SEMESTER 6-HUMANITIES-ASSINGMENT 4

1.SHORT NOTES

URBANIZATION

Urbanization refers to the population shift from rural to urban areas, "the gradual increase in the proportion of people living
in urban areas", and the ways in which each society adapts to the change.It is predominantly the process by which towns
and cities are formed and become larger as more people begin living and working in central areas.

A) RURBANIZATION

Rurbanization is a process of altering rural forms with pre-selected urban patterns and lifestyles, which creates new
genetically altered rurban forms. Rurbanization is a process of rural transformation. It is not yet caught attention urban
planners but it is a prominent development process commonly witnessed in developing countries. Predominantly rural
agriculture economy, forms of settlements, lifestyles, and social attitudes are changing and new rurban form is emerging.

Effects of Rurbanization: Effects of rurbanization can be seen at three levels. Local, regional, and state level. Changes are
initiated in one field but effects are reflected in different fields such as economic, social, political, environmental, and
physical.

EXTRA-(Rurbanization is an emerging and potentially most important transformative process, observed in few pockets of
the large third world, developing countries. It is fundamentally a process of transformation of rural areas by introduction of
certain urban characteristics. It brings about differential growth patterns. However it is not based on the domination
paradigm (domination of man over nature or state over citizens) and is fundamentally not an exploitative process. It is more
of a regenerative, restorative and revitalizing process. Its emphasis is on healing the wounds suffered during the colonial
rule. It positively affects people and environment. Its emphasis is on judicial consumption of resources. It combines
traditional knowledge and practices with modern technology. It is a distributive and participatory process, which brings
about changes in the lifestyles of participants. Modern technologies such as telecommunication and information technology
can further and strengthen the process. It has potential of combining local actions with a global vision. Future oriented
rurbanization can make the world a better place to live. )

B)SUBURBANIZATION

Suburbanization is a population shift from central urban areas into suburbs, resulting in formation of (sub)urban sprawl.
Sub-urbanization is inversely related to urbanization, which denotes population shift from rural areas into urban centres.

Causes and effects-Suburbanization can be linked to a number of different push and pull factors. Push factors include the
congestion and population density of the cities, pollution caused by industry and high levels of traffic and a general
perception of a lower quality of life in inner city areas. Pull factors include more open spaces and a perception of being
closer to "nature", lower suburban house prices and property taxes in comparison to the city, and the increasing number
of job opportunities in the suburban areas. Improvements in transportation infrastructure encourage suburbanization, as
people become increasingly able to live in a suburb and commute into the nearby town or city to work. Developments in
railways, bus routes and roads are the main improvements that make suburbanization more practical. The increase in the
number and size of highways is a particularly significant part of this effect.

Government policies can have a significant effect on the process.

C)GENTRIFICATION

The process of wealthier residents moving to an area, and the changes that occur due to the influx of wealth. As wealthier
inhabitants move into an area that is already populated with lower-income residents, the neighborhood begins to change
as well. Often this will spark an urban renewal process, which cleans up the town, but often leads to an increase in rent,
taxes, and other items. Sometimes this change means that the previous residents can no longer afford to live in that
neighborhood, which is why gentrification can sometimes be used in a negative context. However, many good changes also
historically accompany gentrification, such as decreased crime rates and increased economic activity.

D) BLIGHT
Urban blight refers to the deterioration and decay of buildings and older areas of large cities, due to neglect, crime, or lack
of economic support. This is a typical sight in most US cities, and in many cities throughout the world. As a city gets older,
some buildings or properties are not maintained and become run-down, abandoned or condemned. This can also be
referred to as urban decay. People who cannot afford to live elsewhere must sometimes live in properties that are without
appropriate maintenance, such as housing projects, which may also be called slums or ghettos. The look and condition of
these properties, as well as their use, can be said to be urban blight.

This problem is not simply a cosmetic issue. As homes or properties become condemned and decay they can affect other
well-maintained properties surrounding them. Just as blight in plants can affect other healthy plants, urban blight can
spread to or affect other properties. They bring down surrounding property values, may become havens for illegal activity
like drug dealing, and are more prone to fires, which can spread to other buildings.

E)URBAN AGGLOMERATION SEE PDF

F)SATELLITE TOWNS

A satellite town or satellite city is a concept in urban planning that refers essentially to smaller metropolitan areas which
are located somewhat near to, but are mostly independent of larger metropolitan areas.

1. SATELLITE TOWNSA satellite townor satellite city isa concept inurban planningthat refersessentially
tominiaturemetropolitanareas on thefringe of largerones

2. SATELLITE TOWNSCharacteristics

• Are physically separated

• Satellite cities are from the metropolis by rural territory; satellite cities small or medium-sized should have their
own cities near a large independent urbanized metropolis, that are area, or equivalent;

• Predate that Have their own bedroom metropolis suburban communities; expansion; Have a traditional

• Are at least partially downtown surrounded by independent from that traditional "inner city" neighborhoods;
metropolis economically and

• May or may not be counted as part of the large socially; metropolis Combined Statistical Area.

G)DORMITORY TOWNS

a town that people live in and from where they travel to work in a bigger town or city Recently people have moved from
the city centres to suburbs or dormitory towns.

H)STATUTORY TOWNS/CENSUS TOWNS SEE PDF

I)TIER 1 AND TIER 2 CITIES

• Tier I cities have a developed, established real estate market. These cities tend to be highly developed, with
desirable schools, facilities, and businesses. These cities have the most expensive real estate.

• Tier II cities are in the process of developing their real estate markets. These cities tend to be up-and-coming and
many companies have invested in these areas, but they haven't yet reached their peak. Real estate is usually relatively
inexpensive here; however, if growth continues, prices will rise.

• Tier III cities have undeveloped or nonexistent real estate markets. Real estate in these cities tends to be cheap,
and there is an opportunity for growth if real estate companies decide to invest in developing the area.

In India, the words “cities” and “towns” are defined in the Census of India – which provides statistical information on
different characteristics of the people of India. The responsibility of conducting the decennial Census rests with the Office
of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India under Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India.

Cities and Towns are part of urban settlements.

All places with a municipality, corporation, cantonment board or notified town area committee, etc. so declared by a state
law are called statutory towns.

Places which satisfy the following criteria are called census towns:

1. A minimum population of 5,000;

2. At least 75 per cent of the male main working population engaged in non-agricultural pursuits; and

3. A density of population of at least 400 persons per sq. km. (i.e. 1000 per sq. Mile)

Towns are further classified into different classes based on the size of population:

Class I: 100,000 and above;

Class II: 50,000 to 99,999;

Class III: 20,000 to 49,999;

Class IV: 10,000 to 19,999;

Class V: 5,000 to 9,999 and

Towns with population of 1,00,000 and above are called cities.

Tier II Cities

These are the next level down from Tier I, and are basically smaller cities, statistically 1 million in population and are usually
regional hubs such as state capitals or industrialized centres. Some examples include Pune, Cochin, Mangalore, and Dehra
Dun.

Tier III Cities

This includes minor cities like Nasik, Baroda, Trichy, Madurai, etc. Tier III consist of cities with a population of less than a
million. In simpler terms, these comprise cities that are just beginning to wake up and take form.

The issue with a Tier I city - when it comes to economic boom and investment – is that they are inundated with burgeoning
investments in the industrial and service sectors. Along with the boom of large-scale investments, so too has the real estate
sector. This creates congestion, which has arisen out of an increasing demand for residential and commercial properties.
This is where Tier II and Tier III cities come into play as congestion in realty structures has forced the respective governments
and many investment companies to seek out alternative smaller cities.

Tier II and Tier III cities have myriad benefits to them as well.

J)RURBAN

A new development of land that is between an area of rural activity and the edge of suburban area that has already been
developed.

K)FRINGE

The rural–urban fringe, also known as the outskirts or the urban hinterland, can be described as the "landscape interface
between town and country", or also as the transition zone where urban and rural uses mix and often clash.[2] Alternatively,
it can be viewed as a landscape type in its own right, one forged from an interaction of urban and rural land uses.

L)POPULATION DENSITY

For humans, population density is the number of people per unit of area, usually quoted per square kilometer or square
mile (which may include or exclude, for example, areas of water or glaciers). Commonly this may be calculated for a county,
city, country, another territory, or the entire world.
Q 2 ) Urbanization: Causes and Impacts of Urbanization (ALSO WRITE A EXAMPLE RELATE IT WRT MUMBAI)

• Urbanisation has become a common feature of Indian society. Growth of Industries has contributed to the growth
of cities. As a result of industrialisation people have started moving towards the industrial areas in search of employment.
This has resulted in the growth of towns and cities.

• Urbanisation denotes a diffusion of the influence of urban centres to a rural hinterland.

• Urbanisation can also be defined as a process of concentration of population in a particular territory.

• Urbanisation is a process of becoming urban, moving to cities, changing from agriculture to other pursuits common
to cities.

Causes of Urbanisation:

• Industrialization:

Industrialization is a major cause of urbanization. It has expanded the employment opportunities. Rural people have
migrated to cities on account of better employment opportunities.

• Social factors:

Many social factors such as attraction of cities, better standard of living, better educational facilities, need for status also
induce people to migrate to cities.

• Employment opportunities:

In rural sector people have to depend mainly on agriculture for their livelihood. But Indian agriculture is depending on
monsoon. In drought situations or natural calamities, rural people have to migrate to cities.

• Modernization:

Urban areas are characterized by sophisticated technology better infrastructure, communication, medical facilities, etc.
People feel that they can lead a comfortable life in cities and migrate to cities.

• Rural urban transformation:

It is an interesting aspect that not only cities are growing in number but rural community is adopting urban culture, no
longer rural communities are retaining their unique rural culture. Rural people are following the material culture of urban
people.

• Spread of education:

The literacy rate has increased among the rural people. They have become more modernised.

Impacts of Urbanisation:

With a high rate of urbanization significant changes have taken place. The impacts of urbanisation can be summed up as
follows:

Positive effect:

• Migration of rural people to urban areas.

• Employment opportunities in urban centres.
• Transport and communication facilities.
• Educational facilities.
• Increase in the standard of living.

NEGATIVE EFFECT:

Urbanization can yield positive effects if it takes place up to a desirable limit. Extensive urbanisation or indiscriminate growth
of cities may result in adverse effects. They may be as follows:

• Problem of over population:

Concentration of population is a major problem of cities. It has resulted in accommodation problem, growth of slums etc.

• Disintegration of Joint family:

Joint family can’t be maintained in cities on account of high cost of living: People prefer to live in the nuclear type of families.

• Cost of living:

High cost of living is a major problem of cities. In Metro cities like Mumbai, Bangalore etc. it is very difficult for lower income
groups to maintain a decent standard of living.

• Increase in Crime rates:

Urban centres are known for high rate of crimes. Theft, Dacoity, Murder, Cheating, Pick pocketing, rape etc. are common
in urban centres.

• Impersonal relations:

Urban centres are characterised by highly secondary relations. The concept of neighbourhood, community life are almost
absent in cities. Urban life is highly monotonous.This may have an adverse psychological effect on individuals. People are
often self centred and they have no concern for the fellow human beings.

• Problem of Pollution:

In industrialized cities pollution is a major problems. It may be caused by industries or by excessive movement of vehicles.

• Stress:

Urban life is characterised by stress which may even strain family relations. In cities employment of women is almost
inevitable to meet the increasing cost of living. Changing role of women in the family creates stress in the family which may
result in divorce or strained relations.

Thus urbanisation has its own merits and de-merits. Urbanization can’t be avoided. But the negative effect of urbanization
can be minimised.

QUESTION 3: EXPLAIN DEMOGRAPHICS AND VARIOUS STAGES INVOLVED IN IT?

DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION:

Over the course of human history, there have been many people who have been interested in the characteristics of the
human population and the future of population growth. After analysing how western populations have changed over time,
one pattern was discovered that indicated there was a connection between population growth and the economic
development of a country. It was observed that in countries with high standards of living, the population grew at a slow
rate, while in countries with low standards of living, the population grew more rapidly.

This discovery resulted in the creation of the concept of demographic transition, which is a series of stages that a country
goes through when transitioning from non-industrial to industrial.

According to this theory, every country passes through three diff6rent stages of population growth. In the first stage, the
birth rate and the death rate are high and the growth rate of population is low. In the second stage, the birth rate remains
stable but the death rate falls rapidly. As a result, the growth rate of population increases very swiftly. In the last stage, the
birth rate starts falling and tends to equal the death rate.

STAGES:

First Stage:

In this stage, the country is backward and is characterised by high birth and death rates with the result that the growth rate
of population is low. People mostly live in rural areas and their main occupation is agriculture which is in a state of
backwardness. There are a few simple, light and small consumer goods industries. The tertiary sector consisting of transport,
commerce, banking and insurance is underdeveloped. All these factors are responsible for low incomes and poverty of the
masses. Large family is regarded as a necessity to augment the low family income.

Second Stage:
In the second stage, the economy enters the phase of economic growth. Agricultural and industrial productivity increases
and the means of transport develop. There is greater mobility of labour. Education expands. Incomes increase. People get
more and better quality food products. Medical and health facilities are expanded.

Modern drugs are used by the people. All these factors bring down the death rate. But the birth rate is almost stable. People
do not have any inclination to reduce the birth of children because with economic growth employment opportunities
increase and children are able to add more to the family income. With improvements in the standard of living and the
dietary habits of the people, the life expectancy also increases.

Third Stage:

In this stage, the fertility rate declines and tends to equal the death rate so that the growth rate of population declines. As
growth gains momentum and people cross the subsistence level of income, their standard of living rises. The leading growth
sectors expand and lead to an expansion in output in other sectors through technical transformations.

Education expands and permeates the entire society. Popular education leads to popular enlightenment and opens the way
to knowledge. It creates self-discipline, power to think rationally and to probe into the future. People discard old customs,
dogmas and beliefs, and develop individualistic spirit and break with the joint family.

All this tends to reduce the birth rate which along with an already low death rate brings a decline in the growth rate of
population. The advanced countries of the world are passing through this last stage and the population is increasing at a
slow pace in them.

CONCLUSION:

The theory of demographic transition is the most acceptable theory of population growth. Almost all the European countries
of the world have passed through the first two stages of this theory and are now in the final stage. Not only this, this theory
is equally applicable to the developing countries of the world.

Very backward countries in some of the African states are still in the first stage whereas all the other developing countries
of the world are in the transitional stage two. It is on the basis of this theory that economists have developed economic-
demographic models so that underdeveloped countries should enter the final stage and attain the stage of self-sustained
growth. Thus this theory has universal applicability.

Q4. What is the relationship between urban sprawl and migration?

URBAN SPRAWL:

It refers to the migration of a population from populated towns and cities to low density residential development over more
and more rural land. The end result is the spreading of a city and its suburbs over more and more rural land. In other words,
urban sprawl is defined as low density residential and commercial development on undeveloped land. Most of the time,
people will move from these areas to try to find better areas to live. This has been the way of the world since the beginning.

CAUSES OF URBAN SPRAWL

Urban sprawl can be caused by a variety of different things. These causes will mainly include:

 Lower Land Rates

 Rise in Standard of Living
 Lack of Urban Planning
 Lower House Tax Rates
 Rise in Population Growth
 6. Consumer Preferences

EFFECTS OF URBAN SPRAWL

 Increase in Public Expenditure

 Increased Traffic
 Health Issues
 Environmental Issues
 Impact on Social Lives

MIGRATION:

Sociological studies of Migration involve, the permanent movement of individuals or groups across symbolic boundaries (of
identity and culture) or political boundaries (lines between states, provinces, countries, etc.) into new residential areas and
communities.

A distinction is made between external migration (between countries) and internal migration (between regions).

• Internal migration which is rural(towns) to urban(cities)

• External migration also can be called as international migration which is the movement from one country to
another.

Migration usually happens as a result of a combination of these push and pull factors.

RELATION:

Migration leads to Urban Sprawl.

The causes that lead to the formation of urban sprawl because of migration are as follows:

PUSH FACTORS OF MIGRATION PULL FACTORS OF URBAN SPRAWL

• Unemployment Potiential for employment

• Concerns about high crime rates Low crime rates

• Rise in population rate Desire to live in a low density

area

• Consumer preferences Attractive environments

(environmental factors)

• Rise in standard of living Change in preferences towards

(Increase in avg. family income) larger home

Migration and urban sprawl isn’t something that is just now becoming popular, as it has been around for quite some time.
Cities and their suburbs are now becoming overcrowded. Cities will usually have high property taxes, one can usually avoid
these taxes by living in the outer suburbs.

Urban sprawl and migration is something that will continue to occur all time. It isn’t something that is going to change, but
over the time, more rural areas are going to become more populated because of development and change. This can be
considered as a good thing at times, but some may view it as a bad thing.

Q5. Push And Pull Factors Of Migration And Reverse Pattern Of Migration

CAUSES OF MIGRATION:

EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES/ OCCUPATIONS

• Urban areas have a lot of employment opportunities in various fields like hospitality, IT,entertainment etc. It is
easier to find well paid and secure jobs in the urban areas rather than in the rural areas.

• People in urban areas are mostly engaged in tertiary and secondary occupations.

• Rural areas have less employment opportunities as the people are mostly engaged in the primary occupations.

• The agricultural base of rural areas does not provide employment to all the people living there. Even the small-scale
and cottage industries of the villages fail to provide employment to the entire rural folk. Contrary to this, urban areas
provide vast scope for employment in industries, trade, transport and services.
• About 8.8 per cent of migrants migrated for employment in 1991.

• EDUCATION:

• Lack of educational facilities also results in migration of rural people into urban livelihood

• People who aspire of getting higher education which may not be available in rural educational schools migrate to
urban areas which have higher education facilities

• Afterwards, many of them settle down in the cities for earning a livelihood after completion of their education

• LACK OF SECURITY:

• - Political disturbances and interethnic conflicts drive people away from their homes

• - Example of this type of migration in India can be seen in Jammu and Kashmir and Assam. Large number of people
migrated out during the last few years due to disturbed conditions there.

• FORCED MIGRATION

• Residents of a particular area are rehabilitated due to unsafe living conditions.

• GLORIFICATION OF ‘CITY’:

• Due to social media and advertising, the city is promoted as a beacon of hope and happiness.

• People are attracted to the ‘idea’ of living in a city.

• Also, the entertainment industry employs a large number of people. Thus, struggling artistes from all parts of the
country rush to the entertainment capital of the country to fulfil their aspirations.

• A push factor is forceful, and a factor which relates to the country from which a person migrates. It is generally
some problem which results in people wanting to migrate.

• - When people do not find means of livelihood in their home villages, they are ‘pushed’ out to the nearby or distant
towns.

• A pull factor is generally a benefit that attracts people to a certain place

• Urban centres provide vast scope for employment in industries, transport, trade and other services. They also offer
modem facilities of life. Thus, they act as ‘magnets’ for the migrant population and attract people from outside. In other
words, cities pull people from other areas. This is known as “pull factor”.

• EFFECT OF MIGRATION:

• EFFECT ON DESTINATION

• In an unregulated labour market, increase in supply leads to lowering of wages.

• The excessive inflow of people leads to increase in density per sq. km. This leads to growth of slums.

• Pressure on housing and amenities

• Brings about diversity in culture and lifestyles
• Immigrants are willing to do unskilled jobs
• EFFECT ON SOURCe
• Loss of the major chunk of the youth workforce
• Traditional occupations discontinued
• Unbalanced population structure, since men leave their families behind in search of work
• Elderly population remains, so higher death rate
• Reduces pressure on jobs and resources, income sent home

Urban sprawl is basically another word for urbanization. It refers to the migration of a population from populated towns
and cities to low density residential development over more and more rural land. The end result is the spreading of a city
and its suburbs over more and more rural land. In other words, urban sprawl is defined as low density residential and
commercial development on undeveloped land. Most of the time, people will move from these areas to try to find better
areas to live.

Causes of Urban Sprawl

• Urban sprawl can be caused by a variety of different things. These causes will mainly include:

• Lower Land Rates: Lower cost land and houses in the outer suburbs of the cities, because the centers of urban
development have really made people want to stop settling in these areas and want to venture further out.

• Improved Infrastructure: There is increased spending on certain types of infrastructures, including roads and
electricity. This is something that hasn’t always been available, and there are still some areas that don’t have these luxuries.
That doesn’t mean that they aren’t working on it.

• Rise in Standard of Living: There are also increases in standards of living and average family incomes, which means
that people have the ability to pay more to travel and commute longer distances to work and back home.

• Lack of Urban Planning: People love to find areas that are less trafficked and more calm, which leads them to sprawl
out to other sections of the town. Unprecedented development, cutting of trees, loss of green cover, long traffic jams, poor
infrastructure force people to move out to new areas.

• Lower House Tax Rates: Cities will usually have high property taxes, and you can usually avoid these taxes by living
in the outer suburbs because the taxes are usually lower than they would be in other situations.

• Rise in Population Growth: Another factor that contributes towards urban sprawl is rise in population growth. As
number of people in a city grows beyond capacity, the local communities continues to spread farther and farther from city
centers.

• Consumer Preferences: People in high income groups have stronger preferences towards larger homes, more
bedrooms, bigger balconies and bigger lawns. This also causes urban sprawl as this option is not available in crowded cities.
People generally look out for low-density residential areas where they can get home according to their preference.

Effects of Urban Sprawl

• Now, we will take a look at the effects of urban sprawl, now that we have taken a closer look at the causes of it.
Some of the effects include:

• Increase in Public Expenditure: They can actually play a part in the increases of public costs, because these changes
in infrastructures and building must actually be paid for by someone- and it is usually the tax payers money that pays for it.

• Increased Traffic: Populations will begin to use their cars more often, which means that there is more traffic on the
roads, and there is also more air pollution and more auto accidents that you have to worry with.

• Environmental Issues: Sprawls can also cause certain environmental issues that you may want to be aware of. In
fact, when you think about going out to develop these lands you will have to worry about the wildlife that lives in these
lands. You will be displacing them, and it can really cause a ripple in the environment.

• As you can see, urban sprawl is something that will continue to occur as long as we live here on earth. It isn’t
something that is going to change, but over time the more rural areas are going to become more populated because of
development and change. This can be considered a good thing at times, but others view it as a bad thing. You also have to
consider the fact that it will actually play a part in having to cut down more trees and tear up the environment, and in this
aspect it is not a good thing.On a positive note, it may lead to less overcrowding- but it won’t happen overnight. Its clear
that urban sprawl is something that people will consider to be a good thing or a bad thing, depending on their own beliefs
systems. You may find it to be something that is ideal, while others may want to steer clear of it. It is the inevitable, that’s
for sure, but that doesn’t mean that it has to be rushed into, and it should happen naturally.

Q.6. Discuss the impact of demographic transition on the economy of the city.

Social and Political Consequences:

 The case for the social and political consequences of the demographic transition is perhaps the most difficult; though there
is undoubtedly an influence, its magnitude relative to other forces is difficult to determine. In the Malthusian world we have
high returns to land and excess labor at subsistence wages, which favors a political system under the control of those who
own the land. The very high death rates, and decline in population, due to the Black Death in 14th century 14 Europe appear
to have caused a shortage of labor, leading to a rise in wages and the breakdown of the feudal labor system (Herlihy (1997)),
but this was due to a temporary rise in mortality, not the declines we see as part of the demographic transition. The
demographic transition and population growth would lead us to expect a world of labor surplus with high economic rents
and politic power for the owners of land and capital. This has not happened, rather the wages and the political power of
workers have risen relative to other classes. The key force behind the rise in labor productivity and wages was the industrial
revolution and the rise of industry. The new means of production increased the power of workers, particularly skilled
workers. My view is that it is this rising economic power, rather than the demographic transition that lead to the progressive
expansion of the franchise among men in several countries during the 18th and 19th centuries. Where the book may be on
much stronger ground is in the decline in gender specific roles in society, the decline in marriage, and the economic and
political empowerment of women being linked to the decline in fertility. Part of this political empowerment has been the
extension of the franchise to women. The emphasis of psycho-social as opposed to purely economic mechanisms for these
changes also seems plausible. As always, however, we have the problem of reverse causality, that these economic and social
changes may determine fertility as well as being determined by it.

In its original formulations, demographic transition theory was a detailed description of the mechanisms of change in
mortality and fertility with considerations on how this would affect the demographic development of the world in the future
(Notestein 1945; Davis 1945; Chesnais 1986). From the outset, research has seen the transition as a byproduct of a larger
process of social and economic change. Ansley Coale’s pioneering paper on the dynamics of fertility change and its causes
was pivotal for this line of research (Coale 1973). An underlying purpose of the Princeton European Fertility Project was to
see fertility change as the consequence of social and economic change (see, for example, Coale 1986). Even though the
results of these efforts were not conclusive and have led to often contradictory explanations of fertility change, the effort
to explain fertility change as the result of social change continues to be the subject of myriad publications in the field of
historical demography. The reason for this ongoing interest is wholly understandable given that at the same time the
demographic transition was taking place, Europe, and the West at large, were undergoing a massive process of social and
economic transformation. Living standards and educational levels were rising, society was becoming increasingly urban, the
industrial and services sectors of the economy were surpassing agriculture both in production and in social relevance, time
off was becoming an expected compensation for jobs, consumer society was beginning to emerge, and women were about
to the enter labor market en masse. It was arguably the most important social and economic change to take place in Europe
in centuries. It is only natural that students of the demographic transition would want to see it as part of the larger process
of economic and social modernization, with demographic change largely guided by social and economic change. Rather less
attention has been given to the demographic transition specifically as a cause rather than as a consequence of this process
of change. Ultimately, historians and social scientists tend toconceptualize demographic realities as determined by
economic forces rather than the other way around. I argue here that in many ways demographic change can and should be
seen as an essential factor of change. The demographic transition will be considered as a largely autonomous process that
ended up having profound social, economic, and even psychological or ideational implications for society (Demeny 1972:
154). Demography will be seen an independent variable. It is clear, of course, that history is never unilateral, and it is
undeniable that this period of enormous change had many constituent causes. I will show that demographic change was
one of them and by no means an insignificant one. This chapter seeks to contribute to a more balanced interpretation of
the social and economic modernization that occurred in Europe and elsewhere between 1850 and 1975. Many of the
arguments will refer to the transition among the forerunners of the process, the historic demographic transition. It will also
evaluate the extent to which this same process is underway in the developing world and how the way these societies
undergo their own transitions might condition the effects these processes have for development and social change.

Q 7) What is GDP and establish the relationship of GDP with respect to urbanization?

What is GDP?
The gross domestic product (GDP) is one of the primary indicators used to gauge the health of a country's economy. It
represents the total dollar value of all goods and services produced over a specific time period; you can think of it as the
size of the economy. Usually, GDP is expressed as a comparison to the previous quarter or year. For example, if the year-
to-year GDP is up 3%, this is thought to mean that the economy has grown by 3% over the last year.

GDP = Consumption + Government Expenditures + Investment + Exports – Imports

The components used to calculate GDP include:
 Consumption:
-- Durable goods (items expected to last more than three years)
-- Nondurable goods (food and clothing)
-- Services
 Government Expenditures:
-- Defense
-- Roads
-- Schools
 Investment Spending:
-- Nonresidential (spending on plants and equipment), Residential (single-family and multi-family homes)
-- Business inventories
 Net Exports:
-- Exports are added to GDP
-- Imports are deducted from GDPpl
Measuring GDP at its most basic, the calculation can be done in one of two ways: either by adding up what everyone
earned in a year (income approach), or by adding up what everyone spent (expenditure method). Logically, both
measures should arrive at roughly the same total.
The income approach, which is sometimes referred to as GDP(I), is calculated by adding up total compensation to
employees, gross profits for incorporated and non incorporated firms, and taxes less any subsidies. The expenditure method
is the more common approach and is calculated by adding total consumption, investment, government spending and net
exports.

As one can imagine, economic production and growth - what GDP represents - has a large impact on nearly everyone within
that economy. For example, when the economy is healthy, you will typically see low unemployment and wage increases as
businesses demand labor to meet the growing economy. A significant change in GDP, whether up or down, usually has a
significant effect on the stock market. It's not hard to understand why; a bad economy usually means lower profits for
companies, which in turn means lower stock prices. Investors really worry about negative GDP growth, which is one of the
factors economists use to determine whether an economy is in a recession.

Positive Links between Urbanisation and Economic Growth

• Urban areas offer economies of scale and better market structures.

• Cities provide large and diversified labour pools.
• Closer to customers and suppliers.
• They also provide greater opportunities for division of labour.
• Make intra-industry specialisation more likely.

• The higher levels of individual income associated with urban areas may be a result of government bias towards
urban areas in the developing world. ‘Because of the political pressure exerted by urban dwellers, central governments
have encouraged urbanization by keeping agricultural prices low, by direct investment in urban industries, and by a more
generous provision of public services such as health and education’

Negative Links between Urbanisation and Economic Growth

Developing countries are urbanising more rapidly than in the past. Rapid urbanisation is often traumatic, ‘requiring massive
movement of population, replacement of traditional institutional and social structures with modern ones centred in a
formal legal apparatus, and massive local and intercity infrastructure investments with the required financing mechanisms,
all in a short time span’ (Henderson 2010, p.516). Rapid urbanisation may entail a range of economic costs, which can have
a negative impact on growth.
• Inefficient property markets: uncertainty over land tenure and urban planning and management in many Asian countries
has resulted in inefficient operation of land and property markets, excessive speculation and high levels of disputes and
litigation.

• Inadequate infrastructure and services: insufficient supply to meet the growth in demand for urban infrastructure and
services has limited private sector investment and development. In addition, existing infrastructure systems in Asia are
poorly maintained, which results in high losses to the systems and higher cost of services.

• Congestion: the rapid expansion of cities and improper transport planning has produced significant traffic congestion in
Asian cities. This has resulted in financial costs for urban residents due to lengthy travel times to work and time wasted;
and higher transaction costs to businesses in moving goods and services.

• Limited incentives: urban workers who are self-employed or working in low paid informal jobs are often unable to earn
more regardless of their efforts, which can undermine productivity.

• Fragmented production chains: high rent in urban centres has resulted in the location of suppliers away from producers.
This can result in inefficient supply chain distribution structure and high local transaction costs in manufacturing industries.

• Crime and violence in urban areas has been associated with various economic costs. These include: costs related to
medical treatment, foregone earnings, loss of productivity due to injuries, loss of competitiveness, losses through thefts
and muggings, costs on private security, and costs to the judicial system.

• Creation of slums: Due to excessive migration from the rural areas and high land costs in the urban areas.

Q8 EFFECTS OF URABANISATION

EFFECTS OF URBANISATION ON- NATURAL RESOURCES

Urban centres have a higher demand for food, energy, land and durable goods than rural areas. In rapidly urbanizing areas,
agriculture intensifies on remaining undeveloped land and is likely to expand to new areas. This puts pressure on land
resources

Urban populations interact with their environment. Urban people change their environment through their consumption of
food, energy, water, and land. And in turn, the polluted urban environment affects the health and quality of life of the urban
population.

Energy consumption for electricity, transportation, cooking, and heating is much higher in urban areas than in rural villages.
For example, urban populations have many more cars than rural populations per capita. For example, almost all of the cars
in the world in the 1930s were in the United States. Today we have a car for every two people in the United States. If that
became the norm, in 2050 there would be 5.3 billion cars in the world, all using energy.

Urban consumption of energy helps create heat islands that can change local weather patterns and weather downwind
from the heat islands. The heat island phenomenon is created because cities radiate heat back into the atmosphere at a
rate 15 percent to 30 percent less than rural areas. The combination of the increased energy consumption and difference
in albedo (radiation) means that cities are warmer than rural areas (0.6 to 1.3 C) and these heat islands become traps for
atmospheric pollutants. Cloudiness and fog occur with greater frequency. Precipitation is 5 percent to 10 percent higher in
cities; thunderstorms and hailstorms are much more frequent, but snow days in cities are less common.

Urbanization also affects the broader regional environments. Regions downwind from large industrial complexes also see
increases in the amount of precipitation, air pollution, and the number of days with thunder storms .Urban areas affect not
only the weather patterns, but also the runoff patterns for water. Urban areas generally generate more rain, but they reduce
the infiltration of water and lower the water tables. This means that runoff occurs more rapidly with greater peak flows.
Flood volumes increase, as do floods and water pollution downstream.

Many of the effects of urban areas on the environment are not necessarily linear. Bigger urban areas do not always create
more environmental problems. And small urban areas can cause large problems. Much of what determines the extent of
the environmental impacts is how the urban populations behave — their consumption and living patterns — not just how
large they are.
According to the World Bank: “The speed of urbanization and the enormous numbers involved make it one of the major
development challenges of the 21st century. In Jamaica, it has been observed that rapid urbanization and urban
development have affected natural resources in many regions of the island. This has resulted in the degradation of many
sensitive resources; occupation of hazard-prone areas; loss of open space and prime agricultural land; and also excessive
urban sprawl. In most cases, the causes of these problems emerge from inappropriate regulation, lack of secure tenure,
inadequate infrastructure, and weak and poorly coordinated actors in the land market. In Kingston where immigration rates
persist, residential and industrial developments continue to take a toll on the fragile ecosystem thus hindering its
conservation for future generations. In this city, which is the primary generator of economic growth for the country,
effective urban land management is therefore needed to balance environmental protection and economic development,
while meeting basic housing needs for the poor so as to prevent them living on marginal lands.

EFFECTS OF URBANIZATION ON -CARBON EMISSION

Mass production and industrialization, the primary thrusts of the global market, require consumption of non-renewable
resources arising from the increase in energy usage. These centres of production are concentrated in urban, highly
populated areas. This phase of progress, however, comes at the expense of environmental quality. Levels of carbon
emissions are concentrated in areas with high population density. This hampers the natural flow of the ecosystem and a
sustainable environment might not be efficiently maintained. As a result of this trend, increase in the density of carbon
emissions might potentially harness catastrophic impacts in the future. Carbon emissions contribute to climate change,
which can have serious consequences for humans and their environment. According to the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, carbon emissions, in the form of carbon dioxide, make up more than 80 percent of the greenhouse gases emitted
in the United States. The burning of fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases. These carbon emissions
raise global temperatures by trapping solar energy in the atmosphere. This alters water supplies and weather patterns,
changes the growing season for food crops and threatens coastal communities with increasing sea levels.

Shrinking Water Supplies

Carbon dioxide persists in the atmosphere for 50 to 200 years, so emissions released now will continue to warm the climate
in the future. The EPA predicts that climate change will cause the demand for water to increase while the supply of water
shrinks. Water is not only essential to human health but also to manufacturing processes and the production of energy and
food. Climate change is expected to increase rainfall in some areas, thereby causing an increase in the sediment and
pollutants washed into drinking water supplies. Rising sea levels will cause saltwater to infiltrate some freshwater systems,
increasing the need for desalination and drinking water treatment.

Increasing Incidents of Severe Weather

Global warming has the potential to result in more wildfires, droughts and tropical storms, according to NASA storms like
2012's Hurricane Sandy and 2013's Typhoon Haiyan are becoming more frequent, and the devastation they cause takes
local communities years to remedy, often with the help of international aid. The destruction of infrastructure causes several
human health issues, including disease transmitted when water and sewer systems are not working properly. The storms
themselves and the damage to infrastructure they cause often result in a tremendous loss of human life.

Changes in Food Supply

Changing weather affects the agricultural industry and the human food supply. Carbon emissions contribute to increasing
temperatures and decreasing precipitation, changing the growing conditions for food crops in many areas. Major changes
in crop yield will cause food prices to rise around the world. In addition, climate change influenced by carbon emissions
forces animals, many of which are hunted as food, to migrate to higher altitudes or northern habitats as the climate warms.

Geographical Changes

It takes only a small change in temperature to have enormous environmental effects; temperatures at the end of the last
ice age were only cooler than today’s temperatures by 2.5 to 5 degrees Celsius (5 to 9 degrees Fahrenheit), but parts of the
United States were covered by thousands of feet of ice, according to NASA. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
estimated that carbon emissions will cause global temperatures to rise by approximately 1.5 degrees Celsius (2.5 degrees
Fahrenheit) over the next 100 years. This slight change can have dramatic effects on shorelines, especially those densely
populated by humans where rising sea levels flood buildings and roads and influence shipping traffic. According to the EPA,
sea levels on the mid-Atlantic and Gulf Coasts have risen over 20 centimetres (8 inches) in just 50 years after almost 2,000
years of no observable change. Although the process of urbanization often means accelerated economic performance for
a country, the vast majority of land-use developments often cause stress on the environment, leading to the degradation
of vital natural resources. In any case it is crucial to maintain a balance between development and the environment on
which we all depend, for the use of both present and future generations. Consequently, all stakeholders must bear in mind
that for there to be sustainable development in the island, serious efforts must be made to achieve and maintain the crucial
element of sustainable urbanization

EFFECTS OF URBANISATION ON- MEASURES OF SUSTAINIBILITY

The proportion of the population with access to infrastructural and municipal facilities and services increases, especially in
the cities. Urbanisation is characterised by modernisation, as it leads to constructive alterations in social lifestyle,
behaviours, norms and relations in many urban areas

• Higher densities within urban settlements drag down the costs per household for the provision of various sorts of
infrastructure – transport, piped water, sewers, power, and allows the possibility of near-universal provision. • Higher
concentrations of populations also provide more potential for recycling – water and waste. • Larger and yet more compact
cities allow the provision of better public transport infrastructures, which has a direct impact on the environment through
reduced emissions and fuel-use.

Urban settlements, if planned to maximise density, provide an excellent opportunity to exploit vast economies of scale for
the provision of infrastructure, resources and services. It is not far-fetched to say that cities hold the key to the age of
sustainability. Sustainable cities allow their citizens to live within their fair share of the earth’s resources without giving up
on an urban lifestyle. It must be remembered that a “green” city must still be a socially and economically vibrant city. This
requires careful balancing – much can be learned from the city like Singapore which have taken great pains to try and
integrate all the various elements.

EFFECTS OF URBANISATION ON- FOSSIL FUELS

1. Environmental Hazards: . A known fact that carbon dioxide, gas released when fossil fuels are burnt, is one of the primary
gas responsible for global warming. Rise in temperature of earth has resulted in melting of polar ice caps, flooding of low
lying areas and rise in sea levels.

2. Rising Prices: Middle-east countries have huge reserves of oil and natural gas and many other countries are dependent
on them for constant supply of these fuels. Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) is a group of 13
countries including Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and UAE. They are responsible for 40 percent of the world’s oil
production. OPEC constantly monitors the volume of oil consumed and then adjusts its own production to maintain its
desired barrel price. This results in worldwide price fluctuations.

3. Acid Rain: Sulphur dioxide is one of the pollutant that is released when fossil fuels are burnt and is a main cause of acid
rain. Acid rain can lead to destruction of monuments made up of brickwork or marbles. Coal mining results in destruction
of ecosystems and also endangers the lives of mineworkers.

4. Effect on Human Health: Pollution from vehicles and coal powered power plants can cause serious environmental
hazards. Pollution related diseases range from mild to severe and can significantly affect one’s quality of life.

6. Impact on Aquatic Life by Oil Spill: Fossil fuels are needed in huge reserves wherever their plants are set up. This requires
them to be transported to the desired location via truck, train, ship or airplane. The leaks in oil tankers or ship getting
drowned deep under the sea that were carrying crude oil to get refined. The impact of this is that crude oil contains some
toxic substances which when mixed up with water poses serious impact on aquatic life. Transportation of crude oil via sea
can cause oil spill which can pose hazard to the aquatic life by lessening the oxygen content of water.

7. Coal Mining: Extraction of coal from areas that have huge reserves is not only a difficult and dangerous task but also
poses a serious health hazard to the lives of several workers who work there. The coal mining destroys wide areas of land
and results in ecological imbalance.

8. Need Huge Amount of Reserves: The coal power plants requires huge and regular supply of coal to produce large amount
of energy on a constant basis. This means that these plants need train-loads of fuel near power stations to carry out the
process of generating power. This is needed as many countries are still dependent on coal as a major source for producing
power.

Technologies to get more out of the earth are progressing, but they don’t seem to be doing it as quickly as our demand is
growing. In addition, while coal is much more abundant than oil, extraction of coal can be very unsafe, and is damaging to
the environment on a large scale, causing erosion, acidification of the environment, and destruction of wild lands. Though
the fossil fuels meet our energy and fuel needs, still it’s a high time to look forward for the alternative renewable sources
of energy such as wind turbines, solar panels, tidal generators and compost. As said by a great man, there is enough for
everyone’s need but not enough for everyone’s greed.

EFFECTS OF URBANISATION ON- ENERGY EFFICIENCY

With economic development, total global energy consumption is dramatically increasing over decades. Total energy use in
buildings depends on population size and density, and energy efficiency. Rising standards of living result in more energy
services required for heating, cooling, lighting and communicating. Aging populations and changing life styles lead to more
single-person households. Urbanisation, especially in developing countries, demands higher-rise buildings in urban areas.
Energy use in high-rise buildings is more efficient than that in conventional buildings, especially than detached houses in
the developed countries. But the impact of global urbanisation on energy consumption could be reversed if the emerging
prosperity encourages people to leave city centres and live in a countryside life style, commute daily to the city centre,
clearly results in increases of energy use not only in the buildings but also transport. The global urban population is expected
to grow from 47% of the total in 2000 to 70% in 2050The urban populations of China and India are continuing to grow
rapidly to 2050, reaching 1 billion in China and 0.9 billion in India, respectively. By 2050, it is predicted that about 73% of
the Chinese population will be urban, increasing from 40% in 2005 (WBCSD, 2009). Brazil’s urbanisation rate is beginning
to reach saturation level and it is a much more urban country than others. The construction boom, especially in China, is
increasing building energy demand dramatically with economic development and living standard improvement.

Q9 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RURAL AND URBAN

An urban area is a human settlement with high population density and infrastructure of built environment. Urban areas are
created through urbanization and are categorized by urban morphology as cities, towns, conurbations or suburbs. In
urbanism, the term contrasts to rural areas such as villages and hamlets and in urban sociology or urban anthropology it
contrasts with natural environment. The creation of early predecessors of urban areas during the urban revolution led to
the creation of human civilization with modern urban planning, which along with other human activities such as exploitation
of natural resources leads to human impact on the environment.

a rural area or countryside is a geographic area that is located outside towns and cities.[1] The Health Resources and Services
Administration of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services defines the word "rural" as encompassing "...all
population, housing, and territory not included within an urban area. Whatever is not urban is considered rural."[2]

Typical rural areas have a low population density and small settlements. Agricultural areas are commonly rural, though so
are others such as forests. Different countries have varying definitions of "rural" for statistical and administrative purposes.

Comparison between urban and rural area

Definition of Urban

The term urban simply refers to the region or area which is densely populated and possess the characteristics of the man-
made surroundings. The people residing in such area, are engaged in trade, commerce or services. In this settlement, there
is high scale industrialisation that results in better employment opportunities. The Urban settlement is not confined to the
cities only, but towns and suburbs (suburban areas) are also included in it.

There are many advantages of life in urban areas like easy access to various amenities, better transportation facilities,
entertainment and education options, health facilities. Although it suffers certain drawbacks like pollution, caused due to
large scale industrialisation and means of transportation like buses, trains, cars and so on, leading to increasing in health
problems in the people living in that area.

Definition of Rural

We define the term ‘rural’ as a region located on the outskirts. It refers to a small settlement, which is outside the
boundaries of a city, commercial or industrial area. It may include, countryside areas, villages or hamlets, where there are
natural vegetation and open spaces. There is a low density of population in such area. The primary source of income of the
residents is agriculture and animal husbandry. Cottage Industries also form a chief source of income here.

In India, a town whose population is below 15000 is considered as rural, as per the planning commission. Gram Panchayat
is responsible for looking after such areas. Further, there is no municipal board, in the villages and maximum percentage of
the male population are engaged in agriculture and related activities.

Key Differences Between Urban and Rural

The fundamental differences between urban and rural are discussed in the following points:

 A settlement where the population is very high and has the features of a built environment (an environment that
provides basic facilities for human activity), is known as urban. Rural is the geographical region located in the outer parts of
the cities or towns.
 The life in urban areas is fast and complicated, whereas rural life is simple and relaxed.
 The Urban settlement includes cities and towns. On the other hand, the rural settlement includes villages and
hamlets.
 There is greater isolation from nature in urban areas, due to the existence of the built environment. Conversely,
rural areas are in direct contact with nature, as natural elements influence them.
 Urban people are engaged in non-agricultural work, i.e. trade, commerce or service industry. In contrast, the
primary occupation of rural people is agriculture and animal husbandry.
 Population wise, urban areas are densely populated, which is based on the urbanisation, i.e. the higher the
urbanisation, the higher is the population. On the contrary, the rural population is sparse, which has an inverse relationship
with agriculturism.
 Urban areas are developed in a planned and systematic way, according to the process of urbanisation and
industrialisation. Development in rural areas is seldom, based on the availability of natural vegetation and fauna in the
region.
 When it comes to social mobilisation, urban people are highly intensive as they change their occupation or
residence frequently in search of better opportunities. However, in rural areas occupational or territorial mobility of the
people is relatively less intensive.
 Division of labour and specialisation is always present in the urban settlement at the time of job allotment. As
opposed to rural areas, there is no division of labour.

Conclusion

So, with the given discussion, it is easily understood that these two human settlements are very different, regarding the
density of human structures and the residents of that area. The standard of living in urban areas is higher in comparison to
the rural areas. At present, the maximum part of the total population resides in urban areas, as well as the total land area
occupied by the urban region is greater than the rural areas.

For example, in Australia, urban cities must include at least a 1,000 residents with 200 or more people per square kilometer
while in Canada, an urban area is defined with a density of 400 people per square kilometer In China, the density
requirement for an urban area is about 1,500 people per square kilometer Statistically, two urban areas with less than two
kilometers between them are considered one urban zone.

QUESTION 10

DISCUSS THE GROWTH PATTERN OF URBANIZATION FROM VILLAGE LEVEL TO A MEGAPOLIS?

Urbanization itself refers to the population shift from rural to urban areas, "the gradual increase in the proportion of people
living in urban areas", and the ways in which each society adapts to the change.

Urbanization is not merely a modern phenomenon, but a rapid and historic transformation of human social roots on a global
scale, whereby predominantly rural culture is being rapidly replaced by predominantly urban culture.
 The first major change in settlement patterns was the accumulation of hunter-gatherers into villages many thousand years
ago. Village culture is characterized by common bloodlines, intimate relationships, and communal behavior whereas urban
culture is characterized by distant bloodlines, unfamiliar relations, and competitive behavior.

This unprecedented movement of people is forecast to continue and intensify during the next few decades, mushrooming
cities to sizes unthinkable only a century ago.

Village is one of the most basic form of settlement in the rural context having minimum or inadequate infrastructure to
develop. Which harnesses less population of people in a more distant places from one another.

Megapolis is a term used to describe the urbanization phenomena at a larger scale of rapidly developing state of the entire
concept of town developing from small scale clusturs to a massive constellation.

Talking abouth the growth pattern from a village state to a magapolis there are few stages of evolution of the seattelment
structure with the overall development of the area. They are:

Farmland : A small settlement with population under 100 and has no core attraction.

 Village: A cluster of human settlement or community – more human activities

 Town: an urban area that has a name, defined boundaries, and local government, and that is generally larger than
a village and smaller than a city.

 City: A large permanent urban settlement with a more definitive administrative system – good transport linkages,
utilities and sanitation system.

 Metropolis: A Metropolis is a large city which acts as a significant economical, cultural and political center for a
region – it is also a hub of international commerce, connections and communication

 Conurbation: A large urban region comprising of cities and large town that through population growth and physical
expansion, have merged to form a continuous urban industrially developed area.

 Megalopolis: A chain of roughly adjacent large metropolitan area.

At every stage of development there are some specific types of settelments which gives identity to it and forms a part of
basic infrastructure needed in terms of growth towards betterment. Such few are listed below:

PATTERNS OF SETTLEMENTS

1. ISOLATED : Extreme difficult conditions (Cold weather – low population, Dangerous Rainforest – Amazon tribes, Bases of
the Himalayas – Altitude issues) Natural Resources insufficient (Oasis at Sahara deserts/ Silk Roads/ Kalahari)

2. DISPERSED Farm houses separated by large farm areas.

No nucleation

Hamlets with 2-3 housings Scottish Highlands (Along the roads but not continuous), English Plain, German plain, Sub-
Saharan Africa

3. NUCLEATED For economic, Social and defensive purpose

People cluster for defenses against war (British rural areas) Areas of resources (e.g. Water Well in African countries)

Valley region

River confluence

4. LINEAR • Along roads • Rivers • Transport lines • People want close proximity to transportation network • People want
to be close to rivers
5. LOOSE-KNIT Similar to Nucleated , However Settlements are not that clustered – spaces between them.

Farm lands kept them apart and are referred to rural settlements

6. PLANNED: Some of the early settlements have been planned (Pompeii - York). Suburbanized villages (Cities fringes in the
USA).

The below diagram shows the most common special development .

This is the chart showing the push and pull factors with other conditions which influence the migration thus effecting the
very growth of it.Below is the diagrammatic evolution show how the grow pattern changes along with the difference in
settlement types. Factors like population / migration/ industrialization affecting it. It’s a growth from a single unit(village)
to a complex cluster (megapolis)

ASSIGNMENT 5

Q1(a). Short note on: Storage of Housing:-

By 2050, 900 million people will be added to Indian cities. The rapid pace of urbanisation owing to the rural–urban migration
is putting a strain on the urban infrastructure in these cities. As urban development takes place, a growing concern for
India’s urban planners is the massive urban housing shortage plaguing the country. The shortage, prominent within the
EWS (economically weaker sections) and LIG (lower income groups), is estimated at 18.78 million households in 2012.

A thrust on encouraging private sector participation in affordable housing, traditionally the domain of the Government,
could provide the answer to India’s urban housing predicament. But as things stand, affordable housing remains a
challenging proposition for developers. Issues continue to persist in land availability and pricing, project approval processes
and other areas which make low cost housing projects uneconomical for private developers.

The Census of India, 2001 estimates that 27.81 percent of total population lives in urban areas of the country. A Technical
Group was constituted by the Ministry of Housing & Urban Poverty Alleviation in 2006 to assess the urban housing shortage.
The Group estimated that at the end of the 10th Five Year Plan (2007-08), the total housing shortage in the country was
24.71 million.
URBAN POPULATION OF INDIA

The projected urban population in India as on 1st March, for the years 2010 to 2020 as per Census of India, 2001 is
indicated in the table below.

The Technical Group constituted by the Ministry in 2006 to assess the urban housing shortage has estimated that the
total housing requirement during the 11th Plan period (2007-2012) would be 26.53 million dwelling units including the
housing shortage of 24.71 million dwelling units at the beginning of 11th Plan. No estimates as to housing requirements in
the next ten years are available with the Ministry.
The population Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai, together with slum population and percentage of population living in
slums, as estimated in the Slum Population India Series-I are given in table below.

JAWAHARLAL NEHRU NATIONAL URBAN RENEWAL MISSION

The Central Government is supporting the construction of housing for poor sections of the society living in urban slums.
The Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM), launched by the Government in the year 2005
supports provision of housing and basic services to urban poor in slums in 65 specified cities under the Sub Mission Basic
Services to the Urban Poor (BSUP) and in other cities and towns under the Integrated Housing and Slum Development
Programme (IHSDP).

The schemes are demand driven and so far, 15,40,611 houses have been sanctioned and Central share of Rs. 20130.79
crores committed for the purpose. The Government has announced a new scheme called Rajiv AwasYojana (RAY) for
providing support for making cities slum free to States that are willing to provide property rights to slum dwellers.

Q.1.B.SLUMS AND SQUATTER SETTLEMENTS

SLUMS
A CCORDING TO THE N ATIONAL S AMPLE S URVEY (NSS) O RGANIZATION OF THE I NDIAN M INISTRY OF S TATISTICS AND
P ROGRAM I MPLEMENTATION A SLUM IS A COMPACT SETTLEMENT WITH A COLLECTION OF POORLY BUILT TENEMENTS , MOSTLY
OF TEMPORARY NATURE . T HESE HOUSINGS USUALLY ARE VERY CROWDED AND IN UNHYGIENIC CONDITIONS , WITHOUT
ADEQUATE WATER SUPPLY AND SANITARY FACILITIES .

T HIS DEFINITION INCLUDES BIG PARTS OF THE I NDIAN CITIES ’ OLD TOWNS , WHICH ARE EXTREMELY CONGESTED URBAN AREAS
WITH A HIGH DEGREE OF POVERTY AND SOCIAL DISORGANIZATION . S O A RESIDENTIAL BUILDING , THAT ONCE HAS BEEN
ERECTED UNDER LEGAL CONDITIONS BUT TODAY IS MARKED BY DETERIORATION CAN BE DECLARED AS A SLUM .

REASONS FOR SLUMS

 CHANGE IN AGRICULTURAL SCENARIO
 NO PROSPECT IN RURAL AREAS
 BIGGER OPORTUNITIES IN CITIES
 PREFERENCE ON LABOR MARKET THAN AGRICULTURE

RESULTS OF SLUMS
 POOR LIVING CONDITIONS
 NO EDUCATION
 VERY POOR HYGENIC CONDITIONS
 POOR HEALTH CARE

SQUATTER SETTLEMENT
A SQUATTER SETTLEMENT VARIES WIDELY FROM COUNTRY TO COUNTRY AND DEPENDS ON A VARIETY OF DEFINING
PARAMETERS . I N GENERAL , IT IS CONSIDERED AS A RESIDENTIAL AREA IN AN URBAN LOCALITY INHABITED BY THE VE RY POOR
WHO HAVE NO ACCESS TO TENURED LAND OF THEIR OWN , AND HENCE " SQUAT " ON VACANT LAND , EITHER PRIVATE OR
PUBLIC .

T HERE ARE ESSENTIALLY THREE DEFINING CHARACTERISTICS THAT HELPS US UNDERSTAND SQUATTER SETTLEMENT .

 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
 SOCIAL CHARACTERISTICS
 LEGAL CHARACTERISTICS

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

A SQUATTER SETTLEMENT , DUE TO ITS INHERENT " NON - LEGAL " STATUS , HAS SERVICES AND INFRASTRUCTURE BELOW THE
" ADEQUATE " OR MINIMUM LEVELS . S UCH SERVICES ARE BOT H NETWORK AND SOCIAL INFRASTRUCTURE , LIKE WATER SUPPLY ,
SANITATION , ELECTRICITY , ROADS AND DRAINAGE ; SCHOOLS , HEALTH CENTERS , MARKET PLACES ETC . W ATER SUPPLY , FOR
EXAMPLE , TO INDIVIDUAL HOUSEHOLDS MAY BE ABSENT , OR A FEW PUBLIC OR COMMUNITY STAND PIPE S MAY HAVE BEEN
PROVIDED , USING EITHER THE CITY NETWORKS , OR A HAND PUMP ITSE LF . I NFORMAL NETWORKS FOR THE SUPPLY OF WATER
MAY ALSO BE IN PLACE . S IMILAR ARRANGEMENTS MAY BE MADE FOR ELECTRICITY , DRAINAGE , TOILET FACILITIES E TC .

SOCIAL CHARACTERISTICS

M OST SQUATTER SETTLEMENT HOUSEHOLDS BELON G TO THE LOWER INCOME GROUP , EITHER WORKING AS W AGE LABOR OR
IN VARIOUS INFORMAL SECTOR ENTERPRISES . O N AN AVERAGE , MOST EARN WAGES AT OR NEAR THE MINIMUM WAGE LEVEL .
B UT HOUSEHOLD INCOME LEVELS CAN ALSO BE HIGH DUE TO MAY INCOME EARNERS AND PART - TIME JOBS . S QUATTERS ARE
PREDOMINANTLY MIGRAN TS , EITHER RURAL - URBAN OR URBAN - URBAN . B UT MANY ARE ALSO SEC OND OR THIRD GENERATION
SQUATTERS .

LEGAL CHARACTERISTICS

T HE KEY CHARACTERISTIC THAT DELINEATES A SQUATTER SETTLEMENT IS ITS LACK OF OWNERSHIP OF THE LAND PAR CEL ON
WHICH THEY HAVE BUIL T THEIR HOUSE . T HESE COULD BE VACANT GOVERNMENT OR PUBLIC LAND , OR MARGINAL LAND
PARCELS LIKE RAILWAY SETBACKS OR " UNDESIRABLE " MARSHY LAND . T HUS , WHEN THE LAND IS NO T UNDER " PRODUCTIVE "
USE BY THE OWNER , IT IS APPROPRIATED BY A SQUATTER FOR BU ILDING A HOUSE . I T HAS TO BE NOTED HE RE THAT IN MANY
PARTS OF A SIA , A LAND OWNER MAY " RENT " OUT HIS LAND FOR A NOMINAL FEE TO A FAM ILY OR FAMILIES , WITH AN
INFORMALARRANGEMENT , WHICH IS NOT HOWEVE R VALID UNDER LAW .

APPROACHES TO THE SQAUTTER SETTLEMENT

1. S QUATTER HOUSING PLAY S IN HOUSING THE MILLIONS OF POOR FAMILIES . S UCCESSIVE GENERATION OF
GOVERNMENTS HAVE REC OGNIZED THIS AND A N UMBER OF APPROACHES HAVE BEEN ADOPTED IN FIND ING A SOLUTION TO
THE DILEMMA OF SQUATTING .

2. T HE TWO POPULAR APPRO ACHES USED BY THE PU BLIC AUTHORITIES HAV E BEEN SETTLEMENT UP GRADATION AND
SITES - AND - SERVICES .

3. S ETTLEMENT UPGRADATIO N HAS BEEN AN OPTION WHERE A COMPRO MISE HAS BEEN REACHE D BY THE LAND OWNER
AND ON A SHARING BAS IS , THE SQUATTER HAS BE EN ALLOWED TO CONTIN UE ON THE LAND PARCE L , BUT WITH A SIGNIFIC ANT
UPGRADATION OF THE S ETTLEMENT ' S INFRASTRUCTURE AND SERVICES , INCLUDING , IN SOME CASES , LAND LEASES OR
OWNERSHIPS . W HERE SUCH LAND COMPR OMISES OR SHARING HAS NOT BEEN POSSIBLE , THE SQUATTERS HAVE BEEN
RELOCATED TO ANOTHER LOCATION , WHERE VARYING LEVELS OF " SITES "- AND -" SERVICES " HAVE BEEN PROVIDED , WITH ,
AGAIN LAND LEASE OR OWNERSHIP .

4. T HE SQUATTER , AFTER HAVING ORGANIZED THEMSELVES INTO A VIABLE ORGAN IZATION , HAVE INITIATED
NEGOTIATIONS WITH THE LAND OWNER AND HAV E " SHARED " THE LAND , GIVING THE PRIME LO CATIONS OF THE LAND ( FOR
EXAMPLE , THE SIDE FACING A R OAD ) TO THE OWNER AND US ING THE REMAINING FO R THEIR HOUSING , BUT IN A MORE
ORGANIZED AND IMPROV ED MANNER .

5. T HE ROLE OF NON - GOVERNMENTAL AND VOLUNTARY ORGANIZATIONS HAS TO BE EMPHASIZE D IN THIS RESPECT , IN
MOBILIZATION OF THE PEOPLE INTO AN ORGAN IZATION , IN TRAINING AND EDU CATING THEM , IN FORMING A LINK WITH THE
AUTHORITIES . T HE PARTICIPATION OF THE COMMUNITY OF SQU ATTERS , IN IMPROVING THE QU ALITY OF THEIR SETTLEMENT
IS ALSO AN IMPORTANT RESOURCE THAT HAS T O BE TAPPED FOR IMPR OVEMENT . C OMMONLY , COMMUNITY CREDIT PR OGRAM ,
FOR EXAMPLE , ARE USED AS A RALLY ING POINT FOR BRINGING THE SQUATTER S NOT ONLY BECAUSE MONEY ITSELF IS
IMPORTANT , BUT ALSO BECAUSE OF THE EXTERNALITIES THAT IT CAN GENERATE .

THE DEVELOPMENT PROCESS OF SQUATTER SETTLEMENTS

1. T HE ACTUAL SQUATTING IS DONE EITHER BY A " SLUM LORD " OR SIMPLY AN INITIA L SMALL GROUP OF CORE
SQUATTERS . T HE SLUM LORD APPROPR IATES A PIECE OF VACANT LAND , SUBDIVIDES IT AND " SELLS " IT TO VARIOUS
HOUSEHOLDS FOR THE P URPOSE OF BUILDING A HOUSE . S ERVICES LIKE WATER - SUPPLY OR ELECTRICIT Y MAY BE PROVIDED
EITHER BY THIS PERSO N OR BY THE ORGANIZATION O F THE SQUATTERS , USUALLY AT THE COMMUNITY LEVEL .

2. T HE CORE GROUP SQUATTERS ARE A SMALL NUMB ER OF FAMILIES WHO , ALMOST OVERNIGHT , OCCUPY A PIECE OF
LAND AND BUILD A RUD IMENTARY AND TEMPORARY SHELTER . L ATER , DEPENDING ON THE DE GREE OF THREAT OF EV ICTION ,
THIS MAY BE UPGRADED TO A PERMANENT AND MORE FAMILIES MAY JOIN THIS GROUP .

3. T HERE ARE TWO DISTINCT PROCESSES INVOLVED IN THE FORMATION OF A SETTLEMENT .

 O NE IS THE O RGANIC AND I NDUCED PROCESSES . T HE ORGANIC PROCESS R EFERS TO THE FORCES AND PRESSURES
WHICH ARE INITIATED FROM WITHIN THE SETT LEMENT AND SQUATTER . T HEY EVOLVE NATURALLY , WITHOUT ANY OUTSIDE
INTERVENTION AND USING INTERNAL RESOURCE S OF THE FAMILY OR SETTLEMENT FOR DEVELO PMENT , SUCH AS LABOR ,
LOCALLY AVAILABLE MATERIALS ETC .

 T HE INDUCED PROCESS R EFERS TO THE " INDUCEMENT " SET UP BY AGENCIES AND ORGANIZATIONS WHICH ARE
EXTERNAL TO THE SETT LEMENT . O PERATING WITH OBJECTIVES AND GOALS ON A LARGER , CITY - WIDE SCALE , THEY INITIATE
PROGRAM AND PROJECTS FOR THE OVERALL DEV ELOPMENT OF THE SETT LEMENT

 B OTH THESE PUT TOGETHER ACT ON THE GROWTH OF A SQUATTER SETTLEMENT , THROUGH A SERIES OF
CONSOLIDATIVE STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT .

Q :1C Role of public transport in reducing urban congestion?

Increasing congestion on urban roads presents a serious threat to the economic growth and liveability of our city regions.
Investing in public transport, cycling and walking helps take cars off the road, keeping cities moving and growing
sustainably.

Moving on roads public transport not only carries its passengers – it frees the road space to be able to use it all the
inhabitants of the city.
In addition, it reduces traffic congestion, which make the city unattractive place to live and work.
Given the ongoing urbanization and increasing demand for mobility in big cities, traffic congestion in all the cities of the
world will continue to grow, unless we change the approach to mobility.
Traffic jams seize cities: trip from home to work by car takes 90 times more urban space and infrastructure financed by
the citizens than the same trip, implemented by bus or tram.

If all went to work on the machines, the total space required for parking cars would be the same as the space required for
the implementation of all economic activity of the same number of people.
Indeed, the office space per employee is about the same, that it is necessary to park his car – about 20 square meters per
person.
Measures to improve the mobility and accessibility of transport in urban areas require much lower level of investment
than those costs that are a direct consequence of traffic congestion, and taking into account the social impact of price and
the external costs of such investments will be even more justified.

The idea that public transportation relieves road congestion is both logical and popular, but the evidence for it is
decidedly mixed.
The "fundamental law of road congestion," for instance, suggests that transit fails to relieve traffic because latent
demand for road space is so great. (The only hope of reducing congestion, according to this work, is establishing road
fares.)
Contrary to the conclusions in the existing transportation and urban economics literature, the congestion relief
benefits alone may justify transit infrastructure investments.
Reducing private car use not only requires improvements in public transit, cycling, and walking facilities, but also better
management of private automobile use. By coaxing people out of their cars, cities can reduce CO2 emissions and air
pollution, increase public transit ridership, and enjoy safer and more livable urban environments, with less time wasted in
congestion.
Parking regulations that effectively limit free parking and charge fees based on demand help ensure that motorists absorb
the full costs of their choice to drive.Measures like congestion pricing and parking reformshave been found to produce
dramatic results, including: sharp cuts to congestion, a boost to the reliability and speed of public transportation and
traffic, and reductions in air pollution and energy use.It can also provide critical sources of revenue for cities and public
transit agencies.

Q1. D

WHAT IS A CO-OPERATIVE HOUSING SOCIETY?

Housing cooperative has been defined as: “A legally incorporated group of persons, generally of limited means, pursuing
the same cause of meeting the common need of housing or its improvement based on mutual assistance. In such a
cooperative, the membership is voluntary and control is democratic, and members make an approximately equal
contribution to the capital required”.

 These societies are formed to provide residential houses to members.

 They purchase land, develop it and construct houses or flats and allot the same to members.

 Some societies also provide loans at low rate of interest to members to construct their own houses.

Housing cooperatives at the primary level can broadly be classified into four groups as detailed below:

 Tenant Ownership Housing Societies: Under this category the land is held either on leasehold or free hold basis by
societies, and houses are owned by members.

 Tenant Co-Partnership Housing Societies: These housing societies hold both land or building, either on leasehold or
freehold basis and allot flats to their members.

 House Mortgage Societies: Such societies lend money to their members for construction of houses. The members
must make their own arrangements for building their houses. These types of societies are really credit societies as
distinguished from other credit societies as per the objects for which they lend, the duration of the loan and the security
they demand.

 House Construction or House Building Societies: Societies of this type spend money on behalf of the members for
building the houses, and the houses are handed over to members when ready and the money spent is recovered as loan.

Characteristics of Co-operative Housing Society

 Open membership
 Voluntary Association
 State control
 Democratic Management
 Service motive
 Separate Legal Entity
 Distribution of Surplus
 Self-help through mutual cooperation
The Union Cabinet first time approved the National Cooperative Policy, aiming at:

 Minimizing the share of the Government in Cooperatives.

 Redefining the role of Registrar of Coop. Societies as a facilitator for Cooperative Societies.

 Repatriation of the Government’s equity in the Cooperatives by infusion of equivalent cooperative shares.

 Multi-State Cooperative Societies Act- 2002 ensures functioning of Cooperatives as autonomous Institutions on
sound Cooperative Principles.

 The new legislation reduces the role of Government and provides professionalism in Cooperatives to withstand
competition.

 Government participation in the equity is allowed only when requested by the Society.

The activities of housing cooperatives in various States are regulated through

 Respective Cooperative Societies Act and

 Cooperative Societies Rules administered by the Registrar of Cooperative Societies appointed by the Government.

 The national level cooperative organisations and the multi-state cooperative societies are governed by the
provisions of Multi-State Cooperative Societies Act and Rules.

A housing cooperative is normally non-profit, since usually most of its income comes from the rents paid by its residents,
who are invariably its members.

 There is no point in creating a deliberate surplus except for operational requirements such as setting aside funds
for replacement of assets.

 It is relatively difficult to start a housing co-op because if the idea is, for instance, to build a building or group of
buildings to house the members, this usually takes a significant mortgage loan for which a financial institution will want
assurances of responsibility.

Advantages of Housing Cooperatives

 A housing cooperative is neither a public nor a profit seeking organisation.

 Its principal objective is to eliminate economic exploitation as it is controlled by members only.

 Contrary to public housing, cooperative housing provides opportunities to its members to control the
house designs at the planning stages.

 The maintenance of the estate is also in the hands of members, which leads to maintenance at lesser
expenses and in a better way.

 Cooperative housing satisfies quantitative as well as qualitative aspects of housing.

Q1 ) E

Urbanisation has resulted in people increasingly living in slums and squatter settlements and has deteriorated the housing
conditions of the economically weaker sections of the society. This is primarily due to the skyrocketing prices of land and
real estate in urban areas that have forced the poor and the economically weaker sections of thesociety to occupy the
marginal lands typified by poor housing stock,

congestion and obsolescence.

Considering these factors, there currently exists a wide gap between the demand and supply of housing (both in terms of
quantity and quality) in urban India. According to estimates of the Technical Group constituted by the Ministry of Housing
and Urban Poverty Alleviation (MHUPA), the urban housing shortage in the country at the end of the 10th Five-Year Plan
was estimated to be 24.71 million for 66.30 million households. The group further estimated that 88% of this shortage
pertains to houses for Economically Weaker Sections (EWS) and another 11% for Lower-Income Groups (LIG). For Middle-
and High-Income Groups (MIG and HIG), the estimated shortage is only 0.04 million. During the 11th Five-Year Plan, the
group estimated that the total housing requirement in Indian cities (including backlog) by end-2012 will be to the tune of
26.53 million dwelling units for 75.01 million households. If the current increase in backlog of housing is maintained, a
minimum of 30 million additional houses will be required by 2020.

Housing Shortage in Urban India

In India, private developers primarily target luxury, high-end and upper-mid housing segment, since it fetches a premium
over low income housing. This leads to a sustained supply for this segment, increasing market competitiveness for
developers. On the other hand, the housing for the poor and EWS is primarily provided by the government for welfare
purposes. However, it is insufficient compared to the existing shortage in the segment. Thus, it is the housing requirements
of the lower middle-income and lower income groups that are grossly neglected, and there exists a huge dearth in the
supply of affordable houses primarily demanded by this income group in India.

EWS: Economically Weaker Sections

• EWS is a term used to refer to those citizens or households with income below a certain threshold level. Though
there may be other economic factors in deciding on the economic weakness of the citizen/household, income is the
dominant criterion.

• Interest Subsidy for Housing the Urban Poor Scheme (ISHUP) was conceived by the central government in 2009 for
providing interest subsidy on housing to urban poor to make the housing affordable and within the repaying capacity of
EWS and Low Income Groups (LIG).
• The scheme encourages poor sections to avail of loan facilities through Commercial Banks/ Housing and Urban
Development Corporation (HUDCO) for the purposes of construction of houses and to avail 5% subsidy in interest payment
for loans uptoRs. 1 lakh. Under this ISHUP Scheme, EWS were classified in 2009 as Households with monthly income of
uptoRs 3,300 (or 39600 /annum) while those with monthly income between Rs 3,300 and Rs 7,300 were termed as LIG.
• Government, later in 2010, revised the income ceiling in respect of Economically Weaker Sections (EWS) from the
earlier limit of ‘uptoRs. 3300’ to ‘uptoRs. 5000’ or Rs. 60,000 a year and for LIG to Rs. 10,000 from Rs. 5,001.
• On 14 November 2012 this was further revised such that urban poor having an annual household income of up to
Rs. 1 lakh were classified as EWS and those falling between Rs. 1 lakh and 2 lakhs were categorized as Low Income Group
(LIG).
• The revised criteria, has been approved based on growth in per capita income, minimum wages for non-agriculture
workers, monthly per capita expenditure, National Housing Bank’s Residential Price Index, and Consumer price index &
consumer food price index.
• Rajiv RinnYojana (RRY) has been formulated by modifying the Interest Subsidy Scheme for Housing the Urban Poor
(ISHUP) piloted in the 11th Plan period with enhanced scope and coverage. RRY is a Central Sector Schemeapplicable in all
the urban areas of the Country.
• RRY is an instrument to address the housing needs of the EWS/LIG segments in urban areas as well as to channelize
institutional credit to the poorer segments of the society thereby, increasing home ownership in the country.
• Rajiv RinnYojana is effective from October 1, 2013. RRY provides for interest subsidy of 5% (500 basis points) on
loans granted to EWS and LIG categories to construct their houses or extend the existing ones.
• The upper limit for loan is Rs 5 lakh for EWS and 8 lakh for LIG (interest subsidy would, however, be limited to the
first Rs 5 lakh of the loan amount, in case the loan exceeds this amount).
• Under RRY, Economically Weaker Section (EWS) is defined as households having an average annual income up to
Rs. 1,00,000/- while Low Income Group (LIG) is defined as households having an average annual income between
Rs.1,00,001/- and up to Rs.2,00,000/-

LIG: low income group housing

• The low income group housing scheme, which was introduced towards the end of 1954, provides for the grant of
long-term house building loans at a reasonable rate of interest to persons whose income does not exceed Rs. 6,000 per
annum.
• Loans are given to individuals as well as to co-operatives whose members fulfil this condition. The assistance is
restricted to 80 per cent. of the estimated cost of construc-. tioir, including land, and is subject to a maximum of Rs. 8,000.
• The scheme also provides for loans to State Governments at 3V* per cent interest repayable in three years for
acquisition and development of land by local authorities and its allotment to prospective builders. Local bodies, charitable
institutions, hospitals, etc., can obtain assistance under this scheme for building houses to be let to their low paid
employees or on hire purchase terms.
• By the end of the second plan loans amounting to about Rs. 21.5 crores had been sanctioned for about 40,000
houses and for various land development schemes. The low income-group housing scheme has tried to meet a widely felt
need and large numbers of persons have sought to take advantage of it. However, on account of high land prices and the
lack of suitably developed sites, progress in the construction of houses under the scheme has not been as rapid as was
hoped for.
• High land values and a general scarcity of plots are an important reason for the slow progress of housing in recent
years, especially in towns which have grown rapidly. It would therefore, appear desirable to provide assistance to State
Governments and local authorities for developing sites for sale to persons who have low incomes and wish to build houses
for their own use, whether or not they are applicants for loans under the specific low income group housing scheme which
is being implemented.
• It is further suggested that a proportion of funds available under the scheme for low income housing might be used
for land development on a planned basis, special attention being given to those towns where considerable congestion exists
and to towns which are likely to develop more rapidly on account of development programmes to be undertaken during
the second five year plan. State Governments may examine in consultation with individual local authorities how far action
can be pursued along these lines. Sites might also be developed for lease as distinguished for sale.

 Affordable Housing:

 There is no clear-cut definition of the term ‘affordable’, as it is a relative concept and could have several implied
meanings in different contexts.
• According to the RICS Report on Making Urban Housing Work in India, affordability in the context of urban housing
means provision of ‘adequate shelter’ on a sustained basis, ensuring security of
 tenure within the means of the common urban household. RICS Practice Standard Guidance Notes (GN 59 2010)
states that ‘affordable housing is that provided to those whose needs are not
 met by the open market’.
• According to the KPMG Report on ‘Affordable Housing – A Key Growth Driver in the Real Estate Sector’, affordable
housing is defined in terms of three main parameters, namely income level, size of dwelling unit and affordability. Whilst
the first two parameters are independent of each other, the third is a dependent parameter that can be correlated to
income and
 property prices (Figure 2).
• As per US Department of Housing and Urban Development, the generally accepted definition of housing
affordability is ‘for a household to pay no more than 30% of its annual income on housing.
 Families who pay more than 30% of their income for housing are considered cost burdened and may have difficulty
affording necessities such as food, clothing, transportation and medical care’.
• According to the Task Force on Affordable Housing set up by the MHUPA in 2008, affordable housing for various
segments is defined by size of the dwelling and housing affordability derived by the household income of the population
(Figure 3).
• The JNNURM Mission Directorate of MHUPA has also defined affordable housing in its amended Guidelines for
Affordable Housing in Partnership released in December 2011
CONCLUSION:

Development of large-scale affordable housing is the greatest necessity of urban India today. Indian cities lack low-income
housing, which has resulted in the proliferation of slums and unorganised real estate across the landscape. Whilst this is
detrimental to the planned growth of cities, it is also restrictive to slum dwellers who are deprived of basic civic amenities
and fail to be an equal citizen. Large-scale urban developments are becoming increasingly difficult due to lack of land
parcels, congested transit routes, lack of finance, rising input costs and regulatory hurdles. However, it is vital that these
issues

are addressed urgently so that a comprehensive framework can be established in ensuring the development of affordable
housing.

Demand Side

• Formulate guidelines for identifying right beneficiaries

• There is a need to formulate guidelines that would help identifyright beneficiaries for affordable housing projects.
This would help in ensuring the reach to right beneficiaries and avoid involvement of speculative investors into the projects.
Creation of the National Population Register and issuance of unique identity through Unique Identification Authority of
India will become crucial steps in identification of right beneficiaries, if they are linked with income levels.
• Innovate on micro mortgage financing mechanisms to ensure a larger reach
• Effective financing through micro mortgages by utilising the reach of Self-Help Groups (SHGs) and other innovative
financing mechanisms would ensure that housing finance is available to large sections of
 LIG and EWS populations. Flexible payment mechanisms should be put into place, as households in low income
groups typically have variable income flows.
 Supply Side
• Incentivise developers to develop affordable housing
• ULBs and UDDs can develop guidelines by giving free sale areas, extra Floor Space Index (FSI) and other policy
measures so that real estate developers are incentivized to develop affordable
 housing. Schemes for redevelopment and slum rehabilitation should be developed with incentives that generate
sufficient returns for the developers whilst controlling the development density. The
 cost-benefit analysis of regulations should be carried out from a development perspective to ensure that schemes
to facilitate the development of affordable housing are feasible.
• Streamline land records to improve planning and utilisation of land
• Adequate availability of land should be ensured for housing and infrastructure by computerisation of land records,
use of Geographical Information Systems, efficient dispute re-dressal mechanisms and
 implementation of masterplans.
• Include mass housing zones in city plans and develop them within a planned schedule
• Some cities have already dedicated zones in their masterplans for development of affordable housing. Whilst this
needs to be replicated
 in other cities and towns, it should be ensured that they are developed within a planned schedule.
• Enact rental housing schemes in urban areas
• Authorities like MMRDA have experimented with rental housing schemes, but these have not been very successful
as a proper framework has been missing for such schemes. Limitations in such schemes include development in far-flung
areas, which are not suitable as affordable housing locations
 and lack of means to identify end users.
• Formulate policies for greater participation from private sector in the way of technological solutions, project
financing and delivery

Disruptive innovation in terms of technological solutions, project financing and delivery is required, which reduces costs of
construction significantly despite rising costs of inputs. As construction costs form a significant portion of the selling price
of affordable housing units, the savings in construction can immensely benefit the occupier.
Q1.F

Q 1) f) HOUSING POLICY

What is Housing policy?

• Housing policy refers to the actions of

government, including legislation and program delivery, which have a direct or indirect impact on housing supply and
availability, housing standards and urban planning

• Shelter is a basic human need. The

planning for housing is essential so that various services like transport, water, electricity and other amenities like
hospitals, schools, recreational space etc., can be accessed by the residents efficiently and beneficially. Besides, livelihood
opportunities also need to be linked to the residential areas suitably so that the housing need of the human being gets
fuller satisfaction.

• Need for the policy:

a) The State Government has resolved to

provide 19 lakh houses by the year 2022, with main thrust for Economically Weaker Section (EWS), Lower Income Group
(LIG) and Middle Income Group (MIG) housing. This time bound objective has given a dimension of urgency to revisit the
earlier government housing policy. Thus a new housing policy needs to be in place in view of the new dynamic scenario by
defining the role of the State as a Facilitator, Catalyst, Builder and Regulator.

• The housing policy is mainly divided into

Private housing and public housing.

MHADA:

The Maharashtra Housing Board formerly called "Bombay Housing Board" was established in the year 1948 and had a
jurisdiction over the entire State of Maharashtra except Vidharbha region. This body undertook construction of residential
buildings under various housing schemes for different sections of the society.On the re-organization of the State, the
Vidharbha Housing Board was established in the year 1960.

The Bombay Buildings Repairs and Reconstruction Board was constituted in 1971. It was created to deal with the
problems faced by tenants residing in dilapidated buildings in the Island City of Bombay and undertook its structural
repairs and reconstruction, so as to make them structurally sound and safe for habitation.

The Maharashtra Slum Improvement Board was constituted in 1974, with intention to provide basic amenities, such as
water taps, drainage, pathways, latrines and streetlights etc. in slums. To begin with, its activities were confined to the
Mumbai City and Mumbai Suburban Districts. These activities were later extended to the other parts of the State.

The Maharashtra Housing & Area Development Authority (MHADA) has been established by the Maharashtra Housing and
Area Development Act, 1976. It came into existence on 5th December 1977.

The erstwhile Mumbai Housing and Area Development Board was restructured by a Government Resolution dated
5.11.1992 and split into three separate Boards viz. Mumbai Housing and Area Development Board, Mumbai Building
Repairs and Reconstruction Board and Mumbai Slum Improvement Board Under the Government Resolution No. 2679/B,
dated 22.7.1992.

At present MHADA is coordinating and controlling the activities of seven regional housing boards, setup for each revenue
division in the state viz. Mumbai, Konkan, Pune, Nashik, Nagpur, Amravati, Aurangabad and two special purpose boards
viz. Mumbai Building Repairs and Reconstruction Board and Mumbai Slum Improvement Board.

The housing policy of the State announced in 2007 highlighted the areas of concern at the relevant time for housing
development. Some important issues that still need to be tackled are:

 Need assessment and human settlement survey;

 Streamlining of approval procedures in regard to the housing proposals / projects;
 Creation of housing and infrastructure development fund;
 Using of land as collateral security;
 Linking Employment Guarantee Scheme (EGS)/Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Schemes
(MNREG) to LIG in rural and “C” class municipal areas;
 Development of special townships;
 Conservation of water and environment and heritage structures;
 Reforms to the Rent Control Act;
 Removal of bottlenecks in slum redevelopment,
 Redevelopment of Bombay Development Department (BDD) Chawls;
 Facilitating Smart City Centers in cities with population of more than 10 lakhs;
 Creation of a new International Business and Finance Center (IBFC) in the Mumbai Metropolitan Region (MMR) for
generation of 5 lakh new jobs on the lines of Bandra Kurla Complex (BKC) with special emphasis on walk to work;
 Fine tuning the policy for redevelopment of cessed and unsafe buildings in Mumbai city;
 Introduction of New Policy for redevelopment of unsafe and dilapidated buildings in Suburban Mumbai;
 Fine tuning the policy for redevelopment of Urban Renewal Clusters in Mumbai;
 New policy for development of Greenfield Projects in the Affordable Housing category in the MMR and rest of
Maharashtra;
 Fine tuning the policy for redevelopment of Maharashtra Housing and Area Development Authority (MHADA)
colonies in Mumbai and rest of Maharashtra;
 Policy for redevelopment of MHADA Transit Camp.
 New policy for redevelopment of existing Police Housing Quarters;
 New policy for development of State Government Employee Housing Colonies (e.g. Bandra);
 New policy for development of land owned by PWD and other Departments of the State Government;
 New policy for development of land owned by Corporations of State Government, e.g. MIDC, etc.; xxiii. Facilitating
development of land owned by Central Government/Central Government Undertaking such as LIC/RBI/ESIC, etc.;
 Policy for use of SEZ land acquired in the state using the State machinery

The new housing policy has set a target to create 11 lakh homes in the MMR and 8 lakh homes outside MMR by 2022.

The public mass housing policies under MMRDA are implemented by MHADA.

Need for New Policy in 2015

The State Government has resolved to provide 19 lakh houses by the year 2022, with main thrust for Economically
Weaker Section (EWS), Lower Income Group (LIG) and Middle Income Group (MIG) housing. This time bound objective
has given a dimension of urgency to revisit the earlier government housing policy. Thus a new housing policy needs to be
in place in view of the new dynamic scenario by defining the role of the State as a Facilitator, Catalyst, Builder and
Regulator.

As per the census of 2011, out of 3.36 crore census houses 2.98 crore houses were occupied in the State. The population
of the rural houses in the total census houses was 52.2% and 47.8% in urban areas. A Survey by the National Housing
Bank (NHB), reveals a national housing shortage of 18.78 million in 2012-13, with Maharashtra’s shortage estimated at
1.94 million houses. Urbanisation in Maharashtra has increased from 42.43% to 45.23% between 2001-2010. All
indicators project an ever increasing trend of urbanisation. The urban population share in the total population of India is
31.16%. In a decade (2001-2011) the census houses have increased by 31.12% overall, while in rural areas the rise is
25.63% and in urban area it is 37.7%. All indicators indicate the gravity of the housing deficit in the State particularly in the
affordable housing segment and hence affordable housing needs a big push. The situation warrants mission mode
approach for the housing sector, starting with the introduction of a New Policy.

CONCLUSION
The housing policy has brought out a good result in today’s living standards to people. The aim of maximum people having
shelter and reaching out to their problems. This was revisived to make a difference between public and private areas, the
build and open spaces also.

Q1. G

A metropolis is a large city or urban area which is a significant economic, political, and cultural center for a country or
region, and an important hub for regional or international connections, commerce, and communications. The term is
Greek and means the "mother city" of a Colony (in the ancient sense), that is, the city which sent out settlers. This was
later generalized to a city regarded as a center of a specified activity, or any large, important city in a nation.

A metropolitan area, sometimes referred to as a metro area or commuter belt, is a region consisting of a densely
populated urban core and its less-populated surrounding territories, sharing industry, infrastructure, and housing.[1] A
metro area usually comprises multiple jurisdictions and municipalities: neighborhoods, townships, boroughs, cities, towns,
exurbs, suburbs, counties, districts, states, and even nations like the eurodistricts. As social, economic and political
institutions have changed, metropolitan areas have become key economic and political regions. Metropolitan areas
include one or more urban areas, as well as satellite cities, towns and intervening rural areas that are socio-economically
tied to the urban core, typically measured by commuting patterns.

The metropolitan mode of urban development has been so dominant for so long a time that it is assumed by many to be
the only form of contemporary urban growth and change. This often idealized and universalized view of the modern
metropolis as the highest stage of the urbanization process has injected an encompassing dualism into urban studies,
reflecting perhaps the most characteristic feature of metropolitan urbanization, the division of the metropolis into
separate and essentially different urban and suburban worlds or ways of life.

In India, there are 47 metropolitan cities. As of 2011 census, the top-eleven metropolitan cities based on their population
are Mumbai, Delhi, Bengaluru, Chennai, Hyderabad, Ahmedabad etc.The Census Commission defines the qualification for
metropolitan city as, "the cities having a population of more than 10 lakhs (one million) and above" and Megacity as, "the
cities having a population of more than 40 lakhs (four million) and above".

Mumbai is a ‘mega city’ and the largest metropolitan region in India.

Q1.h) TANGIBLE HERITAGE

Cultural heritage is the legacy of physical artefacts and intangible attributes of a group or society that are inherited from
past generations, maintained in the present and bestowed for the benefit of future generations.

Tangible heritage includes buildings and historic places, monuments, artifacts, etc., which are considered worthy of
preservation for the future. These include objects significant to the archaeology, architecture, science or technology of a
specific culture.

Objects are important to the study of human history because they provide a concrete basis for ideas, and can validate them.
Their preservation demonstrates recognition of the necessity of the past and of the things that tell its story. Preserved
objects also validate memories; and the actuality of the object, as opposed to a reproduction or surrogate, draws people in
and gives them a literal way of touching the past. This unfortunately poses a danger as places and things are damaged by
the hands of tourists, the light required to display them, and other risks of making an object known and available.

The reality of this risk reinforces the fact that all artifacts are in a constant state of chemical transformation, so that what is
considered to be preserved is actually changing – it is never as it once was. Similarly changing is the value each generation
may place on the past and on the artifacts that link it to the past.

Role of UNESCO

UNESCO’s strategy focuses on:

• Least Developed Countries (LDC) and countries in emergency situations (post-conflict or post-natural disaster),
particularly in Africa
• The museums and collections that best contribute to an integrated understanding of heritage and their potential
contribution to the economic
• Social and human development of local communities and disadvantaged groups
 This strategy is implemented through:
• Training activities involving simple and efficient techniques for safeguarding objects, with a special emphasis on the
creation of pedagogical tools
• Museum development by strengthening professional networks and partnerships
• Improving educational content and access to knowledge through awareness-raising and educational activities
• Promoting the return, restitution, and improved access to cultural objects by means of awareness-raising and
advisory activities and innovative partnerships
• Last but not least, through the joint implementation of normative and operational activities, particularly in regard
to the fight against illicit trafficking and the protection of underwater heritage

Q1.j) INTANGIBLE HERITAGE

"Intangible cultural heritage" consists of non-physical aspects of a particular culture, more often maintained by social
customs during a specific period in history. The concept includes the ways and means of behaviour in a society, and the
often formal rules for operating in a particular cultural climate. It is sometimes called living cultural heritage, and is
manifested inter alia in the following domains:

• Oral traditions and expressions, including language as a vehicle of the intangible cultural heritage;
• Performing arts;
• Social practices, rituals and festive events;
• Knowledge and practices concerning nature and the universe;
• Traditional craftsmanship

Intangible heritage is the behavioural representation of culture. Naturally, intangible cultural heritage is more difficult to
preserve than physical objects. The importance of intangible cultural heritage is not the cultural manifestation itself but
rather the wealth of knowledge and skills that is transmitted through it from one generation to the next. The social and
economic value of this transmission of knowledge is relevant for minority groups and for mainstream social groups within
a State, and is as important for developing States as for developed ones.

Tangible and intangible heritage require different approaches for preservation and safeguarding, which has been one of
the main motivations driving the conception and ratification of the 2003 UNESCO Convention for the Safeguarding of the
Intangible Cultural Heritage. The Convention stipulates the interdependence between intangible Cultural Heritage, and
tangible cultural and natural heritage, and acknowledges the role of intangible Cultural Heritage as a source of cultural
diversity and a driver of sustainable development.

Conservation of cultural heritage applies simple ethical guidelines:

• Minimal intervention;
• Appropriate materials and reversible methods;
• Full documentation of all work undertaken.

Often there are compromises between preserving appearance, maintaining original design and material properties, and
ability to reverse changes. Reversibility is now emphasized so as to reduce problems with future treatment, investigation,
and use.

In order for conservators to decide upon an appropriate conservation strategy and apply their professional expertise
accordingly, they must take into account views of the stakeholder, the values and meaning of the work, and the physical
needs of the material.

Many cultural works are sensitive to environmental conditions such as temperature, humidity and exposure to visible light
and ultraviolet radiation.

Q1.J) GENDER SENSITIVE URBAN SPACE PLANNING

When looking at cities from a gender perspective, one of the main differences affecting the use of urban space is in terms
of female and male care-giving roles and responsibilities. Due to the gender-specific division of labor, women do most of
the direct care-giving work within families and communities. As such, women are central to urban planning and
development, both as key users of urban space in their role as home managers, and as key producers of residential
environments in their role as community leaders and initiators of neighborhoodnetworks.The current development of
urban infrastructure and the built environment needs to be redesigned to promote greater gender equality in the use and
benefits of urban space. Many of the past and present trends in urban planning and development reflect the male
perspective regarding the role of women as primary caregivers. Viewing families, communities, towns, cities, and regions
from a gender perspective requires a radical shift both in thinking and in actions.

Urban Life is for Everyone

The structure of urban space often poses more difficult challenges for residents with lower mobility, such as children, older
people, and people with disabilities. People in these and similar categories have become marginalized and relegated to
segregated spaces that specifically target their special needs. Often they are not welcome in the mainstream of urban life.
Mobility and a “footloose” society have created residential environments lacking in community atmosphere because the
inhabitants engage in social activities outside of their own neighborhood. The Internet and other new forms of information
and telecommunications technology are reinforcing these trends.

Women and Child-Friendly Cities

One of the major lessons of the Mother Centers International movement is that it takes more than parents to raise children.
It takes a supportive and accommodating community environment. Children and parents need family-friendly situations
not only inside but also outside the walls of their homes and not only inside but also outside the walls of the Mother Centers.
One of the advocacy issues that Mother Centers typically engage in is working to create women and child-friendly cities and
urban communities.

Recommendations

Participatory and gender-sensitive urban environments can be supported by the following policies:

• Mixed use of space, integration of the functions of work, commerce, living, caregiving and recreation
• Equal attention to and investment in the hardware, software, and “orgware” of communities
• Supporting community residents to provide for their own needs and develop their own solutions
• Providing for self-managed meeting spaces for community residents
• Public infrastructure that welcomes and includes in public life: children and youth, older people, and people with
disabilities, as well as other dependents
• Allowing for the multiple and flexible use of public space by community residents
• Enabling conditions for the preservation and development of local economic activity, including community-based
businesses and locally owned small and medium-sized enterprises
• Creating experimental spaces in communities to allow for the development of bottom-up creativity and innovation
• Supporting and enabling community-based initiatives such as the Mother Centers and the Neighborhood
Academies
• Channeling greater public resources to grassroots community actions
• Acknowledging residents of local communities as important partners and stakeholders in urban development
• Promoting and supporting women’s participation and leadership in urban governance and community
development.

Q2: EXPLAIN THE ROLE AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF MUTP AND MUIP IN MMR.DISCUSS THE CURRENT INFRASTRUCTURE AND
TRANSPORT PROJECTS .EXPLAIN IN DETAIL ONE FROM EACH CATEGORY.

MMRDA: MUMBAI METROPOLITAN REGION DEVELOPMENT AUTHORITY

1. The Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authority (MMRDA) was established in accordance with the Mumbai
Metropolitan Development Act, 1974, on 26th January, 1975.
2. Since its inception, MMRDA is engaged in long term planning, promotion of new growth centers, implementation of
strategic projects and financing infrastructure development. The MMRDA prepares plans, formulates policies and programs,
implements projects and helps in directing investments in the Region.

3. The broad responsibilities of the Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authority includes:

• Preparation of Regional Development Plans

• Providing financial assistance for significant regional projects

• Providing help to local authorities and their infrastructure projects

• Coordinating execution of projects and/or schemes in MMR

4. Restricting any activity that could adversely affect appropriate development of MMR, etc.

In particular, it conceives, promotes and monitors the key projects for developing new growth centres and brings about
improvement in sectors like transport, housing, water supply and environment in the Region.

Spread Over 4 Districts : Mumbai, Mumbai Suburban, Parts of Thane and Raigad .

Area : 4,355 sq.kms (About 1000 Villages)

Population: 22.8 Million (2011) - 94% urban (34 Million - 2031 ESTIMATED)

CURRENT INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECT:

 Eastern Freeway
 Bus Queue Shelter
 Extended Mumbai urban infrastructure project
 Milan Rail Over Bridge
 Mumbai urban infrastructure project
 Sahar elevated road
 Skywalks
 CURRENT TRANSPORTATION PROJECT
 Multimodal Corridor from Virar to Alibaug.
 Mumbai Metro Rail Project
 Mumbai Metro Line 1 (Versova-Andheri-Ghatkopar Metro Project)
 Mumbai Metro Line 2 (Dahisar-Charkop-Bandra-Mankhurd Metro Project)
 Mumbai Metro Line 4 (Wadala-Ghatkopar-Teen Hath Naka (Thane)-Kasarwadavli Metro Project)
 Mumbai Monorail Project
 Thane Bhiwandi Kalyan MRTS
 Mumbai Trans Harbour Link
 Mumbai Trans Harbor Link (MTHL) – Metro Link
 Mumbai Urban Transport Project
 Mumbai Urban Transport Project – II
 National Mass Transit Training and Research Institute (NaMTTRI)
 Comprehensive Transport Study (CTS)
 Integrated Ticketing System (ITS) in MMR
 InterState Bus Terminal (ISBT)
 Unified Mumbai Metropolitan Transport Authority (UMMTA)

MILAN RAIL OVER BRIDGE(MUMBAI URBAN INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECT)

 The construction of a rail over bridge at Milan Subway, Santacruz, has been undertaken to provide East-West
connectivity and a solution to the perennial problem arising during every monsoon due to flooding.
 This bridge is 700 meter long and provides for a slip road and underpass on WEH.
 The layout of the project is as follows–
 Part-I
 A rail over bridge from Santacruz, S.V.Road to WEH
 Widening of Milan subway
 Vehicular underpass on WEH
 Part-II
 Launching of 61 meter long span and steel structure during the traffic blocks made available by Railway Authorities.
 Construction of steel super structure for launching of Railway steel structure.

This bridge was opened to traffic after Hon'ble Chief Minister inaugurated it on 24/5/2013.

PROJECT FEATURES

1. Project length: 1400 mtrs. With 27.45 mtr. Width

2. Bridge Portion: 700 m ( 2+2 lanes) including the 61m span across the Western Railway.

3. The remaining length is the road work including jurisdiction of MCGM

4.The project offers the following benefits:

 Direct connectivity to East and West from S.V. Road to Western Express Highway by a bridge over the Western
Railway tracks.
 Reduction in present traffic congestion
 Uninterrupted access over flooded Milan Subway during Monsoon
 DETAIL OF PROJECT
 The Milan Subway at Santacruz gets flooded frequently during the rainy season causing great difficulty to
commuters. Milan Subway is one of the vital East-West road connectivity below the Western Railway Tracks. Besides that,
it is narrow & causes traffic congestion in the locality.
 Keeping in mind this need of the hour, MMRDA took up the work of Milan Rail Over Bridge at Milan Subway
Santacruz under the Mumbai Urban Infrastructure Project (MUIP).
 Project Cost: Rs.83 Cr
 Project Scope:
 Construction of a 61m Railway span in High Tensile Structural steel as per Railway approved Design and
Methodology
 Construction of the Non Railway portion of the bridge in RCC / Pre-stress Concrete
 Widening & Construction of approaches & Slip Road on East side
 Overcoming the hurdles:
 Resettlement of over 300 Project Affected Persons (PAPs) / structures
 Provision of Rehabilitation of the PAPs in the project vicinity itself.
 Rehabilitation of Religious structures in co-ordination with various agencies viz. MCGM, Police Dept., Trustee board
 Relocation of utilities viz. Milan Subway LIC Nalla, Sewer Lines, Water supply lines & power cables in co-ordination
with MCGM & concerned agencies
 Traffic diversion during construction
 Project - A Technical Challenge
 The original 40mtr Span PSC superstructure was changed to Longer Span @ 61 m in High Tensile Structural Steel as
per requirements of Railway Authorities
 Design, Fabrication and Launching of @ 61 m Steel Girders
 Steel girder spans on either sides of Railway portion over which complete assembly of 61 m span was carried
 The Milan ROB is in the close vicinity of Mumbai Airport. , Statutory restrictions on height of ROB super structure
had to be kept in view for designing and erection
 Design, fabrication and launching of 61 meters plate girder was unprecedented. Fabrication of superstructure
especially box type main girders having twin webs with reverse FISHBELLY profile and sub divided in 5 segments was a
challenge. Furthermore welding of box girder with 2 x 50 mm top and bottom flanges with 12 x 4.40 m slender web sections
was equally cumbersome. However, the work was successfully carried out in a modern fabrication shop under the
supervision of expert agencies such as IRS & RITES Ltd
 Rolling and launching of each of the two carriageway structures were completed in 3 major Power & Traffic blocks
 Mumbai Metro Line 2 (Dahisar-Charkop-Bandra-Mankhurd Metro Project)(MUMBAI URBAN TRANSPORTATION
PROJECT)
 Dahisar-Charkop-Bandra-Mankhurd corridor length is 40 Km (fully Underground).
 Metro Line -2 will connect to North- South and East- West Suburban areas.
 After the commencement, it will benefit 21 Lakhs passengers up to 2031.
 After the commencement, the distance between Dahisar & Mankhurd will be covered within 80 minutes.
 Comfortable, speedy and Air-condition Journey.
 Due to this quality, public transport system the use of private vehicles, auto rickshaws etc. will reduce & hence will
reduce traffic congestion on the road and also save fuel consumption.
 Substantial saving in time & reduction in Air, Noise pollution.
 Project Feature:
 Corridor length - 40 km (Fully Underground)
 Stations - 36
 Platform length - 185 m. (8 Coach Cars)
 Metro corridor depth below ground - 15-20 m. (Avg.)
 Land requirement (approx) exclude Car depots - 69981 Sq. m. for Stations 3000 Sq.m. for Stations Facilities
 Implementation period - 2017 - 2023
 Project cost - Rs. 25,605.50 cr.
 Passenger capacity - 4 Coaches Car - 1514
 6 Coaches Car - 2302
 8 Coaches Car - 3090
 Details of Project:
 Project Name - Dahisar-Charkop-Bandra-Mankhurd corridor is 40 km (Fully Underground).
 Format - Through the Multilateral / International institutions loan assistance& Central, State Govt. sharing.
 Project Implementing Agency - Mumbai Metro Rail Corporation Limited
 Total project completion cost - Rs. 25, 605.50 cr.
 Implementation period - 2017-2023 (As per DPR).
 Present Status:
 Metro Line -2 (Charkop-Bandra-Mankhurd) and Metro Line -4 (Charkop-Dahisar) has been combined and modified
as Dahisar-Charkop-Bandra-Mankhurd (Metro Line-2).
 Authority in its 136th meeting has approved the DPR and recommended to take approval of the State Government
MMRDA has submitted the proposal to the State Government for approval.

Stations from Dahisar-Charkop-Bandra-Mankhurd also halts at SVP College, Borivali Metro, Mahavir Nagar, Kandivali Metro,
Malad Metro, Juhu, Bandra Metro, Kurla Metro etc. and also in between stations.

Q3)

Q4)

ELEABORATE THE ECONOMIC PLANNING LEVEL POLICIES IN CENTRAL , STATE AND ITS
IMPACT AT MMR LEVEL. LIST THE SIGNIFICANT ASPECTS IN THE RELATION TO THE FIVE YEAR
PLAN IN TERMS OF ECONOMIC POLICIES.
Economic planning is to make decision with respect to the use of resources.It is a term used to
describe the long term plans of the government to coordinate and develop the economy.
ECONOMIC PLANNING AT CENTRAL LEVEL IS MANAGED BY MINISTRY OF FINANCE.
Ministry of Finance- An important ministry within the Government of India concerned with
the economy of India. It concerns itself with taxation, financial legislation, financial institutions,
capital markets, centre and state finances, and the Union Budget.
Department of economic affairs.
Nodal agency of the Union Government to formulate and monitor country's economic policies
and programmes having a bearing on domestic and international aspects of economic
management.
Main functions -
 The preparation and presentation of the Union Budget (including Railway Budget) to the
parliament
 Monitoring foreign investments and payments.

Department of Expenditure
Nodal Department for overseeing the public financial management system (PFMS) in the
Central Government and matters connected with the finances.
Main functions-
 Pre-sanction appraisal of major schemes/projects .
 Handling the bulk of the Central budgetary resources transferred to States,

Department of Revenue
The Department of Revenue functions under the overall direction and control of the Secretary
(Revenue). Divded into- , the Central Board of Direct Taxes
-Central Board of Excise and Customs
Main functions-
Controls matters relating to all the Direct and Indirect Union Taxes.
Matters relating to the levy and collection of all Direct taxes are looked after by the CBDT.

Department of Financial Services.

The Department of Financial Services covers Banks, Insurance and Financial Services provided
by various government agencies and private corporations. It also covers pension reforms and
Industrial Finance and Micro, Small and Medium Enterprise.
Department of Investment and Public Asset Management
The Department of Disinvestment has been renamed as Department of Investment and Public
Asset Management or 'DIPAM', a decision aimed at proper management of Centre's
investments in equity including its disinvestment in central public sector undertakings.
The department took up all the functions of the erstwhile ministry which broadly was
responsible for systematic policy approach to disinvestment and privatisation of Public
Sector Units (PSUs).

12TH YEAR CENTRAL PLAN

National Development Council (NDC) approved 8% growth rate for 12th five-year plan.
Objectives:
- Faster, sustainable and more inclusive growth.
- To reduce poverty by 10% .
 - Better performance in agriculture.
- Faster creation of jobs, especially in manufacturing .
- Stronger efforts at health, education and Infrastructure.
- Special plans for disadvantaged/backward regions.
- To evolve a shared vision of national development priorities, sectors and strategies with
the active involvement of states in the light of national objectives.
- Economic planning help in mobilizing and allocating the resources in desired manner.
STATE GOVERNMENT
• GSDP at constant (2004-05) prices is ` 8,96,768 crore during 2013-14, as against `
8,35,929 crore in 2012-13, showing an increase of 7.3 per cent as per the first revised
estimates.

• Taxes in India are levied by the Central Government and the State Governments.

• Some minor taxes are also levied by the local authorities such as the Municipality.

• The authority to levy a tax is derived from the Constitution of India which allocates the
power to levy various taxes between the Central and the State.

• An important restriction on this power is Article 265 of the Constitution which states
that "No tax shall be levied or collected except by the authority of law".

• Therefore, each tax levied or collected has to be backed by an accompanying law,

passed either by the Parliament or the State Legislature. '

74TH AMENDMENT
• This amendment, also known as Nagarpalika Act, came into force on 1st June 1993. It
has given constitutional status to the municipalities and brought them under the
justifiable part of the constitution.. In addition, the Act has also added Twelfth
Schedule to the Constitution.
• The Act aims at revitalizing and strengthening the urban governments so that they
may function as effective units of local government.
• The Municipal Government:
• The Act provides for the constitution of three kinds of municipalities in every state:
• ADVERTISEMENTS:
• (1) Nagar panchayats for areas in transition from a rural area to an urban area.
• (2) Municipal councils for smaller urban areas.
• (3) Municipal corporation for larger urban areas
 Committee for district planning and metropolitian planning committee are performed
at state level after the 74th amendment which provides the city with good
planning.some functions of these committtes are-
Preparation of development plan
To planning and coordination for the metropolitan area
The integrated development of infrastructure and environmental conservation.

ULB:
 First and foremost objective. Economic growth traditionally measured and
expressed in terms of increase in the level of per capita income. aim to bring
about rapid economic growth through development in all the major sectors of
the economy.
 It refers to the consciously directed efforts of organizing and using resources for
productive purposes by a central authority for achieving certain predetermined
and well defined objectives or goals within a specified period of time.
 Unemployment and underemployment are important factors responsible for low
level of income and poverty in the country. No serious attempts were made to
work out a strategy for employment generation.
 Planning commission believed that increase in investment and increase in
national income would automatically generate more employment.
• Indian economy is characterized by glaring inequalities of income and wealth.
• Present degree of inequality of income – undesirable – needs to be reduced.
• Fruits of growth should be available to different sections of the society.
• Process of reducing inequalities is two fold:
- It must raise income at low level.
- It must reduce concentration of wealth at higher levels.
• Recognition of the need for giving special attention to backward states and hilly areas.
MMR
• MMRDA is a metropolitan area in Maharashtra state consisting of the state capital
Mumbai and its satellite towns .
• MMRDA was formed for planning, coordinating and supervising the proper orderly and
rapid development of the areas in the region.

OBJECTIVES
• Review of city plans, local economic development centers for rural areas.
• Development of new growth centers as integrated complexes.
• zoning and regulations for facilitating growth in secondary sector.
• Expansion Of city limit, creation of new municipal areas.
• Regional transportation, water resources development and solid waste management.
• Regional information system.

• ISSUES
• MMR losing its competitive advantage
• - Declining secondary sector economy
• - Slow growth, informalisation and concentration of employment
• - Urban-rural imbalance
• - Lack of affordable housing
• - Inadequate public transportation and other infrastructure.

PROJECT BY MMR
• Transport
• Infrastructure
 • Environment
• Innovation
• International Financial Services
Centre

Q5)

Q6)

Q)WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY URBAN OPEN SPACES?EXPLAIN VARIOUS CATEGORIES OF OPEN

SPACES WITHIN MMR. ELABORATE WITH EXAMPLE FORM YOUR CITY.
In land use planning, urban open space is open space areas for "parks", "green spaces", and other open
areas. The landscape of urban open spaces can range from playing fields to highly maintained
environments to relatively natural landscapes. They are commonly open to public access, however,
urban open spaces may be privately owned. Areas outside of city boundaries, such as state and national
parks as well as open space in the countryside, are not considered urban open space. Streets, piazzas,
plazas and urban squares are not always defined as urban open space in land use planning. Both links
together individual spaces and flows around and between every building and structure, forming the
context and surroundings of each one and connecting the inner city to the surrounding landscape.
Indeed, urban space can even be thought of as extending to include all significant outdoor spaces which
fall within the influence of the urban area, for example local recreation areas outside the city
boundaries.

• They give form and shape to the city

.• They provide space needed for recreation.

• They Create chances for interaction between people.

• They Preserve natural beauty .

There are many types of open spaces such as:

Water ways, parks, Green areas, playground, plaza, square, Streets

1. Water ways: include both natural lacks, rivers and streams which represent rich wildlife habitats and
offer recreational value also include manmade lacks and canals that offer recreational value Water ways
can also be used as movement paths.

2. The Park : “Is a natural preserved area available for recreation .”

• Its landscape shall consist of meadows, waterbodies, woodlands, and open shelters. meadows
waterbodies open shelters woodlands

3. The Playing fields Are open space dedicated for playing sports such as football, basket ball, golf
courses……

• The size: • Depends upon the type of sport

4. The playground “Is an open space which is designed and equipped for the children.”

• The playground should be fenced and located near residential areas • Playgrounds may be included
within parks and greens Residential areas

5. The Plaza “An open space available for civic purposes and commercial activities”

• Is defined by buildings frontages and usually attached to important building. Its landscape shall consist
primarily of pavement, Trees are optional

6. The Square “Is an open space available for civic purposes”Is defined by buildings frontages and is
located at the intersections of important thoroughfares. Buildings frontages. Its landscape shall consist
of, lawns and trees And shall be formally disposed.

7. The streets “Are the connections between spaces and places , and they are considered as spaces
themselves.”

• Types of streets There are many types of streets differs in scale, characters, types of buildings that line
them such as main streets or pedestrian paths.

• Means that the spaces reflect the local character of the area and have a variety of uses, built form,
features, colors and materials that give the spaces and buildings their own identity within the overall
character of the surrounding urban environment.

Open Space in Mumbai City

Urbanisation is arguably the most dramatic form of highly irreversible land transformation. While
urbanisation is a worldwide phenomenon, it is exceptionally dynamic in India, where unprecedented
urban growth rates have occurred over the last 30 years. In addition to being the capital of Maharashtra
State it is also the financial capital of India. Mumbai was the first city corporation in the country to adopt
the concept of a development plan in 1964. However, over the next few decades, a massive growth in
population(from less than 5 million in 1961 to over 12 million in 2001) has turned it into the most
densely populated city in India. As per planning norms, Mumbai needs 0.5 acre of open space per 1,000
people. Roughly translated, that means each person in Mumbai needs 22 sq. ft of open space. Within
the existing built up areas of cities uncontrolled growth of population and inadequate infrastructure
may cause irreversible loss of open space. The rapid population growth and the process of urbanisation
have resulted into changing land-uses pattern. Mumbai Metropolitan Region (MMR) is one of the fastest
growing region of India. Its population increased from 7.7 million in 1971 to 18.3 million in 2001 and is
projected to be increased 22.4 million in 2011. With the saturation of land in the city followed by
suburbs, other parts of the metropolitan region are now experiencing the fast growth. Due to growing
population pressure the total built-up and industrial area in Mumbai Metropolitan Region has increased
from 4.9 percent in 1971 to 12 percent in 1991 and is projected to constitute 31 percent of the total
area in 2011. On the other hand, area under forest cover has declined from 30 percent in 1971 to 27
percent in 1991 and is expected to it declines further to 22 percent by 2011. Open space have been
shrinking to dangerous lows in Mumbai, putting tremendous strain on resources and threatening human
health. Only 6 percent of the total land in the city is made up of open public space. Out of this, 45
percent is partially or completely encroached upon. A citizen of Mumbai gets 1.95 sq m of open space
against the international standard of 11 sqm per person, Mumbai experienced an axial growth in the
outskirts caused by transportation networks and hilly barriers. As per the latest land user survey data
being prepared by the Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation (BMC) in association with a private firm as
part of its revised development plan, the total accessible open space area minus the Sanjay Gandhi
National Park, has been reduce to just 1.33 percent of the total landmass of the city. The land user data,
which has

been collected as part of the larger Development Plan 2014-2034 preparation, states that the city has
over 30 percent of its total area under ‘natural areas and open space’ at 128.26 sq km out of the total
area of 413.93 sq km. Out of this share of 128.26 sq km of natural areas and open space in the city, a
whopping 34.8 percent is the land
 purely under the Sanjay Gandhi National Park, which is the city's single biggest green lung. The next
major chunk (29.9 percent) is mangrove land.

However, locally accessible open space that constitutes playgrounds, gardens and parks, recreational
grounds, clubs, gymkhana, beaches and promenades amount to only 4.29 percent as part of the total
natural area and open space and a minuscule 1.33 percent of the total landmass area of the city.
According to Urban Design Research Institute (UDRI), the open space ratio of 1.33 percent to the total
area points out that there is something grossly wrong with the urban planning department in this city.
The ratio of usable space has dropped substantially in the past 30 years since 1981. This ratio also
effectively means that the per capita usable open space is just 0.4 sq. m compared to the three sq. m.
which had been reserved for open space use in 1981. This is also in stark contrast to the basic
requirement of 11 sq. m. per capita of open space which has been highly recommended by the Urban
Development Plan Formation & Implementation Guidelines of 2002 by the Ministry of Urban Affairs.
While the second largest share of the city's land is being used for residential purposes with over 25
percent share for the same, the third largest component is the transport and communication facilities
which amount to over 12 percent of the land use in the city.

Q7)