Old Japanese

Old Japanese ( 上 代 日 本 語 Jōdai Nihon-go) is the oldest attested stage of the

Japanese language. It is attested in documents from the Nara period (8th century). It
Old Japanese
evolved into Early Middle Japanese in the succeeding Heian period, although the 上代日本語
precise separation of these two languages is controversial. Old Japanese was an early
member of the Japonic family; no conclusive links to other language families have
been demonstrated.

Old Japanese was written using Chinese characters, using an increasingly

standardized and phonetic form that eventually evolved into man'yōgana. Typically
for a Japonic language and for a step in the evolutionary line of modern Japanese,
Old Japanese was a primarily agglutinative language with subject–object–verb word
Manuscript of the Man'yōshū,
ordering. However, the language was marked by a few phonemic differences from
recording Old Japanese using
later forms of Japanese, such as a simpler syllable structure and distinctions between
Chinese characters
several pairs of syllables pronounced identically in Early Middle Japanese and later.
Region Japan
The phonetic realization of this differentiation is uncertain.
Era Evolved into Early
Middle Japanese during
the Heian period

Contents Language Japonic

family
Old Japanese
Sources and dating
Writing man'yōgana
Writing system
system
Syllables
Transcription Language codes
Phonology ISO 639-3 ojp
Restrictions Linguist ojp [a]
Vowels List
Pre-Old Japanese
Glottolog oldj1239
Consonants
Pre-Old Japanese
Morphophonemics
Accent
Grammar
Pronouns
Verbs
Inflected forms
Consonant bases
Vowel bases
Adjectives
Dialects
See also
Notes
References
Works cited
Further reading
External links
Sources and dating
Linguistic changes are gradual, and the periodization of Japanese is "both delicate and
controversial", with multiple competing methods and criteria for division. For both practical
and conventional reasons, these divisions often correlate to political events, particularly shifts
in power or changes of capital.[1]

Old Japanese is usually defined as the language of the Nara period (710–794), when the
capital was Heijō-kyō (present-day Nara).[1][2] This is the period of the earliest connected
texts in Japanese, the 112 songs included in the Kojiki (712). The other major literary sources
of the period are the 128 songs included in the Nihon Shoki (720) and the Man'yōshū (c. 759),
a compilation of over 4,500 poems.[3][4] Shorter samples are 25 poems in the Fudoki (720)
and the 21 poems of the Bussokuseki-kahi (c. 752). The latter has the virtue of being an
original inscription, whereas for all the other texts the oldest surviving manuscripts are the
results of centuries of copying, with the attendant risk of scribal errors.[5] Prose texts are more
limited, but are thought to reflect the syntax of Old Japanese more accurately than verse. The
most important are the 27 Norito (liturgies) recorded in the Engishiki (compiled in 927) and
the 62 Senmyō (imperial edicts) recorded in theShoku Nihongi (797).[4][6]

A limited number of Japanese words, mostly personal names and place names, are recorded
phonetically in ancient Chinese texts such as the "W
ei Zhi" portion of the Records of the Three
Kingdoms (3rd century AD), but the transcriptions by Chinese scholars are unreliable.[7] The
oldest surviving native inscriptions, dating from the 5th or early 6th centuries, include those
on the Suda Hachiman Shrine Mirror, the Inariyama Sword and the Eta Funayama Sword.
These inscriptions are written in Classical Chinese, but contain several Japanese names
transcribed phonetically using Chinese characters.[8][9] Such inscriptions become more
Rubbing of Bussokuseki-
common from the Suiko period (592–628).[10] These fragments are usually considered a form
kahi poems carved c. 752
of Old Japanese.[11]

Writing system
Artifacts inscribed with Chinese characters dated as early as the 1st century AD have been found in Japan, but it appears that detailed
knowledge of the script did not arrive in the islands until the early 5th century. According to the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki, it was
brought by scholars from Baekje (southwest Korea).[12] The earliest texts found in Japan are written in Classical Chinese, probably
by immigrant scribes. Later "hybrid" texts show the influence of Japanese grammar, such as the word order (for example, placing the
verb after the object).[13]

Chinese and Koreans had long used Chinese characters to write non-Chinese terms and proper names phonetically, by selecting
characters for Chinese words that sounded like each syllable. Koreans also used the characters phonetically to write Korean particles
and inflections added to Chinese texts as an aid to reading (Idu script). In Japan, the practice was developed into man'yōgana, a
complete script for the Japanese language using Chinese characters phonetically, and the ancestor of modern kana syllabaries.[14]
This system was already in use in the verse parts of the Kojiki (712) and the Nihon Shoki (720).[15][16] For example, the first line of
the first poem in the Kojiki was written with five characters:[17][18]

夜 久 毛 多 都
Middle Chinese[b] yae kjuw maw ta tu
Old Japanese ya-kumo1 tatu
eight-cloud rise.ADN
'many clouds rising'
This method of writing Japanese syllables by using characters for their Chinese sounds (ongana) was supplemented with indirect
methods in the complex mixed script of theMan'yōshū (c. 759).[19][20][21]

Syllables
In man'yōgana, each Old Japanese syllable was represented by a Chinese character. Although any one of several characters could be
Kojiki:[22][23]
used for a given syllable, a careful analysis revealed that 88 syllables were distinguished in the

Syllables in the Kojiki

a ka ga sa za ta da na pa ba ma ya ra wa
ki1 gi1 pi1 bi1 mi1
i si zi ti di ni ri wi
ki2 gi2 pi2 bi2 mi2

u ku gu su zu tu du nu pu bu mu yu ru
ke1 ge1 pe1 be1 me1
e se ze te de ne ye re we
ke2 ge2 pe2 be2 me2

ko1 go1 so1 zo1 to1 do1 no1 mo1 yo1 ro1
o po bo wo
ko2 go2 so2 zo2 to2 do2 no2 mo2 yo2 ro2

The system has the same gaps of yi and wu found in later forms of Japanese. However, many syllables that have a modern i, e or o
occurred in two forms, termed types A (甲 kō) and B (乙 otsu), denoted by subscripts 1 and 2 respectively in the above table.[22][24]
The syllables mo1 and mo2 are not distinguished in the slightly later Nihon Shoki and Man'yōshū, reducing the syllable count to
87.[25][26] All of these pairs had merged by the Early Middle Japaneseof the Heian period.[27][28]

Transcription
Several different notations for the type A/B distinction are found in the literature, including:[29][30]

Common notations for the type A/B distinction

indexed notation i1 i2 e1 e2 o1 o2

Kindaichi, Miller, Ōno i ï e ë o ö

modified Mathias–Miller î ï ê ë ô ö
Yale (Martin) yi iy ye ey wo o
Frellesvig and Whitman i wi ye e wo o

Phonology
There is no consensus on the pronunciation of the syllables distinguished by man'yōgana.[31] One difficulty is that the Middle
Chinese pronunciations of the characters used are also disputed, and since their reconstruction is partly based on Sino-Japanese
pronunciations, there is a danger of circular reasoning.[32] Additional evidence has been drawn from phonological typology,
Ryukyuan languages.[33]
subsequent developments in the Japanese pronunciation, and comparative study of the

Restrictions
Old Japanese had open syllables, of the form (C)V, subject to additional restrictions:

Words do not begin withr or the voiced plosivesb, d, z and g, with the exception of a few loanwords.[34]
[35]
A bare vowel does not occur except for word-initially: vowel sequences were not permitted.
In 1934, Arisaka Hideyo proposed a set of phonological restrictions permitted in a single morpheme. Arisaka's Law states that -o2 is
generally not found in the same morpheme as-a, -o1 or -u. Some scholars have interpreted this as a vestige of earlier vowel harmony,
but it is very different from patterns observed in e.g. the Turkic languages.[36]

Vowels
The Chinese characters chosen to write syllables with the Old Japanese vowel a suggest that it was an open unrounded vowel /a/.[37]
The vowel u was a close rounded back vowel/u/, unlike the unrounded/ɯ/ of Modern Standard Japanese.[38]

Several hypotheses have been advanced to explain the A/B distinctions made in man'yōgana. The issue is hotly debated, and there is
no consensus.[29] The widely accepted traditional view, first advanced by Kyōsuke Kindaichi in 1938, is that there were eight pure
vowels, with the type B vowels being more central than their type A counterparts.[39] Others, beginning in the 1930s but more
commonly since the work of Roland Lange in 1968, attribute the type A/B distinction to medial or final glides /j/ and /w/.[40][30] The
[30]
diphthong proposals are often connected to hypotheses about pre-Old Japanese, but all exhibit an uneven distribution of glides.

[29]
Examples of reconstructions of type A/B distinctions
i1 i2 e1 e2 o1 o2 Author

i wi e we wo o Kikusawa (1935)
i ï e ë o ö Kindaichi (1938), Miller (1967)
i ïj e əj o ə Arisaka (1955)
ji i je e o ɵ Hattori (1958)
ji i je e wo o Lange (1968, 1973)
i wi je e wo o Unger (1977), Frellesvig and Whitman (2008)
i ï e ɛ o ɵ Ōno (1982)
i ɨ e əj o ə Miyake (2003)

The distinction between mo1 and mo2 is only seen in Kojiki and vanished afterwards. Distributionally, there may have once been
*po1, *po2, *bo1 and *bo2.[26] If this is true, then a distinction was made between Co1 and Co2 for all consonants C except for w.
Some take this as support that Co1 may have represented Cwo.

Pre-Old Japanese
Most scholars derive the Old Japanese vowel system from an earlier four-vowel system, with the most common Old Japanese vowels
a, u, i1 and o2 reflecting earlier *a, *u, *i and *ə respectively.[36] Internal reconstruction suggests that the other, less common, Old
Japanese vowels are derived from fusions of these vowels.[41] For example, the place name take2ti is derived from a compound of
taka- 'high' and iti 'market'.[42][43] Another piece of evidence is that many nouns have different forms when used independently and
when used within compounds. An example is sake2 'rice wine', which becomes saka- in compounds such as sakaduki 'saké cup'. In
such cases the bound form is considered basic, and the independent form may be explained by postulating a suffix *-i that fused with
the final vowel of the root.[44][45] The following reductions are proposed:

i2 < *ui: kami2/kamu- 'god, spirit',[44][45] mi2/mu- 'eye',[45][46] nagi2/nagu- 'a calm'.[46]
i2 < *əi: ki2/ko2- 'tree',[44][45] yomi2/yomo2- 'Hades'.[45]
e1 < *ia: sake1ri 'blooming' < saki1 'to bloom' + ari 'to be'.[47][48]
e1 < *iə: pe1ku (proper name) < pi1 'sun' + o2ki1 'put'.[47]
e2 < *ai: me2/ma- 'eye',[45] ame2/ama- 'heaven', ame2/ama- 'rain', kage2/kaga- 'shade'.[49]
o1 < *ua: kazo1pu 'to count' < kazu 'number' + apu 'to combine'.[42][47][50]
o1 < *uə: sito1ri 'kind of native weaving' <situ 'native weaving' + ori 'weaving'.[42][47][51]
There are also alternations suggestinge2 < *əi, such as:
 se2/so2- 'back', me2/mo2- 'bud'[45]
Some authors believe these belong to an earlier layer than i2 < *əi, while others reconstruct two central vowels *ə and *ɨ, which
merge everywhere except before *i.[48][52] Other authors attribute this variation to different reflexes in different dialects, noting that
*əi yields e in Ryukyuan languages.[53] Some authors also suggest that *e and *o are required to account for word-final e1 and o1
respectively.[54]

Consonants
, in addition to a zero vowel-initial onset/∅/:[55]
Miyake 2003 reconstructs the following inventory

Old Japanese consonants

Labial Coronal Palatal Velar
voiceless *p *t *s *k
Obstruent
voiced prenasalized *ᵐb *ⁿd *ⁿz *ᵑɡ
Nasal *m *n
Liquid *r
Approximant *w *j

The voiceless obstruents /p, t, s, k/ had the voiced prenasalized counterparts /ᵐb, ⁿd, ⁿz, ᵑɡ/.[55] This prenasalization was still present
in the late 17th century (according to the Korean textbook Chephay sine), and is found in some modern Japanese and Ryukyuan
dialects, but has disappeared in Modern Japanese, except for the intervocalic nasal stop allophone [ŋ] of /ɡ/.[56] The sibilants /s/ and /
ⁿz/ may have been palatalized beforee and i.[57]

Comparative evidence from Ryukyuan languages suggests that Old Japanese p derives from an earlier voiceless bilabial stop *p.[58]
There is general agreement that word-initial p had become a voiceless bilabial fricative [ɸ] by Early Middle Japanese, as suggested
by its transcription as f in later Portuguese works and as ph or hw in the Korean textbook Chephay sine. In Modern Standard
Japanese, it is romanized as h and has different allophones before various vowels. In medial position, it became [w] in Early Middle
Japanese, and has since disappeared except before a.[59] Many scholars argue that p had already lenited to [ɸ] by the Old Japanese
period, but Miyake argues that it was still a stop.[60]

Pre-Old Japanese
Internal reconstruction suggests that the Old Japanese voiced obstruents, which always occurred in medial position, arose from
[61][62]
weakening of earlier nasal syllables before voiceless obstruents:

b /ᵐb/ < *-mVp-, *-nVp-: e.g.abi1ki1 'trawling' < ami1 'net' + pi1ki1 'pull'.
d /ⁿd/ < *-mVt-, *-nVt-: e.g. yamadi 'mountain path' < yama 'mountain' + mi1ti 'path'.
z /ⁿz/ < *-mVs-, *-nVs-: e.g. the titlemurazi < mura 'village' + nusi 'master'.
g /ᵑɡ/ < *-mVk-, *-nVk-.
[34]
In some cases there is no evidence for a preceding vowel, leading some scholars to posit final nasals at the earlier stage.

Some linguists suggest that Old Japanese w and y derive respectively from *b and *d at some point before the oldest inscriptions in
the 6th century.[63] Southern Ryukyuan varieties such as Miyako, Yaeyama and Yonaguni retain /b/ and /d/ in these words:[58]

ba 'I' and bata 'stomach' corresponding to Old Japanesewa and wata

Yonaguni da 'house', du 'hot water' and dama 'mountain' corresponding to Old Japaneseya, yu and yama
However, many linguists, especially in Japan, argue that the Southern Ryukyuan voiced stops are local innovations.[64] Some
supporters of *b and *d also add *z and *g, both disappearing in Old Japanese, for reasons of symmetry.[65] However, there is very
little Japonic evidence for these.[34][66]
Morphophonemics
Vowel elision occurred to prevent vowel clusters. When a monosyllabic morpheme is followed by a polysyllabic morpheme
[67][68]
beginning with a vowel, the second vowel is dropped:

wa + ga + ipe1 → wagape1
In other environments, the first vowel is dropped:[67][68]

ake + u → aku
to2ko2 + ipa → to2kipa
ko2 + i → ki

Accent
Although modern Japanese dialects have pitch accent systems, these are usually not shown in man'yōgana. However, in one part of
the Nihon Shoki, the Chinese characters appear to be chosen to represent a pitch pattern similar to that recorded in the Ruiju
Myōgishō, a dictionary compiled in the late 11th century. In this section, a low pitch syllable is represented by a character with the
Middle Chinese level tone, and a high pitch is represented by a character with one of the other three Middle Chinese tones. (A similar
division was used in the tone patterns of Chinese poetry, which were emulated by Japanese poets in the late Asuka period.) Thus it
appears that the Old Japanese accent system was similar to that ofEarly Middle Japanese.[69]

Grammar
As in later forms of Japanese, Old Japanese word order was predominantly subject–object–verb, with adjectives and adverbs
preceding the nouns and verbs they modify,and auxiliary verbs and particles consistently appended to the main verb.[70]

Pronouns
Many Old Japanese pronouns had both a short form and a longer form with attached -re of uncertain etymology. Where the pronoun
occurred in isolation, the longer form would be used. With genitive particles or in nominal compounds, the short form was used,
[71]
whereas in other situations either form was possible.

Personal pronouns were distinguished by taking the genitive marker ga, in contrast to the marker no2 used with demonstratives and
nouns.[72]

The first person pronouns were a(re) and wa(re), were used for the singular and plural respectively
, though with
some overlap. The wa- forms were also usedreflexively, suggesting that wa was originally an indefinite pronoun and
gradually replaced a.[72]
The second person pronoun wasna(re).[73]
The third person pronounsi was much less commonly used than the non-proximal demonstrativeso2, from which it
was derived.[74]
There were also an interrogative pronoun ta(re) and a reflexive pronouno2no2.[73]
Demonstratives often distinguished proximal (to the speaker) and non-proximal forms marked with ko2- and so2- respectively. Many
forms had corresponding interrogative formsi(du)-.[75]
 Old Japanese demonstratives[76]
Proximal Non-proximal Interrogative
Nominal ko2(re) so2 idu(re)

Location ko2ko2 so2ko2 iduku

Direction ko2ti – iduti

Degree ko2kV- so2kV- iku-

ka sate –
Manner
kaku sika ika
Time – – itu

In Early Middle Japanese, the non-proximal so- forms were re-interpreted as hearer-based (mesial), and the formerly speaker-based
[77]
forms divided into proximalko- forms and distal ka-/a- forms, yielding the three-way distinction still found in Modern Japanese.

Verbs
Old Japanese had a richer system of verbal suffixes than later forms of Japanese.[78] Old Japanese verbs used inflection for modal
and conjunctional purposes.[79] Other categories, such as voice, tense, aspect and mood, were expressed using optional suffixed
auxiliaries, which were also inflected.[80]

Inflected forms
As in later forms of Japanese, Old Japanese verbs had a large number of inflected forms. In traditional Japanese grammar, these are
represented by six forms (katsuyōkei, 活用形) from which all the others may be derived, in a similar fashion to the principal parts
used for Latin and other languages:[81]

Mizenkei (irrealis)
This form never occurs in isolation, but only as a stem to which several particles and
auxiliaries are attached.[82] Unger calls it a "pseudostem", because the purported inflection
was originally an initial *a of the suffixes attached to this stem.[83]
Renyoukei (adverbial, infinitive)
This form was used as the infinitive.[84] It also served as a stem for auxiliaries expressing
tense and aspect.[85]
Shushikei (conclusive, predicative)
This form was used as the main verb concluding a declarative sentence.[79] It was also
before modal extensions, final particles and some conjunctional particles.[86]
Rentaikei (attributive, adnominal)
This form was used as a verb in a nominalized clause or a clause modifying a noun.[87]
Izenkei (realis, exclamatory, subjunctive)
This form was used as the main verb in an exclamatory sentence or as the verb in an
adverbial clause.[88] It also served as a stem for the particles -ba (provisional) and -do
(concessive).[89]
Meireikei (imperative)
This form expressed the imperative mood.[88]

This system has been criticized because the six forms are not equivalent, with one being solely a combinatory stem, three solely word
forms, and two being both. It also fails to capture some inflected forms. However, five of the forms are basic inflected verb forms,
.[90]
and the system also describes almost all extended forms in a consistent way

Consonant bases
Japanese verbs are classified into eight conjugation classes, each characterized by different patterns of inflected forms. Three of these
classes are grouped as consonant bases:[91]

Yodan (quadrigrade)
This class of regular consonant-base verbs includes approximately 75% of verbs.[91] The
class is so named because the inflections in later forms of Japanese span four rows of a
kana table, corresponding to four vowels. However, in Old Japanese five different vowels are
involved.[92] These bases are almost all of the form (C)VC-, with the final consonant limited
to p, t, k, b, g, m, s or r.[93]
Na-hen (n-irregular)
The three n-base verbs form a class of their own: sin- 'die', -in- 'depart' and the auxiliary -(i)n-
expressing completion of an action. They are often described as a "hybrid" conjugation,
because the adnominal and exclamatory forms follow a similar pattern to vowel-base
verbs.[94]
Ra-hen (r-irregular)
The irregular r-base verbs are ar- 'be, exist' and other verbs incorporating it, as well as wor-
'sit', which became the existential verb or- in later forms of Japanese.[95]

Conjugation of consonant-base verbs[96]

Verb class Irrealis Infinitive Conclusive Adnominal Exclamatory Imperative Gloss
Quadrigrade kaka- kaki1 kaku kaku kake2 kake1 'write'

n-irregular sina- sini sinu sinuru sinure sine 'die'

r-irregular ara- ari ari aru are are 'be, exist'

The distinctions betweeni1 and i2 and between e1 and e2 are lost after s, z, t, d, n, y, r and w.

Vowel bases
There are five vowel-base classes:

Shimo nidan (lower bigrade or e-bigrade)

The largest regular vowel-base class comprises bases ending in e2, and includes
approximately 20% of verbs.[93]
Kami nidan (upper bigrade or i-bigrade)
This class of bases ending in i2 contains about 30 verbs.[93]
Kami ichidan (upper monograde or i-monograde)
This class contains about 10 verbs of the form (C)ii-. Some monosyllabic upper bigrade
verbs had already shifted to this class by the Old Japanese period, and the rest followed in
Early Middle Japanese.[97]
Ka-hen (k-irregular)
This class consists of the single verb ko2- 'come'.[98]
Sa-hen (s-irregular)
This class consists of the single verb se- 'do'.[98]

Early Middle Japanese also had a Shimo ichidan (lower monograde or e-monograde) category consisting of a single verb kwe- 'kick',
which reflects the Old Japanese lower bigrade verbkuwe-.[99][100][101][102]
 Conjugation of vowel-base verbs[96]
Verb class Irrealis Infinitive Conclusive Adnominal Exclamatory Imperative Gloss
e-bigrade ake2- ake2 aku akuru akure ake2 'open'

i-bigrade oki2- oki2 oku okuru okure oki2 'arise'

monograde mi1- mi1 mi1ru mi1ru mi1re mi1(yo2) 'see'

k-irregular ko2- ki1 ku kuru kure ko2 'come'

s-irregular se- si su suru sure se(yo2) 'do'

Many bigrade verbs are transitive or intransitive counterparts of consonant-stem verbs.[103] The bigrade bases also appear to reflect
fix:[83][104]
pre-Old-Japanese vowel stems combined with an *-i suf

e-bigrade: *-a-i > -e2

i-bigrade: *-ə-i > -i2 and *-u-i > -i2

Adjectives
There were two types of adjectives: regularadjectives and adjectival nouns.

The regular adjective is sub-classified into two types: those where the adverbial form連用形)
( ends in -ku and those that end in -siku.
This creates two different types of conjugations:

Adjective Class Irrealis Adverbial Conclusive Attributive Realis Imperative

-ke1
-ke1 -ku -si -ki1
-ku -ke1re

-kara -kari -si -karu -kare -kare

-sike1
-sike1 -siku -si -siki1
-siku -sike1re

-sikara -sikari -si -sikaru -sikare -sikare

The -kar- and -sikar- forms are derived from the verb ar- "be, exists". The adverbial conjugation (-ku or -siku) is suffixed with ar-.
The conjugation yields to the R-irregular conjugation ofar-. As Old Japanese avoids vowel clusters, the resulting-ua- elides into -a-.

The adjectival noun has a single conjugation:

Irrealis Adverbial Conclusive Attributive Realis Imperative

Adjectival noun -nara -nari -nari -naru -nare -nare

Dialects
Although the majority of Old Japanese writing represents the language of the Nara court in central Japan, some sources come from
eastern Japan:[105][106][107]

230 azuma uta 'eastern songs' in volume 14 of theMan'yōshū,

93 sakimori uta 'borderguard songs' in volume 20 of theMan'yōshū, and
9 songs in the Hitachi fudoki (714–718).
They record Eastern Old Japanese dialects,[108] with features such as:

There is no type A/B distinction on front vowelsi and e, though o1 and o2 are distinguished.[109]
Pre-Old Japanese *ia yieldeda in the east, where Central Old Japanese hase1.[109]
 The adnominal form of consonant-base verbs ended in-o1, where Central Old Japanese has-u as in the conclusive
form.[110] A similar difference is preserved inRyukyuan languages, suggesting that Central Old Japanese had
innovated by merging these endings.[111]
The imperative form of vowel-base verbs attached-ro2, instead of the -yo2 used in Central Old Japanese.[112]
There are a group of distinctive negative auxiliaries. However
, they do not seem to be the source of the dif
ferent
negatives in modern eastern and westernJapanese dialects.[112]

See also
Classical Japanese language
List of extinct languages of Asia

Notes
a. Described as "The ancestor of modern Japanese. 7th–10th centuries AD." The more usual date for the change from
Old Japanese to Middle Japanese is ca. 800 (end of the Nara era).
b. Readings are given in Baxter's transcription for Middle Chinese, omitting marking of tones, which are not relevant
here.

References
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2. Miyake 2003, p. 1.
3. Miyake 2003, p. 17.
4. Frellesvig 2010, p. 24.
5. Miyake 2003, pp. 19–20.
6. Bentley 2001, p. 6.
7. Miyake 2003, pp. 5–8.
8. Miyake 2003, p. 10.
9. Seeley 1991, pp. 16–25.
10. Miyake 2003, p. 12.
11. Miyake 2003, p. 66.
12. Miyake 2003, pp. 8–9.
13. Seeley 1991, pp. 25–31.
14. Shibatani 1990, p. 126.
15. Seeley 1991, pp. 41–49.
16. Miyake 2003, pp. 18–20, 28–40.
17. Miyake 2003, pp. 1, 18, 22.
18. Frellesvig 2010, p. 19.
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20. Miyake 2003, pp. 20, 24–27.
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27. Miyake 2003, p. 84.
28. Frellesvig 2010, p. 26.
29. Miyake 2003, p. 62.
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35. Frellesvig 2010, p. 39.
36. Frellesvig 2010, p. 44.
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38. Miyake 2003, pp. 207–211.
39. Miyake 2003, p. 55.
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41. Miyake 2003, pp. 80–81.
42. Miyake 2003, p. 81.
43. Frellesvig 2010, p. 46.
44. Miyake 2003, p. 80.
45. Frellesvig 2010, p. 45.
46. Shibatani 1990, p. 134.
47. Frellesvig 2010, p. 48.
48. Erickson 2003, p. 499.
49. Shibatani 1990, p. 133.
50. Erickson 2003, pp. 498–499.
51. Erickson 2003, p. 498.
52. Frellesvig 2010, pp. 45–47.
53. Unger 2000, p. 661.
54. Frellesvig 2010, pp. 47–48.
55. Miyake 2003, p. 196.
56. Miyake 2003, pp. 75–76.
57. Miyake 2003, pp. 183, 186.
58. Shibatani 1990, p. 194.
59. Miyake 2003, p. 74.
60. Miyake 2003, pp. 71, 164–166.
61. Miyake 2003, p. 73.
62. Frellesvig 2010, pp. 42–43.
63. Miyake 2003, pp. 71–73.
64. Vovin 2010, pp. 36–44.
65. Unger 2000, p. 666.
66. Miyake 2003, pp. 68–71.
67. Unger 2000, p. 662.
68. Frellesvig 2010, pp. 39–40.
69. Miyake 2003, pp. 37–39.
70. Shibatani 1990, pp. 122–123.
71. Frellesvig 2010, pp. 136–137.
72. Frellesvig 2010, p. 138.
73. Frellesvig 2010, p. 136.
74. Frellesvig 2010, pp. 138–139.
75. Frellesvig 2010, pp. 139–140.
 76. Frellesvig 2010, p. 141.
77. Frellesvig 2010, pp. 140, 246–247.
78. Shibatani 1990, p. 123.
79. Frellesvig 2010, p. 53.
80. Frellesvig 2010, p. 59.
81. Frellesvig 2010, pp. 114–118.
82. Frellesvig 2010, pp. 111–112.
83. Unger 2000, p. 665.
84. Frellesvig 2010, pp. 56–57.
85. Frellesvig 2010, pp. 109–111.
86. Frellesvig 2010, pp. 123–124, 133.
87. Frellesvig 2010, pp. 54–55.
88. Frellesvig 2010, p. 55.
89. Frellesvig 2010, pp. 112–113.
90. Frellesvig 2010, pp. 116–118.
91. Frellesvig 2010, p. 96.
92. Frellesvig 2010, p. 115.
93. Frellesvig 2010, p. 97.
94. Frellesvig 2010, p. 105.
95. Frellesvig 2010, pp. 101–103.
96. Frellesvig 2010, pp. 54, 114.
97. Frellesvig 2010, p. 106.
98. Frellesvig 2010, pp. 107–108.
99. Frellesvig 2010, pp. 227–228.
100. Yamaguchi et al. 1997, p. 18.
101. Kondō, Tsukimoto & Sugiura 2005, p. 41.
102. Omodaka 1967, pp. 37–38.
103. Frellesvig 2010, pp. 118–119.
104. Frellesvig 2010, p. 119.
105. Vovin 2005.
106. Miyake 2003, p. 159.
107. Frellesvig 2010, pp. 23–24, 151.
108. Kupchik 2011.
109. Frellesvig 2010, p. 152.
110. Frellesvig 2010, pp. 152–153.
111. Bentley 2012, p. 189.
112. Frellesvig 2010, p. 153.

Works cited
Bentley, John R. (2001). A Descriptive Grammar of Early Old Japanese Prose
. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-12308-3.
——— (2012). "Old Japanese". In Tranter, Nicolas. The Languages of Japan and Korea. Routledge. pp. 189–211.
ISBN 978-1-136-44658-0.
Erickson, Blaine (2003)."Old Japanese and Proto-Japonic word structure"(PDF). In Vovin, Alexander; Osada, Toshiki.
Nihongo keitōron no genzai日本語系統論の現在 [Perspectives on the Origins of the Japanese Language ]. Kyoto:
International Research Center for Japanese Studies
. pp. 493–510. ISBN 978-4-901558-17-4.
Frellesvig, Bjarke (2010).A History of the Japanese Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN 978-0-
521-65320-6.
Kondō, Yasuhiro; Tsukimoto, Masayuki; Sugiura, Katsumi (2005).Nihongo no Rekishi [A history of the Japanese
language] (in Japanese). Tokyo: Hōsō Daigaku KyōikuShinkōkai. ISBN 4-595-30547-8.
Kupchik, John E. (2011).A grammar of the eastern old Japanese dialects(PhD thesis). University of Hawai'i.
Miyake, Marc Hideo (2003). Old Japanese: A Phonetic Reconstruction. London; New York: RoutledgeCurzon.ISBN 0-
415-30575-6.
Omodaka, Hisataka, ed. (1967).Jidaibetsu Kokugo Daijiten: Jōdaihen[Comprehensive dictionary of Japanese by
historical period: ancient edition] (in Japanese). Tokyo: Sanseidō. ISBN 978-4-385-13237-2.
Seeley, Christopher (1991). A History of Writing in Japan. Leiden: BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-09081-1.
Shibatani, Masayoshi (1990).The Languages of Japan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN 0-521-36918-5.
Unger, J. Marshall (2000). "Reconciling Comparative and Internal Reconstruction: The Case of Old Japanese /ti, ri, ni/".
Language. 76 (3): 655–681. doi:10.2307/417138. JSTOR 417138.
Vovin, Alexander (2005). A Descriptive and Comparative Grammar of W estern Old Japanese. Part One: Sources, Script
and Phonology, Lexicon, Nominals. Folkestone, Kent: Global Oriental.ISBN 978-1-901903-14-0.
——— (2010). Korea-Japonica: A Re-Evaluation of a Common Genetic Origin
. University of Hawaii Press.ISBN 978-0-
8248-3278-0.
Yamaguchi, Akiho; Suzuki, Hideo; Sakanashi, Ryūzō; Tsukimoto, Masayuki (1997).Nihongo no Rekishi [A history of the
Japanese language] (in Japanese). Tōkyō:Tōkyō Daigaku Shuppankai. ISBN 4-13-082004-4.

Further reading
Frellesvig, Bjarne; Whitman, John, eds. (2008).Proto-Japanese: Issues and Prospects. John Benjamins. ISBN 978-
90-272-4809-1.

Pellard, Thomas (2010)."Bjarke Frellesvig & John Whitman (2008)Proto-Japanese : Issues and prospects".
Cahiers de Linguistique – Asie Orientale. 39 (1): 95–114. doi:10.1163/1960602810x00089.
Hayata, Teruhiro (2000). "The liquid and stem-final vowel alternations of verbs in ancient Japanese".Gengo Kenkyu
(118): 5–27. doi:10.11435/gengo1939.2000.118_5.
Martin, Samuel E. (1987). The Japanese Language Through Time. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-
300-03729-6.
Ōno, Susumu (2000). Nihongo no Keisei 日本語の形成 [The Formation of the Japanese Language] (in Japanese).
Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten. ISBN 978-4-00-001758-9.
Tōdō, Akiyasu; Kanō, Yoshimitsu (2005). Gakken Shin Kan-Wa Daijiten 学研新漢和大字典 [Gakken new Chinese-
Japanese character dictionary] (in Japanese). Tokyo: Gakushū Kenkyūsha.ISBN 978-4-05-300082-8.
Vovin, Alexander (2009).A Descriptive and Comparative Grammar of W estern Old Japanese. Part Two: Adjectives,
Verbs, Adverbs, Conjunctions, Particles, Postpositions. Folkestone, Kent: Global Oriental.ISBN 978-1-905246-82-3.
Yuko, Yanagida (2012). "The Syntactic Reconstruction of Alignment and W ord Order: The Case of Old Japanese".
Historical Linguistics 2009: Selected papers from the 19th International Conference on Historical Linguistics
.
Historical Linguistics: Current Issues in Linguistic Theory
. 320. John Benjamins. pp. 107–128.
doi:10.1075/cilt.320.06yan. ISBN 978-90-272-7480-9.

External links
Oxford Corpus of Old Japanese– all Old Japanese texts in original script and transcription.
Japanese Historical Linguistics– collection of materials at Cornell University
, including drafts of the Old Japanese
chapters of Frellesvig 2010.

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