as:
max  C  K1Vm
min  C  K1Vm
d  max  C  C  min  K1Vm
d K1Vm
f  
2 2
FM(cont’d)

 Therefore:

K1Vm
f  ;
2
f
mf 
fm
 Equations for Phase- and Frequency-Modulated Carriers

Tomasi Copyright ©2004 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Electronic Communications Systems, 5e Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Example (FM)

 Determine the peak frequency deviation

(∆f) and modulation index (m) for an FM
modulator with a deviation sensitivity K1 = 5
kHz/V and a modulating signal,
v m (t )  2 cos(22000t )
Example (PM)

 Determine the peak phase deviation (m)

for a PM modulator with a deviation
sensitivity K = 2.5 rad/V and a modulating
signal, v m (t )  2 cos(22000t )
FM&PM (Bessel function)

 Thus, for general equation:

vFM (t )  VC cos(C t  m f cos mt )


 n 
cos(  m cos )  n
n  
J ( m ) cos

  n  
2 


 n 
m( t )  VC  J n (m) cos c t  nm t  
n    2 
 Bessel function

   
vt FM  VC {J 0 (mf ) cos C t  J1 (m f ) cos(C  m ) t    J1 (mf ) cos(C  m ) t  
 2  2

 J 2 (mf ) cos(C  2m )t   J 2 (mf ) cos(C  2m )t   ...J n (mf )...}

B.F. (cont’d)
 It is seen that each pair of side band is preceded by J
coefficients. The order of the coefficient is denoted by
subscript m. The Bessel function can be written as

 mf 
n
 1 m f / 22 m f / 24 
J n m f         ....
 2   n 1!n  1! 2!n  2! 

 N = number of the side frequency

 Mf = modulation index
Bessel Functions of the First Kind, Jn(m)
for some value of modulation index
B.F. (cont’d)
Representation of frequency spectrum
Example

 For an FM modulator with a

modulation index m = 1, a modulating
signal vm(t) = Vmsin(2π1000t), and an
unmodulated carrier vc(t) =
10sin(2π500kt). Determine the number
of sets of significant side frequencies
and their amplitudes. Then, draw the
frequency spectrum showing their
relative amplitudes.
FM Bandwidth
 Theoretically, the generation and transmission of FM requires
infinite bandwidth. Practically, FM system have finite bandwidth
and they perform well.
 The value of modulation index determine the number of
sidebands that have the significant relative amplitudes
 If n is the number of sideband pairs, and line of frequency
spectrum are spaced by fm, thus, the bandwidth is:

B fm  2nf m
 For n≥1
FM Bandwidth (cont’d)
 Estimation of transmission b/w;
 Assume mf is large and n is approximate mf + 2; thus
 Bfm=2(mf + 2)fm

f
= 2(  2) f m
fm

B fm  2(f  f m )........(1)

(1) is called Carson’s rule

Deviation Ratio (DR)

 The worse case modulation index which produces the widest

output frequency spectrum.
f (max)
DR  f m (max)

 Where
 ∆f(max) = max. peak frequency deviation
 fm(max) = max. modulating signal frequency
 FM Power Distribution

 As seen in Bessel function table, it shows that as the

sideband relative amplitude increases, the carrier
amplitude,J0 decreases.

 This is because, in FM, the total transmitted power is

always constant and the total average power is equal
to the unmodulated carrier power, that is the
amplitude of the FM remains constant whether or not
it is modulated.
FM Power Distribution (cont’d)

 In effect, in FM, the total power that is originally in

the carrier is redistributed between all components of
the spectrum, in an amount determined by the
modulation index, mf, and the corresponding Bessel
functions.
 At certain value of modulation index, the carrier
component goes to zero, where in this condition, the
power is carried by the sidebands only.
 Average Power

The average power in unmodulated carrier Vc2

Pc 


2R
 The total instantaneous power in the angle modulated carrier.

m( t ) 2 Vc2
Pt   cos2 [c t  ( t )]
R R
Vc2  1 1  Vc
2
Pt    cos[2c t  2( t )] 
R 2 2  2R
 The total modulated power

Vc2 2(V1 ) 2 2(V2 ) 2 2(Vn ) 2

Pt  P0  P1  P2  ..  Pn     .. 
2R 2R 2R 2R
Generation of FM

 Two major FM generation:

i) Direct method:
i) straight forward, requires a VCO whose oscillation
frequency has linear dependence on applied voltage.
ii) Advantage: large frequency deviation
iii) Disadvantage: the carrier frequency tends to drift and must
be stabilized.
iv) example circuit:
i) Reactance modulator
ii) Varactor diode
 FM GENERATION

Direct Method: when the frequency of carrier

is modulated by information signal
Indirect Method: when the phase of carrier is
modulated by information signal

32
 Generation of FM waves

1.Varactor diode modulator( Direct method)

2.Reactance modulator( Direct method)
3.Crosby FM direct transmitter
4.Armstrong method (Indirect method)

33
 c   / d

- more capacitance.

- less capacitance.

34
Varactor Diode FM modulator
c   / d

35
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF
VARACTOR DIODE MODULATOR

36
 Modulating signal

Career

Frequency modulation

Phase modulation

37
Armstrong modulator
INDIRECT FM GENERATION

Integrator

39
 FREQUENCY UP-
CONVERSION
 With FM and PM modulators, the carrier at the output is generally

somewhat lower than the desired frequency of transmission.

 There are two basic methods of performing frequency up

conversion.

1. Heterodyning process

2. Frequency multiplication

40
HETERODYNE METHOD OF
FREQUENCY UP-CONVERSION

41
MULTIPLICATION METHOD
OF UP-CONVERSION

42
BLOCK DIGRAM OF CROSBY
DIRECT FM TRANSMITTER

43
Block Diagram of FM Receiver

44
 Types of FM Demodulators
FM
Demodulatio
n

Direct Indirect
• SlopeDetector Phase Lock
•Balanced Slope Loop(PLL)
Detector
•Foster-Seeley Phase
Discriminator
•Ratio Detector
 Basic FM Demodulator

Frequency TUNED Amplitude

Variations CIRUIT Variations

NOTE: Amplitude Variations are added to

wave according to frequency variations,
and frequency variations remain present
in wave.
Basic FM Demodulator

 The function of FM demodulator is to

change the frequency deviation of the
incoming carrier into an AF amplitude
variation.
 The detection circuit should be
insensitive to amplitude changes.
Basic FM Demodulator

 This type of circuit converts the FM IF

voltage of constant amplitude into a
voltage that is both FM and AM.
 The later is applied to a detector which
reacts to amplitude changes and
ignores frequency changes.
Basic FM Demodulator

FM
Wave

Output
of
Tuned
Circuit
 Basic FM Demodulator

 The most basic circuit employed as

FM demodulator is parallel tuned LC
circuit, often known as slope detector.
 The carrier frequency should fall on
one side of resonant frequency and
 The entire frequencies should fall on
linear region of transfer curve of tuned
circuit.
SLOPE Detector

 The output is then applied to a diode

detector with RC load of suitable time
constant.
 The circuit is, in fact, identical to that of
AM detector.
Limitations of Slope Detector

 It is inefficient, as it is linear in very

limited frequency range.
 It reacts to all amplitude changes.
 It is relatively difficult to tune, as tuned
circuit must be tuned to different
frequency than carrier frequency.
Balanced Slope Detector

 This circuit uses two slope detectors,

connected in back to back fashion, to
opposite ends of center-tapped
transformer.
 And hence fed 1800 out of phase.
 Balanced Slope Detector
 The top secondary circuit is tuned above
the IF by an amount f, and bottom circuit
is tuned below IF by f.
 Each circuit is connected to diode
detectors with suitable RC loads.
 The output is taken across series
combination of loads, so that it is sum of
the individual outputs.
Balanced Slope Detector
 Balance Slope Detector-
Drawbacks

 Even more difficult to tune, as there

are three different frequencies to be
tuned.
 Amplitude limiting still not provided.
 Linearity, although better than single
slope detector, is still not good
enough.
 Foster-Seeley (Phase)
Discriminator

 In this all the tuned circuits are tuned

to the same frequency.
 Balanced Slope Detector circuit with
some changes is used.
 This circuit yields far better linearity
than slope detection.
 Phase Discriminator

As C & C4 are coupling & RF Bypass

capacitors respectively, therefore VL3 VIN So
Voltage across diode= VIN + Secondary
voltage/2
Phase Discriminator

 Now in Transformer voltage is induced

in the secondary as a result of current
in primary.
jM V . X
And V  IN C2
L1 R2  jX 2
ab

 Where X2= XL2-XC2

Phase Discriminator

 At resonance i.e. when input frequency

is fc, X2=0
jM VIN . X C 2
Vab 
L1 R2

 i.e. Vab leads VIN by 900.

Phase Discriminator

 And from the phasor diagram given

belowV:ab
2
Vab

2

 That as Vao=Vbo, hence discriminator

output is zero.
Phase Discriminator

 When input frequency is greater than

fc, then XL2>XC2 & hence X2 is0 positive.
jM VIN . X C 2 VIN X C 2 M90
Vab  
L1 R2  jX 2 L1 Z 2 
VIN X C 2 M
 (90   )
0

L1 Z 2

 That is Vab leads VIN by less than 900.

 Phase Discriminator

• And from the phasor diagram given below

:
Vab
2
Vab

2

• That as Vao>Vbo, hence discriminator

output is positive.
 Phase Discriminator

• When input frequency is less than fc, then

XL2<XC2 & hence X2 is negative.
jM VIN . X C 2 VIN X C 2 M900
Vab  
L1 R2  jX 2 L1 Z 2 ( )
VIN X C 2 M
 (90   )
0

L1 Z 2
• That is Vab leads VIN by more than 900.
 Phase Discriminator

• And from the phasor diagram given below

:
Vab
2
Vab

2

• That as Vao<Vbo, hence discriminator

output is negative.
 Phase Discriminator
Useful Range
extends upto half-
power points of
tuned transformer.
Useful
Range
Beyond which o/p falls
due to frequency
response of
transformer.
 Phase Discriminator
 It is much easier to align, as there are
now two tuned circuits and both are tuned
to the same frequency.
 Linearity is quite better, as circuit relies
less on frequency & more on primary-
secondary phase relation, which is quite
linear.
 Only drawback is, there is no provision for
amplitude limiting.
Ratio- Detector

 Ratio detector demodulator is modified

Foster-Seeley circuit in order to
incorporate amplitude limiting.
 In Foster-Seeley discriminator that
sum of voltages Vao+Vbo Should
remain constant,
 and their difference should vary due to
variation in input frequency.
 Ratio-detector
 But practically speaking any variation in
the amplitude of input signal, also has
impact on sum of Vao+Vbo, leading to
distortion.
 Ratio-detector circuit eliminates this
variation of Vao+Vbo, and performs the
function of amplitude limiter also.
 Ratio-Detector
Three changes are made in Foster-Seeley
discriminator:
 One of The diodes has been reversed.

 A large capacitor has been placed between

points, from where output was taken.
 Output now is taken from elsewhere.
Ratio-Detector

Change 1: Diode D2 is reversed so

that now sum of Vao & Vbo appears
across points a’ and b’ instead of
difference.
Ratio-Detector

Change 2: A capacitor C5 with large

time constant is connected across a’-b’
in order to keep Vao+Vbo constant.
Ratio-Detector

Change 3: Output is taken from o-o’ as

the difference of Vao + Vbo appears
there. Ground is shifted to O’.
Operation at Resonance
 No phase shift occurs at resonance and
both Vao & Vbo are equal. Hence their
difference (output) is zero.
 During negative part of cycle of input
signal, polarity across secondary also
changes and both diodes get reverse
biased.
 But C5 with large time constant maintains
voltage at constant level.
 Operation Above Resonance
 When a tuned circuit operates at a
frequency higher than resonance, the tank
is inductive.
 Secondary voltage V1 is nearer in phase
with primary voltage, while V2 is shifted
further out of phase with primary.
 Operation Above Resonance
 So output voltage in this case will be
positive as shown in vector diagram:

Vab
2
Vab

2 Output
Operation Below Resonance

 When a tuned circuit operates below

resonance, it is capacitive. Secondary
current leads the primary voltage and
 secondary voltage V2 is nearer in
phase with primary voltage and
voltage V1 is shifted away in phase
from primary voltage
 Operation Below Resonance

 So the output in this case will be

negative.

Vab
2
Vab

2
Output
Ratio-Detector Advantages

 Amplitude limiting is possible.

 Linearity is quite good as compared to
others. So quite often used in high
quality receivers.
 Ratio-Detector Dis-advantages
 Under critical noise conditions, such as
satellite receivers, where demodulator
noise performance becomes very
significant, even this demodulator is found
wanting.
 Under these conditions more advanced
demodulators such as Phase Locked
Loop are used.
Phase Locked Loop (PLL)

 It is the best frequency demodulator.

 A phase-locked loop (PLL) is an
electronic circuit with a voltage- or
current-driven oscillator that is
constantly adjusted to match in phase
(and thus lock on) with the frequency
of an input signal.
Phase Locked Loop

 A basic phase Locked Loop consists of

Three components:
 Phase discriminator: compares phase
of two signals and generates a
voltages according to phase difference
of two signals.
Phase Locked Loop

 Loop Filter: A low pass filter to filter the

output of phase discriminator.
 Voltage controlled Oscillator(VCO):
generates RF signals whose frequency
depends upon voltage generated by
phase discriminator.
 Phase Locked Loop
adjusts the VCO frequency
compare the two input signals and
in an attempt to correct for
generate an output signal that,
the original frequency or
when filtered, will control the VCO.
phase difference.
Phase Locked Loop

 As incoming frequency changes, The

phase discriminator generates a
voltage to control the frequency and
phase of VCO.
 This control voltage varies at the same
rate as the frequency of the incoming
signal.
 Phase Locked Loop
Control Voltage  rate of input freq change

Hence this signal can be directly used as

output.
PLL must have low time constant so that it
can follow modulating signal.
Phase Locked Loop

 Free running frequency of VCO is set

equal to the carrier frequency of the
FM wave.
 The lock range must be at least twice
the maximum deviation of the signal.
Phase Locked Loop

 Linearity is governed by voltage to

frequency characteristics of VCO.
 As it swings over small portion of its
bandwidth, the characteristic can be
made relatively linear.
 Hence the distortion levels of PLL
demodulators are normally very low.
Comparison AM and FM
 Its the SNR can be increased without increasing transmitted
power about 25dB higher than in AM

 Certain forms of interference at the receiver are more easily

to suppressed, as FM receiver has a limiter which eliminates
the amplitude variations and fluctuations.

 The modulation process can take place at a low level power

stage in the transmitter, thus a low modulating power is
needed.

 Power content is constant and fixed, and there is no waste of

power transmitted

 There are guard bands in FM systems allocated by the

standardization body, which can reduce interference between
the adjacent channels.
Application of FM

 FM is commonly used at VHF radio frequencies for

high-fidelity broadcasts of music and speech (FM
broadcasting). Normal (analog) TV sound is also
broadcast using FM. The type of FM used in
broadcast is generally called wide-FM, or W-FM
 A narrowband form is used for voice
communications in commercial and amateur radio
settings. In two-way radio, narrowband narrow-fm
(N-FM) is used to conserve bandwidth. In addition,
it is used to send signals into space.
Summary of angle modulation
-what you need to be familiar with
Summary (cont’d)
Summary (cont’d)

 Bandwidth:
a) Actual minimum bandwidth from Bessel
table:
B  2(n  f m )

b) Approximate minimum bandwidth using

Carson’s rule:
B  2(f  f m )
 Summary (cont’d)
 Multitone modulation (equation in general):
i  c  Kvm1  Kvm2

i  c  2f1 cos 1t  2f 2 cos 2t....

f1 f 2
i  C t  sin 1t  sin 2t......
f1 f2
 Summary (cont’d)

v fm t   VC sin i
f1 f 2
v fm t   VC sin[C t  sin 1t  sin 2t ]
f1 f2
 VC sin[C t  m f 1 sin 1t  m f 2 sin 2t ]...........
Summary (cont’d)-
Comparison NBFM&WBFM
 Advantages

 Wideband FM gives significant improvement in the SNR at the output

of the RX which proportional to the square of modulation index.
 Angle modulation is resistant to propagation-induced selective fading
since amplitude variations are unimportant and are removed at the
receiver using a limiting circuit.
 Angle modulation is very effective in rejecting interference. (minimizes
the effect of noise).
 Angle modulation allows the use of more efficient transmitter power in
information.
 Angle modulation is capable of handing a greater dynamic range of
modulating signal without distortion than AM.
Disadvantages

 Angle modulation requires a

transmission bandwidth much larger
than the message signal bandwidth.
 Angle modulation requires more
complex and expensive circuits than
AM.
END OF ANGLE
MODULATION