Shape and Centroid Area Moment Radius of

Dimensions Area Location of Inertia Gyration

RECTANGULAR AREA

,0-'
.I'

h
x=o l x=12bh 3
rx= fo
A = bh

ji=O II' = 12 hh 3
r =--
b

b
.l'fo

TRIANGULAR AREA

h
II A = 1- bh rx = jI8
-+-----'-- x

CIRCULAR SECTOR AREA

)'

D sin IX
x=---
3 :x
I = -D4 ( C( = I- sin 2IX)
x 64 2
ji=O

<X = 1t LEADS TO CIRCULAR AREA

nD 2 x=O nD 4 D
--+---x A= -
4
1.< =1 )' = - 64 r .< =,. )'
=4
-
ji=O
Ingineering
01 Materials
THIRD EDITION
B. B. Mnldi J. W. McNabb

THIRD EDITION

With 300 Illustrations

Springer-Verlag
New York Berlin Heidelberg London
Paris Tokyo Hong Kong Barcelona
B.B. Muvdi J.W. McNabb
Department of Civil Engineering Department of Civil Engineering
and Construction and Construction
Bradley University Bradley University
Peoria, IL 61625 Peoria, IL 61625
USA USA

To our families
for their patience
and encouragement

Printed on acid-free paper.

Originally published by Macmillan Publishing Company, copyright © 1980 and 1984 by B.B. Muvdi and
J.W. McNabb.

© 1991 Springer-Verlag New York Inc.

Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1991
All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the written permission
of the publisher (Springer-Verlag New York, Inc., 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010, USA), except
for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis. Use in connection with any form of infor-
mation storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed is forbidden.
The use of general descriptive names, trade names, trademarks, etc., in this publication, even if the former
are not especially identified, is not to be taken as a sign that such names, as understood by the Trade Marks
and Merchandise Marks Act, may accordingly be used freely by anyone.

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 I

ISBN-13: 978-1-4612-7764-4 e-ISBN-13: 978-1-4612-3022-9

DOl: 10.1007/978-1-4612-3022-9
Prelace
This book was written in order to provide the student with a clear and understand-
able treatment of the concepts underlying the subject known as Mechanics of Materials or
Strength of Materials. This subject is concerned with the behavior of deformable bodies
when subjected to axial, torsional, and flexural loads as well as combinations thereof.
The objectives of the book are achieved by presenting the subject of mechanics of
materials in 13 chapters. The material within each chapter is organized such that the
student is led through the theoretical development of the fundamental concepts and the
applicable mathematical relations. This is followed by one or more examples that illus-
trate the application of the mathematical relations to physical situations. Finally, a set of
problems is provided that is arranged from the simplest to the most difficult.
A working knowledge of differential and integral calculus together with rigid body
mechanics (primarily statics) are the main requisites for understanding the ideas presented
in this book. In contrast to idealized rigid bodies considered in statics and dynamics, in
mechanics of materials the bodies are considered to be deformable, and these deforma-
tions are studied when known forces are applied to the bodies. The molecular structure of
matter, although well established by experiment, will not be of primary importance in this
course because the concepts of mechanics of materials are based upon "continuous
media "-a convenient continuous idealization of the true nature of matter that has
proved satisfactory for engineering analysis and design.
This book differs from more traditional mechanics of materials textbooks in several
major ways. Primarily, the organization of the material differs from other textbooks in
that the first nine chapters are concerned with analysis. Design considerations are delayed
until Chapter 10. This will enable the instructor to focus on the basic concepts without
being hampered by difficulties and details arising in the design process. Also significant is
the fact that all the material pertaining to statically indeterminate members is treated in a
single chapter, Chapter 9. This method of organization has the distinct advantage of
providing a valuable review and further reinforcement of the basic concepts of mechanics
of materials during the development of methods for the solution of statically indetermi-
nate problems in Chapter 9 and during the development of the basic design 'concepts in
Chapter 10.
Two other novel features are the extensive use of force diagrams for many members
to be analyzed or designed and the accompanying use of Mohr's circle for stress and
strain. Force diagrams for axially and torsionally loaded members, as well as the tradi-
tional shear and moment diagrams for beams, are developed in Chapter 1 using equi-
librium equations. General developments of stress and strain concepts and equations are
given in Chapter 2, together with the Mohr's circle semigraphical approach for principal
stresses and strains. Extensive use is made of the Mohr's circle construction, particularly
for stress analysis, in the remaining chapters. Student understanding will be greatly

v
 enhanced by extensive use of force diagrams and Mohr's circle construction in solving
problems in subsequent chapters.
In view of the fact that the international system of units, referred to as S[ (Systeme
International), is now beginning to gain acceptance in this country, it was decided to use
it in this book. However, it is realized that a complete transition from the U.S. Customary
to SI units will be a slow and costly process that may last as long as 20 years and possibly
longer. Some factors that will playa significant role in slowing down the transformation
process are the existing literature of engineering research and development, plans, and
calculations, as well as structures and production machinery, that have been conceived
and built using largely the U.S. Customary system of units. Thus the decision was made
to use both systems of units in this book. Approximately one-half of the examples and
one-half of the problems are stated in terms of the U.S. Customary system while the
remainder are given in terms of the emerging SI system of units.
The third edition of this book retains all of the strong features of the second edition
and contains the following changes:
1. The addition of approximately 120 new problems. These problems appear at the end
of the chapters under the heading" Additional Chapter Problems." Each problem is
appropriately referenced to a specific section within the chapter.
2. Numerical changes in approximately 20% of the problems in the second edition.
Whenever possible, numerical changes were limited to even-numbered problems whose
answers appear at the end of the book.
3. Correction of the errors discovered in the second edition.
In recognition of the impact of computers on engineering education, the authors have
included some coverage of this important topic. At the end of each chapter, a computer
section has been included to illustrate how computers may be used to solve mechanics of
materials problems that are broadly formulated. Appendix A provides the necessary in-
formation required to understand the computer examples and to solve the computer prob-
lems. The Instructor's Manual may be obtained directly from Dr. B.B. Muvdi at 5935 N.
Sherwood, Peoria, IL 61614.
Details of two suggested outlines for a first course in mechanics of materials are
provided in the Instructor's Manual. The first outline follows sequentially the organiz-
ation of the book while the second is based on a more traditional usage. In both cases,
however, certain starred sections are deleted on the basis that these are judged not to be
essential for an understanding of the basic concepts in mechanics of materials.
The authors wish to acknowledge with deep appreciation the many valuable com-
ments and suggestions made by colleagues from Bradley University and by the following
engineering educators from other institutions: Clarence J. Maday, North Carolina State
University; Douglas Dowell, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona; Eric B.
Becker, University of Texas, Austin; Sanford H. Stone, San Diego State University;
Robert N. Pangborn, Pennsylvania State University; Philip H. Francis, Illinois Institute
of Technology; Mike E. James, Jr., Texas A & M; John N. Seaman, University of Central
Florida; and Matthew Ciesla, New Jersey Institute of Technology.

Peoria, Illinois B.B.M.

J.W.M.

VI p",,-
 Conlenls

CHAPTER 1 Internal Forces in Members 1

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Axially Loaded Members in Equilibrium
1.3 Variable Axial Loading-Internal Force Relationships 5
1.4 Torsionally Loaded Members in Equilibrium 13
1.5 Variable Torsional Loading-Torque Relationships 15
1.6 Shear and Bending Moment in Beams 23
1.7 Shear and Moment at Specified Sections 24
1.8 Shear and Moment Relationships 31
1.9 Combined Loadings and Associated Diagrams 46
*1.10 Computer Applications 53

2 Stress, Strain, and Their Relationships 60

2.1 Introduction 60
2.2 Concept of Stress at a Point 60
2.3 Components of Stress 63
2.4 Analysis of Plane Stress 64
2.5 Mohr's Circle for Plane Stress 67
2.6 The Absolute Maximum Shear Stress 81
2.7 Concept of Strain at a Point 89
2.8 Analysis of Plane Strain 91
2.9 Linear Stress-Strain Relations 103
*2.10 Computer Applications 116

3 Stresses and Strains in Axially Loaded Members 121

3.1 Introduction 121

3.2 Stresses due to Axial Forces 121
3.3 Strain and Deformation due to Axial Forces 130
3.4 Mechanical Properties of Materials Under Axial Forces 144
*3.5 Computer Applications 156

VII
 I Torsional Stresses, Strains, and Rotations 159

4.1 Introduction 159

4.2 Solid Circular Shafts-Angle of Twist and Shearing Stresses 159
4.3 Hollow Circular Shafts-Angle of Twist and Shearing Stresses 166
4.4 Principal Stresses and Strains Associated with Torsion 173
4.5 Analytical and Experimental Solutions for Torsion of Members of
Noncircular Cross Sections 179
4.6 Shearing Stress-Strain Properties 188
*4.7 Computer Applications 195

5 Stresses in Beams 198

5.1 Introduction 198

5.2 Review of Properties of Areas 198
5.3 Flexural Stresses due to Symmetric Bending of Beams 211
5.4 Shear Stresses in Symmetrically Loaded Beams 230
*5.5 Flexural Stresses due to Unsymmetric Bending of Beams 248
*5.6 Computer Applications 258

I Deflections of Beams 265

6.1 Introduction 265

6.2 Moment-Curvature Relationship 266
6.3 Beam Deflections-Two Successive Integrations 268
6.4 Derivatives of the Elastic Curve Equation and Their Physical
Significance 280
6.5 Beam Deflections-The Method of Superposition 290
6.6 Construction of Moment Diagrams by Cantilever Parts 299
6.7 Beam Deflections-The Area-Moment Method 302
*6.8 Beam Deflections-Singularity Functions 319
*6.9 Beam Deflections-Castigliano's Second Theorem 324
*6.10 Computer Applications 332

7 Combined Stresses and Theories of Failure 336

7.1 Introduction 336

7.2 Axial and Torsional Stresses 336
7.3 Axial and Flexural Stresses 342
7.4 Torsional and Flexural Stresses 352
7.5 Torsional, Flexural, and Axial Stresses 358
*7.6 Theories of Failure 365
*7.7 Computer Applications 378

VIII Contents
8 Column Theory and Analyses 384

8.1 Introduction 384

8.2 Stability of Equilibrium 384
8.3 Ideal Column Theory-The Euler Critical Load 393
8.4 Effect of End Conditions on Behavior of Columns 408
*8.5 Eccentrically Loaded and Initially Curved Columns 409
8.6 Empirical Equations for Column Allowable Loads 414
*8.7 Computer Applications 428

I Statically Indeterminate Members 432

9.1 Introduction 432

9.2 Effects of Temperature Changes 432
9.3 Statically Indeterminate Members Under Axial Loads 434
9.4 Statically Indeterminate Members Under Torsional Loads 445
9.5 Statically Indeterminate Members Under Flexural Loads-Two
Successive Integrations 452
9.6 Statically Indeterminate Members Under Flexural Loads-
Superposition 461
9.7 Statically Indeterminate Members Under Flexural Loads-
Area Moment 467
*9.8 Statically Indeterminate Members Under Flexural Loads-
Castigliano's Second Theorem 474
*9.9 Computer Applications 479

11 Introduction to Component Design 484

10.1 Introduction 484

10.2 Basic Concepts of Design 484
10.3 Design of Axially Loaded Members 487
10.4 Design of Torsional Members 494
10.5 Design of Flexural Members 500
10.6 Design of Columns 515
*10.7 Computer Applications 522

11 Analysis and Design for Inelastic Behavior 523

*11.1 Introduction 523

*11.2 Inelastic Behavior of Torsional Members 523
*11.3 Inelastic Behavior of Bending Members 526
*11.4 The Plastic Hinge Concept 533
*11.5 Pseudo-Mechanism Formation and Moment Redistribution for
Beams 533

IX
 *11.6 Design for Inelastic Behavior of Torsional and Bending Members 544
*11.7 Computer Applications 550

12 Analysis and Design for Impact and Fatigue Loadings 552

*12.1 Introduction 552

12.2 Stress Concentrations 553
*12.3 Axial, Torsional, and Bending Impact Analyses 558
*12.4 Fatigue Loadings-Analysis and Design 571
*12.5 Computer Applications 587

13 Selected Topics 590

*13.1 Introduction 590

13.2 Thin-Walled Pressure Vessels 590
*13.3 Thick-Walled Cylindrical Pressure Vessels 597
*13.4 Shear Center for Thin-Walled, Open Cross Sections 609
*13.5 Beams of Two Materials 618
*13.6 Reinforced Concrete Beams-Elastic Method 625
*13.7 Circumferential Stresses in Curved Beams 630
*13.8 Computer Applications Using the STRESS Language 637

APPENDIX A Computer Programming for Mechanics of Materials 647

I Reactions at Connections and Supports 653

C Physical and Mechanical Properties of Selected Materials 655

D Properties of Plane Areas 657

I Design Properties for Selected Structural Sections 659

f Plastic Design Properties for Selected Structural Sections 666

G SI Units 668

H Selected References 669

Answers to Even-Numbered Problems 671

Index 687

x Contents
 Illerlll flrces il Mellbers

1.1 The analysis or design of structural and machine components is based upon a knowledge
Introduction of the variation of internal forces throughout such members. Fundamental concepts and
equations of statics provide the necessary background for determination of these internal
forces. The equations of equilibrium together with the free-body-diagram concept are
used to determine internal forces in members subjected to applied force systems. Empha-
sis is placed upon the construction of diagrams that reveal the variation of internal forces
as functions of coordinates measured along member lengths. Equations and procedures
are developed for the construction of axial force, torque, shear, and moment diagrams.
Sign conventions are used for two purposes in analyzing external and internal forces
acting on members. Equilibrium equations require sign conventions when they are written
and internal axial force, torque, shear and moment require sign conventions when they
are plotted. A consistent, right-handed system has been adopted for writing the equations
of equilibrium. External forces, acting on a given body, will be considered positive when
acting to the right (-) and upward (j) and moments and torques will be considered
positive when acting counterclockwise (0). Sign conventions for internal axial force,
torque, shear, and moment will be introduced in this chapter and employed for plotting
these quantities throughout this book.
Examples are solved in detail to illustrate the methods developed for construction of
these internal force diagrams. Appendix B provides information on connections and
reactions at supports that will be useful in the proper construction of free-body diagrams.

1.2 _ _ Consider a system of forces PI' P 2' P 3' P4 applied to the member of varying cross
Axially Loaded section shown in in Fig. 1.1 (a). The action line of each force is directed along the longitu-
Members in dinal axis of the member and passes through the centroid of each cross section of the
Equilibrium member. The complete member is in equilibrium, and if we direct an x axis along the
member, the available equation of equilibrium may be written L F x = O. Choosing the
positive sense to the right, we obtain
-PI + P2 + P3 - P4 =0
In order for the problem to be a statically determinate one, only one of these forces
may be regarded as unknown (e.g., P4)' Solving for P4 yields
P4 = -PI + P2 + P 3
In the study of mechanics of materials, it is necessary to first determine the forces

1
 B
A

- x
~ B
(3) (b ) (e)

c
(e)
(d)

FIGURE 1.1

acting inside a member such as the one shown in Fig. l.1(a). In order to investigate these
internal forces, imagine cutting planes passed perpendicular to the member axis (x) such
as the planes denoted by A-A, B-B, and C-c. Since the entire member is in equilibrium,
any part of it must also be in equilibrium. The free-body diagrams shown in Fig. l(b) to
(e) are each in equilibrium. Forces FA ' FB, and Fe which are internal with respect to the
entire body are external when shown on these free-body diagrams. Each of these forces is
assumed to be tensile at the appropriate section and a negative sign will indicate a
compressive force. In order to determine FA ' FB' and Fe , apply the equation L Fx = 0 to
each of the free-body diagrams shown.
Figure l.1(b):

Figure l.1(c) :
FB +P 2 -P i =O
FB =P i -P 2
Figure 1.1(d):
Fe + P 3 + P2 - Pi =0
Fe = Pi - P 2 - P3
An alternative approach for determining Fe , for example, is to consider the right
free-body diagram shown in Fig. l.1(e) :
-Fe -P4 =O
Fe = -P4
In general, either left or right free-body diagrams may be chosen for determination of
the internal forces. The choice is one of convenience. It is readily seen that the right
free-body diagram of Fig. l.1(e) is simpler to work with than the one in Fig. l.1(d). These
internal forces are distributed over the entire cross-sectional area of the member at the cut
sections, but consideration of this distribution is deferred to Section 3.2.

2 Ch. 1 I Internal Forces in Members

EXAMPLE 1.1

Determine the internal forces acting inside the member in Fig. 1.2 and plot their variation
along the member length.

SOLUTION. Construct a free-body diagram of the entire member and orient a vertical
axis positive upward as shown in Fig. 1.2(a) and write L Fy = 0 in order to find P, the
reaction at the base of the member.
10 - 2(6) + 8 - 2(2) - P =0
IP= 2 kN I
This value of P will be used for a check on other calculations or for the force acting
on the free-body diagram of the bottom part of the member. It is preferable to use this
compared to the free-body diagram of the top part of the member.
Consider free-body diagrams of Fig. 1.2(b), (c), (d), and (e) in order to compute FA'
FB , Fe, and FD' respectively. When these free-body diagrams are drawn showing FA' FB,
Fe, and FD "pulling on the body" or in tensile action, the physical sign convention is
established. Once the equilibrium equations are solved, if the sign associated with the
numerical value of anyone of these axial forces is positive, then that force is termed

tlOkN

t
A A

6 kN ! kJ\

B B
C 18kN C
J2kJ\ 2 kNJ 10

*
D D
6 6
A A
B B
I' FA
'~p

(a) (b) (e)

10 kl

6 kN 6kN
c c
J2 I 18kN

D D

T p =2
(d) (e)

FIGURE 1.2

Sec. 1 .2 / Axially Loaded Mambar. in Equilibrium 3

 tensile and is plotted positively in the axial force diagram. Conversely, a negative result is
termed compressive and is plotted negatively in the axial force diagram.
Before writing the equations of equilibrium, the equations sign convention will be
established. A force directed upward will be considered positive and one directed down-
ward will be considered negative as these equations are written. This choice of a positive
sense will be shown symbolically by i and will consistently be employed throughout this
text. In each case i L Fy = O.
Figure 1.2(b):
i

I FA = 10 kN(T) I
Figure 1.2(c) :
i
10 - 2(6) - F B = 0

I FB = -2 kNee) I
Figure 1.2(d): Note the choice of the bottom free body in this case. Of course, the top
free body would yield the same result.
i
F c - 2(2) - 2 =0

Fc = 6 kN(T)

Figure 1.2(e) :
i 10 - 2(6) +8- 2(2) - F D = 0

IF D = 2 kN(T) I
These values are plotted in Fig. 1.3. This plot is referred to as the axial force diagram
for the member shown and will be utilized throughout this text.

)'(1111

10
+ 10

",j,t! fo r,c (kNI.

ten,ioll po. ilin·

FIGURE 1.3

4 Ch.1 / Internal Forces in Members

1.3 _ _ Axial loadings are not always applied externally at given cross sections, as depicted in
Variable Axial Fig. 1.1, but may be applied in some variable fashion along the longitudinal member axis
Loading- as indicated in Fig. 1.4(a). The axial load intensity expressed in force per unit length and
Internal Force denoted by f is a function of the longitudinal coordinate x. In addition to the distributed
Relationships loading f, one or more concentrated loadings such as P may also be applied to the
member. These externally applied axial loadings are balanced by R at the left end of the
member, A .
Consider a short segment of the member in Fig. l.4(b). This free-body diagram
establishes a "physical sign convention " such that internal tensile forces are positive and
compressive ones are negative. A single equilibrium equation applies to this body. An

Origin

--- --- -L
--- ---+s--x
~--
--- --- ---
~
P
A
........-- ~ ~ ~

L
(a)

~----------~----+--------+----~~------~~u~ng~th~X

units

(L,P)

'"
-2
.,
:>

~
~ x
t>... ungth units

(O ,-R)
(d)

4
fdx

F + dF -+'

dx
(b)

FIGURE 1.4

Sec. 1.3 I Variable Axial Loading-Internal Force Relatlonahlpa 5

 "equations sign convention" will be established such that a force directed to the right will
be considered positive and one directed to the left will be considered negative. This choice
of a positive sense will be shown symbolically by -4. Positive applied axiaL forces of
intensity f act as shown in Fig. 1.4(a).
-4LFx=O
F + dF - F- f dx = 0

~ (1.1)
~
The applied axial load intensity f at any section of the loaded member equals the rate
of change of the internal axial force F with respect to the longitudinal coordinate x.
Graphically, this is as depicted in Fig. 1.4(c) and (d). The ordinatefto thef-x curve at any
point such as x = Xo is equal to the slope of the F-x curve at the same point.
Multiply Eq. 1.1 by dx and write dF = f dx. Then, integrate both sides of the equa-
tion:

i F2 dF = 1X2f
Fl Xl
dx

The left side of this equation may be integrated to give

(1.2)

Equation 1.2 states that the change in internal axial force between any two sections of an
axially loaded member equals the area under the f-x diagram between the same two
sections. Graphically, this is depicted in Fig. 1.4(c) and (d), where the two sections have
been chosen at distances Xl and X 2 from the left end of the member. Internal tensile forces
are positive and compressive ones are negative. Positive applied axial forces of intensity f
act as shown in Fig. 1.4(a).

EXAMPLE 1.2

A rod made of two different materials (A and B) is suspended from an overhead frame as
depicted in Fig. 1.5(a). Rod A weighs W A = 6 lb/ft and rod B weighs wB = 4 lb/ft. Con-
struct the axial force diagram for this rod and note the maximum force in the rod. Discuss
the results in terms of Eqs. 1.1 and 1.2.

SOLUTION. In this problemf = W A orf = W B , the applied gravity loadings. Consider

the free-body diagram shown in Fig. 1.5(b):
i LFy = 0

with wB = 4 lb/ft. This becomes

FB =4y (0::;; y ::;; 10)
F B is a linear function of y that varies from 0 lb when y = 0 ft to 40 lb when y = 10 ft.

6 Ch. 1 I Internel Force. in Member.

 O"erhead frame
:%:

FA
15 ft A
I
)' -10 A
t- IVA (y - 10)

r ~.:,,
y B
B 19
r "'8(10)

(a) (b) (e)

y( fll y(ft )

r------?' 130 Ib

+1,

+4
f = '" = a pp licd force
intensity
F = axial force (II> I f= IV (Ib/ ft)
(tension i po i the)
(d ) (e)

FIGURE 1.5

Now, consider the free-body diagram shown in Fig. 1.5(c):

i L Fy = 0
FA - wB(10) - wA(y - 10) = 0
With WA = 6 lbl ft and WB = 4 lb/ft this becomes
FA = 6y - 20 (10 ::;; Y ::;; 25)
FA is also a linear function of y which varies from 40 lb when y = 10 ft to 130 lb when
y = 25 ft.
These linear functions for FA and F B are plotted versus y as shown in Fig. 1.5(d).
This plot is the axial force diagram for the member. We observe that the axial force in the
rod reaches a maximum value of 130 lb at its top, where it is connected to the overhead
frame.
Discussion of the results in terms of Eqs. 1.1 and 1.2 requires reference to Fig. 1.5(d)
and (e). The ordinate to the f-y curve in Fig. 1.5(e) for rod B equals 4 lbl ft, which equals
the slope of the F-y curve in Fig. 1.5(d) given by
AF 40-0
- = - - = 4 Ib/ft
Ay 10
To better understand Eq. 1.2, consider rod A. The difference in ordinates to the F-y
curve between the ends of this rod is given by 130 - 40 = 90 lb, which equals the area
under thef-y curve for this rod : (6 lb/ft) (15 ft) = 90 lb.
The reader is urged to complete this discussion by considering rod A, Eq. 1.1, and
rod B, Eq. 1.2.

Sec. 1.3 I Veriable Axial Loading-Internal Force Relationships 7

EXAMPLE 1.3

A soil sampling device for possible use in planetary exploration is depicted in Fig. 1.6(a).
As withdrawal impends, the force P = 80 N and the soil resistance is assumed to vary
linearly as shown in Fig. 1.6(c). Neglect the effects of gravity. Determine the maximum
value of I = 11 at the bottom of the device and construct the F-x curve, where F is the
internal force in the rod. Illustrate the meaning of Eq. 1.1 by selecting an x value of 0.1 m .

SOLUTION. Consider the free-body diagram shown in Fig. 1.6(b). The origin is chosen
at the planet's surface and x is measured positive downward. The resulting resisting force
F R may be determined by first referring to Fig. 1.6(c) and expressing I as a function of x
by similar triangles :

or

II 2

t
.. f
x
F• R = reslstmg orce = 0.8 x

(a) (b )

I(N/m) F( )
(0,80)

(0.4 , 0)

x (m) x (m)

(e) Cd)

FIGURE 1.6

8 Ch. 1 / Internal Force. in Member.

 Then
dF R =I dx
Integrating yields

FR =
f I dX =11-
0.4
IX
0
X dX =11
-X 2
0.8

-F - FR + 80 = 0
F = 80 - FR

F = 80 - 11 X2
0.8
To determine 11 , we make use of the boundary condition at the bottom of the device:
x = 0.4 m, F = O. That is, the device will not be subjected to an internal axial force at its
lower end. By applying this condition to the F versus x function:

o = 80 - 11 (0.4)2
0.8

I 11 = 400 N/m I
F = 80 - 500x 2
This F-x curve, which is parabolic, is plotted in Fig. 1.6(d). The straight line shown in
Fig. 1.6(c) has a negative slope and its equation is given by
-/1 -400
I = - x = - - x = -1000x
0.4 0.4
Equation 1.1 will be written for x = 0.1 m,

l=dF
dx
/0.1 = -1000(0.1) = -100 N/m
F = 80 - 500x 2
dF
- = -1000x
dx

(~:)0.1 = -1000(0.1) = -100 N/m

At x = 0.1 m, the ordinate to the I-x curve is -100 N/m, which equals the slope of the
F-x curve as depicted in Fig. 1.6(c) and (d).
The reader should apply Eq. 1.2 to Fig. 1.6(c) and (d) between limits x = 0 to
x = 0.4 m.

Sec. 1.3 / Variable Axial Loading-Internal Force Relationships 9

PROBLEMS

1.1 A reinforced concrete column of a building is
depicted in Fig. Pl.l. Assume that the weight of the
column has been allowed for in the forces applied at the
roof and floor levels as shown. Determine the force F
exerted on the column by the footing. Draw an axial
force diagram for this column subjected to these gravity
loadings.
50 k
F====r Roof
1.3 A 30-ft-Iong vertical cable supports a weight of
5000 Ib at its lower end. The cable weighs 4 Ib/ft and is
supported at its upper end. Determine the vertical sup-
porting force required at its upper end and construct
the axial force diagram for the cable.
1.4 Refer to Fig. PI.4 and determine the reaction R
supporting the vertical member subjected to the forces
shown. This member weighs 500 N/m. Construct the
axial force diagram for it.

Fourth

Third

.::
~
llOk!
E
Second M

.::
~

Firs!

Cross seC!lOn
Reinforced concrete
column

FIGURE P1.1
FIGURE P1.4

1.2 A hanger rod supports part of a walkway which

delivers a vertical force of 200 kN at the lower end of
the 20-m-Iong rod. If the rod weighs 160 N/m, draw the
axial force diagram for the rod after determining the force
at the top of the rod delivered to it by the supporting
overhead structure.
1.5 A wide-flanged beam is subjected to axial loads as
shown in Fig. P1.5. Horizontal reactions of equal mag-
nitude at ends A and B hold the beam in equilibrium.
Determine these reactions to the applied loads and
draw the axial force diagram for this beam. (Half of

10 Ch. 1 / Internal Forces in Members

each loading is applied on each side of the web to 25 kN
assure concentric application of these forces.)

I"
40k
A -+-----~ _6Sk
_ --._~SOk 10k
------....._---+-- B

~ ~
~S fl+ 6 ft+ 8ft+8 ft+8 ft----1
Side v iew

I
40 kN
FIGURE P1.7

1.8 The bar shown in Fig. P1.8 is attached to a

column at its right end and loaded as shown. Find the
Cross section reaction R required to maintain equilibrium of the bar.
FIGURE P1.S Draw the free-body diagrams required to determine the
axial forces in this bar, then plot the axial force diagram
for it.
<L Colum n
1.6 A steel beam 40 ft long is suspended from its upper
end as shown in Fig. P1.6. Choose an origin at the top C Dr----AI
B
or bottom of the member and write an equation that 20 k A
expresses the internal force in the member as a function
of a coordinate measured along the beam length. Plot
the axial force diagram for the beam. Steel weighs
490 Ib/ft 3 and the cross-sectional area of the beam is
36 in. 2 FIGURE P1.8

1.9 The body depicted in Fig. P1.9 is composed of two

parts welded together. Part A weighs 150 N/m, part B
/I =36in.1 weighs 220 N/m, and P = 1800 N. Choose an origin at

H
o and measure x positive downward, then write equa-
tions for the internal axial force as a function of x for
the entire body. Plot the axial force diagram for this
body and note the largest axial force in the body and
state whether it is a tensile or compressive force.
FIGURE P1.6

p
o

1.7 Determine the force P required for equilibrium of

the body shown in Fig. P1.7 and plot the axial force
f--A--i~ T
diagram for the member. Choose an origin for the B 3m
lengthwise coordinate and clearly show this on a sketch
of the member. Ignore the member weight for your /'
analysis. FIGURE P1 .9

Sec. 1.3 I Variable Axial Loading-Internal Force Relationships 11

1.10 An I8-ft-Iong rod is suspended as shown in
Fig. Pl.IO. The unit weights of each part are WA =
6Ib/ft, WB = 8Ib/ft, and We = 4Ib/ft. Draw appropriate
free-body diagrams to determine the internal axial
forces in each part of the rod. Use an origin at 0 and an
upward-directed length coordinate. Plot these axial
force functions versus length along the rod. What is the
maximum axial force in the rod?
/
force diagram for the member. Use a length coordinate
measured from an origin at point A.
1.13 A rod of a drilling rig weighs 20 lbjft and a 40-ft
length is suspended from its top and held vertically as
preparations for drilling are made. Choose an origin at
the top or bottom of the rod and express the axial force
as a function of a lengthwise coordinate. Plot the axial
force diagram for the suspended rod.

4ft A 1.14 The bar shown in Fig. Pl.I4 is suspended as

shown. It is subjected to two applied forces and each
7 ft B segment has unit weights as follows: W A = 10 lb/ft and
WB = 5 lb/ft. Draw the appropriate free-body diagrams

7ft C required to express the axial forces in this bar as func-

tions of a length coordinate measured from the origin 0
o at the bottom of the bar. Draw the axial force diagram
FIGURE P1.10 for this bar alongside a sketch of it. What is the
maximum axial force in the bar?
1.11 Construct an axial force diagram for the member /'/
shown in Fig. PU1. Choose an origin at point A and 8 ft
measure a length coordinate along the axis of the
member. Sketch all free-body diagrams required to A
evaluate the axial forces in the various parts of the
body.
4 k 25 kN
B
~_=_3_2_k_~______~c~___74_k~ 200lb

o
FIGURE P1.14

1.15 A 30-ft-long vertical member AB of a metallic

FIGURE P1.11
truss is shown in Fig. PUS. The metal weighs 163 lbjfe

1.12 The member shown in Fig. PU2 is subjected to

the system of forces shown and is fastened to a support
at point A. Determine the reaction at the support con-

0
sistent with equilibrium of the member. Draw the A = 20 ill.2
appropriate free-body diagrams required to find the

I
axial forces in this member. Then construct the axial
30 ft

E~
Sedio ll A-A
A
~
.!!..
A________~______G________~------~

\ 0ft 8 ft 10ft - --1-- \ 0 ft B //-.

~~~ /'/
FIGURE P1.12 FIGURE P1.15

12 Ch. 1 I Internal Forces in Members

and the cross-sectional area of the member is 20 in. 2 •
Assume that one-half the total weight of the member is
supported by each welded end A and B. Choose an
origin at A and express the axial force in the member
due to its own weight as a function of x measured along
the member. Plot the axial force diagram for the
member, note the largest values of this force, and state
whether they are tensile or compressive.
express the internal force in the pile as a function of a
lengthwise coordinate x measured from the origin. Plot
the axial force diagram for the pile. All unknown values
are to be determined for the situation depicted when the
pulling force is 30 tons and the pile is in equilibrium
prior to being pulled from the earth.

1.16 A 54-ft-long steel piling weighing 250 lb/ft was

damaged during driving and must be pulled from the
earth as shown in Fig. P1.16. The pile is about to move ~ ~
upward when the pulling force is 30 tons. The pulling
force is resisted by the pile weight and the skin friction
forces developed on the surface of contact of the pile
50 ft
f~
~ ~ H
A = 73.5 in. 2

with the soil. Assuming that the skin friction forces to

be uniform over the pile surface, determine these forces
denoted by fwhich are expressible in pounds per foot of ~ ~
pile length. Choose an origin at the top of the pile and FIGURE P1.16

1.1 _ _ The member depicted in Fig. 1.7 is in equilibrium when subjected to concentrated exter-
Torsionally nal torques T1 , T2 , T3 , and T4 . To determine the resisting internal torques TA , TB , and
Loaded Members Tc , we need to draw the free-body diagrams shown in Fig. l.7(b) to (d). The" physical
in Equilibrium sign convention" for positive torques is shown in Fig. 1.7(b). The double-headed arrows
represent positive torques by means of the right-hand rule: If the thumb is pointed in the
It ' 2- --+- - I J

+EJ J A T,) Jt-::--------.

~ )r. ~,
(n)

igll ~onvcll f ion

(b)

(e)

(d)

FIGURE 1.7

Sec. 1.4 / Torsionally Loaded Members In Equilibrium 13

 direction of the vector, an observer looking toward the head of the vector would observe
fingers curled counterclockwise, which defines the sense of the torque. A positive resisting
torque vector will always point away from the body considered and never toward the
body.
When the free-body diagrams are drawn, the curved arrows TA , TB , and Tc act as
shown at the cut sections and the physical sign convention is established. Note that if we
curl our fingers in the sense of TA , TB , and Tc , then our thumb will point away from the
body in each case. Once the equilibrium equations are solved, if the sign associated with
the numerical value of any of these torques is positive, it will be plotted positively in the
torque diagram. Conversely, a negative result will be plotted negatively in the torque
diagram.
A single equilibrium equation applies to each free-body diagram of Fig. 1.7. This
equation states that the algebraic sum of the torques (or moments) about the longitudinal
axis of the member equals zero. Symbolically, we write L Tx = 0 where the subscript x
refers to the longitudinal axis of the member as depicted in Fig. 1.7. Before writing these
equations of equilibrium, the equations sign convention will be established. In this case, if
the double-headed arrow, representing a given torque, is directed to the right in the
positive x sense it will be considered positive in writing the equation of equilibrium.
Alternatively, if the positive x-axis is directed toward an observer's eye, then he or she will
interpret a counterclockwise torque as positive.

Figure 1.7: L 'rx = 0

Regarding the torque T4 as unknown, we may determine it from the preceding equation:

T4=TI-T2+T3
Figure 1.7(b): L 'rx = 0

Figure 1.7(c): L 'rx = 0

TB +T2 -T1 =O
TB =T1 -T2

Figure 1.7(d): L 'rx = 0

Tc- T3+ T2-Tl=O

Tc=TI-T2+T3
A plot of TA , TB , Tc versus the longitudinal coordinate x is referred to as the torque
diagram for the member. In general, either a left or right free-body diagram may be
chosen for determination of the internal torques. These internal torques are distributed
over the entire cross-sectional area of the member at the cut sections, but consideration of
this distribution is deferred to Section 4.2.

14 Ch. 1 I Internel Forces In Members

EXAMPLE 1.4

Refer to Fig. 1.7 with Tl = 20 k-in., T2 = 30 k-in., T3 = 25 k-in., II = 20 in., 12 = 30 in.,

and 13 = 30 in. Determine T4 , TA , TB, and Tc , and plot the torque diagram for this
member.

SOLUTION. Use the equations written above and substitute the numerical values to
solve for the unknown torques.

T4 =T1 -T2 +T3

T4 = 20 - 30 + 25
T4 = 15 k-in.j

TA = Tl = I 20 k-in. j

TB = Tl - T2 = 20 - 30 = 1-10 k-in.j
Tc = Tl - T2 + T3 = 20 - 30 + 25 = j15 k-in. j

The torque diagram is shown in Fig. 1.8.

lOtiIJ (: ~ ] (]Vrx
20 in. - ' - -- 30 in. - - 30 in.

A 30 k-in . n ~5 k-in. C I ) k-Ill .

15
Torque
(k-in .l L - - -- i - -- - -- I- - - ----' x (in.)

- 10
FIGURE 1.8

1.5 _ _ Torques are not always applied externally at given cross sections as depicted in Figure 1.7
Variable but may be applied in some fashion along the longitudinal member axis as indicated in
Torsional Fig. 1.9(a). The torque intensity denoted by q is a function of x. This externally applied
Loading-Torque torsional loading is balanced at the member ends by TA and TB •
Relationships Consider a short segment of the member depicted in Fig. 1.9(b) and write the torque
(or moment) equilibrium equation for this segment of length dx:

Sec. 1.5 / Variable Torsional Loading-Torque Relationships 15

 T + dT - T - q dx =0

~ (1.3)
~
The applied torque intensity q at any section of the loaded member equals the rate of
change of the internal torque T with respect to the longitudinal coordinate x. Graphi-
cally, this is depicted in Fig. 1.9(c) and (d).

~------~~r-----------L---~~~~--~ x
(e)

X2

~~~~~~_o~rd.in_at~e_q~~~~~~~~A~rcan~ T~, 'd\

)
f 8 equa ls

"

change in
equa ls (L, Ts) ordi nate

r--------.------~-+--~----~--~------X

slope = dT
dx
(O,-TA ) (d)

Posit ive torques,

right-hand rule

(b) (e)
FIGURE 1.9

16 Ch. 1 I Internal Force. in Member.

 The ordinate q to the q-x curve at any point such as x = Xo is equal to the slope of
the T -x curve at the same point.
Multiply Eq. 1.3 by dx and write
dT = q dx

Then, integrate both sides of the equation:

IT2
Tl
dT =
{X2
Xl
q dx

The left side of this equation may be integrated to give

X2
T2 -TI = { qdx (1.4)
Xl

Equation 1.4 states that the change in internal torque between any two sections of a
torsionally loaded member equals the area under the q-x diagram between the same two
sections. Graphically, this is depicted in Fig. 1.9(c) and (d), where the two sections have
been chosen at distances Xl and X 2 from the left end of the member. The sign convention
for positive internal torques is shown in Fig. 1.9(e).

EXAMPLE 1.5

A shaft 4 m long is fixed at both ends as shown in Fig. 1.10(a) and is loaded by a torque
of uniform intensity of q = 100 N-m/m. Apply and illustrate the significance of Eqs. 1.3
and 1.4. Let X3 = 1 m, Xl = 2 m, and X2 = 3 m.

SOLUTION. By symmetry, the end resisting torques are equal to each other and in turn
equal to half the total applied torque:
ql 100(4)
TA = TB = - = - - = 200 N-m
2 2
Note by the physical sign convention of Fig. 1.9(e) that TA is a negative torque. To
express the internal torque T as a function of x, refer to Fig. 1.10(d) and write the torque
equilibrium equation with respect to the X axis:
L T,,=O
T - qx + 200 = 0

T = -200 + qx
This function is plotted in Fig. 1.10(c) with q = 100 N-m/m. If this function is differen-
tiated with respect to x, the resulting equation is given by
dT
-=q where q = 100 N-m/m
dx
In this special case q = constant and thus the slope of the T -x curve is a constant that
equals 100 N-m/m regardless of the value of X in the interval (0 :::;; x :::;; 4).

Sec. 1.5 I Variable Torsional Loading-Torque Relationships 17

 Apply Eq. 1.4:

T2 - Tl = ix,
"2
q dx = 100 i3
2
dx = 100(3 - 2) = 100 N-m

~--------------4m--------------~

)))) ) ) )) )) To

q = 100 N-m/m
(a)

E xl = I

E ~----r----------r--~----'-------'
I
~

L -_ _ _ _L-~~----~----~ __ ~------L---- x(m)

Ordinate
100

T
\
equals
(4, 200) equals

(0, -200)
(e)

(d )
FIGURE 1.10

EXAMPLE 1.6

Shaft AB is 10 ft long and is free at its left end and fixed torsionally at its right end. It is
subjected to variable torques as shown in Fig. l.11(a).
The intensities of these torsional loadings are given analytically by

18 Ch. 1 / Internal Forces in Members

 q = sJx (0::;; x ::;; 4)
q = 10 (4 ::;; x ::;; 10)

These functions are plotted in Fig. 1.11(b). Determine the internal torques T as a function
of x and plot the resulting functions.

SOLUTION. From Eq. 1.3,

q=-
dT
dx
Where q = SJx,
sJx = dT
dx
Integrate both sides of this equation using the condition at the free end A, where x = 0,
T = 0 for lower limits on the integrals.

iT dT = S iXxl /2 dx

T = ljx3/21 (0::;; x ::;; 4)

() \ \ \ ) ), , ) , ) ) ) ) )))T'
AI ' l Oft ~I
(a)
q
(4,10) 10, 10

---4-------i----------+--~ x (ft)
(b) I
I
I I
T I I
( 10, 86.7)
I
I
I
I
.... I
"" I
I
(4,26.7)

_ ...... _~=---_---L ________ ...l....-_~ x (fl)

( e)

FIGURE 1.11

Sec. 1.5 / Variable Torsional Loading-Torque Relationships 19

 At x = 4, T = Mt This set of values will be used for lower limits when we integrate the
function q = 10, which is valid over the interval (4 :s: x :s: 10)
dT
q = dx = 10

dT = 10dx

fT dT = 10 LX dx
J80 /3 4

T - ¥= lO(x - 4)

T = lOx - ~I (4 :s: x :s: 10)

These resulting torque functions are plotted in Fig. 1.11(c). We observe that the resisting
torque T8 at the fixed end equals 86.7 k-ft.

PROBLEMS

1.17 A beam along the outside wall of a building is
termed a spandrel beam. A reinforced concrete spandrel
beam is shown in Fig. P1.17. Loadings on the adjacent
floor slab will twist, shear, and bend this structural com-
ponent. (Shear and bending are discussed in Sections 1.6
to \.8 .) In this problem we focus on the twisting and
construct a torsion diagram. The loading is uniform and
of intensity w along a line with an eccentricity e with
respect to the end resisting torques TA and T8 , whith
TA
Line loading
you may assume to be equal. Line loading intensity w is
expressed as force units per unit length and the eccen-
tricity e is expressed in units of length. Determine the
end torques and construct the torque diagram for this
member subjected to a uniform, eccentric line loading.
1.18 Lateral forces, such as wind, applied to vehicles
are transmitted through supporting structures to the
earth. In Fig. PI.I8 lateral forces w = 400 lb/ft are
applied at the top of the rail. The box girder is designed
to support the passenger vehicles that move along the
rail. Assume that the end resisting torques are equal and
draw the torque diagram for this girder.

-=

• 7;, ==___
• • no'l: f!lrdt.·r for Mlllllorl of monor-II I

• • FIGURE P1.18
Cros~ sc~lion

Reinforced concrete spandrel b eam 1.19 A hollow shaft is subjected to the torques shown
FIGURE P1.17 in Fig. 1.19. Draw the torque diagram for this shaft.

20 Ch.1 / Internal Forces in Members

 jt 8kJ
8 k-ft 8 k-fl grams for each of these shafts. Compare these diagrams

8kJ oj-
and comment on the effect of reducing the length Be
over which the constant torque is applied to the shaft of
Fig. P1.21(b) while q is increased proportionately such
6 ft I 8 ft I 6ft-1
that the total applied torque over this shaft segment
remains at 40 k-ft.
A 8 C D
FIGURE P1.19

1.20 A stepped shaft is subjected to the torques shown 1.22 Draw the torque diagram for the shaft depicted in
in Fig. P1.20. These applied torques are resisted at D. Fig. P1.22.
Compute the reacting torque at D and draw the torque
diagram for this shaft. 20 k-in. 30 k-in.

-t'4J--~ -+-)
O-k-in. --+~~[t:
20 in.- - i - - - - 30 in. ---I~- 30 in.
FIGURE P1.22

1.23 A hollow shaft is subjected to the torques shown

,
in Fig. P1.23. Draw the torque diagram for this shaft.

60 k-in.

~ 30 in. -
80 k-in.
-1-- - - 40 in. - - - 30 in.

FIGURE P1.23
FIGURE P1.20

1.21 Two shafts have torques applied to them as
shown in Fig. P1.21(a) and (b). Draw the torque dia-
40 k-ft
1--- - 6 ft - --+-- - 6 ft - --i
(a)
1.24 A cantilever shaft 6 m long is free at end A and
fixed at end B. It is subject to distributed external
torques which vary as shown in Fig. P1.24. Determine
the internal torque T as a function of x and plot the
function.
q
( -m/m)
(6,200)

(A"'I) q= co;t" : k-ft/ft ID~

")'l-20-k---ft---~+-------""'\~20 k-ft (0,80)
5.75 ft - -+0-+- -5.75 ft
0.5 ft
(b) A~-----------'B~-- x (m)

FIGURE P1.21 FIGURE P1.24

Sec. 1.5 I Variable Torsional Loading-Torque Relationships 21

1.25 A shaft is subjected to an externally applied
torque q between Band C as shown in Fig. P1.25.
Determine the reacting torques at A and D. Find T
versus x and plot the torque diagram for this shaft.
q = conSI = 6 k-fl /fl
1.28 The shaft depicted in Fig. Pl.28 is torsionally free
at A and fixed at B. The q versus x plot is shown in the
figure . Determine the reacting torque at B and the inter-
nal torque T as a function of x . Plot T versus x.

T(~ A,
4 fl
j))))j)
6 ft
(D
4 fl ---,
To
A

- - 60 in. - - f-o--

!
II IJ C D

FIGURE P1.25 q

1.26 A cantiliver shaft AB which is 40 in. long is

V_40-)-----(9-0~
...
, 40 )

shown in Fig. P1.26. It is subjected to a torque of 40 k- x (in.)

in. at A and a uniformly distributed torque of 4 k-in/in.
over its full length. These applied torques are resisted by
a torsional reaction at B. Determine the internal torque
T as a function of x measured from A along the shaft.
Plot the q-x and T -x functions.
40 k-in.
q = COn I = 4 k-in ./in.
A ))))))))))),))
r--- - - - - - -4o in. - - - - - ----t-
FIGURE P1.28
1.29 The shaft depicted in Fig. P1.29 is subjected to an
external torque that varies sinusoidally as shown. It is
torsionally fixed at both ends and by symmetry the
reacting torques TA and TB are equal. Determine the
B internal torque T as a function of x and sketch this
function. Determine q and T for x = 2 m.
q

FIGURE P1.26
. ITX
II = 200 sill y
1.27 An airplane wing is 40 ft. from wing tip to fusel- . ~----~
age connection, as shown in Fig. P1.27. In, addition to ~ _ _ ___L_=-,,-6_111_ _ _ _ _..".._ __ x (m)

bending and shear, the wing is subjected to external (0.0) (L. 0)

torques due to air pressures given by q = 200 + 2.5x 2 ,

where q is measured in Ib-ft/ft and x is measured in ft.
Determine the internal torque T as a function of x and
plot the function.
FIGURE P1.29

Airplane wing
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _"""~FuSelage

1.30 Draw the internal torque diagram for the shaft

f--- - - 40 fl - -- o J depicted in Fig. PUO.
q
120 k- in.

)
f----+- 60 in. 60 in. I 60 in. -..l..
L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _--'-_ __ x (ft) C D E 50 in . F

FIGURE P1.27 FIGURE P1.30

22 Ch.1 I Internal Forces in Members

1.1i Consider a member loaded by a system of coplanar forces as shown in Fig. 1.12. All forces
Shear and are applied transversely, that is, in the y direction with respect to the longitudinal or x
Bending axis of the member. Loadings may be concentrated, such as PI; uniform, such as WI; or
Moment may vary in some other fashion, as indicated by W3 = f(x). Members loaded as described
in Beams and which are long compared to their cross-sectional dimensions are termed beams. The
beam is in equilibrium under the action of the applied system of forces and the reactions
Rl and R 2 . Given complete information about the applied system of forces, the equations
of equilibrium may be applied in order to determine the reactions Rl and R2 acting on
this statically determinate beam.
To determine the internal effects of the applied forces, imagine a cutting plane, A-A,
passed perpendicular to the x axis of the beam and isolate either a left part or a right part
of the beam as shown in Fig. 1.13(a) and (b), respectively.
To maintain these bodies in equilibrium, a force (V) and a couple (M) are required, as
shown in Fig. 1.13(a) and (b). The force V is termed the shear force at section A-A and the
couple M is termed the bending moment at section A-A. The V and M in Fig. 1.13(a) are
the force and couple applied to the left part of the beam by the right part of the beam to

y IVJ = [(x)

x
A
R,t--- - -_ _ _ _ _ L
Beam loaded by transverse forces
FIGURE 1.12

y IV3 = [(x)

x
x - ---iA Righ t free-body diagram
A
Left (b )
free-body
diagram

(a)

dx dx

Sign conventions
(e)

FIGURE 1.13

Sec. 1.6 I Shear and Bending Moment in Baams 23

 maintain it in equilibrium. Alternatively, V and M in Fig. 1.13(b) are the shear force and
moment applied to the right part of the beam by the left part of the beam to maintain it
in equilibrium. Equilibrium of either part is required, since the entire beam is in equi-
librium, and thus any part of the beam we wish to consider must also be in equilibrium
under the action of external and internal forces (V and M).
Section A-A is passed at any distance x from the origin at the left end of the beam.
The variable x may take on any value from 0 to L, where L is the length of the beam, and
the shear V and the bending moment M are functions of this variable x. The positive
senses for V and M are depicted in Fig. 1.13(a) and (b). Shear and moment positive senses
may also be represented on a beam segment of differential length as shown in Fig. 1.13(c).

1.7 _ _ Development of a clear understanding of the concept of shear and moment at each
Shear and section of a beam is best accomplished by computing these quantities at arbitrarily
Moment at specified sections of a given beam. Careful study of Examples 1.7 and 1.8 will enable the
Specified student to draw appropriate free-body diagrams and apply the equations of equilibrium
Sections in order to compute shear and moment at designated sections of a given beam. This
section is followed by a more general discussion dealing with shear and moment relation-
ships and functions.

EXAMPLE 1.7

For the beam loaded as depicted in Fig. 1.14, determine the shear and moment at sections
A-A, B-B, and C-C, which are located 3, 8, and 18 ft, respectively, from the left end of the
beam.

SOLUTION. First, determine the reactions Rl and R2 by applying the equations of

equilibrium to the free body of the entire beam shown in Fig. 1.14. Sum the moments of
the forces with respect to an axis through the right end of the beam (point E) in order to
eliminate the reaction R2 from the equation. A single unknown, R 1 , appears in this
equation.
o LME=O
-R 1 (20) + 5(15) + 2(10X5) = 0
Rl = -#..75 + 100) = 8.75 k (j)

1 - -- - - -- - -18 ft - - - - - - -- -..j
8ft
3 fl - j
5k
A B
0 E x

Rl A B c

5 fl Sfl 10 ft

FIGURE 1.14

24 Ch. 1 I Internal Force. in Member.

 Rl - 5 - 2(10) + R2 = 0
Rl = 8.75
R2 = 16.25 k m
Sum the moments of the forces with respect to an axis through the left end of the beam
(point 0) in order to check the solution for the reaction R 2 •
o L Mo = 0
R 2 (20) - 2(10)(15) - 5(5) =0
R2 = 16.25 k m (checks value above)

To determine the shear and moment at section A-A , construct the free-body diagram
shown in Fig. 1.15(a). Positive, unknown shear and moment at section A- A are denoted
VA and M A' This part of the beam to the left of section A- A is in equilibrium, since the
entire beam is in equilibrium.*
When the free-body diagrams are drawn with the shears and moments as shown, the
physical sign convention is established. The senses of these shears and moments of
Fig. t .15 are consistent with the defined positive senses shown in Fig. 1.13. Once the
equilibrium equations are solved, if the signs associated with the numerical values of these
shears and moments are positive, then these values will be plotted positively in the shear
and moment diagrams. Conversely, negative results will be plotted negatively in these
diagrams.
Two equations of equilibrium apply to each free-body diagram of Figure 1.15. Before
writing these equations the " equations sign convention" will be established. As discussed
in Sections 1.1 and 1.2, a force directed upward will be considered positive and one
directed downward will be considered negative. This choice of a positive sense will be
shown symbolically by j . Counterclockwise moments of forces or couples will be con-
sidered positive and clockwise ones will be considered negative as the equations are
written. This choice ora positive sense will be shown by O .

2(2) = 4 k
3 ft A 5 k B c - 1 ft

~jA
v,.
R, = 8.75k
R l = 8.75 k A 5 ft - --..j- 3 ft
2 ft R2 = 16.25 k
B c
(a) (b) (e)

FIGURE 1.15

* Abbreviations used in the following equations are: fbd, free·body diagram ; cw, clockwise; and ccw,
counterclockwise.

Sec. 1.7 / Shear and Moment at Specified Sections 25

 8.75 - VA = 0

VA = 8.75 k downward on left fud I

-8.75(3) + MA = 0

M A = 26.25 k-ft ccw on left fbd I

Shear and moment at section A-A are both positive.
To determine the shear and moment at section B-B, construct the free-body diagram
shown in Fig. 1. 15(b). Positive, unknown shear and moment at section B-B are denoted
VB and M B.
r L Fy = 0
8.75 - 5 - VB = 0

VB = 3.75 k downward on left fbd I

-8.75(8) + 5(3) + MB = 0

I MB = 55.0 k-ft ccw on left fbd I

Shear and moment at section B-B are both positive.
To determine the shear and moment at section C-C, construct the free-body diagram
shown in Fig. U5(c). The right part of the beam is preferred over the left part of the beam
in this case, since fewer forces act on the right part and the equations of equilibrium will
be simpler to write.
r L Fy = 0
+~ - 2(2) + 16.25 = 0

Ve = -12.25 k downward on right fbd I

-Me - 4(1) + 16.25(2) = 0

Me = 28.5 k-ft cw on right fbd I

Review of this solution clearly reveals that the numerical values for shear and
moment depend upon the location of the beam section, which is located by the variable x.
In general, shear and moment are functions of x and these functional relationships wiII be
presented in Section 1.8.

26 Ch. 1 I Internal Forces in Members

EXAMPLE 1.8

For the beam loaded as depicted in Fig. 1.16, determine the shear and moment at section
A-A located 8 ft from the left end of the beam.

SOLUTION. First, determine the reactions of Rl and R2 by applying the equations of

equilibrium to the free body of the entire beam, which is shown in Fig. 1.16(b). The
resultant applied force equals the area under the linear force distribution diagram:

!(12)(200) = 1200 lb !
This resultant is applied to the beam at the centroid of the linear (or triangular) force
distribution diagram which lies ~12) = 8 ft from the left end of the beam. Sum the
moments of the forces with respect to an axis through the right end of the beam (point B)
in order to eliminate the reaction R2 from the equation. A single unknown Rl appears in
this equation.
o L MB = 0
-Rl(l2) + 1200(4) = 0
Rl = 400 lb

Linear
200lb/rt

B
X

A
8ft - - - - 4ft R2

<al

1200lb

o 8 x

8 ft - 4ft

(b)

5331b
-&(200) = 133.3 Ib/f

~O_____________ ~A ~~x
VA

t (8) = 5.33 ft
(el

FIGURE 1.16

Sec. 1.7 / Shear and Moment at Specified Sections 27

 Sum the vertical forces acting on the beam.
i LFy = 0
Rl - 1200 + R2 = 0
Rl = 400

R2 = 800 lb

A distributed coplanar force system acting on a rigid body may be replaced by a single
resultant force without altering the external effect of the forces acting on the body. This
resultant force acts through the centroid of the distribution diagram, which in this case is
triangular. The reactions Rl and R2 are external forces acting on the complete beam and
thus the technique employed above is valid. However, VA and M A are internal forces with
respect to the entire beam, and a replacement of the distributed force system is only valid
when these forces are applied externally as shown in Fig. 1.16(c) on the left part of the
beam. The resultant applied force equals the area under the linear force distribution
diagram:
~;(8)(133.3) = 533 lb !
Sum vertical forces acting on the left part of the beam in Fig. 1.16(c).
i LFy = 0
- VA + 400 - 533 =0

VA = -133 lb up on the left fbd

Sum the moments of the forces acting on the left part of the beam of Fig. 1.16(c) with
respect to an axis through point A.
o L MA =0
MA + 533(2.67) - 400(8) = 0

MA = 1778 lb-ft ccw on left fbd

The shear is negative and the moment is postive at section A-A. Note that the shears and
moments for the beams depicted in Fig. 1.16(a) and (b) would, in general, be different as
the section location variable, x, varies over its range of values.

PROBLEMS

1.31 An 80-ft-long empty tank is supported on a

I-- --!I
20 ft f-15 ft-1
trailer as shown in Fig. Pl.31. The tank weighs
800 lbjft. Determine the shear and bending moment at
sections A-A and B-B of this tank. Neglect any hori-
zontal forces at the supports.

FIGURE P1.31
r---- ft
25 ---+---30 ft -----.·-+1
0-. -25 ft-1
28 Ch. 1 / Internal Forces in Members
1.32 Refer to Fig. P1.32 and determine the vertical 1.35 Refer to Fig. P1.35 and determine the vertical
reaction R and the couple C which hold the entire can- reactions acting on the beam at A and B. Then find the
tilever beam in equilibrium. Note that Rand C are the shear and moment at section C-C by using both left
shear and moment at the fixed support of the cantilever. and right free-body diagrams.
Find the shear and moment at section A-A by consider-
ing first the left and then the right free-body diagram. )OkN!
I:I·
IOkN1
"OkN
110 kN
i I: I·
2m
/J}7A
·1·
4m
.1. 1 "!
7f)7B
2m 3m
·1

f-2m-j--3m
Him
,I, 3m
FIGURE P1.35
'"
1.36 Refer to Fig. P 1.36 and find the shear and
FIGURE P1.32
moment at sections A-A and B-B of this cantilever
beam by using left free-body diagrams.
1.33 Without finding the reactions at the right end of
the cantilever beam of Fig. P1.33, determine the shear 1.0 kN/m

I:
20 kN · m
and moment at section A-A. I JJJJ
(f
1-+-1'------1.5 m - - - - - - - l . I
FIGURE P1.36

FIGURE P1.33
1.34 Refer to Fig. P1.34 and draw a free-body diagram
of member BC and determine the forces acting on it at
Band C. The hinge at B is frictionless, which means
that it will transfer shear but no bending moment. Draw
a free-body diagram of member AB and determine the
reacting force and couple at A.
(HINT : The shear force at B acts upward on member
BC and it acts downward on member AB.) Finally,
determine the shear and moment at section D-D in the
most convenient manner.
1.37 Determine the reactions at the right, fixed end of
the cantilever beam shown in Fig. P1.36. Then, use right
free-body diagrams to determine the shear and moment
at sections A-A and B-B.
1.38 Refer to Fig. P1.38 and compute the shear and
moment at distances of 4, 9, and 15 ft from the left end
of the beam. Include free-body diagrams for each solu-
tion.

30kN

A c .f

~3m .1.
FIGURE P1 .34 FIGURE P1.38

Sec. 1.7 / Shear and Moment at Specifiad Sections 29

1.39 Refer to Fig. Pl.39 and compute the shear and
moment at distances of 2 and 10ft from the left end of
the beam. Include free-body diagrams for each solution.
o
1.43 Refer to Fig. Pl.42 and determine the reactions
and the shear and moment at section B-B.
1.44 The cantilever beam shown in Fig. P1.44 is free
at the left end and fixed at the right end. Determine the
shear and moment at sections A-A and B-B by using
the left part of the beam in both cases. Why is this
easier than using the right part of the beam?

1.--_____

~
R 12 r 1 - - - - - - - I R2 901b/ ft
A
~
FIGURE P1.39
I
1.40 Determine the reactions at D and E acting on the , A B
beam depicted in Fig. P 1.40. Then find the shear and
...,...- - -,8 ft - - --.J-- -5 ft
moment at sections A-A and B-B. Make comments
15 ft - -
regarding symmetry or antisymmetry of loads, shears,
FIGURE P1.44
and moments for this beam.
100 k· fl 1.45 Determine the reactions at Band C acting on the

I: ~I
beam shown in Fig. PI.45. The couple of 800 Ib-ft is
J47i I: 7tft1 externally applied to the beam at point D. Find the
shear and moment at section A-A by using:
4ft J.. 6ft 61'1 "T 4ft (a) The left part of the beam.
20 ft (b) The right part of the beam.
FIGURE P1.40

1.41 Find the shear and moment at section A-A of the 1001b/ft
cantilever beam shown in Fig. PI.41.

FIGURE P1.45

A 1.46 Determine the reactions at C and E acting on the

16 ft beam shown in Fig. P1.46. The hinge at D provides
FIGURE P1.41 another equation of equilibrium required to determine
the reactions. This equation is L M D = O. Then, find the
1.42 Refer to Fig. Pl.42 and determine the reactions shear and moment at section A-A by using:
and the shear and moment at section A-A. (a) The left part of the beam.
(b) The right part of the beam.
- _--1 B

Hinge
I
c DC{
;;;;;
RI 4ft
1-- -1- 10 ft --t~-+-- IO fl
A B
FIGURE P1.42 FIGURE P1.46

30 Ch.1 / Internal Forces in Members

1.47 Refer to Fig. P1.47 and determine the reactions
and the shear and moment at sections A-A and B-B.
Make comments regarding symmetry or antisymmetry
of loads, shears, and moments for this beam.

4k
4 ft--+-- 6 ft - --+--4 ft Sft
FIGURE P1.48

r- 3 ft A 3 ft B
1.49 For the beam depicted in Fig. P1.49 determine
the reactions at Band C and the shear and moment at
4 fl--+- - 6 ft ----+~- 6 ft - -f.- 4 ft
section A-A by using:
FIGURE P1.47 (a) The left part of the beam.
(b) The right part of the beam.
1.48 For the beam depicted in Fig. P1.48 determine
the reactions at Band C and the shear and moment at
section A-A by using:
(a) The left part of the beam.
(b) The right part of the beam.

FIGURE P1.49

1.1 _ _ In order to write shear and moment equations and understand their plots, relationships
Shear and will be developed among loading, shear, and moment. Consider a differential length of
Moment beam shown in Fig. 1.17(d). This beam segment is in equilibrium under the action of the
Relationships
force system shown. The downward force applied to the beam segment is stated as w dx
since any change in w over the length dx would contribute to a second-order term, and
this term would vanish in the limit if a rigorous view-point were adopted.
i L Fy = 0
+V - (V + dV) - w dx = 0

[w~-~:[ (1.5)

Graphically, Eq. 1.5 may be interpreted by referring to Fig. 1.17(a) and (b). The ordinate
to the loading diagram (w) equals the negative of the slope of the shear diagram -dV/dx
at corresponding points.
Now apply the moment equilibrium equation to the differential beam element shown
in Fig. 1.17(d).
a L MR =0
- V dx - M + (M + dM) + w dx(k dx) = 0

Sec. 1.8 I Shear and Moment Relationships 31

 .------------------X2 ----------------~
.-----------x l --------------~I
w = [(x)

(a)
I
Xo ----i:1 equals
Area = (' W dXj
negalive

v I jor equa ls
I ~~

t----=","-....:..II s\~ope = dx
dtv Of)
dx
~~ x

ordinate change

I
M
Area = J Xl V dx
x,
II slope = -tiM____________
~d~
x

equals ordinate change

MI

x
(c)

t~lit)M+~
V
dx
~ V +dV

FIGURE 1.17 (d)

The term w dx(k dx) is a second-order differential term and may be dropped.* The
moment arm of the applied force (w dx) with respect to the right side of the beam element

* This is not an approximation. Replace the differentials by deltas as follows:

V L\x + M - (M + L\M) - w L\x(k L\x) = 0

Divide through by L\x: V - (L\Mj L\x) - w(k L\x) = O.

L\M dM
v= lim - = -
&x- o L\x dx

32 Ch.1 I Internal Forces in Member.

 is k dx, where k is a constant less than unity. The value of k is not required, since the
higher-order term is dropped to yield

.~ (1.6)
~
Graphically, Eq. 1.6 may be interpreted by referring to Fig. 1.17(b) and (c). The ordinate
to the shear diagram (V) equals the slope of the moment diagram (dM/dx) at correspond-
ing points.
Differential Eqs. 1.5 and 1.6 may be expressed in integral form and interpreted
graphically by reference to Fig. 1.17. Equation 1.5 may be written as dV = - w dx and
then integrated between limits Xl' x 2 and VI' V2 . Thus

iVi
V2
dV = - lX2

Xl
w dx

V2 - VI = - l
Xl
X2
w dx (1.7)

Graphically, Eq. 1.7 may be interpreted by referring to Fig. 1.17(a) and (b). The change in
ordinate to the shear diagram (V2 - VI)' taken between two X values Xl and x 2 , equals
the negative of the area under the loading diagram between the same two X values.
Equation 1.6 may be written as dM = V dx and then integrated between limits Xl' x 2 and
M l ,M 2 ·

M2 - Ml = l
Xl
X2
V dx (1.8)

Graphically, Eq. 1.8 may be interpreted by referring to Fig. 1.17(b) and (c). The change in
ordinate to the moment diagram (M 2 - M 1)' taken between two X values Xl and x 2 ,
equals the area under the shear diagram between the same two X values.

EXAMPLE 1.9

A simply supported beam 10 m long shown in Fig. 1.18 is loaded by a uniform load of
200 N/m. Apply and illustrate the significance of Eqs. 1.5 to 1.8. Let Xo = 2 m, Xl = 6 m,
and X 2 = 8 m.

r
SOLUTION. The reactions are equal by symmetry. Each reaction equals half the total
downward applied force

Rl = R2 = t ILw dx =t
o
200dx = 1000 N i

Refer to the free-body diagram shown in Fig. 1.18(d) and write the equations of equi-
librium in order to express the shear and moment as functions of x.

Sec. 1.8 / Shear and Moment Relationships 33

 200 N/m

Xl = 6 '1
1--- - - ' - -\ -- - - -10 m ----'-------:-~~-____I
I
(;t) I Area = 400 equals change

'\
v I
I
(0, 1000) I
I in ordinate
I
I
I ord.mate
I ,
M lI \
V = 600 equals
I
,
I Area equals change -........ I
(10, -1000)

,---r- M = \IOOOx - 100x 2',

in ordinate

: \
= dM
slope dx = 600 ~1600 - 2400
, =- 800
2400
I
~ ___ ~ ________ ~ _ _ _- L _ _ _ ~'-_~x

(el

Cd)
FIGURE 1.18

Rl - wx - V = 0
Since R 1 = 1000,
V = 1000 - 200x (0 < x < 10)
This equation is plotted in Fig. 1.18(b) and is referred to as the shear diagram.
o L Mo = 0

-RIX+WX(~)+M=O
M = 1000x - 100x 2 (0 S X S 10)
This equation is plotted in Fig. 1.18(c) and is referred to as the moment diagram.
Differentiate the shear equation with respect to x to obtain dV/dx = -200.
W = 200 N/m (0 < x < 10) and Eq. 1.5, dV/dx = - W is satisfied. The downward load

34 Ch. 1 / Internal Forces in Members

 intensity is constant over the beam length and the shear diagram has a constant slope
equal to the negative of this load intensity.
Differentiate M with respect to x to obtain dM/dx = lOOO - 200x. By Eq. 1.6,
V = dM/dx. By comparison with the equation obtained previously for V, note that
V = dM/dx for (0 :$; x :$; lO). In particular, for Xo = 2 m, V2 = lOOO - 200(2) = 600 N.
Now consider Eqs. 1.7 and 1.8, which are the integrated forms of Eqs. 1.5 and 1.6.
Use limits of Xl = 6 m and X 2 = 8 m.

V2 - VI = - f200dX = -2ooxl: = -400 N

which is the negative of the area under the load diagram between Xl = 6 and X2 = 8.

M2- MI = f (1000 - 200x) dx = lOOOx - 1oox21: = - 800 N-m

which is the area under the shear diagram between Xl = 6 and X2 = 8 m.

EXAMPLE 1.10

A cantilever beam 6 m long shown in Fig. 1.19 is subjected to a linearly varying loading
which has a maximum ordinate of 360 N/m at the fixed end on the right. Write the shear
and moment as functions of X for this beam and dr~w the shear and moment diagrams.

SOLUTION. Choose an origin 0 at the free left end of the cantilever and express the
loading as a function of X by using the similarity of triangles shown in Fig. 1.19(a).
w(x) = 360
X 6
w(x) = 60x
Refer to the free-body diagram shown in Fig. 1.19(b) and compute the resultant force R
due to the linearly distributed force applied to this portion of the beam of any length x.
Recall that the resultant force equals the area under the force distribution diagram, which
is triangular in this case. Thus
R = 1(60x)(x) = 30x 2
This resultant acts through the centroid of the force distribution diagram, which is at a
distance of x/3 from point A, located at the cut section of the beam.
i L Fy = 0
-V-R=O
V = -R = -30x 2
The shear function is parabolic and the shear diagram is shown in Fig. 1.19(c).
o LMA=O
M + R(tx) = 0
M = -~Rx = _~30X2)X = -lOx 3

The moment function is cubic and the moment diagram is shown in Fig. 1.19(d).

Sec. 1.8 I Shear and Moment Reletionships 35

 \V (x)

x
°L-----------------------1

(a) Loading diagram

tx
/'

/' /' R l,.........---w(x)=60x

L-/_ _ _A...J' ~) M
V

(b) Free- body diagram

V( )

1~""'""'=====------___,--.
(0,0) V=-~ I X (m)

.>vx ~ (6. - 1080)

(el Shear dIagram

M (N-m)

'-___=-----------------.--------- x (m)

(6, - _ 160)
(d) Moment diagram

FIGURE 1.19

The reader should refer to Fig. 1.19 and the equations noted as he studies the
following statements. At 0 the ordinate to the w-x curve is zero, which equals the slope of
the V-x curve at 0 , Eq. 1.5. The area under the w-x curve from 0 to B is 1(6)(360) = 1080
N, which equals the negative of the ordinate to the V- x curve at point B, Eq. 1.7. At B
the ordinate to the w-x curve is 360 N/m, which equals the negative of the slope of the
V-x curve at B: V = -30X2, dV/dx = -60x, dV/dxl x ; 6 = -360 N/m, Eq. 1.5. At 0 the
ordinate to the V-x curve is zero, which equals the slope of the M-x curve at 0, Eq. 1.6.
The area under the V-x curve from 0 to B, S8 - 30x 2 dx = -2160 N-m, equals the
ordinate of the M-x curve at B, Eq. 1.8. At B the ordinate to the V-x curve is -1080 N,
which equals the slope of the M-x curve at B: M = -lOx 3 , dM/dx = - 30x 2, dM/dx
IX;6 = -1080 N, Eq. 1.6.

36 Ch. 1 I Internal Forces in Members

EXAMPLE 1.11

Determine the reactions at A and D for the beam depicted in Fig. 1.20, and then construct
the shear and moment diagrams for this beam.

SOLUTION. Refer to Fig. 1.20(a) and compute the reactions:

o
LMD=O

-R A (45) + 20(35) + 40(15) - 2(30)(15) =0

RA = 8.89 k i

RA - 20 - 40 - 2(30) + RD = 0
RD = 120 - 8.89 = 111.11 k i

Origin
!
_
20 k ! 40 k
_ ~D I I
2 k/ ft
J I1
atA ~______________
B C______~-,
_~____________~~x

RA
~10 ft:--t-~-20 n-+-" n~J"'~
= 8.89 k RD = 11 1. 11 k
(a)
V(k)

60
Note : Shear areas
shown in parentheses.

8.89

(88.9)
~--...=....t------------------t--------------~t----x (fl)
I (-222.2)
I
I - 11. 11
I (- 766.7)
I
I - 51.11 ' -_ _- - I
I I
I (b )
I
M (k-ft) I
I
I
I

(c)

FIGURE 1.20

Sec. 1.8 / Sheer end Moment Relationships 37

 Write the moment equilibrium equation with respect to point A in order to check this
value of RD.
o L MA =0

RD(45) - 2(30)(60) - 40(30) - 20(10) = 0

RD = 111.11 k i (checks value above)

To determine the ordinates to the shear diagram of Fig. 1.20(b), consider parts of the
beam to the left of a given section and construct their free-body diagrams in order to sum
vertical forces acting on them. These free-body diagrams are not shown here, but the
student is urged to draw them during study of this solution. The left upward reaction
must be balanced by an equal downward shear force acting on a left segment of the beam
obtained by passing a vertical cutting plane anywhere between A and B (0 < x < 10). The
shear force between A and B is + 8.89 k and remains constant because there are no
external forces between A and B and the weight of the beam is ignored in this problem.
Now consider sections between Band C (i.e., 10 < x < 30):
i L Fy = 0
8.89 - 20 - V = 0
V=-11.11k

Segment CD (30 < x < 45):

i I Fy = 0
8.89 - 20 - 40 - V = 0
V=-51.11k

Cut a section just to the right of the reaction at D:

i L Fy = 0

8.89 - 20 - 40 + 111.11 - V = 0
V = 60 k

At the free end E the shear must be zero. What curve should connect the ordinate of + 60
at D and 0 at E? Recall Eq. 1.5: w = -dV/dx. Between D and E, W = const = 2 k/ft.
Thus dV /dx = const = - 2 k/ft. The slope of the curve joining these two ordinates to the
shear diagram is a constant and, therefore, a straight line is the proper curve.
The moment diagram will be constructed by referring to the shear diagram and use
of Eqs. 1.6 and 1.8. Areas under each part of the shear diagram are shown in Fig. 1.20(b)
and appear in parentheses. By Eq. 1.8, the area under the shear diagram between any two
x values equals the change in ordinate to the moment diagram between the same two
points. For example, the area under the shear diagram be-tween A and B equals 88.9 k-ft,
which equals the moment at B, since the moment at A equals zero because a frictionless
hinge supports the beam at A. A straight line connects the moment diagram ordinate at A
to the ordinate at B because V = dM/dx and the shear has the constant value of 8.89 k
between A and B. Continuing in a similar fashion, we obtain the shear and moment
values shown in the following tabulation:

38 Ch.1 / Internal Forces in Members

 Range of Area Under
x Values Moment at + Shear Diagram Moment at

BC B 88.9 -222.2 = -133.3C

CD C - 133.3 -766.7 = -900.0D
DE D - 900.0 900.0 O.OE

The moment at E must equal zero, since the beam is free of applied forces on the cross
section at its right end, E. As for AB, the moment curves for BC and CD are sloping
straight lines, since the shear is constant over each of these segments also. Finally,
consider the segment DE. At D, the ordinate to the shear diagram is + 60 and from
V = dM/dx the slope of the moment diagram at D is +60, while at E the ordinate to the
shear diagram is zero and from V = dM/dx the slope of the moment diagram at E is zero.
The curve connecting these two end slopes consistently is the parabola shown between D
and E on the moment diagram.

EXAMPLE 1.12

Refer to Fig. 1.21 and determine the reactions acting on the beam shown. Choose an
origin at A and write the shear and moment equations for this beam. Plot the shear and
moment diagrams.

SOLUTION. Draw the free-body diagrams shown in Fig. 1.21(b) and note the four
unknowns as follows: MA and VA at the fixed end A, Vc at the hinge C, and Rn the
reaction at D. Two equations of equilibrium are available for each of the two free bodies,
making a total of four equations available for solving for the four unknowns.
FREE-BoDY DIAGRAM CDE:
o LMc=O
Rn(5b) - 6wb(8b) = 0
Rn = 4S8 W b i

Rn - Vc - 6wb =0
Vc = 4S8 W b - 6wb
Vc = l S8 W b t on CDE
FREE-BODY DIAGRAM ABC:
o LMA=O
-MA + Yc(9b) - 10wb 2 =0

+VA+VC=O
VA =- Vc =- lS8 W b W

Sec. 1.8 / Shear and Moment Ralationships 39

 y IV

10 wb 2
E
X

4b - + - - Sb 6b
20b
(a)

6IVb

(1" ,Ow"s j
j t
Vc

IA Be
cl ~ ~ 1 c EI
Vc

Sb 4b Sb 3b

(b)

x
I
x
.j
(1
MA VA 1 I MA VA

(1 1 A I ~) M 1 A ~
10 wb 2
I~)M
V V
(e) (d)

A
- - - - 9b,- - ---If---x - 9b

x - - --iV

(e)

i--- - -- - - 14b- - - - ---i

A
e__- - - -9b- - --i

x - 14b
RD "----....~ --2-

(f)

FIGURE 1.21

40 Ch. 1 I Internal Forces in Members

 FREE-BODY DIAGRAM OF FIG. 1.21(c):
i L Fy = 0
-V+VA=O
(0 < x < 5b)

M - MA - VAX = 0
M = MA + VAX = 1~2Wb2 - 158Wbx (0::; X ::; 5b)

FREE-BODY DIAGRAM OF FIG. 1.21(d):

i L Fy = 0

V = VA = -\8 wb (5b < X < 9b)

M - M A - VA X - lOwb 2 = 0
M = MA + VAX + lOwb 2 = 1~2Wb2 - 158Wbx (5b ::; X ::; 9b)

FREE-BODY DIAGRAM OF FIG. 1.21(e):

i L Fy = 0

V = - Vc = - 158Wb (9b < X < 14b)

M + Vdx - 9b) = 0
M = - Vdx - 9b) = - 158Wb(X - 9b) (9b ::; X ::; 14b)

FREE-BoDY DIAGRAM OF FIG. 1.21(f):

i L Fy = 0
- V - Vc + RD - w(x - 14b) = 0
V = - + RD - w(x
Vc - 14b)
V = _158Wb + 458Wb - w(x - 14b)

V = 6wb - w(x - 14b) (14b < X ::; 20b)

w
M + Vdx - 9b) - RD(x - 14b) + "2 (x - 14b)2 = 0

M= - 518 wb(x - 9b) +5

48
wb(x - 14b) - "2w (X - 14b)2

M = 6wbx - 102wb 2 -"2w (X - 14b)2 (14b ::; X ::; 20b)

Sec. 1.8 ! Shear and Moment Relationships 41

 v
J~ \Vh

r---------------t--=-------'~-- .\'

L----~~--~~----+------~~---x

1
5b - - ' 4b - --r-- 5b - - - - 6b

FIGURE 1.22

The shear and moment diagrams which are plots of the foregoing derived functions are
shown in Fig. 1.22. In conclusion, several checks of these diagrams will be noted that will
prove useful in solving similar problems. Proceeding left to right in constructing the shear
diagram, note that the shear at the right end equals zero. This must be true, since the
right end of the beam is free of any applied force. Construction of the moment diagram
yields a moment of zero at C, which must be true at the hinge located there, and the
moment at the free right end E must also vanish. The student should relate these equa-
tions for shear and bending moment to the diagrams shown in Fig. 1.22.

PROBLEMS

1.50 A box-sectioned prestressed concrete beam is

supported for shipment on a railroad flatcar as shown
in Fig. P1.50. This beam is 98 ft long and weigh~
700 lbjft. Construct shear and moment diagrams for
this beam. Neglect horizontal forces at the supports.

1.51 A 60-ft double-T prestressed concrete roof joist

shown in Fig. Pl.5t weighs 420 lbjft and during con-
struction will be subjected to an additional 140 lbjft. It
has an effective simply supported span of 58 ft. Draw
shear and moment diagrams for this roof joist due to its
FIGURE P1.50 own weight plus construction loadings.

42 Ch. 1 / Internal Forces in Members

 FIGURE P1.51
t r r tw
2L - -
4L
!
~ -
I
L
D

I
FIGURE P1.53

1.52 A very large diameter pipe which weighs 1.50 k/ft

is being lifted by a crane as shown in Fig. P1.52. Draw 1.54 Determine the reactions at Band D acting on the
the shear and moment diagram for this pipe. beam shown in Fig. P1.54. Construct shear and
moment diagrams for this beam.

400 1m

LI
ll 600

~2m
~ 2m
C

2m 2m
E!

8m
FIGURE P1.54

1.55 Determine the reactions at A and B for the beam

shown in Fig. P1.55. Choose an origin at A and write
shear and moment equations for this beam.

~--- 2L ----+---
~------- 3L ------~

FIGURE P1.55

A 1.56 Find the reactions at Band F acting on the beam

of Fig. PI.56. Construct shear and moment diagrams
401'1 40 1'1 ----l for this beam.

2k I k 2 k
FIGURE P1.52
A ~~ ____~ __~ __~~ ___~ _______ If

1.53 Determine the upward reaction intensity w in 7ft

terms of P and L for the beam shown in Fig. P1.53, and
then draw shear and moment diagrams for the beam. FIGURE P1.56

Sec. 1.8 / Shear and Moment Relationships 43

1.57 Choose an origin at A as shown in Fig. P1.57 and 1.60 For the beam shown in Fig. P1.60, draw shear
write shear and moment equations for this cantilever and moment diagrams after finding the reactions at
wall. points A and D.
wB L2
- 2-

~
----.,- ~---.Bt-------8-Q-~-·)~--~~
6Q
L- -+- - -2L - - --+---
x
~------------- 4 L --------------~

FIGURE P1.60

1.61 Determine the reactions at the right end of the

L
cantilever beam shown in Fig. P1.61. Construct shear
and moment diagrams for this beam and check the
reaction values computed for the right end.

FIGURE P1 .57

FIGURE P1.61
1.58 Determine the reactions at A and E in terms of P
for the beam shown in Fig. P1.58. Then choose an 1.62 Determine the reactions at A and C and draw the
origin at A for the x coordinate and write the shear and shear and moment diagrams for the beam depicted in
moment equations for each segment of the beam. Fig. P1.62.
600 N/m

J I I II B
1

fe--------- 8 1ll- - - - ----i-- 2 m

FIGURE P1.58 FIGURE P1.62

1.63 Find the reactions at Band C acting on the beam

1.59 Determine the reactions acting on the beam of Fig. P1.63. Then, determine the shear and moment at
shown in Fig. P1.59 at points Band C. Draw shear and a section 1 m to the left of B and at a section 3 m to the
moment diagrams for this beam. right of B.

1000 I -m

C~
L - -+- - - -2L L 2 111-+-- - -8 m- - - --r--
4L ~----- 12m ---

FIGURE P1.59 FIGURE P1.63

44 Ch. 1 I Internal Force. in Member.

1.64 Draw shear and moment diagrams for the beam 1.68 Determine the reactions at A and C and write the
shown in Fig. P1.64 after determining the reactions at A equations for shear and moment for the beam shown in
and B. Fig. P1.68. Choose an origin at A for the x coordinate.

r---.---,----r---.---,--~ 25k
roo kN

c
~------------~~----~

~------ 6m -------+---- 4m

FIGURE P1.64
1.65 Find the reactions at Band E and then draw
shear and moment diagrams for the beam shown in
FIGURE P1.68
1.69 Find the reactions at Band D acting on the beam
shown in Fig. P1.69 and then compute the shear and

!
moment at a section 5 ft to the right of B.
Fig. P1.65.

1-
10,000 Ib

I'
c}Yx
r-5 ft~.---IOfl IOft~
£,
FIGURE P1.69

FIGURE P1.65 1.70 Choose an ongm at point A as shown in

Fig. P1.70 after determining the reactions at A and B.
1.66 Determine reactions at A and D and draw the Then write the shear and moment equations for this
shear and moment diagrams for the beam depicted in beam. Check the right reaction by evaluating the shear
Fig. PI .66. equation for x = L.

B c

x
4 ft - - +- - - - -16 ft - - - --I--- 4 ft

FIGURE P1.66

1.67 Determine the reaction at B, the shear at the FIGURE P1.70

hinge C, and the force and couple reactions at E acting
1.71 Find the reactions at Band D acting on the beam
on the beam of Fig. P1.67. Draw shear and moment
shown in Fig. PI. 71. Then, draw shear and moment dia-
diagrams for the beam.
grams for the beam.

FIGURE P1.67 FIGURE P1.71

Sec. 1.8 I Shear and Moment Relationships 45

1.72 Determine the reaction at A (a vertical force and
a couple), the shear at hinge B and the reaction at C
acting on the beam shown in Fig. P1.72. Choose an
origin at A and write the shear and moment equations ; ~--------~-----~
for the beam.
~L ., 3L .,. 2L--j

FIGURE P1.74

1.75 The aluminum I beam depicted in Fig. P1.75 is

1--- - 3L I L 2L subjected to two vertical forces and a couple. Determine
~---------- 6L ----------~ the reactions at Band D and then construct the shear
and moment diagrams for this beam.
FIGURE P1.72

t
P 4P
2PL
1.73 Refer to Fig. P1.73 and find the reactions at B
and D. Draw the shear and moment diagrams for this B c) D Ei JC
steel I beam.
A.,. .,.
#7}
.,
t
P 3P
~L
2P

I
L L L-----1
B

Ji
FIGURE P1.7S
c E! X
J37? 1.76 Determine the reactions at A and C acting on this
wooden beam depicted in Fig. P1.76. Construct the
~b ·1· b
-I- b
·1· b-----1 shear and moment diagrams for this beam.
FIGURE P1.73 P = !!4.

11
4
w

1.74 Determine the reactions at Band D acting on the

I ~A________________
B
! J J
~______~ nl
beam depicted in Fig. P1.74. Construct the shear and
Jl
Ll

moment diagrams for this reinforced concrete beam.

r---- L ----+---
·1 L ·1· L----1
FIGURE P1.76

1.1 _ _ Concepts and equations of this chapter are readily unified. Refer to Table 1.1 and note
Combined that the differential equations are of the same form and that the integrals of these equa-
Loadings and tions are also of the same form. We observe thatfis related to F, as q is related to T , as w
Associated is related to - V, as V is related to M. Of course, each symbol has a different distinct
Diagrams physical interpretation, but the mathematical relationships are the same. A pictorial
summary of these relationships is shown in Fig. 1.23. You should review both the equa-
tion and pictorial summaries carefully in order to develop a unified view of relationships
among external and internal member forces. All of these differential equations are devel-
oped by carefully defining the quantities J, F, q, T, w, V, and M, then applying the
equations of equilibrium to differential elements of bodies in equilibrium.

46 Ch. 1 / Internal Forces in Members

 TABLE 1.1
Equations Summary

Loading Differential Integral

Equation Form

Axial dF
j=- (1.1) (1.2)
dx

i
Torsional dT
q=- (1.3) T2 - TI = X2 q dx ( 1.4)
dx Xl

Beam
Load and shear
W=
dV
dx
(1.5) V2 - VI = - i X,
x,
W dx (1.7)

Shear and moment dM

V = ~ (1.6) (1.8)

Note : The negative sign appears on the right side of equations (1.5) and (1. 7) because we
have chosen to call downward loading intensity w a positive quantity. The opposite
choice would change the signs on the right-hand side of these equations to positive ones.

k·
FIGURE 1.23 J q w V
t Ord~ate
~. ~.
Pictorial Summary

~x
J_ dFI
- dx I q =dx I w = -JX I V = dx I

W-.
I I I Sign I
F I T I V I changes, M I

At any x value, the ordinate to the curve

above equals the slope of the curve below.
~. (a)
~, ~.
Differential·equations

J q IV V

~. ~, ~. I I
Eq, 1.2
I I
Eq. 1.4 I I
I
I
I
I Eq. 1.7
'+--I~--" x
I
Change in I I
ordinate I I
I I
I I
I
I
I S·
I h .gn
I I Eq. 1.8
I I I I I Ic anges
I
F~l T~
I I Ithis case.
V~I 1I~111
I I
I I I I I I I I
Between two given values of x , the area under
the curve above equals the change in ordinate II I I II II
to the curve below. x x x x

(b) Integral forms

Sec. 1.9 / Combined Loadings and Associated Diagrams 47

 Axial, torsional, and transverse loadings associated with shear and moment have
been discussed separately in previous sections of this chapter, but frequently the engineer
encounters combinations of these loadings. In such cases, the individual effects are each

.J ~
T

'4J)' i
2
L
'2
:jc p -x

(3)

- <> +1'
·x
'" \J
(5
<'-
C

ff
x
A
(b)

A
In c
I
x

T
-.."
(c)

FIGURE 1.24

r
2P
w=y

~
PI
O~ :4

'/
B

1: c
110
1
--- - - -- - - - - -- -- - - - - - - - - -- - - - - -- -"

pt---t--~--~~---~------~-------~ L
2
P
- x

(0)

~]II----~-----, PI

ID o X
A
(b)

I'
"' 1--- - - - .
1l
'" r-______~B_______C__~-------------Dr_--- X
A

- I'
(c)

x
c
FIGURE 1.25

48 Ch. 1 I Internel Forces in Member.

 considered to act separately and the appropriate diagram constructed for axial force,
torque, shear, or moment.
A member subjected to both axial forces and torques is depicted in Fig. 1.24(a). The
axial force diagram for this member is shown in Fig. 1.24(b). Figure 1.24(c) shows the
torque diagram that depicts the variation of internal torque along the member.
Axial and transverse loadings are applied to the member depicted in Fig. 1.25(a). The
transverse loadings P and ware associated with shear and moment and the force P 1 is
applied axially. Figure 1.25(b), (c), and (d) show the axial force, shear and moment dia-
grams, respectively.
In Fig. 1.26(a), the member ABCDE is subjected to the axial force Q, torque T , and
transverse loads P and w associated with shear and moment. The axial force diagram is
shown in Fig. 1.26(b) and the torque, shear, and moment diagrams are shown in
Fig. 1.26(c), (d), and (e), respectively.

L L L
- 4 3L 4 "2
T
(al

-.~ ~uj Q

<..s!
IE x
II
(b )

"1
1.A ~T I
IJ
Ie J::
I tT
x

(el

;1'
'""
ti II D E
x
_ f.
4
- I'
(d)

(e)

FIGURE 1.26

Sec. 1.9 / Combined Loadings and Associated Diagrams 49

PROBLEMS

1.77 A 40-ft length of steel beam weighing 162 lb/ft
is lifted, during erection of a structure, as shown in Fig .
Pl.77. Draw the axial, shear, and moment diagrams for
this beam.
moment reactions. Construct axial, torque, shear, and
moment diagrams for this cantilever.
1.80 Determine in terms of Q, T, W, and b reactions Rl
and R2 acting on the member shown in Fig. P1.80.
Draw axial, torque, shear, and moment diagrams for
this member. Clearly show free-body diagrams required
for construction of your diagrams.
p= 2wb

I I I
'--+9 ~ :~---"
3T

4T

f-- b
tRI
'1' b b
?J-'
b-------j
R,

FIGURE P1.80

FIGURE P1.77

1.78 Determine the reactions at Band E which act 1.81 A member is suspended from an overhead sup-
laterally on the member shown in Fig. P1.78. Draw porting structure and is subjected to the force system
axial, torque, shear, and moment diagrams for this shown in Fig. P1.81. Determine the reacting axial,
member. Clearly show free-body diagrams required for shear, and moment at D in terms of P, Q, and b. Con-

,
construction of these diagrams. struct axial, shear, and moment diagrams and carefully
show the free-body diagrams required for construction
p
2T of your diagrams.
I
'-i: Ft-Q /.

T
B c £ D

A T 7&

f
i-- 2b .j 2b-+b+b+-2b---j
Cp--+-__ 3P
FIGURE P1.78

f1
1.79 At the fixed end A of the member depicted in Q
Fig. P1.79 determine the axial, torque, shear, and
B
2P P --+-~P

1
.) Di~
3T

~
2Q
c • Q
-L_-1A;-.....L._~ 2P
4T
~L ,I, 2L L----i 3Q
FIGURE P1.79 FIGURE P1.81

50 Ch.1 / Internal Forces in Members

1.82 A 6 ft x 3 ft sign is supported on a vertical post
which is fixed at its foundation as shown in Fig. P1.82.
The wind loading has been reduced to a line loading of
120 lb/ ft along the vertical which acts perpendicular to
the sign and is applied 3.5 ft from the centerline of the
post. Construct shear, moment, and torque diagrams for
the post ABC due to this wind loading.
15 Ib/ft and B weighs 18 lb/ft. Choose an origin at the
bottom of the bar and direct a positive x axis upward.
Plot axial force, shear, and moment functions versus the
longitudinal coordinate x for this bar.
£
A 12ft

i - - - -... D - ----j,-
-3 flr B 10 fl
~--!.L 120 Ib/fl C 600lb

500lb

FIGURE P1.84

1.85 Construct the axial force, shear, and moment dia-

20 fl grams for member ABC shown in Fig. P1.85. Draw a
free-body diagram of segment AB of this member and
calculate the axial force, shear, and moment at the cut
section. Compare your results to those shown on your
I ft diameler
diagrams.

c
/

800lb
FIGURE P1.82

1.83 Refer to Fig. P1.83 and compute the reactions at

A and D. Construct the axial force, shear, and moment
diagrams for this member. Draw a free-body diagram of
the left half of this member and calculate the axial force,
shear, and moment at the center section. Compare your
results to those shown on your diagrams.
FIGURE P1.85
1.86 For the member depicted in Fig. P1.86, find the
reactions at Band C. Construct axial force, shear, and
moment diagrams. Draw a free-body diagram consist-
ing of a 3-ft-long segment to the right of A and compute
the axial force, shear, and moment acting on this verti-
cal section.

" )AO
l¥-
fI - ' - - 6 ft

~I. ~_IC.
18 fI k 4 k If!

FIGURE P1.83 _ _ _ _-,

B_ , ,_
- 8_k_ _ _ 2k
77»i ~5 1'1
5rt + - - 8rt - -+
18 ft
1.84 The bar shown in Fig. P1.84 consists of two seg-
ments, A and B, welded together. Segment A weighs FIGURE P1.86

Sec. 1.9 / Combined Loadings and Associated Diagrams 51

1.87 Construct axial force, torque, shear, and moment and moment acting at this section by considering both
diagrams for the beam depicted in Fig. P1.87. Use a left left and right free-body diagrams. Compare these values
free-body diagram 1 m long to determine the axial to those shown on your diagrams.
force, shear, and moment acting on a vertical section.
80 k-ft
Relate these values to your diagrams.
~~A.-_______B_·)71________ ~
~ ~
ft 8 ft
16 ft

FIGURE P1.90

1.91 Compute the reactions at A and C acting on the

FIGURE P1.87 loaded member shown in Fig. P1.91. Construct the
axial force, shear, and moment diagrams for ABC
1.88 Is it possible to determine the vertical reaction at 2000 1m
A and the cable tension in order to maintain the equi-
I I I
~
librium of the member shown in Fig. P1.88? If not,
revise the magnitude of the horizontal force of 4 k in 4~ 8
order to maintain the body in equilibrium. Draw axial
force, shear, and moment diagrams for this member 4111 8m
ABC Suppose that the sense of the force applied at A
were revised to act to the right ; would equilibrium be FIGURE P1.91
maintained?
1.92 Draw the torque, shear, and moment diagrams
for the member AB depicted in Fig. P1.92. Sketch the
10 k
member and clearly show the reactions acting at B.

12 ft

FIGURE P1 .88

1.89 Draw the axial force and torque diagrams for the
member shown in Fig. P1.89.
FIGURE P1.92

" "-_______c_:~:f~-,
10 k-in.

1.93 Compute the reactions at A and C acting on the

loaded member shown in Fig. P1.93. Construct the
axial force, shear, and moment diagrams for ABC
48 in.

FIGURE P1.89

1.90 Find the reactions at A and C acting on the beam

depicted in Fig. P1.90. Draw axial force, shear, and
f--- - - - 3Ut - - --J--
moment diagrams for this beam. Cut a vertical section
5 ft to the right of A and compute the axial force, shear, FIGURE P1 .93

52 Ch. 1 / Internal Force. in Member.

1.94 (Sec. 1.3) Refer to Problem 1.9 (p. 11) and solve
it by choosing an origin for x at the lower end of part
B.
1.95 (Sec. 1.3) Refer to Problem 1.14 (p. 12) and solve
it by choosing an origin for x at the upper end of segment
A.
1.96 (Sec. 1.3) Refer to Problem 1.10 (p. 12) and solve
it by choosing an origin for x at the upper end of part
A.
1.97 (Sec. 1.5) Refer to Problem 1.27 (p. 22) and solve
it for the external torque function given by q = 100 +
3.0x1. 5 , where q is measured in lb-ft/ft and x is measured
in ft.
1.98 (Sec. 1.5) Refer to Problem 1.29 (p. 22) and solve
it for the external torque function given by q == 200 cos
7TX I L. Let each of the reacting torques equal zero and
show that the shaft is still in eqUilibrium for this given
cosine loading.
Problems 1.99-1.106 involve changes in the location of
designated sections of the problems following Sec. 1.7.
Solve these problems without changing the overall lengths
of the beams.

Refer to
Problem Problem Designated New Location of
Number Number Page Section Designated Section

1.99 1.32 29 A-A 4 m to right of fixed end.

1.100 1.33 29 A-A 4 m to right of free end.
1.101 1.34 29 D-D 5 m to right of fixed end.
1.102 1.35 29 C-C 2 m to right of roller A.
1.103 1.41 30 A-A 8 ft to right of free end.
1.104 1.45 30 A-A 1 ft to right of roller B.
1.105 1.48 31 A-A 2 ft to left of pin C.
1.106 1.49 31 A-A 4 ft to right of roller B.

1.107 (Sec. 1.8) Refer to Problem 1.55 (p. 43) and
replace the couple 20 PL by a downward force P acting
at point C. Solve as instructed.
1.108 (Sec. 1.8) Refer to Problem 1.56 (p. 43) and
solve it after replacement of the given system of coo-
centrated forces by a uniform loading of 0.4 klft over
the entire span of 35 ft.
1.109 (Sec. 1.8) Refer to Problem 1.58 (p. 44) and
solve it after removal of the couple 4 PL applied at point
C.

1.11*_ _ The computer revolution has become a major part of our everyday lives and all engineers
Computer of the future will need to have broad-based experience in computer usage. An ever-
Applications growing list of computer applications would include robotics, numerical control of
machine tools, structural analysis and design, critical path methods for scheduling activ-
ities, electrical circuit analysis, microelectronic component design, and so on. The diver-
sity and extent of this listing is limited only by human creativity.
The major objective of studying this section is to relate your new-found knowledge of
mechanics of materials to computer solution of problems. You will need to draw appro-
priate free-body diagrams, formulate the equations symbolically, systematically program
them for computer solution, and then run them on a computer. In many cases, you may

Sec. 1 .10 I Computer Applications 53

 be able to solve the simple problems in this section on a programmable pocket calculator
because they were created for brief learning experiences and not as finished programs for
professional use.
We have employed a subset of the FORTRAN language in programming mechanics
of materials solutions, but you will find this subset adequate for solving a wide variety of
problems. Appendix A provides a summary of this FORTRAN subset for ready reference
as you study the Examples or program the Computer Problems.
Carefully study the Example programs before attempting to solve assigned Computer
Problems. Frequently, the Example programs will provide models that you may modify
or adapt for your own use.
Notarion employed in the Examples usually agrees with this book's notation. Greek
letters are not available in FORTRAN, so we employ TAU for r, and so on. Input has
been included as a part of the output that enables one readily to understand or check
results for correctness. Where appropriate, provision has been made for multiple runs of a
given program and labels have been provided to identify quantities that are written out.
Regardless of the system of units used (U.S. Customary or SI), it is extremely impor-
tant to insure that the input data for a given computer program consists of a dimension-
ally homogeneous set of values. Of course, the output will be given in the same system of
units chosen for the input.
The output for all Example programs is written out with many more significant
figures than are warranted by the given data. This is due to the fact that these programs
were left unformatted in order to make them as simple as possible. However, as we use
the output information, we should not lose sight of the fact that it cannot be more
accurate than the least-accurate input value.
Example programs were run in FTNTS (fORTRAN Time Sharing) on a CDC
Cyber 171 at the Bradley University Computer Center. FTNTS may not be available at
the computer center of your institution but many different versions of FORTRAN are
available, and we suggest the use of unformatted input-output if you are a beginner.

EXAMPLE Ct.t

During erection of structures, beams are often lifted by cranes as shown in Fig. Cl.l.
Correct shear and moment diagrams are shown due to the cable support forces and the
uniform weight of the member being lifted. Equations are given for the largest positive
moment and the negative moment of greatest magnitude. Both of these critical moments
are functions of X. The coordinate X defines the positions of the two symmetric lift
points. Ideally, it can be shown that the positive and negative moments will have equal
magnitudes when X = 0.207L, where L is the total length of the member. For a member
with equal positive and negative moment resistance, placing the lifting cables at 0.207L
from each end will be an optimum solution. However, not all members have equal
positive and negative moment resistance, and other practical factors may need to be
considered for a two-point lift. This leads us to conclude that a study of the influence of
the lift-point locations on shear and bending moments would be desirable. Write a
FORTRAN program to investigate this problem.

SOLUTION. The source PROGRAM LIFT and sample I/O are shown in Fig. CU.
Inputs are the total length L of the member and its weight per foot W. The variable X
takes on values from zero to L/2 in increments of L/I0. Output consists of positive and

54 Ch. 1 I Internal Forces in Members

 :~ :~ l I,
I-- x L - ,x I -X- j
I I
,.

~---------+--------~~~--------t---------~--x

1/

~~--------~f---------------~~--------~~---x

FIGURE C1.1
00100 PROGRA" LIfT IINPUT,OUTPUT)
00110 REAL "NEG,"POS,L
00115C "POS WILL BECOME NEGATIVE fOR LARGE X VALUES.
00120 PRINT 2
00130 2 fORMATl1X,"ERECTION SHEARS AND MOMENTS"I
OOl'oO PR INT 10
00150 10 fORMAT I1X,"INPUTS IN ORDER")
001&0 & READ .,L,w
00170 XoO
00175 DELX o1l10
00180 If IL.LT.O.)STOP
00190 PRINT 5
00200 5 fOR~AT I1X,"WEIGHT PER FOOT,LENGTH"I
00210 WRITE .,W,L
00220 PRINT 7
00230 7 fORMAT I1X,"X COORO,VNEG,VPOS,MNEG,"POS"I
00250 20 VNEG o-W*X
002bO VPOSoW.L/2.-w.X
00270 "NEGo-W.X •• 2/2.
00280 "POSoW.L •• 2/8.-w.L/2 •• X
00290 WRITE .,X,VNEG,VPDS,"NEG,"POS
00310 IfIX.GT.IL/2-0.0011IGO TO b
00315 XoX+DELX
00320 GO TO 20
00330 END
ERECTION SHEARS AND MOMENTS
INPUTS IN ORDER
WEIGHT PER fOOT, LENGTH
2. 100.
X COORO,VNEG,VPOS,"NEG,MPOS
O. O. 100. O. 2500.
10. -20. 80. -100. 1500.
20. -40. &0. -1000. 500.
30. -&0. 40. -900. -500.
100. -80. 20. -1&00. -1500.
50. -100. O. -2500. -2500.

negative shears and moments for each value of X. When X becomes relatively large,
MPOS takes on negative values or the entire member is subjected to negative bending
moments. Members considered here are relatively long compared to their depths, so
moments are of greater interest than shears, although, in general, engineers need to
examine the effects of both shear and moment on members to be lifted. The sample
output is for L = 100 ft and W = 2 k/ft.

Sec. 1 .10 I Computer Applications 55

EXAMPLE Cl.2

Write a FORTRAN program that will provide preliminary design forces for columns of a
structure. Ignore bending and lateral forces in this preliminary analysis. For high-rise
buildings the lateral force effects will be quite important. Our analysis will enable us to
estimate column forces and sizes at an early stage during the design process. A client will
want an early estimate of how much valuable real estate will be occupied by the column
areas.
The structure consists of an almost flat roof and a number of floors. A typical plan
view at a given level is shown in Fig. C1.2. A typical interior column and surrounding
columns are shown together with the boundaries of the area which contributes force to
this column. The forces, of intensity Wi, W2, W3, and W4, act vertically or perpendicular
to the plan view. If we wish to determine the approximate force delivered by the first
quadrant to the interior column, we mUltiply the force intensity Wi by the area
(B/2) * (D/2):
Fi = Wi * (B/2) * (D/2)

T
D D D
W2 WI

D
II T
D

t
"2 Typical
I
------Q-----
column

D D
I !2
I 2

1
I
I

1
c
1--1 'I' ~-----j
W3 W4

D D D

~A -I- 0-----1
Plan view at roof or floor levels
Force
Quadrant Area Intensity Force

m·(~) WI FI

2 (1)·(1) W2 F2

3 (1H~) W3 F3

4 m·(~) W4 F4

FIGURE C1.2

56 Ch.1 I Internal Forces In Members

 Similar forces F2, F3, and F4 may be computed for the other quadrants. We have
neglected the column area compared to the floor area since the analysis is approximate
and we do not even know the column area at this preliminary stage. The force delivered
by all four quadrants at the top of a column is given by FT = Fl + F2 + F3 + F4.
The force delivered to the bottom of a given column is given by
FB = FT + COLWT * STORYHT
We have assumed that the story height is equal to the column length, although we should
deduct an allowance for floor thicknesses. At this stage we will accept this approximation
because our knowledge of gravity loads applied to the floors is also approximate.

SOLUTION. The source PROGRAM COLFOR is shown in Fig. Cl.3. Our analysis
begins at the roof and proceeds down the structure from top to bottom. All floors and
column weights above a given level contribute to the forces in a column at this given
level. By definition, TOPCOL is the forc y in any given column near its top just below the
floor and BOTTCOL is the force in any given column near its bottom just above the
floor. We initialize TOPCOL and BOTTCOL to zero values and increment them with
00100 PROGRAM COlFORIINPUT.OUTPUT)
00110 9 1-1
00120 TOPCOl-O.
00130 BOTTCOl-O.
00140 READ *.N
00150 IFIN.EQ.O.)~TOP
00160 PR INT 2
00170 2 FORMATIIX."COLUHN DESIGN FORCES")
00180 PRINT 3
00190 3 FORMATIIX."TOTAL NUMBER OF FLOORS")
00200 WRI TE *.N
00210 bREAD *.A.S.C.O
00220 PRINT 4
00230 4 FORMATIIX."CULUHN SPACINGS A.S.C.D IN ORDER")
00240 wRITE *.A.8.C.O
00250 READ *.Wl.W2.W3.w4
00260 PRINT 5
00270 5 FORMAT IIX."ROOF OR FLOOR LOAD INTENSITIES wl,W2.W3.W4 IN ORDER") ~I
00280 WRITE *.Wl.w2.W3.W4
00290 READ*.COLwT.STORYHT
00300 PRINT 7
00310 7 FORMATIIX."COL •• T./UNIT LENGTH AND STOREY HEIGHT")
00320 WRITE *.COlWT.STORYHT
00330 NF-N+l-I
00340 FI-Wl*S*O/4.
00350 F2-W2*A*O/4.
00360 F3-W3*A*C/4.
00370 F4-W4*S*C/4.
00380 FT-FI+F2+F3+F4
00390 FB-FT+COL.I*S TOR YHT
00400 TOPCOL-TOPCOL+FT
00410 SOTTCOL-SOTTCOL+FS
00420 I-IH
00430 PUNa
00440 8 FORMATIIX."FLOOM lEVEL.FORCE AT TOP.FORCE AT BOTTOM")
004~0 WRITE *.NF.TOPCOL.BOTTCOL
00455 TOPCOL-TOPCOL+COLWT*STORYHT
004bO IFINF.EQ.IIGO TO 9
0()470 GO TO b
00480 END
FIGURE C1.3
COLUMN DESIGN FORCES
TOTAL NUMBER OF FLOORS
3
COLUMN SPACINGS A.B.C.D IN ORDER
30. 30. 25. 25.
ROOF OR FLOOR LOAD INTENSITIES Wl,W2,~3.W4 IN ORDER
75. 75. 75. 75.
COL'WI~/UNIT LENGTH AND STOREY HEIGHT
150. iI:.
FLOOR LEVEL.FORCE AT TOP,FORCE AT BOTTOM
3 56250. 5B050.
COLUMN SPACINGS A.B.C.D IN ORDER
30. 30. 25. 25.
ROOF OR FLOOR LOAD INTENSITIES Wl,W2,w3,W4 IN ORDER (bl
120. 150. 150. 160.
COL.wT./UNIT LENGTH AND STOREY HEIGHT
200. 12.
FLOOR LEVEL. FORCE AT TOP.FORCE AT BOTTOH
2 166800. 169200.
COLUHN SPACINGS A,B,C,D IN ORDER
30. 30. 25. 25.
ROOF OR FLOOR LOAD INTENSITIES Wl,W2.W3.~4 IN ORDER
150. 160. '150. 175.
COL.WT./UNIT LENGTH AND STOREY HEIGHT
250. 15.
FLOOR lEVEL.FORCE AT TOP,FORCE AT BOTTOH
1 288262.5 292012.5

Sec. 1 .10 / Computer Applications 57

 Preliminary gravity effects

-Roof
T
12 ft
56,250 \

~ 58,050\
-Third
.I!l

~ T 166'800,~
-±-
..c:: 12 ft

__288'~262\
~ 169,200
'" -Second

f.1~
~ _ 292,OI~ -First
Column forces in pounds, three-story building

FIGURE C1.4

additional force as we move down the structure. Sample I/O (input and output) is given
for a three-story building. A plot of these axial compressive forces in the columns is
shown in Fig. CI.4 for the sample output. Careful study of the source, the I/O, and the
figures will enable the reader to understand what is a relatively simple analysis.
If a zero value is read for the total number of floors N, then the calculations will be
stopped. Even though A, B, C, and D do not change over the complete structure, they
must be entered as data for each level.

COMPUTER PROBLEMS

Cl.l A simply supported beam of length L is loaded C1.2 A cantilever beam of length L is subjected to a
by a downward uniform load of intensity W. Write a linearly varying downward loading which varies from
FO R TRAN program to determine the shear and
bending moments in this beam. Start with X = mea-
sured from the left reaction and use an increment of
° zero intensity at the free end to an intensity of W at the
fixed end. Write a FORTRAN program to determine
the shear and bending moments in this beam. Start with
L/1O. Check your program with the following numerical X = 0, measured from the free end, and use an
results. increment of L/1O. Provide plots of your output. Check
Input: L = 10 ft, W = 2 k/ft. your program with the following numerical results.
Output: Input: 6 m, W = 360 N/m.
Output:
X (ft) V (k) M (k-ft) X (m) V (N) M (N-m)

0 10 0 0 0 0
8 9 0.6 -10.8 -2.16
2 6 16 1.2 -43.2 -17.28
3 4 21 1.8 -97.2 -58.32
4 2 24 2.4 -172.8 -138.24
5 0 25 3.0 -270.0 -270.00
6 -2 24 3.6 -388.8 -466.56
7 -4 21 4.2 -529.2 -740.88
8 -6 16 4.8 -691.2 -1105.92
9 -8 9 5.4 -874.8 -1574.64
10 -10 0 6.0 -1080 -2160.00

58 Ch.1 / Internal Forces in Members

Ct.3 Refer to Example C1.2 and prepare PROGRAM Columns:
COLFOR to receive data. second-level COLWT = 120 lb/ft
(a) A single-story building has column spacings: STORYHT = 12 ft
A = 20 ft, B = 20 ft, C = 30 ft, and D = 30 ft.
Roof loading intensities: WI = W2 = W3 = W4 = first-level COL WT = 140 lb/ft
60lb/ftl. STORYHT = 18 ft
Columns: COLWT = 120 lb/ft, STORYHT = 14 ft. A plot of the correct answers is shown in Fig. CP1.3(b).
Use this information to provide data for the READ
statements of COLFOR. A plot of the correct answers Cl.4 Prepare PROGRAM LIFT of Example CLl to
is shown in Fig. CP1.3(a). receive data and check the output of this example.
Check representative output with your pocket calcu-
lator for the following input: W = 5 k/ft and
Compressive Column Forces L = 200 ft.
Inputs Outputs (lb)
Ct.5 A cantilever beam of length L is subjected to a
I
20,20,30,30 uniform downward loading of intensity W. Write a
60,60,60,60 Roof 36,000
FORTRAN program to determine the shear and
120,14
137,680 \ } 4 ft bending moments in this beam. Start with X = 0, mea-
° First floor
(a) One-story building column forces sured from the left free end, and use an increment of
LllO. Check your program with the following numerical
Inputs Outputs (lb) results.
2 Roof Input: L = 10 m, W = 2 kN/m.
30,30,40,40
80,80,80,80 Output:
120,12
30,30,40,40
120,120,120,120
140,18 X(m) v (kN) M (kN-m)
° First floor
(b) Two-story building column forces 0 0 0
1 -2 -1
FIGURE CP1.3 2 -4 -4
3 -6 -9
4 -8 -16
(b) A two-story building has column spacings at all 5 -10 -25
levels: A = 30 ft, B = 30 ft, C = 40 ft, D = 40 ft. 6 -12 -36
Roof loading intensities: WI = W2 = W3 = W4 = 7 -14 -49
801b/ft 2. 8 -16 -64
9 -18 -81
Second-floor loading intensities: WI = W2 = W3 =
10 -20 -100
W4 = 120 Ib/ft2.

Sec. 1.10 / Computer Applications 59

 CHAPTER Stress. Strain. and
Their Relltionships
2.1 _ _ The concepts of stress and strain are two of the most important concepts within the
Introduction subject of mechanics of materials or mechanics of deformable bodies. They are discussed
in detail in this chapter, particularly as they relate to two-dimensional situations.
In the case of stress as well as in the case of strain, emphasis is placed on the use of
the semigraphical procedure known as the Mohr's circle solution. The underlying mathe-
matical concepts leading to Mohr's circle are developed and discussed. Examples are
solved to illustrate the use of this powerful semi graphical method of solution, which will
be used throughout this book whenever problems are encountered dealing with stress and
strain analysis.
The discussion relating stress to strain in this chapter is limited to the range of
material behavior within which the strain varies linearly with stress. This procedure frees
the students from information which, although very important, is extraneous for the time
being. A more complete discussion of material behavior is provided in Chapters 3 and 4.
Despite the relative complexity of the concepts of stress and strain, it is pedagogically
more effective to teach these concepts very early in the semester. In this way, the students
are better equipped to study and obtain a better appreciation of other topics, particularly
those dealing with axial loads, torsion and flexure.

2.2 _ _ If a body is subjected to external forces, a system of internal forces is developed. These
Concept of internal forces tend to separate or bring closer together the material particles that make
Stress at a up the body. Consider, for example, the body shown in Fig. 2.1(a), which is subjected to
Point the external forces F l ' F 2' ... , F i • Consider an imaginary plane that cuts the body into
two parts, as shown. Internal forces are transmitted from one part of the body to the
other through this imaginary plane. Let the free-body diagram of the lower part of the
bod y be constructed as shown in Fig. 2.1 (b). The forces F 1, F 2, and F 3 are held in
equilibrium by the action of an internal system of forces distributed in some manner
through the surface area of the imaginary plane. This system of internal forces may be
represented by a single resultant force R and/or by a couple. For the sake of simplicity in
introducing the concept of stress, only the force R is assumed to exist; this in no way,
however, restricts application of the concept of stress to situations involving only internal
forces. In general, the force R may be decomposed into a component F n' perpendicular to
the plane and known as the normal force, and a component F t , parallel to the plane and
known as the shear force.
If the area of the imaginary plane is A, the quantities F J A and F t/ A represent,

60
 (3) (b)

FIGURE 2.1

respectively, average values of the normal and shear forces per unit of area. The quantity
F J A is known as the normal stress and is assigned the Greek symbol (J, and the quantity
F,/ A as the shear stress and is assigned the Greek symbol ! . Thus, from the definition of
stress, we conclude that the internal forces F nand F, may be obtained by multiplying the
average values of (J and! by the corresponding area. These stresses, however, are not, in
general, uniformly distributed throughout the area under consideration, and it is therefore
desirable to be able to determine the magnitude of both the normal and shear stresses at
any point within the area. If the normal and shear forces acting over a differential element
of area ~A in the neighborhood of point 0 are ~Fn and ~F" respectively, as shown in
Fig. 2.l(b), then the normal stress (J and the shearing stress! are given by the following
expressions:

~Fn
(J = lim - -
<1A-O ~A
(2.1)
. ~F,
!= IIm-
<1A-O ~A

In the special case where the components Fn and F, are uniformly distributed over
the entire area A, then (J = F J A and! = F,/ A. A simple example of uniformly distributed
normal stresses may be obtained by considering the internal force on plane BCDE of the
member shown in Fig. 2.2(a), which is subjected to the axial tensile force P. Note that
plane BCDE is perpendicular to the load axis. The free-body diagram of the lower part of
this member is shown in Fig. 2.2(b) and indicates that the resultant internal force is F n'
normal to plane BCDE and equal in magnitude to the applied force P. This resultant
force represents a system of normal stresses (J distributed in some fashion over the area
BCD E. If a uniform distribution is assumed, then the stresses (J = F J A will be as shown
in Fig. 2.2(c), where A is the area of plane BCDE.
Another simple example illustrating uniformly distributed shear stresses is obtained
by considering the internal force on plane GHIJ of the member shown in Fig. 2.2(d),
which is subjected to the pulling force P. The member consists of two thin plastic strips
that have been fastened together by gluing a splice plate to both of them. The shaded area
GH IJ is the bonding area between the lower strip and the splice plate. The free-body
diagram of the lower plastic strip shown in Fig. 2.2(e) indicates that the resultant internal

Sec. 2.2 I Concept of Stress at a Point 61

 force is F" in the plane of the bonding area and equal in magnitude to the applied force
P. This resultant force represents a system of shear stresses T distributed in some manner
over the entire bonding area. If a uniform distribution is assumed, the shear stress T is
determined from the relation T = F,IA [see Fig. 2.2(f)], where A is the bonding area
GHIJ.
Note that a normal stress acts in a direction perpendicular to the plane on which it
acts and it can be either tensile or compressive. A tensile normal stress is one that tends to
pull the material particles away from each other, while a compressive normal stress is one
that tends to push them closer together. Ashear stress, on the other hand, acts parallel to

C1 = F"
A
F" = p

E E E
I
I

•. /
J--

p p p

(a) (b) (e)

F, = p

p p
P
(d) (e) (f)

FIGURE 2.2

62 Ch. 2 / Str•••. Strain. and Th.ir R.latlon.hip.

 the plane on which it acts and tends to slide (shear) adjacent planes with respect to each
other. Also note that the units of stress (a or r) consist of units of force divided by units of
area. Thus, in the U.S. Customary (British gravitational) system of measures, such units as
pounds per square inch (psi) and kilopounds per square inch (ksi) are common. In the
metric (SI) system of measure, the unit that has been proposed for stress is the Newton
per square meter (N/m2), which is called the pascal and denoted by the symbol Pa.
Because the pascal is a very small quantity, another SI unit that is widely used is the
megapascal (10 6 pascals) and is denoted by the symbol MPa. This unit may also be
written as MN/m2.

2.3 In the most general case, normal and shear stresses at a point in a body may be con-
Components sidered to act on three mutually perpendicular planes. This most general state of stress is
of Stress usually referred to as triaxial. It is convenient to select planes that are normal to the three
coordinate axes x, y, and z and designate them as the X, Y, and Z planes, respectively.
Consider these planes as enclosing a differential volume of material in the neighborhood
of a given point in a stressed body. Such a volume of material is depicted in Fig. 2.3 and is
referred to as a three-dimensional stress element. On each of the three mutually perpen-
dicular planes of the stress element, there act a normal stress, and a shear stress which is
represented by its two perpendicular components.
The notation for stresses used in this text consists of affixing one subscript to a
normal stress, indicating the plane on which it is acting, and two subscripts to a shear
stress, the first of which designates the plane on which it is acting and the second its
direction. For example, ax is the normal stress acting on the X plane, 'xy is a shear stress
acting on the X plane and pointed in the positive y direction, and 'xz is a shear stress
acting in the X plane and pointed in the positive z direction.
It is observed from Fig. 2.3 that three stress components exist on each of the three
mutually perpendicular planes that define the stress element. Thus there exists a total of

I,
I
Y pla ne I
I
I
I
!,,-_ _ I 1:

dy

dx - - --,/
Z plane

FIGURE 2.3

Sec. 2.3 I Components of Stress 63

 nine stress components that must be specified in order to define completely the state of
stress at any point in the body. By considerations of the equilibrium of the stress element,
it can easily be shown that 't xy = 't yx ' 't xz = 'tzx ' and 't yz = 't zy so that the number of stress
components required to define the state of stress completely at a point is reduced to six.
By convention, a normal stress is positive if it points in the direction of the outward
normal to the plane. Thus a positive normal stress produces tension and a negative normal
stress produces compression. A component of shear stress is positive if it is pointed along the
positive direction of the coordinate axis and if the outward normal to its plane is also in the
positive direction of the corresponding axis. If, however, the outward normal is in the
negative direction of the coordinate axis, a positive shear stress will also be in the negative
direction of the corresponding axis. The stress components shown in Fig. 2.3 are all
positive.
A complete study of the triaxial or three-dimensional state of stress is beyond the
scope of this book, and the analysis that follows is limited to the special case in which the
stress components in one direction are all zero. For example, if all the stress components
in the z direction are zero (i.e., 't xz = 't yz = U z = 0), the stress condition reduces to a biaxial
or two-dimensional state of stress in the xy plane. This state of stress is referred to as
plane stress. Fortunately, many of the problems encountered in practice are such that they
can be considered plane stress problems.

2.1 As mentioned previously, the state of stress known as plane stress is one in which all the
Analysis of stress components in one direction vanish. Consider, for example, the stress element
Plane Stress shown in Fig. 2.4(a). This stress element represents a stress condition in which all of the
stress components in the z direction vanish (i.e., 't xz = 't yz = U z = 0). It also represents the
most general plane stress condition that can exist. As will be discussed in Chapter 5, such
a stress element occurs on the surface of a beam subjected to transverse loads as shown
schematically in Fig. 2.4(b). It should be observed that a stress element is in reality a
schematic representation of two sets of perpendicular planes passing through a point and
that the element degenerates into a point in the limit when both dx and dy approach zero.
From considerations of the equilibrium of forces on the stress element in Fig. 2.4(a),
it can be shown that 't xy = -t yx ' Thus assume that the depth of the stress element into the
paper is a constant equal to h. Since, by definition, force is the product of stress and the
area over which it acts, the stress element of Fig. 2.4(a) may be transformed into a force
element as shown in Fig. 2.4(c) and a summation of moments of all forces about a z axis
through point 0 leads to the following equation:

from which

(2.2)

Note that the forces produced by the normal stresses in both the x and y directions cancel
each other, and therefore their moments did not have to be included in the preceding
moment equation. Also, Eq. 2.2 states a very useful conclusion-that shear stresses on any
two mutually perpendicular planes through a point in a stressed body must be equal.

64 Ch. 2 I Stress, Strain, and Their Relationships

 /

ay X plane

y Y

a y (hdx)
°.11

=t
Tyx (h dx)

Txy (h dy)

+
ax (h dy) ax (h dy) ax ax

y (h dy)
0 Tyx (h dx)
. x • x

ay
ay (h dx)

(c) (d)

FIGURE 2.4

With this fact in mind, it will not be necessary to distinguish between 1: xy and 1: yx ' and
henceforth they will both be labeled 1: xy as shown in Fig. 2.4(d).
It is desirable to be able to relate the stresses on the X and Y planes to the stresses
acting on any inclined plane N defined by the angle a, as shown in the stress element of
Fig. 2.5(a). The resulting relations would make it possible to determine the normal stress
ern and the shear stress tnt on the inclined plane N from knowledge of the normal and
shear stresses on the X and Y planes. Note that the normal n to the inclined plane N
makes an angle a with the x axis. Note also that this is the same angle as between plane X
and plane N. By convention, this angle a is considered positive when measured in a
counterclockwise direction from the positive end of the x axis.
Isolate the small wedge to the left of the inclined plane and construct its free-body
diagram as shown in Fig. 2.5(b). If one assumes the area of the inclined plane to be dA,

I
Sec. 2.4 I Analysis of Plane Stress 65
 y

I"
ay
II
/"
\
~> 0"
\ /
a ax
a" a\ /

~\
~
a x
Tx)' \
a)'
\
<a) (b)

y y

1
II

~
a" dA
'"0 a dA
" ax dA cos a

+=
~

--x
dA in a - x T,},dA sin a

t..:yflA cos ::r:

(d)
(e)

FIGURE 2.5

then the area of the X plane would be dA cos (X and the area of the Y plane would be
dA sin 0(, as shown in Fig. 2.5(c). Thus the forces on the three faces of the wedge produced
by the normal and shear stresses acting on them can be determined in terms of dA and the
trigonometric functions of the angle 0(, as shown in Fig. 2.5(d).
Summation of forces in Fig. 2.5(d) along the n direction leads to the equation
an dA - a x(dA cos O() cos 0( - 'xy(dA cos O() sin (X
- 'xy(dA sin O() cos 0( - ay(dA sin O() sin (X = 0
from which
(2.3)
By using the trigonometric identities sin 2 0( = (1 - cos 2(X)/2, 2 sin 0( cos 0( = sin 20(, and
cos 2 0( = (1 + cos 20()j2, we can reduce Eq. 2.3 to the form

(2.4)

Similarly, summing forces along the t direction leads to the equation

'nl = -(ax - a) sin 0( cos (X + 'Xy(cos 2 0( - sin 2 O() (2.5)
which, after using the trigonometric identities above, reduces to

I 'm = -!(a x - ay) sin 20( + 'xy cos 20( (2.6)

Thus, for a plane stress condition, the normal and shear stresses may be found from Eqs.
2.4 and 2.6, respectively, for any plane defined by the angle 0( if the stresses ax, a y' and, xy
are known. However, the technique used throughout this textbook for the solution of

66 Ch. 2 I Stress, Strain, and Their Relationships

 these equations is a semigraphical method known as the Mohr's circle solution, named
after Otto Mohr (1835-1918), the German engineer who first introduced it. This solution
will be developed and discussed in Section 2.5.

2.5 _ _ If the first term in the right-hand side of Eq. 2.4 is transposed and the square of the
Mohr's Circle resulting equation is added to the square of Eq. 2.6, we obtain
for Plane Stress
(2.7)

Examination of Eq. 2.7 reveals that if we replace [CT n - (CT x + CT y)/2]2 by (x - a)2,
(.nl - 0)2 by (y - b)2 and [(CT x - CT y)/2]2 + .;y by R2, we would obtain the familiar equa-
tion (x - a)2 + (y - b)2 = R2, which is the equation of a circle in the x - y plane with a
radius R and a center located at (a, b). Thus, if we establish a coordinate system with the
horizontal axis labeled CTn and a vertical axis labeled .nt> Eq. 2.7 will be a circle whose
radius is given by

R = [( CTX - CTy
2
)2 +.2 J1 /2
xy
(2.8)

Also, the center of this circle is located at [(CT x + CT y )/2, 0]. In other words, the center C of
this circle lies on the CTn axis at a distance from the origin 0 given by
DC = CT A = 1{CT x + CT y) (2.9)
where CT A is used to denote the average of the two in-plane normal stresses CT x and CT y'
Consequently, Eq. 2.7 shows that the values of the normal and shear stresses on any
plane passing through a point in a body may be represented by the coordinates of a point
on the circle defined by this equation. Thus, if one considers a plane stress situation as
shown in Fig. 2.6(a), the stress field at this point is represented by the coordinates of
points on the circumference of a circle defined by Eq. 2.7 and depicted in Fig. 2.6(b). As

\ t
t Y
Xplane
\ ay I
\ ~v/n
Y plane - - - /~r~
~----I-~Lx --o=-+--t----"-----:::-t'--r--.-+n-(a-l-,-O)~ an

\
\
'Nplane

(a) (b)

FIGURE 2.6

Sac. 2.5 I Mohr's Circle for Plane Stress 67

 mentioned previously, such a circle is known as Mohr's circle. If the values of ax , ay' and
Txy are known, this circle may be constructed as follows.
After establishing a convenient an - Tnt coordinate system, Mohr's circle representing
the plane stress condition of Fig~ 2.6(a) can be constructed by locating two diametrically
opposite points on its circumference. One of the two points (point X) is obtained by
plotting the coordinates (ax, -Txy) and the second (point Y) by plotting the coordinates
(a y , Tx) as shown in Fig. 2.6(b). The straight line connecting these two points (a diameter
of the circle) intersects the an axis at point C, which is the center of the circle. With this
center and radius CX = CY, we can complete the required construction. It should be
pointed out that the construction of Mohr's circle can be executed in a free-hand manner,
since the solution is obtained by a simple analysis of the circle geometry, as shown in the
examples to follow.
As stated above, points X and Y on the circumference of Mohr's circle are diamet-
rically opposite (i.e., 180 from each other). This implies that the 90 angle between the X
0 0

and Y planes in the stress element is doubled when constructing Mohr's circle. It can be
shown (see Example 2.3) that any angle in the stress element is represented by twice this
angle in Mohr's circle. Thus any plane such as N, which is located by the ccw angle a from
plane X in the stress element is represented by point N located on the circle by rotating
from point X through a ccw angle equal to 2a. This concept is stated symbolically by the
relation

(2.10)

where a is the angle in the stress element and () is the angle in Mohr's circle as shown in
Figs. 2.6(a) and (b).

Bookkeeping for Constructing and Interpreting Mohr's Circle

A more convenient way to plot and interpret Mohr's circle is to think of the shear
stresses in terms of their effect on the stress element on which they act. If a shear stress
tends to rotate the element clockwise, it is plotted in the positive shear stress region of the
an - Tnt coordinate system. Conversely, if a shear stress tends to rotate the element counter-
clockwise, it is plotted in the negative shear stress region of the an - Tnt coordinate system.
This procedure serves only as a bookkeeping technique and in no way alters the shear stress
sign convention established previously. Thus, referring to Fig. 2.6(a), the X plane is sub-
jected to a positive normal stress ax and to a shearing stress T xy that tends to rotate the
stress element counterclockwise. Thus point X in Fig. 2.6(b) is located in the fourth
quadrant of the coordinate system, corresponding to the region where the normal stress is
positive and where the shear stress is negative. Also, the Y plane is subjected to a positive
normal stress a y and to a shearing stress T xy that tends to rotate the stress element
clockwise. Therefore, point Y in Fig. 2.6(b) is located in the first quadrant, corresponding
to the region where both the normal and shear stresses are positive.
As a result of this bookkeeping technique, the interpretation of Mohr's circle is also
greatly simplified. For example, the coordinates of point N in Fig. 2.6(b) provide the
normal and shear stresses on plane N. Since this point lies in the first quadrant of the
an - Tnt coordinate system, an is tension and Tnt must be placed on plane N such that it

68 Ch. 2 I Stress, Strain, and Their Relationships

 would tend to produce clockwise rotation of the stress element of which N is one plane.
Once the stresses are placed properly on a stress element, their signs are determined on the
basis of the sign convention established in Section 2.3 and used in deriving Eqs. 2.4 and 2.6.

Principal Stresses and Principal Planes

Points D and E, where the circle intersects the (1n axis, represent significant stress
quantities. Point D, which represents the algebraic maximum value of (1n' has the coordi-
nates ((11' 0). Similarly, point E, which represents the algebraic minimum value of (1n' has
the coordinates ((12' 0). The stresses (11 and (12 are referred to as the in-plane principal
stresses and the planes on which they act as principal planes. It should be noted, however,
that in a three-dimensional (triaxial) stress condition, three principal stresses exist, which
are denoted by (11' (12' and (13. It is found convenient and useful in subsequent analyses to
label these three principal stresses in such a way that (11 ~ (12 ~ (13' algebraically. Obvi-
ously, in the two-dimensional (plane) stress case, with which this textbook is primarily
concerned, one of these three principal stresses is zero. In the particular plane stress case
depicted in Fig. 2.6, (13 is the one taken as zero and the in-plane principal stresses are (11
and (12. Note that the plane of (13 is parallel to the plane of the paper and that principal
planes are free of shear stresses.
The magnitude of the in-plane principal stress may be obtained for each particular
plane stress condition by analyzing the geometry of the corresponding Mohr's circle. This,
in fact, is the approach that is recommended and used throughout this book. However,
general expressions may be written for the two in-plane principal stresses in a given plane
stress case. For example, in the plane stress case depicted in Fig. 2.6(a) we may symboli-
cally write expressions for (11 and (12 (note that in this case (13 = 0) from the geometry of
Mohr's circle in Fig. 2.6(b). Thus
(11 = OC + CD
(2.11 a)

and
(12 = OC - CE

(2.l1b)

Another useful relation is obtained by adding Eqs. 2.11 a and 2.11 b. Thus

1(11 + (12 = (1x + (1, I (2.12)

which states that for a plane stress condition the algebraic sum of the two in-plane normal
stresses on any two perpendicular planes is constant.
The locations of points D and E with respect to either of the two given X and Y
points on the circle of Fig. 2.6(b) enables us to establish precisely the orientation of the
principal planes on which (11 and (12 act. For example, since point D is located through
the angle (Jl measured ccw from point X on the circle, it follows by Eq. 2.10, that the

Sec. 2.6 I Mohr'. Circle for Plane Stre•• 69

 principal plane on which 0"1 acts is t81 ccw from the X plane in the stress element of Fig.
2.6(a).
The magnitude of the angle 8 1 is computed from the geometry of Mohr's circle in a
variety of ways. Depending on the known quantities in a given plane stress situation, we
may compute the magnitude of the angle 8 1 using anyone of the following equations.

l)
U1 = sIn
• -1 -!xy I I (2.13a)
R

81 = cos
-1 I(0" x - R0"y)/21 (2.13b)

(2.13e)

Maximum In-Plane Shear Stress

The coordinates of points F and G in Fig. 2.6(b) give the magnitudes of the normal
and shear stresses on planes where the in-plane shear stress attains its maximum value,
!max' For convenience in interpreting Mohr's circle, the magnitude of the shear stress
corresponding to point F is labeled as ! 1 and that for point G as !2' Thus, since! 1 is in
the positive shear stress region of Mohr's circle, it is interpreted as tending to produce cw
rotation of the stress element on which it acts. Also, since! 2 is in the negative shear stress
region of Mohr's circle, it is interpreted as tending to produce ccw rotation of the stress
element. Recall, however, that once these stresses are placed properly on their planes, their
signs are determined by the sign convention established in Section 2.3.
From the geometry of Mohr's circle, we conclude that the magnitude of the
maximum in-plane shear stress, !max, is given by
(2.14)

EXAMPLE 2.1

The plane stress condition at a point on the outside surface of a cylindrical container is
shown in Fig. 2.7(a). Determine by using Mohr's circle and show on appropriate sketches:
(a) The normal and shear stresses on plane H which is 30° ccw from the X plane.
(b) The principal stresses and the maximum in-plane shear stresses! 1 and! 2 .

SOLUTION
(a) Construct a O"n - tnt coordinate system as shown in Fig. 2.7(b). The bookkeeping
technique discussed earlier is used for the construction and interpretation of Mohr's
circle. Since the shear stress on the X plane tends to rotate the element counterclockwise
and the normal stress on this plane is positive, point X is locate using the coordinates
(90, -40). Also, since the shear stress on the Y plane tends to rotate the element clock-
wise and the normal stress on this plane is positive, point Y is located with the coordi-
nates (30, 40). Points X and Yare connected by a straight line which intersects the O"n axis
at point C, the center of Mohr's circle. Mohr's circle is then constructed as shown in
Fig.2.7(b).

70 Ch. 2 I Stress, Strain, and Their Relationships

 Cylin(kr ,ubjectcd .lIso
to in terna l preSSUf('
y

----~~
I' X J- p
/ T",
/

1+
/
/
30 MPa /
/

40 MP,
-+--,,-I--"'+---':----:2II::=:-~.--+--+D
::-- 0"

+
\~~l lan. 90M Pa

\ I
\ 1
(3 ) \ IX plan" i---- - - - - O . - - - ---+i
I
1
(b )

i /I plan"

109.6 MPa

90 Mra

~Pla~+
'
40 ,'.11'3
1
I I
I 30 MP,
/
(Tl ~
=IO MPa l(C) /

1 a. = IIO MP"
1, = 50Ml'a 45° 1

1
I
\ ~ 16 6°
0A = 60 MPa ,...~ _.
~ °l=IO MPa
1\
I \ 1) = 50 MP" II
1
1
(e)

a, = 110 MPa
Cd )
FIGURE 2.7

Plane H is located 30° ccw from plane X. Therefore, from the radius ex, measure an
angle 2(30) = 60° ccw to locate point H, whose coordinates (a H, 'H)* give the values of the
normal and shear stresses on plane H. Thus, from the geometry in Fig; 2.7(b), we obtain

* The simplified notation a and T with a single subscript will be frequently used in subsequent work. The
single 's ubscript refers to the plane on which a and Tact.

Sec. 2.5 / Mohr's Circle for Plane Stress 71

 DC = I1A = I1x + (1)1 = 60.0 MPa
2
R = [(CB)2 + (BY)2J1/ 2 = 50.0 MPa
BY
2(} = tan- 1 - = 531°
CB .

213 = 60 - 53.1 = 6.9°

I1H = DC +R cos 213 = 1109.6 MPa \

TH = R sin 213 = \6.0 MPa I

Note that since point H is in the first quadrant of the I1n - Tnt coordinate system, I1H is
positive (i.e., tension). Also, according to our bookkeeping technique, TH tends to produce
clockwise rotation of the element. These stresses are shown on a properly oriented stress
element in Fig. 2.7(c) which consists of a wedge bounded by the X and Y planes and by
plane H which is inclined at 30° ccw from the X plane. Note that I1H = 109.6 MPa is
pointed on its plane so as to produce tension. Also TH = 6.0 MPa is pointed on its plane
so as to produce a tendency of clockwise rotation of the stress element.
(b) Refer to the geometry in Fig. 2.7(b) to obtain

111 = OD = DC + R = \110.0 MPa I

112 = DE = DC - R = r 10.0 MPa \

Note that the third principal stress at the point on the surface of the cylinder must be
113 = 0 in order to satisfy the algebraic requirement that 111 ~ 112 ~ 11 3 • Also,

= R = 150.0 MPa \

Since the angle 2(} was found previously to be 53.1°, the principal plane on which 111
acts [represented by point D in Fig. 2.7(b)] is !<53.1) == 26.6° ccw from the X plane. Note
also that point E representing the principal plane on which 112 acts is diametrically
opposite (180° away) from point D representing the plane on 11 1 • Thus the plane on which
(12 acts is 1(180) = 90° cw or ccw from the plane on 111. As stated earlier, principal planes

are free of shear stresses, a fact that is obvious from Mohr's circle.
Points F and G representing the planes on which the maximum in-plane shear
stresses T1 and T 2 act, are, respectively 90° ccw and 90° cw from point D representing the
plane of 111 . Therefore, the planes on which T1 and T 2 act are, respectively, !(90) = 45° ccw
and 1(90) = 45° cw from the plane of 111 . Also, the normal stresses 11A on the planes of T 1
and T 2 are given by the distance DC = 60.0 PMa.
All the stresses above, as well as the geometric relations among the various planes,
are shown on properly oriented stress wedges in Fig. 2.7(d). Note that the plane of 113 , is,
in this case, the plane of the paper. Also, T1 and T 2 must be pointed on their planes to
cause clockwise and counterclockwise rotations of the element, respectively.

72 Ch. 2 I Stre••• Strain. and Their Relatlon.hlp.

 Figure 2.7(e) shows a stress element bounded by the planes on which the maximum
in-plane shear stress, 1 and, 2 act. The direction of these stresses were obtained using our
bookkeeping technique. The true sign of these stresses, if desired, may be ascertained from
the sign convention for shear stresses established in Section 2.3. In this particular case, all
of the shear stresses acting on the element of Fig. 2.7(e) are positive on the basis of the
right-handed n - t coordinate system shown.

EXAMPLE 2.2

A plane stress condition is described in Fig. 2.8(a). The principal stresses are (Tl = 15 ksi
and a 3 = - 5 ksi and the corresponding principal planes are oriented with respect to the
X plane. In this case, (T 2 = 0 in order to satisfy the requirement that, algebraically,
a 1 ~ a 2 ~ a 3 and the plane of a 2 coincides with the plane of the paper. Construct the
a 1-(T 3 Mohr's circle and determine (a) the normal and shear stresses on the X and Y
planes (i.e., ax, (Ty' and 'Xy) and show on a stress element, and (b) the maximum in-plane
shear stresses, 1 and, 2 and show on a stress element properly oriented with respect to
the principal planes of (T 1 or that of (T 3' What is the normal stress on the planes of, 1
and '2?

SOLUTION
(a) Construct a an-on! coordinate system as shown in Fig. 2.8(b). Locate point D rep-
resenting the plane of a 1 on which the normal stress is + 15 ksi and the shear stress is
zero. Thus point D lies on the (Tn axis. Locate the diametrically opposite point E rep-
resenting the plane of (T 3' where the normal stress is - 5 ksi and the shear stress is zero.
Again, point E lies on the an axis. The diameter of the circle is the distance from point D
to point E and its center C lies halfway between these two points. Therefore, the circle can
be constructed as shown in Fig. 2.8(b). From the geometry of the circle, the following
quantities are determined:
a 1 +a 3 15-5
DC = 2 = - 2 - = 5.0

R = a1 a 3 = 15 + 5 = 100
-
22'

From the given information in Fig. 2.8(a) we note that the X plane is 30° ccw from
the plane of a 1 • Thus, to locate point X on the circle, representing the X plane, we rotate
from point D through the angle 2(30°) = 60° in a ccw direction. The coordinates of point
X provide the values of ax and 'xy. Also, since the Y plane is perpendicular to (i.e., 90°
away from) the X plane, point Y on the circle representing this plane is diametrically
opposite to (2 x 90° = 180° away from) point X. The coordinates of point Y give the
values of a y and, xy' Thus, from the geometry of the circle, we have

a x = DC +R cos 60°
= 5.0 + (10.0) cos 60°

= 110.0 ksi I

Sec. 2.5 I Mohr's Circle for Plane Stress 73

 X plane
I
I
Y plane - - - - - - --+------
Ii
U3 ;I
II
I I
/30°1
I~
I i
I
I
I

U3 = 5 ksi

(a)
(b)

+1I· 1O.O~
I
I

. I

(e)
~. I
i ul = 15 ksi

X plane I UA = 5.0 ksi

I
I
I I
G!f!
I I
I I
II u3=5ksi
uA = 5.0 ksi ;i
plane of u/ I (d)
I

(e)

FIGURE 2.8

74 Ch. 2 I Str•••• Strain. and Th.ir R.lation.hip.

 Txy =R sin 60°
= (10.0) sin 60°

= Is.7 ksi I
(ly = DC - R cos 60°

= 5.0 - (10.0) cos 60°

Thus, since (ly = 0, point Y must lie on the Tnt axis and not in the fourth quadrant, as
shown in Fig. 2.S(b). A properly oriented stress element showing (Ix and Txy is shown in
Fig. 2.S(c). Note that (ly is not shown in Fig. 2.7(c) because it is zero.
(b) The maximum in-plane shear stresses Tl and T2 are given by the ordinates to points F
and G, respectively. Thus

The normal stresses on the planes of T 1 and T2 are given by the abscissa to points F and
G. Therefore,

(lA=DC=
(Ix +
2
(ly r==lo
=~
k .

The stresses T l ' T 2, and (I A are shown on stress elements (wedges) in Fig. 2.S(d) and
(e) properly oriented with respect to the plane of (11' Since point F, defining the plane of
T 1 , is located 90° ccw from point D which defines the plane of (II , it follows that the plane
of T 1 is oriented at !(900) = 45° ccw from the plane of (11' as shown in Fig. 2.S(d). Note
that since T 1 is in the positive shear stress region of Mohr's circle, it must be so pointed
on its plane to produce cw rotation of the stress element. Also, point G, defining the plane
of T 2' is located 90° cw from point D, which defines the plane of (II . Therefore, the plane
of T 2 is oriented at !(900) = 45° cw from the plane of (11' as shown in Fig. 2.S(e). Note that
since T 2 is in the negative shear stress region of Mohr's circle, it must be so pointed on its
plane so as to produce ccw rotation of the element. Observe that in both cases, Fig. 2.S(d)
and (e), (I A is positive or tension.

EXAMPLE 2.3

Consider the plane stress condition shown in Fig. 2.9(a). The arbitrary ccw angle IX locates
plane N from the X plane. Construct Mohr's circle for this stress condition and show that
the point on Mohr's circle representing plane N is located at an angle 21X from the point
representing the X plane. In other words, prove that any angle in the stress element is
represented by twice this angle in Mohr's circle.

Sec. 2.5 I Mohr'. Circle for Plane Stre•• 75

 \ ax an
0

T=
\
I
\ I
\ Xplane
L...---°x -a.r
I 2

(a) (b)
FIGURE 2.9

SOLUTION. Mohr's circle representing the stress condition of Fig. 2.9(a) is constructed
by establishing a an - Tnt coordinate system and locating the two diametrically opposite
points X and Y as shown in Fig. 2.9(b). Let point N on the circle represent plane N in the
stress element. Note that point N is located at angle 8 from point X, which represents the
X plane. The coordinates of point N on the circle represent the normal and shear stresses
on plane N.
Let us now refer to Eq. 2.6 derived in Section 2.4 for plane stress conditions. This
equation is repeated here for convenience.
(2.6)

From the geometry of the circle in Fig. 2.9(b) we conclude that

(a)

(b)

. (8 - 8 1) =Tnt
sm - (c)
R

Substitute from Eq. 2.6 into Eq. (c) to obtain

. (8 - 8)
sm = -J(a -
x a) sin 2et +----'=-_
'xy cos 2et
_
1 _.::..:.....::....._.L.... ___ (d)
R
From trigonometry
sin (8 - 8 1 ) = cos 8 sin 8 1 - sin 8 cos 8 1 (e)

Substitute from Eqs. (a) and (b) into Eq. (e) to obtain

76 Ch. 2 / Stress, Strain, and Their Relationships

 (f)

Therefore, by comparing Eqs. (d) and (f) we conclude that

sin e= sin 2a and cos e= cos 21X
which indicate that e = 2a. Thus any angle in the stress element is represented by twice
this angle in Mohr's circle. Note also that the angle e has the same direction (cw or ccw)
as the angle IX.

PROBLEMS

Use Mohr's circle for stress for the solution of the follow-
ing problems.

2.1-2.3 The stress condition at a point in a structural

member is known to be plane stress, as shown in
Fig. P2.t. Determine and show on properly oriented
sketches, the normal and shear stresses on each of the 30 MPa

following planes:

2.1 40° ccw from the X plane.

2.2 30° ccw from the Y plane. FIGURE P2.4

2.3 60° cw from the Y plane. 2.5 The plane stress condition shown in Fig. P2.5 is
known to exist at a point in a stressed body. Construct

T
Cylinder subjected
also to external
compressive pressure
---yt-------'\
l- Mohr's circle and determine:
(a) The principal stresses at this point in the stressed
body.
(b) The maximum in-plane shear stresses.
p ---!~I .~ x -j P
------"----_/ X plane
I
I
I
-\--171
Y plane

L 45°

"n
FIGURE P2.1
10ksi ~ /

2.4 The plane stress condition shown in Fig. P2.4 is 2Ok

known to exist at a point in a stressed body. Construct 30 "
Mohr's circle and determine:
(a) The stresses on the X and Y planes.
(b) The principal stresses at this point in the stressed )(
body. FIGURE P2.S

Sec. 2.5 / Mohr's Circle for Plane Stress 77

2.6 The plane stress condition shown in Fig. P2.6 is p p
referred to as pure shear. Construct Mohr's circle for
this stress condition and compute the principal stresses
and the maximum in-plane shear stresses r 1 and r 2 .
Show these stresses on properly oriented planes.

6
y

j-x )r
+rJdhkSi ,..,.--- .....

p
"..--- ......

I
p

FIGURE P2.6
(a) (b )
FIGURE P2.S

2.9 The plane stress condition at a point in a structur-

2.7 A plane stress condition on the surface of a cylin-
al member is shown in Fig. P2.9. Determine and show
drical container is shown in Fig. P2.7. Construct
Mohr's circle for this stress condition and determine the on properly oriented sketches the principal stresses and
principal stresses and the maximum in-plane shear the maximum in-plane shear stresses r 1 and r 2.
stresses r 1 and r 2. Show these stresses on properly
oriented planes.
y
Cylinder su bjec ted
a lso to in tl· rnal
80 Ml'a
p
50 ,\ ll'a

FIGURE P2.9
100 MI'a

2.10 The plane stress condition at a point in a struc-

tural member is shown in Fig. P2.l0. Determine and
FIGURE P2.7 show on properly oriented sketches the principal

15 ksi

5k i
2.8 The plane stress condition shown in Fig. P2.8(a) is
known as uniaxial tension and that in Fig. P2.8(b) as 10 ksi
uniaxial compression. Construct Mohr's circles for these
stress conditions and determine for each case the prin-
cipal stresses and the maximum in-plane shear stresses
r 1 and r 2. Show these stresses on properly oriented
stress elements. FIGURE P2.10

78 Ch. 2 I Str•••• Strain. and Th.ir R.lation.hip.

stresses and the maximum in-plane shear stresses, 1 and
'2' Determine also the normal and shear stresses on a Plane D
plane inclined to the X plane at an angle of 35° CWo
Show on a properly oriented stress element.

2.11 The plane stress condition at a point in a struc-

tural member is shown in Fig. P2.1t. Determine and
show on properly oriented sketches the principal
stresses and the maximum in-plane shear stresses '1 Plane R
and ' 2 '

SO MPa

80 MPa FIGURE P2.12

L--=F=4__ 30 MPa (b) The normal stress on plane D as well as the two
principal stresses a 1 and a 2 . Show the stresses on planes
Band D on stress elements that contain the two prin-
FIGURE P2.11 cipal planes.

2.12 Consider the stress elements shown in Fig. P2.12 2.13 Refer to the stressed body shown in Fig. P2.12.
which represent the stress conditions on certain planes Let a B = 50 MPa, aD = 40 MPa, f3 = 45°, and = 15°.e
through some point in a stressed body. The normal and Construct Mohr's circle and determine:
shear stresses on plane B are known to be a B = 30 ksi (a) The radius of the circle and the location of its
and 'B = 10 ksi and the shear stress on plane D is center.
known to be 'D = 15 ksi as indica ted in Fig. P2.12. If (b) The shear stresses 'B and 'D and the principal
f3 = 15°, construct Mohr's circle and determine: stresses at the point.
(a) The radius of the circle and the location of its Show the stresses on planes Band D on stress elements
center. that contain the two principal planes.

La.IU

/
/
/
/ FIGURE P2.14
/
10 ksi
/
/
/
I- 20 k i 2.14 Consider the plane stress condition on the surface
of a structural member as shown in ig. P2.14. Deter-
mine :
(a) The orientation of the plane(s) relative to the X
pl ane, on which the shear stress is , = 5 ksi.
(b) The normal tres a on this plan (s).

Sec. 2.5 I Mohr's Circle for Plane Stress 79

2.15 Refer to the stress system shown in Fig. P2.14
and determine :
(a) The orientation of the plane(s) relative to the Y
plane, on which the normal stress is (J = 13 ksi.
(b) The shear stress, on this plane(s).
(a) The normal and shear stresses on the X and Y
planes.
(b) The maximum in-plane shear stresses ' I and r 2 .
Show all of these stresses on properly oriented stress
elements.

2.16 A plane stress condition is depicted in Fig. P2.16.
The principal stresses (T2 = - 30 MPa and (T3 = - 200
MPa and the corresponding planes are oriented with re-
spect to the X plane. In this case (Tj = 0 in order to
satisfy the requirement that, algebraically, (Tj 2: (T2 2:
(T3' Determine:
(a) The normal and shear stresses on the X and Y
planes.
(b) The maximum in-plane shear stresses, I and, 2 •
Show all of these stresses on properly oriented stress
elements.
2.18 In the plane stress condition depicted in
Fig. P2.l8, the magnitude of 'xy is unknown. However,
the magnitude of the maximum in-plane shear stress, 1
or '2 is 90 MPa. Find the in-plane principal stresses
and show them on properly oriented sketches. Find also
the normal and shear stresses on a plane that makes a
25° ccw angle with the Y plane. Show on a properly
oriented stress element.
! 100 MPa

X pl a l1 ~

lk<
I
I 50 MPa
Y " I<lnc - - - - - - - -

/',
\ I 300

oJ =200M P:!
I \
FIGURE P2.18
I
I
I
2.19 In the plane stress condition shown in Fig. P2.19,
O2 = 30 MP;l the magnitude of 'xy is unknown. Also, the magnitude
FIGURE P2.16 and sense of (J x are unknown. However, one of the two
in-plane principal stresses is - 20 MPa, and the
2.17 A plane stress condition is given in Fig. P2.17. maximum in-plane shear stresses ' 1 and '2 are each
The principal stresses (J I = 20 ksi and (J 2 = 8 ksi and equal in magnitude to 75 MPa. Find the second in-
the corresponding planes are oriented with respect to plane principal stress as well as 'xy' (J x' and (J A on the
the Y plane as shown. In this case (J 3 = 0 in order to planes of ' I and '2 ' Show these on properly oriented
satisfy the requirement that, algebraically, (J I ;;::: (J 2 ;;::: (J 3 ' stress elements.
Determine :

X pJane
II _
y plane --t--':::::"-"""",-- -=--l.~---

I --
I
I
I

FIGURE P2.19

2.20 In the plane stress condition shown in Fig. P2.20,

FIGURE P2.17 the magnitude of (J x is unknown. However, the normal

80 Ch. 2 / Stress. Strain. and Their Relationships

and shear stresses on a plane inclined to the Y plane at
a cw angle p, are (j = 18 ksi and '0 = 7 ksi. Compute:
(a) The radius of Mohr's circle and the angle p.
(b) The magnitude of (jx.
(c) The principal stresses and the maximum in-plane
stresses '01 and '0 2 .
Show these stresses on properly oriented stress ele-
ments. 20 ksi
the magnitude of (jy is unknown. However, the normal
and shear stressses on a plane inclined to the X plane at
a ccw angle p, are (j = - 30 MPa and '0 = - 60 MPa.
Compute:
(a) The radius of Mohr's circle and the angle p.
(b) The magnitude of (jy.
(c) The principal stresses and the shear stresses '01
and '0 2 ,
Show these stresses on properly oriented stress ele-
ments.

f---~ 100 MPa

FIGURE P2.20

2.21 In the plane stress condition shown in Fig. P2.21 FIGURE P2.21

2.1i _ _ In Section 2.5 we stated that in a three-dimensional stress system, there are three principal
The Absolute stresses, (j l ' (j 2' and (j 3' and that it is convenient to lablel them in such a way that,
Maximum Shear algebraically, (j1 ~ (j2 ~ (j3' The two-dimensional (plane) stress case may be considered a
Stress special case of the three-dimensional case in which one of the three principal stresses is
zero.
Consider the three-dimensional stress element shown in Fig. 2.10(a) subjected to the
three principal stresses (j 1 , (j 2' and (j 3, where (j 3 = O. Therefore, the element is, in reality,
in a two-dimensional state of stress or, in a plane stress condition in which both (j 1 and (j 2
must be positive in order to satisfy the algebraic requirement that (j 1 ~ (j 2 ~ (j 3' The
three-dimensional stress element of Fig. 2.10(a) may be decomposed into three two-
dimensional or plane stress situations as follows:
1. Plane stress condition defined by (j1 and (j2' The Mohr's circle corresponding to
this plane stress situation is shown in Fig. 2.1O(b). The magnitudes of the associated
maximum shear stresses '0 1 and '02 is given by the radius R of Mohr's circle. Thus, from
the geometry, we have

(2.15a)

The planes on which '01 and '02 act [also shown in Fig. 2.10(b)] were obtained from the
circle as follows. Point I on the circle represents the plane of (j 2 and point J, which is 90°
cw from point I, the plane ofT l . Thus the plane OfT1 (plane ACGF) is located by rotating
in a cw direction through the angle 1(90°) = 45° from the plane of (j2 (plane EFGH), as
shown in Fig. 2.8(b). Also, point K on the circle represents the plane of (j1 and point L,
which is 90° cw from point K, the plane of '0 2 , Thus the plane ofT 2 is located by rotating

Sec. 2.6 I The Absolute Maximum Shear Stress 81

 °2
(3)

C D

O( O(

o~~-----+--~~+-- On

°z °2

(b)

03 = 0
°z
T( =~
2

On °A 45· A

G
0,4
T2 = ~
2
°z
Tnt
(C)
= 0
03
03 =0
t
T)
T) = ~
2
T2 = ~2
0)
a 0"

TZ °A
F °A

.,~ (d)

FIGURE 2.10

in a cw direction through the angle 1(90 = 45 from the plane of (J l ' as shown in
0
)
0

Fig. 2.1O(b). In other words, the planes of"1 and "2 bisect the 90 angles between the 0

principal planes of (J 1 and (J 2' Note that" 1 must be so pointed in its plane to produce
clockwise rotation of the stress element. On the other hand, "2 must be so pointed in its

82 Ch. 2 I Stress, Strain, and Their Relationships

 plane to produce counterclockwise rotation of the stress element. As discussed earlier, the
planes of 1:" 1 and 1:"2 are also subjected to a normal stress a A equal in magnitude and sense
to the distance OC.
2. Plane stress condition defined by a 2 and a 3 • The Mohr's circle corresponding to
this plane stress situ~tion is shown in Fig. 2.10(c). As in the case of the aea2 condition,
the magnitudes of the maximum shear stresses* 1:"1 and 1:"2 are given by the radius of
Mohr's circle. Thus

(2.15b)

Obviously, since a 3 = 0 in this case, 1:" 1 = 1:"2 = a 2/2. The planes on which 1:" 1 and 1:"2 act
are located in a manner similar to that used for the aea2 case. These planes are also
shown along with the associated Mohr's circle in Fig. 2.10(c). Note that the planes of 1:" 1
and 1:"2 bisect the 90° angles between the principal planes of a 2 and a 3 •
3. Plane stress condition defined by a 1 and a 3' The Mohr's circle corresponding to
this plane stress case is shown in Fig. 2.10(d). As in the case of the aea2 situation, the
magnitude of the maximum shear stresses 1:"1 and 1:"2 are given by the radius of Mohr's
circle. Thus

(2.1Sc)

Since a 3 = 0 in this case, it follows that 1:" 1 = 1:"2 = a d2. The planes on which 1:" 1 and a 2 act
are located in a manner similar to that used for the a ea 2 case. These planes are also
shown along with the associated Mohr's circle in Fig. 2.1O(d). Note that the planes of 1:" 1
and 1:"2 bisect the 90° angles between the principal planes of a 1 and a 3 •
The absolute maximum shear stress, I 1:"max I, in a given plane stress situation is defined
as the largest magnitude among the three shear stresses given by Eqs. 2.15a to 2.15c. If, as
stated earlier, the labeling of the three principal stresses is such that a 1 ~ a 2 ~ a 3 alge-
braically, it follows that the largest magnitude of the shear stress in a given plane stress
condition is given by Eq. 2.15c regardless of which of the three principal stresses is zero.
Thus, for any plane stress condition,

(2.16)

and the planes on which it acts are parallel to the a 2 axis and bisect the 90° angles
between the principal planes of a 1 and a 3' It should be emphasized that the use of
Eq. 2.16 requires that the three principal stresses be correctly labeled according to the
requirement that, algebraically, a 1 ~ a2 ~ a3'
The three two-dimensional (plane) stress Mohr's circles that were constructed separa-
tely in Fig. 2.10 for the state of stress defined by the principal stresses a l ' a 2' and a 3
(a 1 ~ a2 ~ (3) may be superimposed as shown in Fig. 2.11(a). Note that the circle with
the greatest radius, and hence the one providing the absolute maximum shear stress,
I 1:"max I, is the one for the plane stress condition defined by a 1 and a 3 and

* Note that every Mohr's circle has its own t 1 and t 2 .

Sec. 2.6 I The Absolute Maximum Shear Stress 83

 (a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 2.11

I <maxi = !«(71 - (73) = 1(71

For a state of stress defined by the principal stresses,

the three superimposed Mohr's circles would be as shown in Fig. 2.11(b). Here again, the
circle with the greatest radius, which gives I <max I, is the one for the plane stress case
defined by (71 and (73 and I <max I = -!( (71 - (73)·
Finally, for a state of stress defined by the principal stresses,

the three superimposed Mohr's circles would be as shown in Fig. 2.11(c). As in the two
previous cases, the circle with the greatest radius which gives I <max I is the one for the
plane stress case defined by (71 and (73 , and
I <maxi =!«(71 - (73) = -1(73

EXAMPLE 2.4

For each of the following cases, values of the three principal stresses are given. Label
these principal stresses according to the algebraic requirement that (71 ~ (72 ~ (73. Use
Eq. 2.16 to find I<max I in each case and define the plane(s) on which I <max I acts: (a)
50 MN/m2, 100 MN/m2, 0; (b) -40 MPa, 0,70 MPa; and (c) -5000 psi,O, -9000 psi.

SOLUTION
(a) (71 = 100 MN/m2, (72 = 50 MN/m2, and (73 = O. Thus, by Eq. 2.16
100 - 0
2

= 1 50 MN/m2 1

The planes on which I <max I acts are parallel to the (72 axis and make 45° angles with the
planes of (71 and (73 as shown in Fig. 2.12(a) and (b). Also, on the plane of I <max I, there is
a normal stress (7A = «(71 + (73)/2 = (100 + 0)/2 = 50 MN/m2.

84 Ch. 2 I Stress. Strain. and Their Relationships

 l'Tmax I
= 50 M

(a) (b)

OA = 15 MPa

0) = 40 MPa

(c) (d)

OA = 4500 psi

01 = 0

02 = 5000 psi

0) = 9000 psi 03 = 9000 psi

(e) (f)
FIGURE 2.12

(b) (11 = 70 MPa, (12 = 0, (13 = -40 MPa. By Eq. 2.16

(11 - (13 70 + 40
2 2

= 155 MPa I
The planes on which I <max I acts are parallel to the (12 axis and make 45° angles with the
planes of (11 and (13 ' as shown in Fig. 2.l2(c) and (d). As in the previous case,

(1 A = (11 + (13 = 70 - 40 = 15 MPa

2 2

Sec. 2.6 I The Absolute Maximum Shear Stress 85

 (c) a 1 = 0, a 2 = -5000 psi, a 3 = -9000 psi. Therefore, by Eq. 2.16
a 1 -a 3 0+9000
2 2

= 14500 psi 1

As in the first two cases, the planes on which I 'rmax I acts are parallel to the a 2 axis
and make 45° angles with the planes of a 1 and a 3 as shown in Fig. 2. 12(e) and (f). Also on
these planes,
a1+a30-9000
aA = 2 2

= -4500 psi

EXAMPLE 2.5

At a point on the surface of a beam subjected to transverse loads, the stress condition is
as shown in Fig. 2.13(a). Use Mohr's circle solution to determine (a) the principal stresses
and the maximum in-plane shear stresses 'r 1 and 'r 2 , and (b) the absolute maximum shear
stress I'rmax I in the structural member at the point under consideration.

SOLUTION
(a) Mohr's circle is constructed in the same manner as was done previously, by plotting
points X(6, -12) and Y( -12, 12) representing the stress conditions on the X and Y
planes, respectively. This circle is shown in Fig. 2.l3(b). From the geometry contained in
the circle,
ax+ay 6-12 .
OC = a A = - = -- = - 3 kSl
2 2
R = [(CBf + (BX)2]1/2 = (9 2 + 122)1/2 = 15 ksi

BX 12
20 = tan- 1 - = tan- 1 - = 53.1°
CB 9
0= !(53.1) == 26.6°
a1 = OD = OC + R = -3 + 15

= 112 ksi I
a3 = OE = OC - R = -3- 15

= 1-18 ksi I

86 Ch. 2 I Stress, Strain, and Their Relationships

 Observe how the three principal stresses were labeled in order to satisfy the algebraic
requirement that (j" 1 ~ (j" 2 ~ (j" 3 .

=R=8
The principal plane on which (j" 1 acts [represented by point D in Fig. 2.13(b)] is 26.6° ccw
from the X plane. Also, the normal stresses, (j" A' on the planes of r 1 and r 2 are equal to
- 3 ksi. These stresses are shown on properly oriented elements in Fig. 2.13(c) and (d).

6 ksi

T (a)
~
I \
~
26.6·
UA = 3 ksi
--=E+-----'lC'-F-rr-+--+.. UII

X plane i

f/
\ (b)
(c) \ u) = 18 ksi
\
l =12kSi

uA = 3 kSi . 45.

T2 = 15 ksl

u)=18ksi

(d)

(e)

FIGURE 2.13

Sec. 2.6 I The Absolute Maximum Shear Stress 87

 (b) Since the three principal stresses were determined in part (a), we can make use of
Eq. 2.16 to find the value of 1't"max I. Thus
CT 1 -CT 3

=12;18=8

Note that in this particular problem, 1 't"max 1 is identical with 't" 1 and 't"2. Obviously, this is
not true in all cases of plane stress. However, the magnitude of 1't"max 1 is always given by
Eq. 2.16, or may be obtained after CT 1, CT 2, and CT 3 are determined, by constructing and
superimposing the three plane stress Mohr's circles as shown in Fig. 2.13(e). The circle
with the largest radius provides the value of 1't"max I. The planes on which 1't"max 1 acts
bisect the 90° angles between the planes of CT 1 and CT 3 and, therefore, are in this case the
same planes as for 't"1 and 't"2' as shown in Fig. 2. 13(c) and (d).

PROBLEMS

2.22-2.26 Compute the absolute maximum shear
stress and define the plane(s) on which it acts for each of
the following plane stress conditions.
2.22 The plane stress condition stated in Problem 2.6
(p.78).
the shear stress on the X and Y planes is known, but its
magnitude is unknown. However, 1 't"max 1 = 7 ksi at this
point in the structural member. Determine the principal
stresses and the planes on which they act as well as the
magnitude of the shear stress on the X and Y planes.

2.23 The plane stress condition stated in Problem 2.8 2.27 Repeat Problem 2.27 for the plane stress condi-
(p. 78). tion shown in Fig. P2.27. Let 1't"max 1 = 90 MPa.

2.24 The plane stress condition stated in Problem 2.10 50MPa

(p. 78).

2.25 The plane stress condition stated in Problem 2.11

(p.79).

-+
f---~ 100 MPa
2.26 The plane stress condition at a point in a
machine member is as shown in Fig. P2.26. The sense of
5 ksi

FIGURE P2.27

1---IOksi

+
2.28 The plane stress condition at a point in a struc-
tural member is as shown in Fig. P2.28. The sense of CTy
is known but its magnitude is unknown. However,
1't"max 1 = 15 ksi at the point. Determine the principal
stresses and the planes on which they act as well as the
FIGURE P2.26 magnitude of CTy •

88 Ch. 2 I Str•••• Strain. and Th.lr R.latlon.hlp.

 I "max I = 100 MPa at this point. Determine the prin-
cipal stresses and the planes on which they act as well
as the magnitude of (J x.

SOMPa

+
f..---15ksi

FIGURE P2.28

2.29 The plane stre~~ condition at a point in a

machine member is shown in Fig. P2.29. The sense of (J x
is known, but its magnitude is unknown. However, FIGURE P2.29

2.7 When a nonrigid (deformable) body is subjected to stresses, it undergoes deformations

Concept of and distortions. The term deformation refers to the geometric changes that take place in
Strain at a Point the dimensions of the body (extensions or contractions), while the term distortion rep-
resents geometric changes in its shape.
Thus any line element in a body is said to undergo deformation if its length increases
or decreases. The term strain of a line element is used to signify its unit deformation (i.e.,
the deformation of the line element divided by its initial length). The unit deformation of a
line element is referred to as linear (or normal) strain and denoted by the symbol Bn.
Therefore, if the initial length of a line element AB, as shown in Fig. 2.l4(a), is L and its
deformation Be is b, an average value for the normal strain is given by the equation

o
L3
(2.17a)

If, however, the initial length of the line element is made to approach zero in the limit (i.e.,
point B approaches point A), the foregoing definition represents the normal strain at a
point. Thus
. b db
B = hm - = - (2.17b)
n L-O L dL

Note that, by definition, the normal strain Bn is a dimensionless quantity. However, it is

sometimes expressed in terms of units of length divided by units of length in order to give
it a meaningful physical significance. Thus, for example, in the U.S. Customary system of
measure, the derived unit (inches per inch) is widely used for normal strain. The sign
convention used in this text is such that a positive normal strain represents an extension,
while a negative normal strain represents a contraction. At any point in a body, such as
point 0 in Fig. 2.14(b), and in the absence of any distortion, the normal strain, Bn , can be
completely defined by specifying its three rectangular components, Bx , By, and Bz , along
the three rectangular axes, x, y, and z, respectively.

Sac. 2.7 I Concept of Strain at a Point 89

 A
----------------8 C

~------ L ------~ 5

• (a) --+-X

/'

I
l.-
I "'t"t
A' 8 0'
A

-
1/ - - - - - - - -- / -- - - - - - - 1/
I
/
/ /"- 'Y., /
/

/ /
/
I
/
0 1/
C

(e) (d)

FIGURE 2.14

As was mentioned earlier, the term distortion signifies a change in the original shape
of a body. A more precise definition of distortion, however, is needed, and for this
purpose, the change in angle between two initially perpendicular line elements is con-
sidered. The change in the 90° angle between two line elements nand t as shown in
Fig. 2.14(c), represents a distortion and is given the name shear strain and denoted by the
symbol Y.,. Note that two subscripts are assigned to the shear strain Y one for each of the
two line elements being considered. If after distortion, line t rotates to a new position t'
while line n remains fixed, the shear strain between lines nand t is Ynt and represents a
decrease in the 90° angle between the initial positions of lines nand t.
Another way to visualize the shear strain Ynt is to consider a small rectangular
element OARe in the neighborhood of point 0 as shown in Fig. 2.14(d). After distortion,
the rectangular element assumes the shape OA'R'C. The shear strain between the perpen-
dicular lines On and Ot is the angle Ynr . For very small distortions, the angle Ynt may be
assumed equal to tan Ynr. Thus

AA'
Ynt == tan Ynr = OA (2.18)

Therefore, since the shear strain is represented by the ratio of two lengths, it is a dimen-
sionless quantity like the normal strain.
For the sake of consistency with the analysis developed earlier for plane stress, the
sign convention adopted here is such that a positive shear strain represents a decrease in
the 90° angle and a negative shear strain represents an increase in this angle. Thus, for
example, the Ynt shown in Fig. 2.14 is positive, since it represents a decrease in the 90°
angle between lines nand t.

90 Ch. 2 I Stress, Strein, end Their Reletionships

2.8 The relations that exist between stresses and strains will be developed and discussed in
Analysis of detail in a later section. However, for present purposes, it is only necessary to know that
Plane Strain when a member is subjected to a normal stress, it experiences not only a normal strain in
the direction of the applied stress (normal longitudinal strain), but also a normal strain of
smaller magnitude in a direction perpendicular to the applied stress (normal transverse
strain). If the applied normal stress is tensile, the resulting normal longitudinal strain will
be an extension, and the normal transverse strain will be a contraction. Inversely, if the
applied normal stress is compressive, the resulting normal longitudinal strain will be a
contraction and the normal transverse strain will be an extension. These relations are
depicted schematically in a very exaggerated fashion in Fig. 2.15, where the initial con-
figuration is shown by the solid lines and the final configuration by the dashed lines.
The term plane strain is used to denote a condition in which all strains in a body are
parallel to a given plane. It should be noted, however, that when a member is subjected to
stress, it experiences three-dimensional deformation unless its deformation is prevented in
one or more directions. Thus, in order to achieve a condition of plane strain, say in the xy
plane, the strain in the z direction must be prevented by physical restraint (i.e., by the
application of a stress in the z direction). In such a case, 8 z = Yyz = Yxz = 0 and the only
non vanishing components of strain are 8 x ' 8 y , and Yxy'
Consider the element subjected to a plane stress condition as shown in Fig. 2.16(a). If

ormaJ transverse stmin

ormal transverse (exten ion)

r-v'
st rain (contraction)

- D-----~
I
I __ JI

/
I ax

ormal longitudinal strain

IJ}·' Normal longitudinal strain
(extension) (contraction)
(a) Strains due to (b) Strains due to
normal ten He normal compressive
stress stress
FIGURE 2.15

=t
ay y

/---------.....
i /

+
ax
/ I
/ I
I I
I I
:/L - - - - - - - ' - - - -/- - ' - - - - - _ x
(3) (b)

FIGURE 2.16

Sec. 2.8 I Analysis of Plane Strain 91

 y y

(a)

.~----~----------x
y

~ ~----1

1D_,
(a)

r- -1 1

(b)

/ 7
-- ~ / 'Yxy
L -_ _--'--_ _. .
/
/
X

(e) (b)

FIGURE 2.17 FIGURE 2.18

E)' dy in Q

'Yx y dx sin a
y
II 1/ II

Ex d.~ COS a L BB'=01

dy

"'-- - ' - - - - - ' -------'--... x

(a) (b) (e)

FIGURE 2.19

92 Ch. 2 / Stress, Strain, and Their Relationships

 the assumption is made that strains in the z direction are zero (Le., a plane strain
condition exists), the element undergoes normal strains in the x and y directions as well as
shear strains in the xy plane. A sketch of how the element would look after experiencing
these strains is shown schematically and in a very exaggerated manner by the dashed lines
in Fig. 2.16(b). The strains represented in Fig. 2.16(b), however, can be visualized easier if
we decompose them into their separate components ex' ey' and Yxy, as shown in
Fig. 2.17.
It is desirable to be able to relate the strains ex, ey' and yxy' to the strains en, e" and
Yn" where nand t are any pair of orthogonal axes inclined to the xy axes as shown in
Fig. 2.18(a). As in the case of plane stress analysis, the angle 0( is considered positive if
counterclockwise and negative if clockwise from the positive end of the x axis. The
development of the desired relations is enhanced if one considers line elements nand t as
the diagonals of two adjacent rectangular elements OABC and OCDG whose dimensions
have been chosen such that nand t are perpendicular to each other as shown in
Fig. 2.18(b).
If the stress condition of Fig. 2.l6(a) is applied to the composite element GABD of
Fig. 2.18(b), the element may deform and distort into the configuration shown by the
dashed lines. The latter configuration consists of a deformation in the x direction equal to
ex(dx, + dx n), a deformation in the y direction equal to ey dy and a distortion due to the
shear strain Yxy which rotates line elements such as DB into position D' B'. Note that no
generality is sacrificed by assuming that line element OC remains vertical.
Consider now the deformation of line element OB along the n direction. This defor-
mation will be denoted by £5 n and is obviously the composite effect of three different
deformations: one in the x direction produced by the strain ex, a second in the y direction
produced by the strain ey, and the third is the result of the shear strain Yxy. These three
separate effects are shown in Fig. 2.19. Fig. 2.19(a) depicts the change in length of line
element OB due to the deformation ex dx. For very small deformations, OB' will have
essentially the same direction as OB. Therefore, the angle OB'C may be assumed equal to
0(. Thus, for very small deformations, the increase in length of the line element OB is given

by ex dx cos 0(, as shown in Fig. 2.19(a). Similarly, as shown in Fig. 2.19(b), the increase in
length of the line element OB due to the deformation ey dy is given by ey dy sin 0(. Finally,
as shown in Fig. 2.19(c), the rotation of the line elements due to the shear strain Yxy
increases the length of 0 B by Yxy dx sin 0(. Thus
£5 n = ex dx cos 0( + ey dy sin 0( + Yxy dx sin 0( (2.19a)
If the initial length of the element OB is dl, then the strain of OB is given by the ratio
£5 n/dl. Thus

= ex ( ~~) cos 0( + ey( it) sin 0( + Yxy ( ~) sin 0( (2.19b)

Since dx/dl = cos 0( and dy/dl = sin 0(,

Ien = ex cos 2 0( + ey sin 2 0( + Yxy sin 0( cos 0( (2.19c)

By using appropriate trigonometric identities, Eq. 2.19c can be rewritten in the following
form:

Sac. 2.8 / Analysis of Plana Strain 93

 (2.19d)

Equation 2.19d is mathematically similar to Eq. 2.4 previously derived for plane stress
conditions. This property will be utilized in a later part of this chapter. Note also that the
normal strain et may be obtained directly from Eq. 2.l9d by letting 0( become 0( + 90°.
The development of an equation for the shear strain Yo t can be simplified if we
decompose the resultant deformations and distortions shown in Fig. 2.l8(b) into three
separate effects, as shown in Fig. 2.20. In Fig. 2.20(a), the deformation in the x direction
ex(dx, + dXn) is seen to change the 90° angle between OB and OD by the small angles
BOB' and DOD'. Since both of these angles represent an increase in the 90° angle BOD,
they are negative according to the sign convention that has been established. Thus, if the
initial length of OB is di l and that of OD is dIn, then assuming small deformations, the
decrease in the angle BOD due to the x deformation becomes
BN DM
~ -1: BOD =- - - -
OB OD
dX 1 dXn )
= - ex( di;
•
S10 0( + dt;; cos 0(

=- 2e x sin 0( cos 0( =- ex sin 20( (2.20a)

v
y
It - - - - - - - - :"'I B' II
}\<I
C B, C /
~----_+~----------~~-~ B

NI
I LNB'B:cx
iLO'OM : CX
I
~----~----~L-----~·--J ___ x '---------"'7----....L.-------. . . J _ x

<al (b )

LNBB' =cx
LMDD' - c;

(e)

FIGURE 2.20

94 Ch. 2 I Str•••• Strain. and Th.ir R.latlon.hlp.

 Similarly, Fig. 2.20(b) shows that the deformation By dy changes the 90° angle
between OB and OD by the small angles BOB' and DOD'. Since both of these angles
represent a decrease in the 90° angle between OB and OD, they are positive quantities
according to the sign convention. Therefore, the change in the angle BOD is

BN DM
A~BOD =OB
- +OD
-

dY dY . )
= By( dl I cos 0( + din sm 0(

= 2By sin 0( cos 0( = By sin 20( (2.20b)

Finally, the change in the 90° angle between OB and OD due to the shear strain Yxy is
shown in Fig. 2.20(c). This change consists of the positive small angle BOB' and the
negative small angle DOD'. Therefore, the change in the angle BOD is given

NB D'M
A~BOD=---
OB OD

dXI . dX u . )
= Yxy( di; cos 0( - din sm 0(

= Yx,(cos 2 0( - sin 2 O() = Yxy cos 20( (2.2Oc)

The resultant change in the 90° angle between OB (line n) and OD (line t) is the shear
strain Ynt and is the sum of the three separate changes given by Eqs. 2.20a, 2.20b, and
2.20c. Thus
Ynt = -Bx sin 20( + By sin 20( + Yxy cos 20(
= -(Bx - By) sin 20( + Yxy cos 20( (2.21a)

If both sides of Eq. 2.21a are divided by 2, we obtain

2
Ynt
= - 21 (Bx - By)
.
sm 20(
1
+ 2 Yxy cos 20( (2.21b)

Once again, it is observed that Eq. 2.21b is mathematically similar to Eq. 2.6, which was
obtained previously for the case of plane stress.
Equations 2.19d and 2.21b for plane strain can be made mathematically identical
with the plane stress equations 2.4 and 2.6, respectively, by satisfying the following equal-
ities:

(2.22)

Therefore, using the equalities in Eq. 2.22, one can develop, for example, expressions for

Sec. 2.8 I Analyaia of Plana Strain 95

 the two principal strains* e1 and 62 directly from Eqs. 2.11a and b. Thus

(2.23)

where R = {[(6 x - 6 y )/2]2 + (Yxy/2)2P/2 and the symbol eA is used to denote the average of
the two in-plane normal strains. Also, from Eqs. 2.14 we can obtain the equations for the
maximum in-plane shear strains, Y1 and Y2' respectively, as follows:

Ymax = Y1
= Y2 = 2R (2.24)

Furthermore, from Eq. 2.12, we obtain

I 6 1 + 62 = 6x + 6y (2.25)

which states that, for a plane strain condition, the algebraic sum of the two in-plane linear
(normal) strains along any two perpendicular directions is constant.
Also, from Eq. 2.15a we conclude that
Y1 = Y2 = 2R
(2.26a)
which indicates that the maximum value of the shear strain in the plane of 6 1 and 6 2 is
equal to the difference between the two principal strains in this plane. However, for the
same reasons explained earlier in the case of plane stress, Eq. 2.26a may not yield the
value of the absolute maximum shear strain at a point in a three-dimensional body. Since,
algebraically, 6 1 ;::: 6 2 ;::: 6 3 , one concludes, on the basis of Eq. 2.16 developed for plane
stress conditions, that the absolute value of the maximum shear strain at a point is given
by
(2.26b)

where 6 1 and 6 3 are interpreted as the algebraic maximum and algebraic minimum values,
respectively, of the principal strains at the point. It is, therefore, important that one labels
the three principal strains properly and in accordance with the algebraic requirement that
6 1 ;::: 6 2 ;::: 6 3 if Eq. 2.26b is to be used correctly. Consider, for example, the case where
both principal strains in a plane are positive. Since the problem under consideration is
one of plane strain (i.e., one of the three principal strains is zero), it follows that the
labeling of the three principal strainst at the point must be such that 6 3 = O. In such a

* As in the case of plane stress, the two principal strains in a plane may be designated as 6 1 and 6 2 ,6 1 and
63 , or 62 and 6 3 , depending upon conditions existing in the plane. The guiding condition is that, algebraically,
61 :?: 62 :?: 63 ,
t In general, a plane stress condition leads to a strain situation in which none of the three principal strains
is zero. This situation will be discussed briefly in a later part of this chapter.

96 Ch. 2 I Stress, Strain, and Their Relationships

 y
y'

f
I
1 I
i'Yxy I
~.
I
I
I _.,
I I
~_/./.....:::.::::..::..--=-==:::;I;-~ Txy
I /
I I
I

--1-----
I
I
I
I
./ ---- 1
x
,

1/ _--------- -- I'Yxy
~~~====--------L-----------L-------~X

FIGURE 2.21

case IYmaxl = e1 - e3 = e1 • On the other hand, if one of the two principal strains in the
plane is positive and the second negative, the labeling of the three principal strains must
be such that e2 = O. In such a case, IYmax I = e1 - e3 , where e3 is a negative quantity.
Finally, if both principal strains in the plane are negative, the labeling of the three
principal strains must be such that e1 = O. In such a case IYmaxl = e1 - e3 = -e 3 , where
e3 is a negative quantity. In all three cases, the absolute value of the maximum shear
strain occurs between two orthogonal axes bisecting the 90° angles between e1 and e3 •
It is important to note that because of the similarities between the plane stress
equations and those for plane strain as has been pointed out, Mohr's circle construction
which was developed for the solution of the plane stress problem is equally applicable to
the plane strain problem. Only minor modifications, as implied in Eq. 2.22, become
necessary.
The construction of the strain Mohr's circle is similar to that of the stress Mohr's
circle. Point X is located by plotting the coordinates (ex, -tYXY) and point Y by plotting
the coordinates (e y , hxy). However, for the plotting and interpretation of Mohr's circle, it
is much more convenient to use a bookkeeping technique similar to that used for the
stress Mohr's circle. This bookkeeping technique requires that a clockwise rotation of an
axis be plotted in the positive shear strain region of Mohr's circle and a counterclockwise
rotation of an axis in the negative shear strain region. Consider the stress element shown
in Fig. 2.21, which depicts a set of positive shear stresses T xy and the resulting positive
shear strain YXY. Thus a positive shear strain causes the x axis to rotate counterclockwise
through tYXY to position x'. Therefore, point X on Mohr's circle is located in the negative
shear strain region of the circle. Similarly, the y axis rotates clockwise through hxy to
position y' and point Y on Mohr's circle is plotted in the positive shear strain region of
the circle. These concepts are illustrated in the following example.

Sec. 2.8 I Analysis of Plane Strain 97

EXAMPLE 2.6

The plane strain condition at a point in a stressed body is given by the following values:
Ex = -800 X 10- 6 Ey = -200 X 10- 6 1xy = -450 X 10- 6
Using Mohr's circle for strain, determine (a) the in-plane principal strains and the prin-
cipal directions; (b) the maximum shear strain in the xy plane (i.e., 11 and 12) and the pair
of orthogonal axes through the point corresponding to this maximum shear strain; (c) the
absolute maximum shear strain at the point considered as a particle in a three-
dimensional body; (d) the normal in-plane strain along a line making an angle 30° ccw
from the x axis; and (e) the shear strain between two orthogonal lines in the xy plane, one
of which is defined in part (d).

SOLUTION
(a) A negative shear strain leads to a clockwise rotation of the x axis and a counter-
clockwise rotation of the y axis as shown in Fig. 2.22(a). Thus point X is located in the
positive shear strain region of Mohr's circle and point Y in the negative region. Construct
an En-!Ynt coordinate system as shown in Fig. 2.22(b). Locate point X representing the
strain condition along the x axis by plotting the coordinates Ex = - 800 x 10 - 6 and
!YXy = !<450 x 10- 6 ) as shown in Fig. 2.22(b). The common factor 10- 6 has been omitted
from the diagram for convenience. Locate point Y representing the strain condition along
the y axis by plotting the coordinates 8y = -200 X 10- 6 and !yyX = ¥ -450 x 10- 6 ) as
shown in Fig. 2.22(b). Connect points X and Y to locate the center of the circle, point C,
which lies along the 8n axis, and construct Mohr's circle.
From the geometry of the circle, OC = 8A' is the average of the two normal strains.
Thus
OC = EA ::::i Ex + Ey = (-800 - 200) x 10- 6 = -500 X 10-6
2 2
R = CX = CY = [(CB)2 + (By)2r/2
= [(300f + (225)2r/2 x 10- 6 = 375 X 10- 6
E2 = OD = OC + R = -500 X 10- 6 + 375 X 10- 6

=1-125xlO- 6 1

83 = OE = OC - R' = - 500 X 10- 6 - 375 X 10- 6

= /-875 x 10- 6 1

Note that because the two principal strains in the xy plane are both negative and
therefore algebraically less than the third principal strain, which in this case is zero, (i.e.,
8 1 = 0) they have been labeled as 8 2 and E3 in order to fulfill the algebraic requirement
that 8 1 ~ 8 2 ~ 8 3 ,
BY 225
2(J = tan- 1 - = tan- 1 - = 36.9°
CB 300

Therefore, since point D (representing the axis along which 8 2 occurs) is 36.9° ccw from

98 Ch. 2 I Stress. Strain, and Their Relationships

 y' y
\
,---\\.. 1

\
\
----.....\
"2'Yxy

1
\ \ "2'Yxy
\ \
\ \

~-------E31--------------~
t 'Ynt
F

-
..... ........
_E3
En 26.5°
+-~~~--~~--~~--r---~~~----+-~ x
o
--
18.5° .......
\ ...............
\ ........
\ f
\
\
G

~------- Eh----------------l

(e)
(b)

1
"2'Ynt

1
"21'Ymaxl i' y

'IC:..______-L.._ _.... X

(e)

f < - - - - - E3 = -875 X 10- 6 - - - + I

(d)

FIGURE 2.22

Sec. 2.8 I Analysis of Plane Strain 99

 point Y (representing the y axis), the principal direction along which 8 2 occurs is
!(36.9) == 18S ccw from the y axis. Obviously, the second principal direction (i.e., the
direction along which 8 3 occurs) is perpendicular to the first. These geometric relations
are shown in Fig. 2.22(c).
(b) The maximum shear strain in the xy plane is given by twice the radius of the circle as
expressed in Eq. 2.24 and is represented by points F and G in Fig. 2.22(b). Thus
Ymax = YIg = Yl
= Y2 = 2R

= 1 750 x 10- 6 /

where the axes! and 9 bisect the 90° angles between the two principal directions 8 2 and 83 ,
as shown in Fig. 2.22(c).
(c) The absolute value of the maximum shear strain is given by Eq. 2.26b. Thus

= [0-(-875)] X 10- 6

= /875 x 10- 6 /

and occurs between two perpendicular axes bisecting the 90° angle between 8 1 and 8 3 ,
Note that the 8 1 direction is perpendicular to the plane of the paper.
As in the case of plane stress, three two-dimensional (plane) strain Mohr's circles may
be constructed and superimposed as shown in Fig. 2.22(d). The absolute maximum shear
strain I Ymax I is given by twice the radius of the largest circle which obviously agrees with
the value found above.
(d) To determine the normal strain along a line making an angle 30° ccw from the x axis,
locate point H at an angle 2(30°) = 60° ccw from point X as shown in Fig. 2.22(b). The
abscissa of point H gives the value of the desired normal strain. Thus
8h = OC - R cos 23.1 = -500 x 10- 6 - 375 X 10- 6 cos 23.1

= \-855 x 10- 6 /

(e) The shear strain between two orthogonal lines in the xy plane, one of which is
represented by point H in Fig. 2.22(b), is given by the ordinate of this point. It should be
pointed out that the point on the circle representing the second orthogonal line is point I,
which is diametrically opposite to point H. Thus
Yhi = 2(JH) = 2R sin 23.1 = 2(375) x 10- 6 sin 23.1

= 1 294 x 10- 6 /

Since point H is in the negative shear strain region of Mohr's circle, it represents a
counterclockwise rotation of axis h to position h'. Also, point I which is in the positive
shear strain region of Mohr's circle, represents a clockwise rotation of axis i to position i'.
These geometric relations are shown in Fig. 2.22(e).

100 Ch. 2 I Stress, Strain, and Their Relationships

PROBLEMS

Use Mohr's circle for strain for the solution of the follow- 2.39-2.43 For each of the following plane strain cases,
ing problems. determine the principal strains as well as the maximum
shear strains in the xy plane (i.e., Yl and Y2)' Show on a
2.30-2.32 A rectangular xy coordinate system is con- sketch the principal axes as well as the axes correspond-
structed at point 0 on the surface of a body that is to be ing to the shear strains Yl and Y2' Also, determine the
subjected to loads. Refer to Fig. P2.30, assume that absolute maximum value of the shear strain at the point
ez = Yxz = Yyz = 0, and determine for each of the follow- for each of the cases.
ing cases en' et , and Ynt .
2.39 ex = 600 x 10- 6 , ey = 0, Yxy = -300 X 10- 6
2.30 ex = 300 X 10- 6 , ey = -150 X 10- 6 , 'Yxy = 0,
a = 45° 2.40 ex = 300 x 10- 6 , ey = -500 x 10- 6 ,
Yxy = 200 X 10- 6
y

2.41 ex = -200 x 10- 6 , ey = -500 x 10- 6 ,

Yxy = -400 X 10- 6

n
2.42 ex = 0, ey = 0, 'Yxy = - 1000 X 10-6
2.43 ex = 500 x 10- 6 , ey = 100 x 10- 6 , Yxy = 0
~---L-------- __ x
2.44-2.48 A thin rectangular plate lies in the xy plane
FIGURE P2.30 as shown in Fig. P2.44. The following normal strains
were measured parallel to the x and y axes. Assume that
2.31 ex = 0, ey = 0, Yxy = -400 X 10- 6 , IX = 30° after deformation, the corners of the plate are still per-
2.32 ex = -300 X 10- , ey = 2006 X 10- 6 , fectly square and that ez = Yxz = Yyz = O. For each of the
'Yxy = 400 X 10- 6 , a = -30° following cases, determine the shear strain Ynt.

2.33-2.35 Refer to Fig. P2.30, assume that ez = Yxz = 2.44 ex = 100 x 10- 6 , ey = -200 x 10- 6
Yyz = 0, and determine ex, ey, and Yxy for each of the
y
following cases.
t

2.33 en = -500 x 10- 6 , et = 400 X 10- 6 , \

Ynt = 300 X 10- 6 , IX = 15° \ ____ n

f
./

2.34 en = 200 X 10- 6 , et = 700 X 10- 6 , \

Ynt = ·-300 X 10- 6 , ex = 30°
\
\ I ~././././
2.35 en = -500 X 10- 6 , et = -250 X 10- 6 , \ I ~ O.30m
\ I /././
Ynt = -400 X 10- 6 , ex = -30° \ : ./
~~------------- 1
2.36-2.38 Refer to Fig. P2.30, assume that ez = Yxz =
I.
• x
O.70m .,
Yyz = 0, and determine the angle ex for each of the fol-
lowing cases.
FIGURE P2.44
2.36 en = -400 X 10- 6, ex = -200 X 10- 6,
ey = - 500 X 10 - 6, Yxy = - 700 X 10 - 6 2.45 ex = 0, ey = 500 x 10- 6
2.37 Ynt = 500 X 10- 6, ex = 700 X 10- 6 , 2.46 ex = -200 x 10- 6 , ey = -400 x 10- 6
ey = 200 X 10- 6 , Yxy = -800 X 10- 6
2.47 ex = 300 x 10- 6 , ey = 150 X 10- 6
2.38 en = 700 X 10-6, e, = - 300 X 10-6,
'Ynt = -150 X 10-6 , ex = 300 X 10-6 2.48 ex = -300 X 10-6 , ey = 200 X 10-6

Sac. 2.8 I Analysis of Plana Strain 101

2.49 The following information is known about the
plane strain condition at a point on the surface of a
stressed body.
81 = 500 X 10- 6
Obviously, in this case 8 3 = 0 in order to satisfy the
requirement that, algebraically, 8 1 ~ 82 ~ 8 3 , Also, in
this case, 8 3 is perpendicular to the paper. Refer to Fig.
P2.49 and determine:
(a) The maximum in-plane shear strain (i.e., 1'1 and 1'2)
and the corresponding orthogonal axes.
(b) The absolute maximum shear strain at the point
and define the perpendicular axes corresponding to this
strain.
(c) The normal strain along a line b that makes an
angle of 20° with the x axis.
-:;;&c;::--- - . - - -....---)C
FIGURE P2.49
2.50 The following information is known about the
plane strain condition at a point on the surface of a
stressed body.
Load
y
FIGURE P2.51
102
81 = 200 X 10- 6 83 = -300 X 10- 6
In this case 8 2 = 0 in order to satisfy the requirement
that, algebraically, 8 1 ~ 82 ~ 83' Also, in this case, 8 2 is
perpendicular to the paper. Refer to Fig. P2.50 and find:
(a) The values of 8 x , 8 y ' and I'xy.
(b) The maximum in-plane shear strain (i.e., II and 1'2)
and the corresponding perpendicular axes.
(c) The in-plane shear strain between two orthogonal
axes one of which makes an angle of 30° ccw from the y
axis.
FIGURE P2.50
2.51 The following information is known about the
plane strain condition at a point on the surface of a
structural member.
82 = -400 X 10 - 6 83 = -800 X 10- 6
Note that in this case 8 1 = 0 in order to satisfy the
requirement that, algebraically, 8 1 ~ 8 2 ~ 8 3 , Also, in
this case, 8 1 is perpendicular to the paper. Refer to Fig.
P2.51 and determine:
(a) The maximum shear strain in the xy plane (i.e., 1'1
and 1'2) and the corresponding orthogonal axes. Show
these axes on a neat sketch.
(b) The absolute maximum shear strain at the point
Ch. 2 I Str•••• Strain. and Th.ir Ralationships
and define the orthogonal axes corresponding to this
strain.
(c) The values of ex, ey' and /'xy'
2.52 A plane strain condition exists at a point in a
body and the following information is known: ex =
-300 x 10- 6 , ey = 800 x 10- 6 , and the maximum
value of the shear strain in the xy plane is 2000 x 10- 6 •
Determine:
(a) /'xy, assuming it to be negative.
(b) The principal strains and their directions.
(c) The absolute maximum shear strain at the point,
and define the orthogonal axes corresponding to this
strain.

2.1 _ _ As stated in Section 2.7, a nonrigid body experiences normal and shear strains when
Linear Stress- subjected to a general state of stress. In order to be able to analyze the behavior of a
Strain Relations member accurately, it is necessary that the relations that exist between stresses and strains
be properly examined. A complete study of such relationships will be postponed until
Chapters 3 and 4. For the present, the discussion will be limited to a certain range of
material behavior within which stresses and strains are linearly related.
Three cases of linear stress-strain relations will be considered in this section.

Uniaxial Stress-Strain Relations

The term uniaxial stress signifies a normal stress (tension or compression) in one
direction only. Experiments show that when a prismatic bar of length Lx is subjected to a
tensile stress a x' as shown in Fig. 2.23(a), acting along the axis of the bar, it experiences an
extensional deformation (jx = ex Lx such that ex increases in direct relation to ax, as shown
in Fig. 2.23(b), as long as ax is kept within certain limits. The upper limit for ax for which
the relationship between stress and strain is linear is known as the proportional limit. For
values of stress above the proportional limit, the relation between stress and strain is a
topic that will be discussed in Chapters 3 and 4.
The relation between stress and strain within the proportional limit can be expressed
mathematically by the simple relation
(2.27a)
in which Ex is a factor of proportionality between normal stress and normal strain and
represents a unique property for a given material that has been given the name Young's
modulus of elasticity after Thomas Young, who, in 1807, was the first to define it. It can be
seen from Eq. 2.27a, since ex is a dimensionless quantity, that Ex has the same units as
stress such as psi or ksi in the U.S. Customary system and N/m2 or Pa in the SI system.

i-Lx,-i I-sx = €xLx

(a) (b)

FIGURE 2.23

Sec. 2.9 I Linear Stress-Strain Relations 103

 Oy

Oy
L--------_Ey

(a) (b)

FIGURE 2.24

Another SI unit used for this quantity is the giga pascal (10 9 pascals), which is denoted by
the symbol GPa. This unit may also be expressed as GN/m2. The relation expressed in
Eq. 2.27a is referred to as Hooke's law in honor of Robert Hooke, who, in 1678, was the
first to formulate a statement relating force to deformation.
Similarly, if the uniaxial tensile stress is in the y direction as shown in Fig. 2.24{a), the
resulting extensional deformation (}y = f:y Ly would be such that the stress (i y is related
linearly to the strain f:y , as shown in Fig.2.24{b), provided that (iy remains within the
proportional limit for the material. Such a relation is expressed by the equation
(2.27b)
where Ey has the same physical meaning in the y direction as Ex has in the x direction. A
similar relation may be written between stress and strain in the z direction. The assump-
tion is usually made, however, that materials exhibit identical properties· in all directions,
a,nd therefore no distinction is necessary between the modulus of elasticity in the x
direction and that in any other direction. Thus Ex = Ey = Ez = E, and in subsequent
work, the modulus of elasticity for a given material will be denoted simply by the symbol
E without a subscript. Also, Hooke's law in the case of uniaxial stress will be simply
stated as
(2.27c)

It has been pointed out earlier that when a member is subjected to a tensile normal
stress, its longitudinal extensional strain is accompanied by a smaller contractional strain
in a direction perpendicular (transverse) to the applied stress. Experiments have shown
that the ratio of the transverse to the longitudinal strain is a constant for a given material
within the range of proportionality between stress and strain. This constant is given the
symbol J.l and has come to be known as Poisson's ratio, in honor of Simeon D. Poisson,
who was first to define it, in 1811. As in the case of the constant E, the assumption is
usually made that the material exhibits identical behavior in all directions and the symbol
jJ. without a subscript is used for Poisson's ratio regardless of the direction of the applied

• A material that has identical properties in all directions is known as an isotropic material. The term
anisotropic is used to signify material that exhibits different properties in different directions. It should be
emphasized, however, that because of manufacturing processes, all structural materials are somewhat aniso-
tropic. Nevertheless, for most structural materials the isotropic idealization is satisfactory and leads to a great
simplification in the mathematical analysis.

104 Ch. 2 I Str•••• Strain. end Th.ir R.lation.hip.

 uniaxial stress. For example, for the uniaxial tensile stress shown in Fig. 2.23(a), since the
longitudinal strain is ex' the perpendicular (transverse) strain would be - fJ.ex' which is
obviously the value of the strains in both the y and z directions. Similarly, for the uniaxial
tensile stress condition shown in Fig. 2.24(a), since the longitudinal strain is ey , the per-
pendicular strains, or ex and ez , would be - fJ-G y . Note that if the uniaxial stresses in both
Figs. 2.23(a) and 2.24(a) are compressive instead of tensile, the relations that have been
established would apply equally well, except that the signs of the resulting strains would
change. For example, if (J x is compressive in Fig. 2.23(a), ex would be negative and the
transverse strain ey = ez = - fJ.e x would be positive. Since Poisson's ratio represents the
ratio between two strains, it is a dimensionless quantity which, experimentally, has been
found to vary between about 0.25 and 0.33 for materials that are commonly used in the
construction of frames, structures, and machines.
In general, Poisson's ratio may be expressed by the relation

(2.28)

where eT is the transverse strain (perpendicular to the load) and eL is the longitudinal
strain (parallel to the load).

Shear Stress-Shear Strain Relations

When a plane stress condition such as shown in Fig. 2.25(a) is applied to an element,
the resulting distortion is represented by the shear strain y xy' as was discussed in Section
2.7. Because of the absence of normal stresses, this type of plane stress condition is
referred to as pure shear and it should be emphasized that under pure shear conditions, a
line element such as OA or AB does not undergo any change in length. Thus for small
distortions (small values of YXy), AB' can be assumed equal in length to AB.
As in the case of normal stress-normal strain relations, experiments show that a
linear relation exists, as shown in Fig. 2.25(b), between the shear stress .xy and the shear
strain yxy as long as the shear stress is kept within the proportional limit for the material.
Thus

(2.29)

where G is a factor of proportionality between shear stress and shear strain and represents

'Yxy

(a) (b )
FIGURE 2.25

Sec. 2.9 I Linear Stress-Strain Relations 105

 a unique property for a given material that has been called the modulus of rigidity or the
modulus of elasticity in shear.
The three material constants, E, /-l, and G, that have thus far been defined are not
independent of one another. From fundamental concepts, it will be shown in Section 4.4
that these three constants are related by the equation

(2.30)

Relations Between General Plane Stress and Resulting Strains

The plane stress condition depicted in Fig. 2.26(a) leads to the three normal strains
ex, ey, and ez , as well as the shear strain Yxy . The development of the stress-strain
relations for such a case can be greatly simplified by using the principle of superposition.
In general, the principle of superposition states that if a linear relation exists between
stress and strain, the resultant effect may be obtained by superposing (i.e., adding
algebraically) all partial effects. Thus the plane stress condition shown in Fig. 2.26(a) may
be decomposed into the three partial stress conditions, which have already been discussed
and which are shown in Figs. 2.23(a), 2.24(a), and 2.25(a). For convenience, these three
partial stress conditions are reproduced in Fig. 2.26(b), (c), and (d), which also show the
strains resulting from each of the three partial stress conditions. Thus, superposing the
partial strains, we obtain the following relations for the normal strains:*

e = ax _!!:!!..L
x E E

ay /-lax
e=-
E (2.31)
y E

The relation that exists between the shear stress and the shear strain in the xy plane has
already been discussed and is given by Eq. 2.29.
It can be seen from Eq. 2.31 that, in general, for a plane stress condition, the resulting
state of strain is not plane strain (i.e., ez =1= 0) except for the special case in which ax = - a y .

* By a method analogous to that used in deriving Eq. 2.31 expressions for the strain Ex, Ey , and Ez may be
obtained for the three-dimensional state of stress in which ax' a y , and a z are all nonzero. These expressions are
given below without proof. Thus

ay Jl
E
y
=E
- - -E
( ax +a)
z
(2.31')

az Jl
E
z
=E
- - -E
( ax +a)
y

Thus Eq. 2.31 is a special case ofEq. 2.31' when azis set equal to zero.

106 Ch. 2 I Stress. Strain. and Thair Ralationships

 Oy

r
~y
Ox

~
Ex = T

jJ.Ox
Ox Ey = - lJ.fx = - T

jJ.°x

-f=
E, =-jJ.Ex = - y

(a) (b)

Oy

Oy
E
y =£-
jJ.Oy Txy
Ex = - jJ.Ey = - T 'Yx Y = C
jJ.Oy
E: = - jJ.Ey =-£

(c) (d)
FIGURE 2.26

And, as was mentioned earlier, achieving a condition of plane strain in the xy plane, for
example, requires the application of a stress in the z direction in order to make 8 z = O.
It is usually most convenient to invert the first two of the relations in Eq. 2.31. Such
an inversion would result in expressions giving the normal stresses in terms of the normal
strains. Thus*
E
ax = -1--2 (lO x + fJ,8y)
-fJ

E
ay = -1--2 (lO y + fJ.8 x ) (2.32)
-fJ.

Obviously, a z = 0 for a plane stress condition in the xy plane.

A u seful relation is obtained by substituting from Eq. 2.32 into the third of Eqs. 2.31.
Thus

* The three·dimensional counterpart of Eq. 2.32 may be obtained by solving Eq. 2.31 ' for stresses in terms
of strains. Thus
E
(J x = [(1 - /l)ex + /l(e y + e,)]
(1 + /l)(1 - 2/l)

E
(J y= [(1 - /l)ey + /l(ex + e,)] (2.32')
(1 + /l)(1 - 2/l)

E
(J, = [( 1 - /l)e, + /l(ex + ey)]
(1 + /l)(1 - 2/l)

Sec. 2.9 I Linear Stress-Strain Relations 107

 (2.33)

In view of the fact that a shear stress does not contribute to normal strains, the
relations expressed in Eqs. 2.31 and 2.32 apply equally well for the relations between
principal stresses and principal strains. Thus*

(2.34)

IUJ 1 j1(J 2
8 - ------
3 - E E

andt
E
(Jl = -1--2 (8 1 + j18 2 )
-j1

E
(J2 = -1--2
-j1
(8 2 + j18 1 ) (2.35)

Also, for a plane stress condition (J 3 = O.

Note that by substituting from Eq. 2.35 into the third of Eqs. 2.34, we obtain

(2.36)

It is stated here, without proof, that for a linearly elastic isotropic material, the
principal strain axes coincide with the principal stress axes.

* The three-dimensional counterpart of Eq. 2.34 may be obtained from Eq. 2.31' by letting the x, y, and z
axes coincide with the one, two, and three principal axes, respectively. Thus

(2.34')

t The three-dimensional counterpart of Eq. 2.35 may be obtained from Eq. 2.32' by letting the x, y, and z
axes coincide with the one, two, and three principal axes, respectively. Thus
E
O"! = [(1 - Jl)B! + Jl(B 2 + B3)]
(1 + Jl)(! - 2Jl)

E
0"2 = (1 + Jl)(! _ 2Jl) [(1 - Jl)B 2 + Jl(B! + B3)] (2.35')

108 Ch. 2 / Stress. Strain. and Their Relationships

EXAMPLE 2.7

Measurements of strain at a point on the surface of a structural member resulted in I the

following values:
Ilx = 815 X 10- 6 Ily = 165 X 10- 6 ')Ixy = -1124 X 10- 6

Assume the material to be aluminum with the properties E = 10.5 X 106 psi and J1. = 0.33.
Determine: (a) the principal strains in the xy plane and their directions, (b) the maximum
shear strains in the xy plane (i.e., ')11 and ')12), (c) the stresses corresponding to the strains
found in parts (a) and (b) using the appropriate stress-strain relations, and (d) the absol-
ute maximum shear strain at the point and the corresponding absolute maximum shear
stress. Note that this is not a plane strain problem.

SOLUTION
(a) Mohr's circle for the given strain condition is constructed in the usual manner as
shown in Fig. 2.27(a) and from its geometry, the following values are determined:

OC = 1<815 + 165) x 10- 6 = 490 X 10- 6

R :::= [(CB)2 + (BX)2]1/2 = [(325)2 + (562)2r/2 x 10- 6 = 649.2 X 10- 6
III = OC +R
= 1 1139.2 X 10- 6 1

112 = OC - R

= 1-159.2 x 10- 6 1

BX 562
2(J = tan- 1 - = tan- 1 - = 60°
CB 325

-+----<t--+---........,._.L-.L......._-+-_+_€. ----~~--.---x

/ 30°
/
/
/

(a) (b)

FIGURE a.27

Sec. 2.9 / Linear Stress-Strain Relations 109

 As shown in Fig. 2.27(b), the direction of 8 1 is 30° cw from the positive x axis and that of
82 is, of course, perpendicular to 8 1 ,
(b) The maximum shear strain in the xy plane is given by Eq. 2.24. Thus

Ymax = Ylg = Yl

= Y2 = 2R

= / 1298.4 x 10- 6 /

(c) The principal stresses are found by using Eq. 2.35. Thus
E lQ5
0'1 = ~ (81 + J.t8 2 ) = 1 _ 0.109 (1139.2 - 52.5)

= /12,806 psi I
E 10.5
0'2 = ~ (82 + J.t8 1) = 1 _ 0.109 (-159.2 + 375.9)

= /2554 psi 1

The maximum value of the shear stress associated with the two principal stresses
found above are given by an equation similar to those expressed in Eq. 2.29. Thus

E
= GYl = 2(1 + J.t) Yl

= /5125 psi / '

Note that the direction of the principal stresses coincides with the direction of the
principal strains. This conclusion is valid in all cases where the material is assumed to be
linearly elastic and isotropic. Thus 0'1 is along 8 1 and 0'2 along 8 2 as shown in Fig. 2.27(b).
Also, .1 and 't'2 act on planes parallel to the z axis (or the 0'3 axis) that bisect the 90°
angles between 0' 1 and 0'2 •
(d) As stated, this problem is not a plane strain problem (it is, in fact, a plane stress
problem), and therefore a strain will be experienced in a direction perpendicular to the
surface of measurements (i.e., the z direction). This strain will, obviously, be a principal
strain and will be labeled as 83 momentarily until its value is determined and compared to
those labeled tentatively as 8 1 and 82' The value of 83' of necessity, is equal to 8 z and is
given by either Eq. 2.31 or Eq. 2.34. IfEq. 2.34 is used, we obtain

= _ J.t0'1 _ J.t0'2 =_ 0.33 (12806 2554)

83 E E 10.5 X 106 ' +

= 1-482.7 x 10- 6 1

Note that the existence of a normal strain in a given direction does not necessarily

110 Ch. 2 I Streaa. Strain. and Their Relatlonehlpa

 mean that there is a normal stress in this direction. As a matter of fact, since this is a
plane stress problem, (13 = (1z = O. Thus the labeling of the principal strains has been done
correctly in accordance with the algebraic requirement that 6 1 ~ 6 2 ~ 6 3 • If this were not
the case, a relabeling would become necessary in order to be able to use Eq. 2.26b
correctly in determining the absolute maximum shear strain at the point. Thus, by
Eq.2.26b,
I Ymax I = 6 1 - 6 3 = (1139.2 + 482.7) x 10- 6

= 11621.9 x 10- 6 1

The corresponding absolute maximum shear stress is obtained from a relation similar to
that expressed in Eq. 2.29. Therefore,
I 'rmax I = GIYmaxl
E lQ5
= 2(1 + Jl) (I Ymax I) = 2(1 + 0.33) (1621.9)

= 16402 psi 1

This shear stress acts on planes parallel to the 62 (or (12) axis that bisect the 90° angles
between 6 1 (or (11) and 6 3 (or (13).

EXAMPLE 2.8

Using the same data provided in Example 2.7, determine (a) the stresses (1x, (1y, and 'rxy
and show them on a stress element; (b) the principal stresses and define the planes on
which they act; (c) the maximum in-plane shear stresses 'rl and 'r2' and show these
stresses and the two in-plane principal stresses on a properly oriented element; and (d) the
absolute maximum shear stress at the point.

SOLUTION
(a) From Eq. 2.32, E
(1x = -1--2 (6 x + Jl6y )
-Jl

1 ~~.~09 (815 + 54.5)

= 110,247 psi 1
E
(1y = -1--2 (6 y + Jl.6x )
-JI.
10.5
= 1 _ 0.109 (165 + 269)

= 15115 psi I
S.c. 2.9 / Lin..r Str.......tr.ln R.I.tlon. 111
 Also, by Eq. 2.29,
E 10.5
·xy = GyXY = 2(1 + J1.) Yxy = 2(1 + 0.33) ( -1124)

= /-4437 psi 1

Thus a stress element can now be constructed as shown in Fig. 2.28(a).

(b) Mohr's citcle for stress is constructed in the usual fashion as shown in Fig. 2.28(b),
from which the following values are computed:
10,247 + 5115 .
O"A = DC == 2 = 7681 pSI

R = [(2566)2 + (4437)2]1/2 = 5126 psi

0"1 = DC +R
= 112,807 psi 1

0"2 = DC - R

= 12555 psi 1

These values are essentially the same as those obtained in the solution of Example 2.7.
Any slight difference that may exist between the two sets of answers is due to roundoff
errors.
(c) From the geometry of Mohr's circle, it can be seen that

= R = /5126 psi 1

which is essentially the same as the values obtained in Example 2.7. This value, as well as
the two principal stresses, are shown properly oriented with respect to the X plane in
Fig. 2.28(c) and (d).
(d) The absolute maximum shear stress at the point on the surface of the structural
member is given by Eq. 2.16. Thus

Since 0"3 = 0,
12,806 - 0
I·maxl = 2

= /6403 psi 1
which is essentially the same as that determined in Example 2.7 and acts on planes
parallel to the 0"2 axis that bisect the 90° angle between 0"1 and 0"3 .

112 Ch. 2 I Stress. Strain. and Their Relationships

 5 115 psi

10,247 psi

l-t- 4437 psi

(a ) Y
/ (Plane
= 768 1 psi
/~300
aA
"fIJI

X(10,247.4437)

a2 = 2556 psi / / (e)

a2 = 2556 psi
(d )
(b )

FIGURE 2.28

PROBLEMS

Assume behavior within the proportional limit for all of (d) The absolute maximum shear strain developed in
the following problems. the bar.

2.54 A prismatic bar that has a square cross section

2.53 A short aluminum member has a length of 3 in.
and a circular cross section whose diameter is 2 in. The
modulus of elasticity and Poisson's ratio for aluminum
are known to be E = 10 X 106 psi and J1 = 0.3, respec-
tively. When an axial compressive force is applied, the
member shortens by 0.012 in. Determine :
(a) The magnitude of the compressive stress.
(b) The increase in the diameter of the member.
(c) The absolute maximum shear stress developed in
the bar.
0.04 m on each side and a length of 0.25 m elongates by
0.0002 m, while its 0.04 m cross-sectional dimension
decreases by 0.00001 m when subjected to a uniaxial
tensile stress of 150 MPa. Determine:
(a) The modulus of elasticity for the material.
(b) The value for Poisson's ratio.
(c) The absolute maximum shear stress developed In
the bar.
(d) The absolute maximum shear strain developed in
the bar.

Sec. 2.9 I Lineer Stre.....Strain Relation. 113

2.55 At a point in a body, the plane stress condition is 2.57 ex = -300 x 10- 6 , ey = 400 x 10- 6 ,
as shown in Fig. P2.55. If the material is such that Yxy = 500 X 10- 6
E = 70 GPa and Ii- = 0.30, determine:
(a) The absolute maximum shear strain at the point. 2.58 Cx 500 X 10-6 , Cy
= = 300 X 10- 6 ,
(b) The principal strains and their directions. 'Yxy = - 500 X 10- 6
(c) The principal stresses and their directions.
2.59 ex = -400 x 10- 6 , ey = -250 x 10- 6 ,
y Y xy= - 350 x 10 - 6

(T
.--_0
r
\
\
x
2.6~2.62 Assume plane stress conditions, and for each
of the following cases, determine:
(a) The stresses (J x' (J y' and 'xy and show them on a
\ stress element.

\ f
\
(b) The principal stresses and the planes on which they
MP
' act.
(c) The maximum in-plane shear stresses '1 and '2 and

+0 the corresponding planes.

(d) The absolute maximum shear stress at the point and
the plane on which it acts.
FIGURE P2.SS Assume that E = 200 GPa and Ii- = 0.33.

2.56 At a point in a body, the plane stress condition is 2.60 ex = 600 x 10- 6 , ey = 100 x 10- 6 ,
as shown in Fig. P2.56. The absolute maximum shear Yxy = 800 X 10- 6

strain IYmax I = 1667 X 10 - 6 and Poisson's ratio for the

material is Ii- = 0.25. Determine: 2.61 ex = 150 x 10- 6 , ey = -300 x 10- 6 ,
(a) The modulus of rigidity G. Yxy = 500 X 10- 6
(b) The modulus of elasticity E. 2.62 ex = -200 x 10- 6 , ey = -400 x 10- 6 ,
(c) The principal strains and their directions. Yxy = 600 X 10- 6

yTI
T 2.63-2.65 At a point in a body known to be in plane
stress, the following values for ex, ey' and Yxy are known
to exist. For each of the following cases, determine:
(a) The principal stresses and their planes.
(b) The absolute maximum shear stress at the point and
r ~~~~~ ~I
• ~ ~ x --r;;kSi the plane on which it acts .
Assume that E = 30 X 106 psi and f.L = 0.28.

2.63 ex = 200 x 10- 6 , ey = -400 x 10- 6 ,

Yxy = 300 X 10- 6
2.64 Cx = -400 X 10- 6 , Cy = -300 X 10- 6 ,
FIGURE P2.S6
'Yxy = -800 X 10- 6
2.57-2.59 At a point in a body known to be in plane 2.65 ex = 700 x 10- 6 , ey = 500 x 10- 6 ,
stress, the following values for ex, ey , and Yxy are known Yxy = -900 X 10- 6
to exist. For each of the following cases, determine:
(a) The principal stresses and their planes. 2.6~2.68 Assume that E = 200 GPa and Ii- = 0.25 and
(b) The absolute maximum shear stress at the point and for each of the following plane stress conditions deter-
the plane on which it acts. mme:
Assume that E = 200 GPa and Ii- = 0.25. (a) The principal strains and their directions.

114 Ch. 2 / Stress, Strain, and Their Relationships


(b) The maximum shear strains in the xy plane (i.e., Yl
and Y2)'
(c) The absolute maximum shear strain.
2.66 Stress condition shown in Fig. P2.66.
y
50 MPa / Cylinder subjected only
~ to internal pressure
~40MPa
FIGURE P2.66
2.67 Stress condition shown in Fig. P2.67.
2.68 Stress condition shown in Fig. P2.68.
ADDITIONAL CHAPTER PROBLEMS
2.69 (Sec. 2.5) The plane stress condition at a point in
a stressed body consists of the following: ax = 20 ksi,
a y = -5 ksi, and Txy. Use Mohr's circle to determine:
(a) the magnitude of Txy if the algebraically largest prin-
cipal stress is 25 ksi, and
(b) the other two principal stresses and the planes on
which all three principal stresses act.
2.70 (Sec . 2.5) The plane stress condition at a point in
a stressed body is defined as follows: ax = 100 MPa, a y
= 40 MPa, and Txy = -30 MPa. Use Eqs. 2.4 and 2.5
to determine the normal and shear stresses on a plane
oriented 40° ccw with the Y plane. Check your answers
using Mohr's circle. Show the stresses on a properly ori-
ented element.
2.71 (Sec. 2.5) By definition, a principal stress is a nor-
mal stress acting on a plane for which the shearing stress
is zero. Using this definition along with Eqs. 2.4 and
Sec. 2.10 I Computer Applications
y
G /~,Q ~
M 75MP,
~
~1S0MP' SOMPa
FIGURE P2.67
_i 30 MPa
--rr~
SOMPa
=t;MPa
FIGURE P2.6S
2.6, develop expressions for the two in-plane principal
stresses, say al and az.
2.72 (Sec. 2.5) Given two plane stress conditions as fol-
lows:
1. a uniaxial stress state with a y = 10 ksi (tension); and
2. a pure shear stress state acting on two orthogonal
planes, one of which is 60° cw from the Y plane and
on this plane the shear stress is pointed such that it
produces clockwise rotation of the stress element.
Superpose these two stress conditions into a single re-
sultant state of plane stress acting on the X and Y planes,
finding the magnitude and sense of all of the stresses.
Determine the resultant principal stresses and their planes
oriented with respect to the X and Y planes.
2.73 (Sec. 2.8) Strain measurements on the surface of a
shaft subjected to both torsion and axial tensile loads
yielded the following information:
115
 6x = 600 x 10- 6 ; 6y = -150 X 10-6 ,. (a) the principal stresses UI, U2' and U3 and their direc-
'1/
1J<y = 1500 X 10-6 ,
tions relative to the given x and y axes;
where x is measured along the axis of the shaft and y is (b) the maximum in-plane shear stress Tmax and the ab-
perpendicular to it. solute maximum shear stress 1Tmaxl and state their planes.
(a) Let JL = 0.25 and E = 10 X 106 psi. Determine the
three principal strains 6 to 62, and 63 and their directions 2.75 (Sec. 2.9) Refer to Fig. P2.55 (p. 114) and change
relative to the given x and y axes. Txy from 50 MPa to 75 MPa. If the material is such that
(b) Find the maximum in-plane shear strain "Ymax and the JL = 0.30 and E = 200 GPa, determine
absolute maximum shear strain l"Ymaxl and state their di- (a) the principal strains and their directions relative to
rections. the given x and y axes;
Note that this is a plane stress condition. (b) the maximum in-plane shear strain "Ymax;
(c) the absolute maximum shear strain l"Ymaxl.
2.74 (Sec. 2.9) For the shaft described in Problem 2.73, Solve this problem by using the strain Mohr's circle.
determine

2.11*__
Computer The following Examples illustrate the use of the FORTRAN language in the development
Applications of computer solutions. Refer to the detailed discussion given on pages 53 and 54.

EXAMPLE C2.t
The plane stress condition at a point in a stressed body is shown in Fig. C2. t(a). The
normal stress an on any plane passing through the point and defined by the angle ex is
given by Eq. 2.4, which is repeated here for convenience:
(2.4)
(a) Develop a computer program that would compute the values of an for any set of
values of ax , ay' and, xy and for values of ex between - 180 and + 180 in increments of 0

20 and (b) compute an as a function of ex for ax = 3 ksi, ay = -5 ksi, and 'xy = 4 ksi.
0
,

Plot an versus ex.

SOLUTION
(a) Equation 2.4 may be written as follows:
an = A + B cos 2ex + C sin 2ex (a)
where
A = 1(ax + ay) (b)
B = 1(ax - ay) (c)
and
C = 'xy (d)
A computer program for the solution of Eq. (a) is shown in Fig. C2.l(b). Note that the
notation used in this program is the same as that used in Eq. 2.4, to facilitate its under-
standing.
(b) Using the values ax = 3 ksi, a y = -5 ksi, and 'xy = 4 ksi as input, the computer
program developed in part (a) yields the output values of an versus ex shown in Fig.

116 Ch. 2 I Stress. Strain. and Their Relationships

 (a)

PROGRAM EXAMCZl (INPUT.OUTPUTl ALPHA SIGN

SSl~S PI-3.1415927
00120 ALPHA--PI -180 2.999999628718
00130 READ·.SIGX.SIGY.TXY -160 4.63532a17054~
00140 PRINT 1 -140 3.633823956959
00150 1 FORMAT(lX."ALPHA".6X."SIGN"./l -120 .~6~1C19532576
00160 5 GAM A-2. ALPHA -100 -3.390689645465
00170 A-0.50 .(SIGX+SIGYl -80 -6.126850957822
00180 B-C.50 .(SIGX-~IGYl -60 -6.464101660437
00190 C- TXY -40 -4.2446383969~1
00200 SIGN-A+S·COS(GAMAl+C·SIN(GAHAl -?O -.506972724389
00210 IF(ALPHA .LT.Ol IGAMA-ALPMA.180./PI-0.01 o 3.
00220 IF(ALPHA.GT.Ol IGAMA-ALPHA.1BO./PI+0.01 20 4.63532&216307
00230 wRITE •• IGAMA.SIGN 40 3.633 B2 36 5579
00240 ALPHA-ALPHA+PI.ZO./180. bO .4641014460773
00250 IF(ALPHA.GT.(3.20llSTOP 80 -3.390690121342
00260 GO TO 5 100 -6.126851179727
00280 END 120 -b.464101524539
140 -4.244bi79b6848
160 -.5069722013159
(b) 180 3.000000371282

(e)
6.0

200

-8.0

(d)

FIGURE C2.1

C2.1(c). These values are plotted in Fig. C2.1(d}. Note that O"n varies with ex in a cyclic
manner with a complete cycle every 180°. Note also that the algebraic maximum value of
O"n (about 4.65 ksi) is 90° away from its algebraic minimum (about -4.65 ksi). This
conclusion would agree with the conclusion reached on the basis of Mohr's circle.

Sec. 2.10 I Computer Applications 117

EXAMPLE C2.2

The plane stress condition at a point in a stressed body is shown in Fig. C2.2(a). The
magnitude of the maximum in-plane principal stress O'max = 0'1 is given by Eq. 2.11(a) and
the angle a = tel defining the orientation of its plane relative to the X plane is given by
Eq. 2. 13(c). Also, the magnitude of the minimum in-plane principal stress O'min = 0'2 is
given by Eq. 2.11(b) and the orientation of its plane relative to the X plane is given by
13 = a + 90°. All of these equations are repeated here for convenience:
(2.11a)

(2. 11 b)

(2.13c)

where

(a) Develop a computer program to compute the values of the in-plane O'max and O'min and
the orientation of their planes relative to the X plane for any set of values of O'x, O'y, and
'xy, and (b) compute the values of the in-plane O'max and O'min and the orientation of their
planes with respect to the X plane for (i) 0'x = 3 ksi, 0'y = - 5 ksi, 'xy = 4 ksi; (ii) 0'x =
- 10MPa, O'y = 7 MPa, 'xy = -2 MPa; (iii) O'x = 5 ksi, O'y = 10 ksi, 'xy = -3 ksi.

SOLUTION
(a) Let A = !(O'x + O'y), B = !(O'x - 0''), C = 'xy. Equations 2.l1a, 2.l1b, and 2.13c may
then be written in the following form:

(2.11a)

(2. 11 b)

a= t arctan I~I (2.13c)

(b) The required computer program is shown in Fig. C2.2(b). The output shown in Fig.
C2.2(c) provides the input data as well as the corresponding values of O'max, a, O'min, and p.
Note that the units for the values in the output would be the same as those in the
corresponding input.
For purposes of interpreting the angles a and 13, the first set of input and output
val ues are considered. From the input data of 0'x = 3 ksi, 0' y = - 5 ksi, and 'xy = 4 ksi, a
sketch of Mohr's circle is obtained as shown in Fig. C2.2(d). From this sketch, the
position of the plane of O'max is seen to be counterclockwise with respect to the X plane.
Thus the angle a, which was found to be about 22S [see Fig. C2.2(c)], must be measured
ccw from the X plane to locate the plane of 0'max' Also, the plane of 0'min was found to be
about I12S, as seen from Fig. C2.2(c). The in-plane principal stresses O'max and O'min and
the corresponding principal planes are shown in relation to the X plane in Fig. C2.2(e).

118 Ch. 2 I Stress, Strain, and Their Ralationships

 ,p-
0y

PROGRAM EXAMC221INPUT,OuTPUT)
881~8 P 1-3.141593
00115 PRINT 4
gOllb
0120
4 FORMATIlX,J)
1 REAO+,SIGX.SIGY.TXY
00125 IFISIGX.EO.O.ANO.SIGY.EO.O.ANO.TXY.EO.O) STOP

+
Ox 00150 A-0.50 *ISIGX+SIGY)
B-0.5e *ISIGX-SIGY)
881~8 C-TXY
00180 5 SIGMAX-A+SORTIB"'*2+C**2)
00190 10 SIGHIN-A-SQRTIS**2+C.*2)
00200 15 ALPHA-IO.50 "'ATANIABSIC/B)))*180./PI
00210 20 SETA-UPHA+90
00220 WRITE*.SIGX,SlGY,TXy.SIGHAX,ALPHA.SIGMIN,BETA
00225 GO TO 1
00230 END
(b)
(a)

Ox 0y "xy °max
'" °min
3. -5& -4. 4.656854249492 22.49999751902 -6.656B54249492 112.499997519
-10. f. 2. 7.232124598286 6.620259227605 -10.23212459829 9b.b2025922761
5. 10. 3. 11.40512483795 25.0972116865 3.5948751b2047 115.0972116865
(c)

Y(-5,4)

X plane
I
I
1

(d)
\1 amiD = 6.66 ksi
~
22.5°1 \/
I
I
I

t9
I /'

FIGURE C2.2 (e)

Sec. 2.10 I Computer Applications 119

COMPUTER PROBLEMS

C2.l Equation 2.6, which is repeated here for conve- C2.4 The magnitudes of the maximum in-plane prin-
nience, cipal strain Bmax = B1 and the minimum in-plane prin-
cipal strain Bmin = B2 for a plane strain condition are
'C nt = -l(O"x - O"y) sin 20( + 'C xy cos 20( (2.6)
given by Eqs. 2.23. These equations are repeated here
yields the value of the shear stress tnt on any plane for convenience:
defined by the angle 0( relative to the X plane and
passing through a point under plane stress conditions.
Bmax = B1 = l(Bx + By) + R
(a) Develop a computer program to obtain values of tnt (2.23)
for any set of values of 0"x' 0" y' and t xy and for 0( between where
-90 and +90° in increments of 10°.
(b) Compute 'C nt as a function of 0( for o"x = -5 MPa, R = {[l(Bx - By)]2 + (!YXy)2P/2
O"y = 10 MPa, and 'C xy = -4 MPa. Plot 'C nt versus 0(.
(a) By analogy with the stress equation, show that the
PARTIAL ANSWERS: 0( = -30°, tnt = 8.495 MPa; 0( = angle 0( defining the orientation of Bmax with respect to
30°, tnt = -4.495 MPa. the x axis is g~ven by

C2.2 Equation 2.19d, which is repeated here for conve-

nience,
0( =!2 tan-11~1
Bx - By
Bn = -!(Bx + By) + -!(Bx - By) cos 20( + !YXy sin 20(
Note that the angle f3 defining the orientation of Bmin
(2.l9d) with respect to the x axis is given by
yields the value of the normal (linear) strain Bn along f3 = 0( + 90°
any line defined by the angle 0( relative to the x axis and (b) Write a computer program to determine the values
passing through a point under plane strain conditions. of Bmax and Bmin and the orientation of their axes relative
(a) Develop a computer program to obtain values of Bn
to the x axis for any set of values of Bx , By, and Y xy •
for any set of values of Bx , By, and Yxy and for values of 0( (c) Compute the values of the in-plane Bmax and Bmin and
between 0 and 360° in increments of 15°. the values of 0( and f3 when Bx = 200 X 10- 6 , By = -400
(b) Compute Bn as a function of 0( for Bx = -200 X 10- 6 , and Yxy = -300 X 10- 6 .
X 10- 6 , By = 400 X 10- 6 , and Yxy = -500 X 10- 6 • ANSWERS: Bmax = 235 X 10- 6 , Bmin = -435 X 10- 6 ,
Plot Bn versus 0(. 0( = 13.28°, f3 = 103.28°.
PARTIAL ANSWERS: 0( = 45°, Bn = -150 X 10- 6 •
C2.5 The plane stress condition on the surface of a
C2.3 Equation 2.21b, which is repeated here for conve- shaft of length L is defined by the following values of
nience, O"x' O"y, and 'C xy :

!Ynt = - l (Bx - By) sin 20( + !YXy

provides the value of the shear strain Ynt between two

cos 20( (2.2lb)
O"x = 10 (f) ksi,
orthogonal lines, one of which is defined by the angle 0(
relative to the x axis and both passing through a point
under plane strain conditions.
(a) Write a computer program to obtain values of Ynt where x is measured from one end and along the axis of
for any set of values of Bx , By, and Yxy and for values of 0( the shaft. Develop a computer program that will give
between -180 and + 180° in increments of 15°. the magnitudes of the in-plane principal stresses O"max
(b) Compute Ynt as a function of 0( for Bx = - 200 and O"min for x between 0 and L in increments of
X 10- 6 , By = 400 X 10- 6 , and Yxy = -500 X 10- 6 • x = (0.1)L. Plot O"max and O"min versus x.
Plot Ynt versus 0(. PARTIAL ANSWERS: For x = 0.5L, O"max = 5 ksi,
PARTIAL ANSWERS: 0( = 45°, Ynt = -600 X 10- 6 . O"min = O.

120 Ch. 2 I Stress, Strain, and Their Relationships

 CHAPTER
Slrlssls and Sirains in
Axiall, loadld MllllilPs
3.1 _ _ In Chapter 1, several cases of members subjected to axial loads were introduced and
Introduction discussed. Methods were developed for determining internal forces in axially loaded
members for cases in which the applied axial load was either a constant, or varied in some
fashion along the length of the member. The concept of the axial force diagram was also
developed to show the way the internal axial force in a member varies along the length of
the member.
In this chapter, the concepts of stress and strain developed in Chapter 2 will be
discussed in relation to members that are subjected to axial loads. It should be pointed
out that, in many cases, an axially loaded member is just one part of a larger frame or
machine to which this axially loaded member is attached by means of a pin joint that may
be assumed frictionless. Thus the force in the axially loaded member is transmitted to
other parts of the frame or machine through the frictionless pin by means of cross-shear
stresses, whose concept will be introduced and discussed by means of illustrative exam-
ples. Also, in this chapter, a detailed discussion is provided of the relations that exist
between stress and strain under uniaxial conditions. Furthermore, the most significant
mechanical properties of materials in use today, as obtained from the tension and the
compression tests, are defined and discussed.

3.2 Stress was defined in Section 2.2 as force per unit of area. Consider now the simple case of
Stresses due to a prismatic member subjected to a tensile axial load P as shown in Fig. 3.1(a). The
Axial Forces internal force at any cross section within the length of the member is determined by
passing a cutting plane such as B perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the member
according to the methods developed in Section 1.2. The two portions of the member
created by the cutting plane B are isolated and their free-body diagrams constructed as
shown in Fig. 3.1(b) and (c). Equilibrium dictates that the internal force F B at the cross
section of interest be equal in magnitude to the applied load P.
The force FB = P acting at any cross section is perpendicular to that section and
represents the resultant of an infinite number of minute forces perpendicular to the cross
section and distributed in some manner throughout the cross-sectional area of the
member. If the load P is applied axially and centrally, and if the material is homoge-
neous, * this system of minute forces can be assumed to be uniformly distributed through-

* The term homogeneous is used to signify a material that exhibits the same properties at every point in its
domain.

121
 out the cross-sectional area of the member. Physically, these minute forces represent the
intensity of the force (i.e., force per unit of area, or stress) at any location within the
cross-sectional area of the member. Since, in the case under consideration, the force per
unit of area, or stress, is perpendicular to the plane on which it is acting, it is by definition
a normal stress a. Also, since the x axis is along the longitudinal axis of the member as
shown in Fig. 3.1(a), this stress is labeled as ax. If the cross-sectional area of the member
is denoted by the symbol A, and since the force normal to this area, Fn, is, in this case,
equal to F B = P, the normal stress a x can be expressed by the equation

I u,~i~i~~ I (3.1)

Thus, in Fig. 3.l(b), for example, the resultant force F B can be replaced by a stress system
a x as shown in Fig. 3.l(d), which, when multiplied by the area A, yields the resultant force
FB = P. A three-dimensional schematic sketch of Fig. 3.l(d) is depicted in Fig. 3.1(e), in
which the resultant force F B = P has been replaced by its equivalent stress system a x' and
in which, for the sake of clarity, only a few of the components of the stress system are
shown.

IB
Fn P/ "
C I C
\ I
\

\0)F<='
p---1 :So:l = cos 0:

\l, ~P---x
\ (a) I P.
IB
FB---1 ~P (f)
' \ ' = P Sill 0:

I
(b)

p---1 ~ /~
(c)

p-i
IB
~ ox=~ P
(d )
I
Plane B

--
p~ ---~t§ .. =A
I
___ -L._ __ - P

---- --...-
(e )

FIGURE 3.1

122 Ch. 3 I Stresses and Strains in Axially Loaded Members

 Cross section B in Fig. 3.1(a), which is perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the
member, is found to be free of any shear stresses. Any other plane such as plane C,
inclined to plane B through any angle rx, as shown in Fig. 3.1(a), is, however, subjected to
a system of shear stresses in addition to normal stresses. The free-body diagram of that
part of the member to the left of section C is shown in Fig. 3.1(f). As before, equilibrium
requires that Fe = P act on plane C. In this case, however, the internal force Fe is not
perpendicular to the plane of the member cut by plane C. Therefore, Fe may be decom-
posed into components F n , normal to the plane, and F1' parallel to the plane. The force
Fn leads to a system of normal stresses given by Eq. 3.1, in which Fn = Fe cos rx = P cos rx
and the area of the section on which it acts, A e , is equal to A/cos rx. The force F t = Fe
sin rx = P sin rx is the resultant of an infinite number of minute forces acting parallel to
(i.e., in the plane of) the area Ae and represent the intensity of the force (i.e., force per unit
of area, or stress in the plane of the area). As in the case of the normal stress, the
assumption is made that this stress in the plane of the area (i.e., shear stress tnt) is
uniformly distributed over the area Ae and an average value for tnt on plane C is obtained
from the basic definition of stress given in Section 2.2. Thus

Ft Fe sin rx cos rx
tnt = Ae = A (3.2)

A three-dimensional sketch showing the normal stress an and shear stresses tnt on plane C
is shown in Fig. 3.1(g), in which, for the sake of clarity, only a few components of the two
stress systems (i.e., normal and shear) are shown. Note that on the basis of the right-
handed n, t coordinate system of Fig. 3.1(f), tnt is negative and that only its magnitude is
given by Eq. (3.2).
Consider now a prismatic bar subjected to a tensile load P, and establish an xy
coordinate system such that the x axis is parallel to the longitudinal axis of the bar as
shown in Fig. 3.2(a). The origin of the coordinate system was located at point 0, at which
point the stress condition is to be investigated. Two cutting planes Band C perpendicular
to the x axis and an infinitesimal distance dx apart are constructed at the point as shown
in Fig. 3.2(a). That part of the prismatic bar contained between the two parallel X planes
is isolated and its free-body diagram constructed as shown in Fig. 3.2(b). The resultant
forces F B = P and Fe = P on planes Band C, respectively, have been replaced by the
stresses they produce on these two planes. These stresses are ax = PIA, where A is the
cross-sectional area of the prismatic bar. Two more cutting planes D and E perpendicular
to the y axis and an infinitesimal distance dy apart are constructed at point 0 as shown in
Fig. 3.2(a) and (b).

)'

c Y plane X plane

p
-I-I- E
p
o =-
- -•--A x
p

O---D x
o

(a) (b) «)

FIGURE 3.2

Sec. 3.2 I Stresses due to Axial Forces 123

 Tnt Tnt

X(Ox,O) X(Ox,O) Y(O,O)

On On

(a) (b)

FIGURE 3.3

The infinitesimal element contained between these two Y planes and the two X
planes previously described is now isolated as a free-body diagram and shown in
Fig. 3.2(c). This free-body diagram is the stress element at point 0 on the surface of the
prismatic bar of Fig. 3.2(a). Note that the X planes have positive normal (i.e., tensile)
stresses U x acting on them but are free of any shear stresses. Thus, by definition, the X
planes are principal planes. Note also that the Y planes, being free from shear stresses are
principal planes on which the normal stress uy is zero. The fact that uy = 0 in this
particular case can be clearly established by isolating that part of the element above plane
E in Fig. 3.2(b) and noting that no forces exist to cause normal stresses in the y direction.
The condition depicted in Fig. 3.2(c) is referred to as a uniaxial tensile stress condition,
which is a special case of the plane stress condition. If the sense of the load P in Fig. 3.2(a)
is reversed (i.e., compressive instead of tensile), the resulting stress condition at point 0
would be uniaxial compression (i.e., U x is negative).
Clearly, since the X and Y planes are principal planes, the associated normal stresses
are principal stresses. Thus in this case U 1 = U x = PIA and u 2 = U3 = O. Mohr's circle
describing the stress condition shown in Fig. 3.2(c) is depicted in Fig. 3.3(a) when U x is
positive (tension) and in Fig. 3.3(b) when U x is negative (compression).

EXAMPLE 3.1

A member with a rectangular cross-sectional area A = 2 in. x 4 in. is subjected to a

compressive axial load as shown in Fig. 3.4(a). (a) Determine the principal stresses and
show them on a stress element properly oriented with respect to the given xy coordinate
system. (b) Find the normal and shear stresses on plane B, inclined to the cross section of
the member through a 30° ccw angle. Show a part of the member containing this plane as
a free-body diagram. (c) Compute the absolute value of the maximum shear stress devel-
oped in the member and define the plane on which it acts. Show a part of the member
containing this plane as a free-body diagram.

SOLUTION
(a) Isolate a stress element, as was explained earlier in this Section, contained between
two X planes and two Y planes at any point on the surface of the member. The exact
location of the point to be investigated is irrelevant, since the cross-sectional area and the
internal axial force are both constant. Such a stress element is shown in Fig. 3.4(b), in
which

124 Ch. 3 I Str•••••• nd Strain. in Axially Load.d M.mb.r.

 (il = =[~J.
(iy

and
80
(i3 = (ix = - (2)(4)

= 1-10 ksi I
(b) The solution to this part of the problem can be obtained in one of two ways:
(i) Construct Mohr's circle for the stress condition depicted in Fig. 3.4(b). This circle
is shown in Fig. 3.4(c). The plane of interest, plane B is inclined to the X plane through a
30° ccw angle. Point B representing the stress condition on this plane is located on the
circle in the usual manner, as shown in Fig. 3.4(c). The coordinates of this point give the
desired stresses. Thus

(3) (b ) (c)

A Ft
FBU \'-___~F
F. 30· \

(d ) (e)

0l = 10 ks;

ITm.xl = 5k;

(f) (g)

FIGURE 3.4

Sec. 3.2 I Stre••e. due to Axial Force. 125

 DC=-5ksi and R = 5 ksi
(1B = DC - R cos 60 = -5 - 2.5

= 1-7.50 ksi I
'fB = R sin 60

= 14.33 ksi 1

These stresses are transformed to forces and shown on the free-body diagram of that part
of the member to the left of plane B, as shown in Fig. 3.4(d).
The transformation of a stress to a force is accomplished by means of Eqs. 3.1 and
3.2. Thus, by Eq. 3.1,

7.50 A 7.50(2 x 4)
cos 30 cos 30

= 1 -69.28 k I
and, by Eq. 3.2,

4.33 A 4.33(2 x 4)
=--=
cos 30 cos 30

=140.00 k I
(ii) The same conclusions for (1B and 7:B may be reached if one isolates one part of the
member containing plane B as a free body. That part of the member to the right of plane
B is isolated as shown in Fig. 3.4(e). Equilibrium dictates that the horizontal force F B on
plane B be equal in magnitude to the applied load P = 80 k. This force can then be
decomposed into two components, Fn normal to plane Band Ft parallel to plane B as
follows:
Fn = -FB cos 30
Ft = FB sin 30
The area of plane B can be expressed in terms of the cross-sectional area A as
follows:
A
A ---
B - cos 30

Therefore, by Eq. 3.1,

Fn FB cos 30 FB cos 2 30
(1 B = A: = - A/cos 30 = - A

= I -7.50 ksi I
126 Ch. 3 / Str•••••• nd Strain. In Axially Loaded M.mber.
 and, by Eq. 3.2,
Ft F B sin 30 F B sin 30 cos 30
'B=-= =
AB A/cos 30 A

= 1 4.33 ksi 1

These values are, of course, the same as those obtained by the previous solution. The
reader is, once again, referred to Fig. 3.4(d) for the free-body diagram of that part of the
member to the left of plane B.
(c) The solution for part (a) showed that 0'1 = 0'2 = 0 and that 0'3 = -10 ksi. Thus, by
Eq.2.16,
0'1-0'3
I 'maxi = 2

0+10
=-2-

=8
This absolute maximum shear stress acts on two perpendicular planes that are parallel to
the 0'2 axis and bisect the 90 angle between 0' 1 and 0'3 • Also, the normal stress 0' A on such
0

planes has a value of

= 1-5 ksi 1

One such plane is shown in the three-dimensional stress element of Fig. 3.4(f). Since
0' 2= 0'1 = 0, there exist two other perpendicular planes on which I 'max I = 5 ksi acts.
These two perpendicular planes are parallel to the 0'1 direction and bisect the 90 angles
0

between 0'2 and 0'3' One such plane, along with its stresses, is shown in the three-
dimensional stress element of Fig. 3.4(g). Note that both sets of I'max I planes are inclined
at 45 to the axis of the member.
0

EXAMPLE 3.2

A composite member consisting of three parts is subjected to the loads shown in

Fig. 3.5(a). The three members have circular cross-sectional areas such that AB = 4
X 10- 4 m 2 , Ac = 1 X 10- 4 m 2 , and AD = 6 X 10- 4 m 2 . Determine (a) the principal
stress of largest magnitude in the member and specify its location and plane, and (b) the
absolute maximum value of the shear stress specifying its location and plane.

SOLUTION
(a) To determine the principal stress of largest magnitude in the composite member, one
needs to compute the normal stress in each of the three parts of the member on planes

Sec. 3.2 I Stresses due to Axial Forces 127

 20 k .I'(m)

+20

+ 10

- so

0. 15 m

F(k )

(n) (b )

FIGURE 3.5

perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the member. These normal stresses are the
principal stresses in the three parts. The internal force diagram for the member is shown
in Fig. 3.5(b).
The internal axial force in part B is found to be a tensile force of 20 kN. Thus the
normal stress (IB in member B is given by
20 X 10 3
a B = 4 x 10 - 4 = 50 M Pa

The internal axial force in part C is found to be a tensile force of 10 kN. Therefore, the
normal stress in member C is given by
10 X 10 3
(Ie = 1 x 10-4 = 100 MPa

Similarly, the internal axial force in part D is found to be a compressive force of 50 kN,
and therefore the normal stress in member D is

-50 X 103
aD = 6 x 10-4 = -83.3 MPa

Thus the absolute maximum normal stress in the composite member is

I (Ie = 100 MPa I

and acts on all planes within part C of the member that are perpendicular to its longitudi-
nal axis.
(b) Since, as was mentioned earlier, the normal stresses that have been computed are
principal stresses and realizing that the other two principal stresses for each case are zero,
one can compute for each of the three caSes the absolute maximum shear stress from
Eq. 2.16. Thus

128 Ch. 3 I Stresses and Strains in Axially Loaded Members

 50-0
I'rmax IB = - 2 - = 25 MPa

100 - 0
I 'rmax Ie = 2 = 50 MPa

0+83.3
I'rmax ID = 2 = 41.7 MPa
Therefore, the absolute maximum shear stress in the member is

II 'rmax Ie = 50 MPa I
and occurs anywhere within part C on planes that are inclined to the cross sections of this
part through 45° angles.

EXAMPLE 3.3

Refer to Example 1.3 (p. 8) and assume the cross-sectional area of the sampling device
to be A = 2 X 10- 5 m 2 • Determine the position along the device where the normal stress
is 1.5 MPa. What is the absolute maximum shear stress at this location?

SOLUTION. In Example 1.3, the internal axial force in the device was found to be
F = 80 - 500x 2
where x is measured downward from the planet's surface as shown in Fig. 1.6(a). There-
fore, the normal stress ax at any position along the device is given by
80 - 500x 2
ax = 2 x 10- 5

= 4 - 25x 2 MPa
To obtain the value of x (i.e., the position of the cross section) for which the normal
tensile stress is 1.5 MPa, we equate a x to this value in the equation above to obtain
1.5 =4- 25x 2
from which
x 2 = 0.1 and x = ±0.316 m
The negative sign is physically meaningless and the normal stress is 1.5 MPa at a dis-
tance below the surface of the planet given by

x= I 0.316 m
The principal stresses at this location are
0"1 = 1.5 MPa

Sec. 3.2 I Stresses due to Axial Forces 129

 Therefore, by Eq. 2.16,
0'1-0'31.5-0
2 =-2-

= 1 0.75 MPa I

and acts on planes inclined at 45° with the axis of the sampling device.

3.3 _ _ Longitudinal or normal strain was defined in Section 2.7 as unit deformation or change in
Strain and
length per unit of length. For a prismatic bar such as the one shown in Fig. 3.6, the strain
Deformation due
Ilx along the longitudinal axis of the member can be obtained at any cross section such as
to Axial Forces
B if the normal stress O'x at the section is known and if the modulus of elasticity for the
material is given (i.e., Ilx = O'xlE by Eq. 2.27). If we neg~ct body forces and remember that
0'x is constant throughout a given cross section and that it does not vary from cross
section to cross section, and since for a homogeneous isotropic material E is constant, it
follows that Ilx is constant throughout the member.
As was pointed out in Section 2.9, the longitudinal strain Ilx is accompanied by
transverse strains in all directions perpendicular to the x axis. If the two perpendicular
directions y and z are examined, we obtain the transverse strains

and

where, as defined earlier, Ji is Poisson's ratio for the material. Thus this uniaxial stress
condition (which is a very special case of the plane stress condition) leads to a triaxial
strain situation in which Ilx = 0'xlE and Ily = Il z = - JiO'xlE. Since, as was shown in Section
3.2, 0'x is a principal stress, it follows that Ilx as well as Ily and Ilz are principal strains. If, for
example, 0'x is tension, III = Ilx = 0'J E, 112 = Ily = - JiO'J E, and 113 = Ilz = - JiO' xlE. Thus, by
Eq.2.26b,

IYmaxl = (~)(1 + Ji)

The longitudinal elastic deformation, b, experienced by a member of length L sub-
jected to an axial force P, as shown in Fig. 3.6, may be obtained by Eq. 2.17a. Thus
b = ilL
Since Il = O'IE by Hooke's law, we obtain
0'
b=-L
E

130 Ch. 3 I Stresses and Strains in Axially Loaded Members

 B

p--1L-_----+-1____~IJ ·
r--
p

t-I-- - _ I- - L - - - - - - I ° I 6

FIGURE 3.6

Substituting for (J its value P j A leads to

G (3.3a)
~
Note that Eq. 3.3a is equally applicable to both tensile and compressive axial forces and
that the deformation ~ would be an extension when P is tensile and a contraction when P
is compressive.
For a member subjected to concentrated axial loads at several locations along its
length, the deformation ~ is obtained from the relation

I~~LPLI AE
(3.3b)

Also, if the load varies continuously along the length x of the member, the deformation tJ
is obtained from the relation

(3.3c)

EXAMPLE 3.4

Refer to the composite member described in Example 3.2 (p. 127) and assume that EB =
73 X 109 Njm 2 , Ee = 207 x 109 Njm 2 , and ED = 104 X 109 Njm 2 • Determine the total
deformation of the member.

SOLUTION. Consider the deformation of member B. By Eq. 3.3,

>: _ FBLB
UB -
ABEB
Similarly,

and

Therefore, the total deformation of the composite member is the algebraic sum of ~B' ~e,
and tJ D • Thus

Sec. 3.3 I Strain and Deformation due to Axial Force. 131

 where, from the solution of Example 3.2, F B = 20,000 N, Fe = 10,000 N, and F D =
- 50,000 N. Therefore,
{) = 20,000 x 0.06 + 10,000 x 0.1
4 x 10- 4 x 73 X 109 1 X 10- 4 x 207 X 109
-50,000 x 0.15
+6 X 10- 4 x 104 X 109
= (0.411 + 0.483 - 1.202) x 10 - 4

= 1- 3.08 X 10- 5 m

EXAMPLE 3.5

The system shown in Fig. 3.7(a) consists of a rigid beam ABC hinged at A to a fixed
support and at B to an aluminum rod (E = 70 GPa) with a diameter of 0.02 m. The rod is
fastened to rigid plate D, and a linear spring with a spring constant k = 5000 kN/m is

A· • C

/ B
2.0m
t 2.0m

25 kN
(a)
"

FBD

II
Ax •
B
25 kN
A)'

I, 2.0 m .I. 2.0 m

(b)

FIGURE 3.7

132 Ch. 3 / Stresses and Strains in Axially Loaded Members

 placed between this rigid plate and a second rigid plate E which is fixed in position. The
rigid beam ABC is horizontal and the rod and spring are undeformed before the 25 kN
force is applied. Determine, after the 25 kN force is applied, the displacement of (a) plate
D and (b) point B.

SOLUTION
(a) Consider the free-body diagram of member ABC as shown in Fig. 3.7(b), where F BD is
the force in rod BD.
o L MA =0
F BD (2) - 25(4) = 0

from which
FBD = 50 kN

The 50-kN force is transmitted from the rod to rigid plate D, which, in turn, transmits it
to the spring as a compressive force of 50 kN. Thus the spring experiences a compressive
force of 50 kN and its deformation under this compressive force represents the displace-
ment of plate D. Thus, since for a linear spring F = kb, it follows that

- = -50
b =FBD
D k 5000
I
- = 0.010mdown I
(b) The displacement of point B consists of two displacements. The first is the downward
displacement of plate D, which has already been determined above. The second is the
deformation bR experienced by rod BD, which is subjected to the tensile force of 50 kN.
Thus, by Eq. 3.3,
FL 50x 10 3 X 1.0
b = - = = 0.002 m
R AE (71:/4)(0.02 2 ) x 70 X 10 9
Therefore,

EXAMPLE 3.6

Determine the total deformation of the sampling device described in Example 1.3 (p. 8) if
its material is aluminum for which E = 73 GPa and if the relation between stress and
strain is linear.

SOLUTION. Consider a differential section of the device at a distance x below the

surface of the planet, as shown in Fig. 3.8(a) and (b). By definition, the differential quan-
tity of deformation db is the product of the strain and the length of the differential section.
Thus

db = ex dx = (i) dx

where (Jx = 4 - 25x 2 MPa from Example 3.3 (p. 129). Therefore,

Sec. 3.3 I Strain and Deformation due to Axial Forces 133

 p = 80 N

~ x

~- - - (~r--- - - ,.--..L--' - 'c/x

- - - - - - - - r - - - - !-L_- .----' ,

~ c/o

(b)

(a)

FIGURE 3.8

1
dJ = E (4 - 25x 2 ) dx

and

J = i o
L
dJ = -1
E
i 0
L
(4 - 25x 2 ) dx

= ~ (4L - 8.33U)

For E = 73 GPa and L = 0.4 m, the equation above leads to

I J = 1.461 X 10 - 5 m

EXAMPLE 3.7

The pin-connected frame shown in Fig. 3.9(a) can be assumed to be weightless. Determine
(a) the average value of the shear stress developed in the t-in.-diameter pin at A [note the
magnified details of this pin joint shown in Fig. 3.9(b)], (b) the cross-sectional area of rod
CE if its normal stress is to have a maximum value of 15 ksi, and (c) the average value of
the shear stress developed in the ~-in . -diameter pin at E. Note the magnified details of this
pin joint shown in Fig. 3.9(c).

SOLUTION
(a) Consider the free-body diagram of the entire frame as shown in Fig. 3.9(d) and apply
the equations of equilibrium as follows:
o L MA =0
10(15) + 20(10) - DPO) =0
Dy = 17.5 k

134 Ch. 3 I Stresses and Strains in Axially Loaded Members

 Ie \Ok 10 k
F -- F
I
1

~------
Sf! Sf!

• E • 1::
(e)

10 f[

20 k
1 -5 fl 5 f[
(d )

~I~ k -'--' F
O-:-

F, ,= THAf.' Sf!
/ 1
PinE /

(el (b)

ft"
Pet' = 21.22 k
(g)

FIGURE 3.9

Ax - 10 =0
Ax = 10 k

Ay + Dy - 20 = 0
Ay = 2.5 k
Therefore, the resultant force AR at joint A is
AR = J A; + A; = 10.31 k
This force is transmitted from member DCBA to the support at A through a system of
shear stress (cross-shear stresses) developed at the two sections a and b in the pin at joint
A shown in Fig. 3.9(b). Thus two cross sections in the pin are mobilized to transmit the
force AR = 10.31 k from the frame to the support and the pin is said to be in double shear.
Each of these two cross sections carries one-half of the total shear force F, developed in
the pin. A view of the free-body diagram of the pin at A is shown in Fig. 3.9(e).

Sec. 3.3 I Strain and Deformation due to Axial Forces 135

 Therefore, the average value of the shear stress in the pin at A can be obtained by
dividing the force transmitted by the pin (i.e., 10.31 k) by twice its cross-sectional area AA'
Thus
Ft AR 10.31
'A = 2A:: = 2A:: = 2(0.1963)

= I 26.26 ksi I
(b) The force in rod CE is obtained from consideration of the equilibrium of the free-body
diagram of member BEF shown in Fig. 3.9(f). Thus
Q LMB=O
10(15) - 0.707FcE(10) =0
FCE = 21.22 k (C)
The cross-sectional area of rod CE, ACE' is given by Eq. 3.1. Thus
FCE 21.22
A CE = - = - -
(TCE 15

= 11.415 in. 2 1

(c) The force F CE = 21.22 k on rod CE is transmitted to member BEF through a system
of cross-shear stresses developed at section c in the pin at E shown in Fig. 3.9(c). In this
case only one cross section in the pin is mobilized to transmit the shear load Ft , and the
pin is said to be in single shear. A view of the free-body diagram of the pin at E is shown
in Fig. 3.9(g). Thus the average value of the shear stress in the pin at E can be obtained by
dividing the force transmitted by the pin (i.e., 21.22 k) by its cross-sectional area. Thus
Ft 21.22
'E=-=--
AE 0.4418

= 148.03 ksi

EXAMPLE 3.8
Determine the principal stress of largest magnitude and the absolute maximum shear
stress in member AB of the press shown in Fig. 3.10(a). Assume AB to be weightless and
to have a rectangular cross section 0.005 m x 0.01 m. If the pin at B is in double shear,
determine the average value of the cross-shear stress if the pin has a diameter equal to
0.005 m. Assume frictionless conditions between the vertical column and the upper jaw of
the press.

SOLUTION. Since member AB is assumed weightless, it is a two-force member sub-

jected to an axial force whose magnitude may be determined by isolating member BCD
and constructing its free-body diagram as shown in Fig. 3.10(b). Thus

136 Ch. 3 / Stre••e. and Strain. in Axially Loaded Membar.

 D D

(a)

FIGURE 3.10

o L Me =0
FB sin lO(O.1)(cos 10) + FB cos 10 (0.1 x sin 10) - 300(0.3 x cos 10) = 0
FB = 2591.4 N
Therefore, as seen from Fig. 3.10(c), member AB is subjected to a compressive axial force
F B = 2591.4 N. By Eg. 3.1, the normal stress on any cross section perpendicular to
member AB is compression given by
FB 2591.4
(1=---=-
AAB 5 x 1 X 10- 5
= -51.83 X 10 - 6 N/m2
= -51.83 MPa
Since, as discussed earlier, cross sections perpendicular to the axis of an axially loaded
member are free from shear stresses, they are principal planes and the stress (1 = - 51.83
MPa is one of the principal stresses at any point within the length AB. The other two
principal stresses are obviously zero. Thus (11 = (12 = 0 and (13 = -51.83 MPa and the
principal stress of largest magnitude in member AB is

II (131 = 51.83 MPa I

The absolute maximum shear stress in member AB is given by Eg. 2.16. Thus

Sec. 3 .3 I Strain and Deformation due to Axial Forces 137

 1 1 =0"1-0"3=0+51.83
'max 2 2

= 25.92 MPa
and acts on planes making a 45° angle with the axis of member AB.
The force FB = 2591.4 N is transmitted from member BCD to member AB through
the pin at B, which is in double shear. Therefore, the average value of the cross-shear
stress in the pin at B is

,B -- -2AB
FB
-- 2591.4
- 2(1.963 x 10- 5)

= 66.0 x
1 10 6 N/m2

= 166.0 MPa ]

PROBLEMS

3.1 Refer to the composite member shown in Fig. P3.l
and assume the cross-sectional areas of the three parts
of the member to be as follows: AAB = 3 in. 2 , ABD = 1.5
in. 2 , and A DE = 4 in. 2 . Determine:
(a) The principal stress of largest magnitude in the
composite member.
(b) The absolute maximum shear stress in the compos-
(b) What is the total deformation of the member if
I I
EAB = zEBc = 'jECD = 60 GPa?
(c) Determine the three principal strains and the absol-
ute maximum shear strain in part CD. Let f.l = 0.25.

I~A----1,11-----. ~
ite member.
(c) The total deformation of the entire member if the
material is aluminum for which E = 10 X 106 psi. 4P +==-i 2P
• P

r--o.5m~·~I·---l.0Il1--~'.J..I'~-O.75m-~
/
D E
A B
C
10k I O k - _ 3k 20 k FIGURE P3.2

~3ft~6 ft 3.3 Refer to the composite member shown in Fig.

~ ~3ft •
·1· 3ft
P3.3; assume the cross-sectional area for all parts to be
FIGURE P3.1 the same, that is, AAB = ABC = ACD = 5 X 10-- 4 m 2 and
the material to be such that EAB = 2EcD = tE BC = 50
3.2 A composite member is shown in Fig. P3.2. Let the G Pa. Determine:
cross-sectional areas of the three parts of the member be (a) The principal stress of largest magnitude in the
as follows: composite member.
(b) The absolute maximum shear stress in the compos-
AAB = 2ABC = 3AcD = 9 X 10- 4 m2
ite member.
(a) If the principal stress of largest magnitude in the (c) The deformation in part BC of the member.
composite member is 200 MPa, determine the magni- (d) The total deformation of the entire composite
tude of the load P. member.

138 Ch. 3 I Stresses and Strains in Axially Loaded Member.

 P-0
I
~2m
= b'""
k'"
.1.
=D(j-SOkN 5 kN

2m I
10 kN

2m----1
I
axial normal stress in the block. What is the absolute
maximum shear stress in the block?

3.7 Refer to the mechanism shown in Fig. P3.7. The

axial normal stress in the aluminum rod AB
(E = 10 x 10 6 psi) is not to exceed 25,000 psi and its
FIGURE P3.3 deformation must be less than 0.035 in. If 1 = 4 ft,
a = 3 ft, and () = 45°, what is the largest value that P
3.4 A composite member is shown in Fig. P3.4. The can have if the diameter of rod AB is 2 in. ?
cross-sectional areas of the three parts of the member
B
are as follows: AAB=0.75A BC =1.5A cD ' Let E AB =
3E BC = 2EcD = 30 X 106 psi.
(a) If the total deformation of the member is - 0.03 in.,
determine the cross-sectional areas of the three com-
ponents parts.
(b) Find the principal stress of largest magnitude and
state its location.
(c) Compute the absolute maximum shear stress and
specify its location.
(d) Determine the three principal strains and the absol-
ute maximum shear strain in part AB. Let J1. = 0.3.

T
t
1.5 ft

FIGURE P3.7

+
1.5 ft
3.8 Refer to the mechanism shown in Fig. P3.7. The
axial stress in the steel rod AB (E = 200 GPa) is not to
exceed 75 MPa and its deformation must be less than
1.0 ft 0.001 m. If I = 2.0 m, a = 1.5 m, and e = 50°, what
D ~ must be the minimum diameter of the rod if the load P
= 60 kN?
20 k
3.9 Consider the system shown in Fig. P3.9. Let
FIGURE P3.4
F = 40 kN, P = 100 kN, Dl = 2D2 = 0.10 m, EAB =
3.5 A 1-in.-diameter steel cable (E = 30 x 106 psi) is 200 GPa, and EBC = 70 GPa. Find the ratio of the
tested for possible use in a small suspension bridge lengths alb so that the total length of member ABC
system. Under the pull of a force P, a 5-ft length of this remains unchanged after application of the loads.
cable elongated an amount equal to 0.15 in. Determine
Diameter = D J
the force P and the axial normal stress in the cable.

3.6 A 0.15-m-long, 0.05-m-diameter block of an B F

unidentified material is tested to determine its modulus
of elasticity. Under a compressive axial load of 160 kN,
the shortening of the block was measured to be I-----a ----1+./,-b---j
2 x 10- 4 m. Find the modulus of elasticity and the FIGURE P3.9

Sec. 3.3 I Strain and Deformation due to Axial Forces 139

 ,
3.10 Refer to the system shown in Fig. P3 .9. Let
a = 2.5 ft, b = 1.5 ft. F = 30 k, D. = 2D2 = 4 in. ,
EAB = E Be = 10 x 10 6 psi. Determine the magnitude of
P so that the total length of member ABC:
(a) Remains unchanged.
(b) Increases by O.ot 5 in.
(c) Decreases by 0.010 in.

3.11 Member ABC in the frame shown in Fig. P3.11 is

composed of two parts AB and BC which have been
welded together. Part AB weighs 100 lbl ft and part BC FIGURE P3.12
weighs 150 lb/ft. Assume the entire member to have a
hollow circular cross section with outside diameter of 3.13 The cross-sectional area of all members of the pin
15 in. and inside diameter of 5 in. connected truss shown in Fig. P3.13 IS
(a) If the principal stress of largest magnitude in the A = 5 X 10 - 4 m 2 . If the material IS such that
member is 50 psi, determine the magnitude of the E = 200 G Pa, determine:
load P. (a) The principal stress of largest magnitude In
(b) Plot the principal stress of largest magnitude as a members DE, EB, EF, and CF.
function of a lengthwise coordinate y measured from (b) The cross-shear stress in the 0.03-m-diameter pin D
the bottom of member ABC. if it is in double shear.
(c) Find the total deformation of the member if EAB = (c) The vertical movement of joint F.
10 X 10 6 psi and EBe = 15 x 10 6 psi.

T
Sm
A
TSft
B

t +
7ft

c ~ 15 kN ~o kN
FIGURE P3.13
p

1-.1.--- --.-- 8 -----.,.1

8 ft --~·_+I ft
3.14 The mechanism shown in Fig. P3.14 consists of
rigid member ABC hinged at C to the steel rod CD
FIGURE P3.11
1---' 0 in. I
B 30 i n . - - - - - - 1

T
3.12 Assume frictionless conditions at all supports of ~---_.._--------~ A
the frame in Fig. P3.12 and determine:
(a) The diameter of the cable BC if the normal stress in p

n
it is to have a maximum value of 60 MPa. 20 in.
(b) The extension of the cable BC if the material is steel
for which E = 200 GPa.
(c) The maximum compressive stress in member DC if
its cross section is a 0 0. 2 m x 0.04 m rectangle.
(d) The cross-shear stress in the 0.020-m-diameter pin D
at D if it is in single shear. FIGURE P3.14

140 Ch. 3 I Stresses and Strains in Axially Loaded Members

(E = 30 X 106 psi), which has a diameter of rl> in. and a tion of a lengthwise coordinate y measured from the top
length of 20 in. The linear spring, which is placed of the shaft.
between rigid plates E and F, has a spring constant of (b) The total deformation of the shaft if
5000 lb/ in. Determine the value of the force P needed to E = 70 X 10 9 N/m 2 .
deflect point C through a distance of 0.20 in. What is (c) The principal strains at a distance of 0.15 m from
the deflection of the spring? Rigid plate E is fixed in the top of the shaft. Let Jl = 0.25.
position and member ABC is horizontal before the load
p
P is applied. Assume rod CD to pass freely through the
spring and a hole in plate E.
-.L
I
t I

T
0.25 m
3.15 Assume all members in the pin-connected frame
shown in Fig. P3.l5 to be weightless. Determine : I i
(a) The principal stress of largest magnitude in rod BE ~iI i~
I
which has a circular cross section of radius equal to
2'
8 In.
l:I i~f= 10 kN/ m

1
2.75 m
(b) The absolute maximum shear stress in rod BE.
I I
(c) The cross shear stress in the ~-in. -diameter pin at B
which is in single shear. I II II J
(d) The cross shear stress in the i-in.-diameter pin at D
r--i
I I
which is in double shear.
(e) The deformation of rod BE if the material is alu-
! I %
minum for which E = lOx 106 psi. FIGURE P3.16

3.17 The 35-ft steel piling of Fig. P3.17 weighing 250

lb/ft was damaged during driving and must be pulled
out. A force of 37 k is needed to start the pulling-out

37 k

t
t
5 ft
Ground level

30 k + + +
6 ft lOft - ----.oj

FIGURE P3.15 30 ft
+ + +f
3.16 A solid circular shaft whose cross-sectional area + + +
is 6 x 10 - 4 m 2 and which weighs 4 kN/m is being
pulled by a force P out of a sleeve into which it had
been press-fitted as shown in Fig. P3.16. In the position
+ + +
shown, the frictional resistance f between the shaft and
the sleeve may be assumed uniform and equal to 10 kN/
m. Iff is assumed constant along the length of shaft that
is embedded in the sleeve, determine:
(a) The principal stress of largest magnitude as a func-
H
FIGURE P3.17

Sec. 3.3 I Strain and Deformation due to Axial Force8 141

process. In the position shown, the frictional resistance (b) The elongation of member AB, assuming that
J, measured in force per unit length of the piling, may be EAD = 10 X 10 6 psi and EDB = 30 X 106 psi.
assumed uniform throughout the piling length. Let (c) The cross shear stress in the !-in.-diameter pin at A
E = 30 X 10 6 psi and plot the principal stress of largest which is in double shear.
magnitude as well as the absolute maximum shear stress
as functions of a lengthwise coordinate y measured from
the top of the pile. Also determine the extension of the
piling. Assume the cross-sectional area of the pile to be
50 in. 2 .

3.18 The system shown in Fig. P3.1S consists of an

aluminum rod (E = 70 GPa) 0.010 m in diameter and
1.0 m long welded to rigid plate A at its top. A linear
spring with spring constant k = 1000 kN/ m is placed
between rigid plates A and B and a plastic (E = 3 GPa)
tube with outside diameter Do = 0.050 m and inside
diameter D j = 0.049 m is placed between rigid plates B
and C as shown. Plate C is fixed in position and the FIGURE P3.19
aluminum rod passes freely through the spring and tube
and through holes in plates Band e. Determine the 3.20 The force between the wheel and the ground in
displacement of (a) plate A, (b) plate B, and (c) point D. the landing gear shown in Fig. P3.20 is P = 45 kN.
Neglect possible localized buckling of the tube. Assume the system to be at rest and determine:
(a) The principal stress of largest magnitude in member
BC which is assumed weightless and whose cross-
sectional area is 20 x 10 - 4 m 2.
(b) The absolute maximum shear stress in member Be.
(c) The deformation of member BC if the material is

1T
0.30 m
aluminum for which E = 70 GN/m2.
(d) The cross-shear stress in the O.03-m-diameter pin at
point C, which is in double shear.
1.0m
0.20m

~~~/c-.l

50 kN

FIGURE P3.18

3.19 A wall bracket is constructed as shown in Fig. FIGURE P3.20

P3.19. Member BC may be assumed rigid. If the drum
weighs 3000 Ib, determine: 3.21 Assuming the internal axial force at any cross
(a) The principal stress of largest magnitude in member section of the member shown in Fig. P3.21 to be uni-
AB. formly distributed, determine:

142 Ch. 3 I Stresses and Strains in Axially Loaded Members

(a) The normal stress at section b-b. (a) The principal stresses in each of the three links.
(b) The total deformation of the member if (b) The deformation of link CD if it is made of a
E = lOx 106 psi. material for which E = 30 X 10 6 psi.
(c) The cross shear stress in pin A which is in double
15 in.
shear and which has a diameter equal to 1- in.

2 in. 1--9 ft---+-!.If---- - - 13 ft --_'I~.-8 ft-...!

30 In .

FIGURE P3.21

3.22 Solve Problem 3.21 using the information given

in Fig. P3.22 and assume that E = 200 GPa.
3 ft

0.02 III T
6 ft
~====::fzF====r1
150 kN J 50 kl\"
F
~
0.2111
0.04",
0.3111
" 5 k
FIGURE P3.22 FIGURE P3.24

3.23 Determine the horizontal movement of joint F of

the pin-connected roof truss shown in Fig. P3.23.
Assume the material to have a modulus of elasticity
E = 10 X 103 ksi and all members to have the same
cross-sectional area A = 1 in. 2 .
40 k
J5 k
3.25 Determine the tensile stresses and the deforma-
tions induced in cables AB and CD in the frame shown
in Fig. P3.2S. The applied force F = 40 kN is directed
along the negative x axis and the cross-sectional areas
of both cables are the same and equal to 6 x 10 - 4 m 2 .
Assume that E = 200 GPa.
50 k

_ - - - r "A(O . . 0) III

40 kN
I /I G
/

r- 15ft~15 ft -+-- 15ft ~ 15ft-1

("(0 . h . 0) III

FIGURE P3.23
BH . O. - 5) m

3.24 Three weightless links AB, BC, and CD are con-

nected together at Band C and to supports at A and D
by means of frictionless hinges as shown in Fig. P3.24. 0(:' . O. (,)m
All members have identical cross-sectional areas each
equal to 2 in. 2 . Determine: FIGURE P3.25

Sec. 3.3 / Strain and Deformation due to Axial Forces 143

3.26 The system shown in Fig. P3.26 is used to
support a weight W. If the force needed to maintain
,
y

equilibrium is F = 5 kN, determine: C (-1,4, -1.5) m

(a) The weight W.
(b) The principal stresses in cables AB and AC if they
have identical cross-sectional areas each equal to
8 x 10- 4 m 2 •
B (-2, 2, 2) m

A F=5 kN
--------_x

FIGURE P3.26

3,.1 The term mechanical properties refers to certain material characteristics that, in general,
Mechanical are different for different materials. Some of these mechanical properties, including the
Properties of modulus of elasticity and Poisson's ratio, have already been introduced and used in
Materials Under Section 2.9 during the development of linear stress-strain relations. A more complete
Axial Forces discussion of the mechanical properties of materials is given in this section.
In general, mechanical properties of a given material are obtained by means of a
tension or compression test. However, as discussed in Section 4.6, the torsion tests is used
to obtain shearing stress strain characteristics of materials. Mechanical properties are, in
general, obtained at room temperature under loads that are applied very gradually (i.e.,
static loads). It should be noted, however, that these properties may be very sensitive to
the effects of temperature and to the rate of application of the loads. For example, under
impact loads at elevated temperatures, a material would exhibit properties entirely differ-
ent from those at room temperature under static loads.
The tension or compression test is performed on a small sample of a given material
known as the test specimen, whose dimensions have been standardized by the American
Society for Testing and Materials. The design of three such standardized test specimens is
shown in Fig. 3.11. The load on the test specimen is applied by means of a machine
known as a universal testing machine. One type of universal testing machine is shown in
Fig. 3.12. As the load is gradually increased, the specimen changes in length. This change
in length or deformation, fJ, is usually measured for a given length, L, known as the gage
length, by means of an instrument known as the extensometer, a picture of which is
shown in Fig. 3.13.
Corresponding values of load and deformation are taken while the load is gradually
increased from zero until fracture in a tension test, or until fracture or some predetermi-
ned value of the load is reached in a compression test. Values of the load are converted
into values of normal stress (1, by Eq. 3.1 and values of deformation into values of normal
strain e, by Eq. 2.17a. In determining the normal stress from Eq. 3.1, the original cross-
sectional area of the test specimen is used, even though this cross-sectional area changes

144 Ch. 3 I Str••••• and Strain. In Axially Loaded M.mb.r.

 2t in . (60 mm)

II II III Diame ter = 4in. (l2t mm)

II I 1111
t in . (20 mm)

L. Radius -- "83 m.
.
(10 mm)
(a) Round tension test specimel1'

2t in. (60 mm)

Width = 4in. (124 mm) tin. (20 mm)

/ ....L-
Radius = 1- in. (13 mm)
Maximum thickness = tin. (16 mm)

(b) Rectangu lar tension test specime n

IGd
I in.
(25 mm)

Diameter =
I tin. (30 mm)

(e) Ro und compression test specimen

FIGURE 3.11

I
t;.rrtc #/Mot

II

•
,.

SATEC

SATEC
FIGURE 3.12
MODEL_ SATEC Model C20UD
electromechanically-powered
universal testing machine with
microprocessor-assisted control
console.

Sec. 3.4 ! Mechanical Properties of Materials Under Axial Forces 145

 FIGURE 3.13
A SATEC Model T-3M. snap-on extensometer for attachment to round specimens ranging in diameter
from 0.505 in. to 2.000 in. with a gage length of 2 in.

as the load is increased. The value of the normal stress thus obtained is known as the
engineering stress. Also, the value of the normal strain obtained from Eq. 2.17a by using
the original gage length is referred to as the engineering strain. Under certain conditions, it
is necessary to account for the changes that occur in the cross-sectional area and in the
gage length of the specimen. When such changes are taken into consideration (i.e., when
the instantaneous cross-sectional area and the instantaneous gage length are used in
Eqs. 3.1 and 2.17a), the resulting normal stress and normal strain are known as the true
stress and true strain, respectively. The following discussion is limited to the engineering
stress and strain, since these are the values used in the selection of materials for specific
purposes, while the true stress and strain are, in general, useful in conducting research on
materials.
Corresponding values of (J and B are plotted to obtain what is known as the engi-
neering stress-strain diagram for a given material. An engineering stress-strain diagram
for a plain carbon steel specimen in tension is shown schematically in Fig. 3.14. An
engineering stress-strain diagram representing the behavior of steel alloys and aluminum
alloys in tension is shown schematically in Fig. 3.15. These diagrams will be used to
introduce and discuss the significant mechanical properties of materials.
The diagrams shown in Figs. 3.14 and 3.15 define two ranges of material behavior
known as the elastic and the plastic (or inelastic) ranges. In general, the elastic range is
that part of the diagram defining a linear relation between the stress and the strain
(approximately segment OA in Figs. 3.14 and 3.15. It is that part of the stress-strain
diagram that has already been discussed in Section 2.9 and is expressed mathematically
by Hooke's law (i.e., B = (J/E) up to the proportional limit for the material. The plastic or
inelastic range is that part of the stress-strain diagram that defines a nonlinear relation

146 Ch. 3 / Stresses and Strains In Axially Loaded Members

 A
'" '"
:i
:i ~
~ UJ
UJ

o Strain, €
I--- Permanent
stram
Strain, €

FIGURE 3.14 FIGURE 3.15

between the stress and the strain and is represented by segment BF in Figs. 3.14 and 3.15.
Several empirical equations have been proposed to describe the inelastic relation between
stress and strain in uniaxial Loading, but the most widely used is the one known as the
Ramberg-Osgood equation, which may be expressed as follows:

(3.4)

where Band n are constants for a given material.

The most significant mechanical properties will now be stated and defined. For the
sake of completeness, these statements and definitions include those mechanical properties
that have already been introduced in Section 2.9. Typical values of mechanical properties
for some of the most commonly used engineering materials are given in Appendix C.
PROPORTIONAL LIMIT. The proportional limit for a given material represents the
largest value of stress beyond which the material no longer behaves in such a way that the
stress is proportional to strain. The proportional limit, 0' p' is represented by the ordinate
to point A in Figs. 3.14 and 3.15.
ELASTIC LIMIT. The elastic limit, 0' e' for a given material is the value of stress
beyond which the material experiences a permanent deformation after the stress is
removed. Thus, if the material is loaded to any level of stress within the elastic limit and
the load is then removed, it will regain its original dimensions and is said to behave
elastically. However, if the load exceeds the elastic limit before it is removed, the material
does not fully regain its initial dimensions. In such a case the material is said to experi-
ence a permanent deformation.
The elastic limit is represented by the ordinate to point B in Figs. 3.14 and 3.15. Its
determination, experimentally, is extremely difficult, and therefore its exact location on
the stress-strain diagram is usually not known, even though it is generally higher than the
proportional limit O'p' For all practical purposes, however, the elastic limit (Je and the
proportional limit 0' p may be assumed to have the same value.
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY. The modulus of elasticity, E, is the constant of proportion-
ality between stress and strain in Hooke's law as expressed in Eq. 2.27. Physically, it
represents the slope of the stress-strain diagram within the proportional range of the

Sec. 3 I I Mechenical Properties of Meterials Under Axial Forces 147

 material (i.e., the slope of the straight segment OA in Figs. 3.14 and 3.15). The term
stiffness is used to describe the capacity of materials to resist deformation in the elastic
range and it is measured by the modulus of elasticity. For example, steels with a modulus
of elasticity of about 30 x 106 psi are stiffer than aluminums, with a modulus of elasticity
of about 10 x 106 psi.
YIELD POINT. The yield point, u y ' is the stress at which the material continues to
deform without further increase in the stress. The stress may even decrease slightly as the
deformation continues past the yield point. Some materials, notably the plain carbon
steels, exhibit a well-defined yield point, as shown by point C in Fig. 3.14. If the stress
decreases past this point, it is referred to as the upper yield point, in contrast to the lower
yield point represented by point D in Fig. 3.14 and beyond which the stress increases with
further strain.
YIELD STRENGTH. For materials having a stress-strain diagram such as shown in
Fig. 3.15 (those that do not exhibit a well-defined yield point) a value of stress, known as
the yield strength for the material, is defined as one producing a certain amount of
permanent strain. Although several values of permanent strain may be used in defining
the yield strength for a material, the most commonly encountered values range between
0.0020 and 0.0035.
To determine the yield strength, us' the assigned numerical value of permanent strain
is measured along the strain axis to locate a point through which a line is drawn parallel
to the straight portion (segment OA) of this diagram. The straight line is then extended
until it intersects the stress strain curve. This construction is shown schematically in
Fig. 3.15, in which the ordinate to point G represents the value of the yield strength for
the material.
ULTIMATE STRENGTH. The ultimate strength, Uu' represents the ordinate to the
highest point in the stress strain diagram and is equal to the maximum load carried by the
specimen divided by the original cross-sectional area. The ultimate strength is represented
by the ordinate to points E in Figs. 3.14 and 3.15.
FRACTURE STRENGTH. The fracture strength, uf' also known as the rupture or break-
ing strength, is the engineering stress at which the specimen fractures and complete
separation of the specimen parts occurs. This strength is represented by the ordinate to
points F in Figs. 3.14 and 3.15 and is equal to the load at fracture divided by the original
cross-sectional area of the specimen.
POISSON'S RATIO. Poisson's ratio, fl, which has already been introduced and used in
Section 2.9, is a constant for a given material and is defined as the absolute value of the
ratio of the transverse to the longitudinal strain. Thus, in a given uniaxial situation,
tension or compression, if the longitudinal strain (i.e., the strain in the direction of the
applied load) is BL' the transverse strain BT (i.e., the strain in any direction perpendicular
to the applied load) is - flB L • Therefore, fl = 1BT/BL I.
DUCTILITY. The property of materials known as ductility is a measure of their
capacity to deform in the plastic or inelastic range. Thus materials that exhibit large
plastic deformations, represented by segment BEF in Figs. 3.14 and 3.15, are said to be
ductile materials. Examples of ductile materials include steel and aluminum alloys as well
as the alloys of copper. Specimens of these ductile materials, when subjected to tension,
undergo considerable plastic deformation. Not only do they exhibit large extensions, but,
after the ultimate strength is. reached, they also undergo considerable reduction in the
cross-sectional dimension, known as necking, in the region of fracture as shown in
Fig. 3.16(a). On the other hand, materials that fracture with little or no measurable plastic

148 Ch. 3 I Stre•••• and Strain. In Axially Load.d M.mb.r.

 (a)

(h)

FIGURE 3.16
(a) Photograph showing ductile fracture with appreciable plastic deformation.
(b) Photograph showing brittle fracture lacking measurable plastic deforma-
tion.

Sec. 3.4 I Mechanical Properties of Materials Under Axial Forces 149

 deformation are known as brittle materials. Examples of brittle materials include most
cast irons as well as concrete. A tension specimen made of gray cast iron, for example,
would exhibit a very slight extension and no appreciable necking at fracture as shown in
Fig. 3.16(b). Another characteristic of brittle materials is that they are generally much
stronger in compression than they are in tension.
Ductility of a material is usually measured by one or both of two properties:
1. Percent elongation, which is defined as 100 multiplied by the change in gage length at
fracture divided by the original gage length of the tension specimen.
2. Percent reduction of area, which is defined as 100 multiplied by the change in cross-
sectional area at fracture divided by the original cross-sectional area of the tension
specimen.
ENERGY ABSORPTION CAPACITY. Often materials are called upon to resist the action
of dynamic and impact loads. Under such conditions, the energy absorption capacity
becomes a useful tool in comparing materials for dynamic and impact applications. Two
such energy quantities are defined:
1. The modulus of resilience represents the amount of energy per unit of volume absorbed
by the material when stressed up to the proportional limit. Thus the modulus of
resilience represents the amount of energy per unit of volume that the material can
absorb elastically.
When a gradually increasing axial force F acts on a member, it produces a deforma-
tion f>. The work, dW, of a force, F, corresponding to an infinitesimal deformation df>, is,
by definition, given by
dW = F df> (3.5a)
Thus the work performed by the force F in deforming the member through the amount f>
becomes

W = f F df> (3.5b)

If deformations are assumed to be within the proportional range of behavior, the force
F = kf>, where k is a constant of proportionality. Substituting F = kf> into Eq. 3.5b and
integrating one obtains

(3.Sc)

Since F = oA and f> = 6L, where L and A are the length and cross-sectional area of the
member, respectively, the work W may be rewritten as follows:
(f6
W = - (AL) (3.5d)
2
Note that the product AL represents the volume of the member and if both sides of
Eq. 3.5d are divided by it, the resulting quantity represents the work performed per unit
volume of the material. Thus
W (f6
(3.5e)
AL 2

150 Ch. 3 I Stresses and Strains In Axially Loaded Members

 Under ideal conditions, the work per unit volume W / AL, is equal to the energy per unit
volume, u, stored in the member by virtue of its strained configuration. This energy u is
known as the strain energy and, in view of the foregoing, may be expressed as follows:

(3.6)

Thus the modulus of resilience for a given material is (J p sp/2, where (J p is the proportional
limit and sp is the strain corresponding to the proportional limit. If S is replaced by (J/ E,
Eq. 3.6 may be expressed as follows:

(3.7)

and the modulus of resilience for the material can be written (J;/ 2E.
Examination of Eq. 3.6 reveals that the modulus of resilience is equal to the area
under the stress-strain diagram up to the proportional limit, as shown in Fig. 3.17(a),
2. The modulus of toughness is the amount of energy per unit volume that a material can
absorb before fracture. Thus the modulus of toughness is a measure not only of the
strength of the material, but also its ductility. By definition, then, the modulus of
toughness is given by the area under the entire stress-strain diagram, as indicated in
Fig. 3.17(b). An approximate value for this property is obtained by estimating an
average stress (Jav as shown in Fig. 3.l7(b) and multiplying it by the strain at fracture,
S f. Thus, in terms of these two quantities, the modulus of toughness has the value

(Javsf·

I / Modulus of ,c ilicncc = t G"."

~
I
I
I

o .p . l,a ;lI. e
(a)

Modulus of loughness = 0,,, (f))

o SI,ain. e .,
(b)

FIGURE 3.17

Sec. 3.4 I Mechanical Properties of Materials Under Axial Forces 151

EXAMPLE 3.9

A steel rod 0.50 in. in diameter, with a gage length of 4 in., is subjected to a gradually
increasing tensile load. At the proportional limit, the value of the load was 20,000 Ib, the
change in the gage length was 0.014 in., and the change in diameter was 0.0005 in.
Determine (a) the proportional limit, ap; (b) the modulus of elasticity, E; (c) Poisson's
ratio, p.; and (d) the modulus of resilience.

SOLUTION
(a) The proportional limit, ap,.may be found from Eq. 3.1, that is, a = PIA, where Pis
the load at the proportional limit, 20,000 Ib, and A is the original cross-sectional area of
the rod. Thus
20,000
a =
p (n/4)(0.5f

= 1101,859 psi I
(b) The modulus of elasticity is obtained from Hooke's law as expressed by Eq. 2.27 (i.e.,
E = a/8), in which a and 8 are two corresponding values of stress and strain, respectively,
within the range of proportionality for the material. The proportional limit stress has
already been determined in part (a) to be 101,859 psi. The strain corresponding to this
stress, 8 p ' is found by dividing the deformation at the proportional limit (0.014 in.) by the
initial gage length (4 in.). Thus
0.014
8 p = -4- = 0.0035

and
E = 101,859
0.0035

= I 29.1 X 10 6 psi I
(c) Poisson's ratio, p., is, by definition, the ratio of the transverse strain to longitudinal
strain. The longitudinal strain at the proportional limit has already been determined in
part (b) to be 0.0035. The transverse strain can be obtained by dividing the change in
diameter (0.0005 in.) by the initial diameter (0.50 in.). Thus the transverse strain is
0.0005/0.50 = 0.001. Therefore,

(d) Modulus of resilience

= 1(101,859)(0.0035)

= 1178.25 in.-lb/in. 3 1

152 Ch. 3 I Stresses and Strains in Axially Loaded Members

PROBLEMS

3.27 A steel bar 3 in. in diameter and 5 in. long is 3.32 A steel bar with a rectangular cross section
subjected to a compressive force. The proportional limit 0.02 m x 0.03 m and a gage length of 0.30 m is sub-
for this steel is 50,000 psi, its modulus of elasticity jected to a tensile load of 500 kN. The 0.02 m dimen-
30 x 106 psi, and its Poisson's ratio is 0.30. Determine: sion changed to 0.01998 m and the 0.30 m gage length
(a) The maximum compressive load that may be changed to 0.3009 m. If the behavior of the material is
applied without exceeding the proportional limit. assumed to be within the range of proportionality
(b) The changes in diameter and in length at the pro- between stress and strain, determine:
portionallimit. (a) Poisson's ratio.
(b) The final value of the 0.03 m dimension.
3.28 The modulus of resilience for a given material is (c) The axial stress in the bar.
known to be 3 X 105 N-m/m3 • If the modulus of elas- (d) The maximum shearing stress in the bar.
ticity for the material is E = 100 GPa, determine: (e) The modulus of elasticity.
(a) The proportional limit stress and the proportional
limit strain for the material. ' 3.33 A tension test on a metallic specimen resulted in
(b) The axial compressive load required to reach the the following corresponding values of load and defor-
proportional limit in a specimen whose cross-sectional mation. The diameter of the specimen is 0.0150 m and
area is 8 X 10- 4 m2 • the gage length is 0.1000 m. Construct the engineering
(c) The principal stresses in the specimen correspond- stress-strain diagram and determine the ultimate
ing to the axial load found in part (b). strength and the fracture strength. Also determine the
percent elongation and the percent reduction of area if
3.29 A steel rod 0.50 in. in diameter and a gage length the final diameter of the specimen is 0.01480 m.
of 2 in. is subjected to a gradually increasing tensile Deformation Deformation
Load Load
force. At the proportional limit, the value of the load (N) (m) (N) (m)
was 12,000 lb, the gage length measured 2.004 in., and
the diameter measured 0.4997 in. Find: 0 0 17,700 29.50 x 10- 5
(a) The modulus of elasticity. 1,770 1.43 x 10- 5 18,585 36.62 x 10- 5
(b) Poisson's ratio. 3,540 2.86 x 10- 5 19,470 46.25 x 10- 5
(c) The modulus of resilience. 5,310 4.29 x 10- 5 20,355 58.54 x 10- 5
7,080 5.71 x 10- 5 20,886 75.02 x 10- 5
8,850 7.14 x 10- 5 20,886 90.16 x 10- 5
3.30 A compressive force of 500 kN is gradually 10,620 8.57 x 10- 5 20,355 125.50 x 10- 5
applied to a prismatic bar whose cross section is 12,390 10.00 x 10- 5 19,030 150.40 x 10- 5
0.04 m x 0.05 m and whose length is 0.15 m. The 0.05 14,160 13.20 x 10- 5 16,900 170.70 x 10 - 5
m dimension changed to 0.05008 m and the 0.15-m 15,930 18.32 x 10- 5 13,100 195.00 x 10- 5 (fracture)
length changed to 0.1492 m. Determine: 16,815 24.11 x 10- 5
(a) Poisson's ratio.
(b) The final value of the 0.04 m dimension. 3.34 Redraw the initial portion of the data given in
(c) The modulus of elasticity for the material. Problem 3.33 using a larger scale and determine:
(a) The proportional limit.
3.31 A steel bar (E = 30 x 106 psi) whose length is (b) The 0.25% yield strength (i.e., the yield strength cor-
4 in. is subjected to a compressive axial load which responding to a strain of 0.0025).
produces a shortening of 0.005 in. at the proportional (c) The modulus of elasticity.
limit for the material. Determine:
(a) The proportional limit stress. 3.35 Refer to the data given in Problem 3.33 and
(b) The modulus of resilience. determine:
(c) The absolute maximum shear stress when the pro- (a) The modulus of toughness.
portionallimit is reached. (b) The modulus of resilience.

Sec. 3.4 I Mechanical Properties of Materials Under Axial Forces 153

3.36 A tension test was performed on a steel specimen
whose original diameter was 0.50 in. and whose gage
length was 2.0 in. Corresponding values of load and
deformation are given in the following tabulation. Con-
struct the engineering stress- strain curve for this
material and determine the ultimate strength and the
fracture strength.

Load Deformation Load Deformation

(Ib) (in.) (Ib) (in.)

0 0 12,400 0.0170
1,600 0.0004 12,300 0.0200
3,200 0.0009 \3,000 0.0270
4,800 0.0015 14,000 0.0330
6,400 0.0021 15,000 0.0400
8,000 0.0026 16,000 0.0490
9,600 0.0031 17,500 0.0670
11 ,200 0.0035 19,000 0.1050
12,000 0.0040 19,500 0.1500
12,400 0.0050 20,000 0.2000
12,600 0.0070 20,000 0.2500
12,800 0.0100 18,600 0.3200
12,800 0.0130 17,000 0.4000
12,600 0.0150 16,500 0.4500 (fracture)

FIGURE P3.40
3.37 Redraw the initial portion of the data given in Forney aC-400C-D2, 400,000 Ib (180,000 kg) capacity compression
Problem 3.36 using a larger scale and determine: testing machine.
(a) The modulus of elasticity.
(b) The upper yield point.
(c) The lower yield point.
(d) The proportional limit.

3.38 If the final diameter of the specimen of Problem
3.36 was 0.325 in., determine :
(a) The percent reduction of area.
(b) The percent elongation.
3.39 Refer to the data in Problem 3.36 and determine:
(a) The modulus of resilience.
(b) The modulus of toughness.
denly by material breakdown, since the specimen is too
short for instability to occur. Force (pounds) and defor-
mation (inches) data are as follows: (0.0, 0.0), (28300,
0.0025), (56500, 0.0050), (84800, 0.0080), (99000, 0.0100),
(113100, 0.0125), (127200, 0.0150), (141400, 0.0250),
(135700, 0.0300), (113100, 0.0350). Carefully plot the
stress-strain curve for this concrete specimen. What is
the ultimate strength of this concrete measured in psi?
What is the corresponding strain measured in in.jin ?

3.40 A plain concrete compression specimen is

shown in a testing machine in Fig. P3.40. This specimen 3.41 The compressive stress (J as a function of com-
has a diameter of 6 in. and a length of lOin. When pressive strain G for concrete is readily approximated by
subjected to compressive loads, the specimen fails sud- a parabolic function that passes through two points, the

154 Ch. 3 / Stresses and Strains in Axially Loaded Members

orIgm (0.0, 0.0) and the ultimate strength point 3.42 High-tensile steel wires are used for prestressed
(0" u' eu). This function is given by concrete construction. Data for wires having an ulti-
mate stress of 250,000 psi are given below. Plot the
stress-strain curve for this material. Determine (a) the
modulus of elasticity, (b) the proportional limit stress,
In order to determine the behavior of concrete experi- (c) the ultimate strain, and (d) the modulus of tough-
mentally, a cylindrical specimen is compressed in a ness.
testing machine as shown in Fig. P3.40. Failure occurs
suddenly by material breakdown, since the specimen is Stress (ksi) Strain (in.jin.)
too short for instability to occur. Let o"u = 5000 psi and 0.0 0.0
eu = 0.00225 in.jin. Assign values of e from zero to 50.0 0.00175
0.0035 in increments of 0.0005 and compute the corre- 100.0 0.00345
sponding stresses. Carefully plot an idealized stress- 210.0 0.00724
strain curve for this concrete specimen in compression. 225.0 0.01000
Draw a straight line through the origin and the point 235.0 0.02000
having an ordinate equal to 0.50"u. Determine the slope 240.0 0.03000
of this line, which is known as the secant modulus of 247.0 0.04000
elasticity of concrete. 250.0 0.05000 (fracture)

ADDITIONAL CHAPTER PROBLEMS

3.43 (Sec. 3.3) Refer to Fig. P3.2 (p. 138) and let psi) is not to exceed 15,000 psi, and its deformation must
AAB J..BC = 2 A CD = 4
= '!" X 10- 4 m 2
e
be less than 0.045 in. If = 2 ft, a = 4 ft, and () =
50°, what is the largest value that P can have if the di-
) ameter of rod AB is 1.5 in.
and EAB =
2 E BC = zECD = 80 GPa.
(a) If the total deformation of the member is 0.001 m,
3.46 (Sec. 3.3) Refer to Fig. P3.7 (p. 139). The axial
determine the load P.
normal stress in the steel rod AB (E = 200 GPa) is not
(b) What is the principal stress of largest magnitude in
to exceed 75 MPa, and its deformation must be less than
the member.
(c) What are the principal strains and the absolute max-
e
0.002 m. If = 0.5 m, a = 1 m, and () = 45°, what
must be the minimum diameter of rod AB if the load P
imum shear strain in part AB. Let /L = 0.30.
= 60 kN.
3.44 (Sec. 3.3) Refer to Fig. P3.2 (p. 138) and let
3.47 (Sec 3.3) Refer to Fig. P3.9 (p. 139). Let a = 1.0
AAB = t4BC = 2 ACD = 4 X 10- 4 m 2 m, b = 0.5 m, D) = 1.5 D2 = 0.12 m, EAB = 75 GPa,
)
and E BC = 210 GPa. Find the ratio P IF so that the total
and EAB = 2 E BC = zECD = 80 GPa. length of member ABC remains unchanged after appli-
(a) The principal stress of largest magnitude in the cation of the loads.
member is to be limited to 150 MPa, and the total de-
formation of the member is to be less that 0.002 m. What 3.48 (Sec. 3.3) Refer to Fig. P3.9 (p. 139). Let a = 2.0
is the largest permissible value of the load P. ft, b = 0.75 ft, D) = 3D 2 = 2 in., P = 50 k, and EAB
(b) Determine the principal stresses and the absolute = 3 EBC = 30 X 106 psi. Determine the magnitude of
maximum shear stress in segment BC. F so that the total length of member ABC
(a) remains unchanged,
3.45 (Sec. 3.3) Refer to Fig. P3.7 (p. 139). The axial (b) increases by 0.010 in., and
normal stress in the aluminum rod AB (E = 10 x 106 (c) decreases by 0.010 in.

Sec. 3.5 I Computer Applications 155

3.49 (Sec. 3.3) Refer to the mechanism shown in Fig.
P3.14 (p. 140) and make the following changes:
length AB from 30 in. to 1.00 m,
length CB from 10 in. to 0.50 m,
length CD from 20 in. to 0.75 m, and
distance EF from 10 in. to 0.25 m.
Rigid member ABC is hinged at C to rod CD (E
GPa), which has a diameter of 0.005 m and a length of
0.75 m. A linear spring of spring constant k is placed
between rigid plates E and F. Determine the value of the
spring constant k so that the movement of point C is
limited to 0.006 m. Rigid plate E is fixed in position and
ABC is horizontal before the load P = 1.50 kN is ap-
plied. Assume rod CD to pass freely through the spring
= 70 and a hole in plate E.

3.5*_ _
Computer The following Examples illustrate the use of the FORTRAN language in the development
Applications of computer solutions. Refer to the detailed discussion given on pages 53 and 54.

EXAMPLE C3.1

A weightless shaft of solid circular cross section with an area A = 10 in. 2 is being press-
fitted into a sleeve as shown in Fig. C3.1(a). Assume that the frictional resistance!
between the shaft and the sleeve is given by the expression! = 300x - 12x2 lb/in. and for
the position shown: (a) Determine the magnitude of the pressing force P. (b) Develop a
computer program to find the principal stress of largest magnitude in the range between
x = 0 and x = 12 in. in increments of 1 in. Note as shown in Fig. C3.1(b) that x is
measured downward from the top of the sleeve. (c) Plot this principal stress versus x.

SOLUTION
(a) The free-body diagram of the entire weightless shaft is shown in Fig. C3.1(b). Thus
+i L Fy = 0
III
Jo f dx - P =0
and

P
III
= Jo f dx
III(300x -
= Jo 12x2) dx

= 150x2 _ 4X31:2
= 114,688 lb 1

(b) Consider the free-body diagram, shown in Fig. C3.1(c), of that part of the shaft above
a section defined by the coordinate x. The internal force F acting at the section is

r
assumed to be tensile. Thus
+i L
Fy = 0

f dx - 14,688 - F =0

Therefore,

156 Ch. 3 I Stresses and Strains in Axially Loaded Members

 p

l p p= 14,6881b

T
12 i
l
T T
f tttl
12 in.

I I
I I
I I

1
I I 12 i n.
I I
I I
I I
L __ ..J
I1- _ _ ...-1I F

(3) (b) (c)

00100
00 10
00120
PROGRAM EXAMC311INPUT.OUTPUTI
REAO*.X
PRINTZ
~.
1.
-1Ui?s
-1"5".2
00130 2 FORMAT I1X."x".4X."SIG3"I 2. -lItl2.
00140 10 SI63.15*X**2-0."*X**3-1ltIl8.8 3. -13"4.11
00150 WRITE.,X.~IG3 4. -125"."
001110 X.X+1 5. -11"3.8
00170 IFIX.GT.1l1 STOP II. -1015.2
00180 GO TO 10 7. -871.
00190 ENO S. -713.11
(d)
9. -5"5."
10. -3118.8
l l . -1811.2
12. O.
(e)

Principal stress 03 • psi

-1600

3
'"
"
..c
<.>
.5
'"'
!l
:a..."'"
0
0
<.> 7
0;
:a"
.3
·60
"
0
oJ

II

12

FIGURE C3.1

Sec. 3.5 I Computer Applications 157

 F = f: f dx - 14,688

= f:(300X - 12x 2 ) dx - 14,688

= 150x 2 - 4x 3 - 14,688
The principal stress of largest magnitude is given by Eq. 3.1. Thus

(1'3 = 5= 1 15x 2 - 0.4x 3 - 1468.81

The solution of the equation for the principal stress (1'3 is obtained by writing the com-
puter program shown in Fig. C3.1(d). The output showing values of x and corresponding
values of (1'3 is shown in Fig. C3.l(e) and plotted in Fig. C3.1(f).

COMPUTER PROBLEMS

C3.1 Repeat Example C3.l (p.156) if the cross-
sectional area of that part of the shaft inside the sleeve
is not a constant but varies according to the relation
A = 10 - x/12. All other conditions in Example C3.l
remain the same.
PARTIAL ANSWERS: x = 5 in., (1'3 = -1193.5 psi.
C3.2 Refer to Example 1.3 (p. 8), where the internal
force in the soil sampling device was found to be
F = 80 - 500x 2 , in which x is the lengthwise coordinate
measured in meters and F in newtons. If the sampling
device is hollow with a tapered inside contour such that
its cross-sectional area in m 2 is A = 10 X 10- 4 - 25
X 1O- 4 x, develop a computer program that would
compute the principal stress of largest magnitude for x
between 0 and 0.38 m in increments of 0.02 m. Plot this
principal stress as a function of x. Assume that the two
ends of the sampling device are capped so that there are
no frictional forces on its inside surface.
PARTIAL ANSWERS: x = 0, (1'1 = 0.08 MPa; x = 0.1 m,
(1'1 = 0.10 MPa.
C3.3 The constants in the Ramberg-Osgood equation
(Eq. 3.4, p. 147) for a given material are known to be as
follows: E = 10 x 106 psi, n = 12 and B = 80,000 psi.
Rewrite the Ramberg-Osgood equation using these
constants. Write a computer program to solve for
values of strain for various values of stress ranging
between 0 and 60,000 psi in increments of 3000 psi. Plot
the stress-strain diagram for this material.
PARTIAL ANSWERS: (1' = 12,000 psi, I> = 0.00120; (1' =
48,000 psi, I> = 0.00698.

158 Ch. 3 I Stresses end Streins in Axielly Loaded Members

 CHAPTER Torsionalllrlssls.llrains.
and lolalions
1.1_ _ A major part of this chapter is concerned with shearing stresses and angles of twist of
Introduction circular and hollow circular cylindrical shafts subjected to torques. Mathematically, this is
the simplest torsion problem and an important practical one because such sections resist
torque efficiently. Principal stresses and strains in shafts are evaluated with the aid of the
Mohr's circle construction. Elements taken from shafts are usually free of stresses on the
surface, and the analysis reduces to one of plane stress.
Analytical and experimental solutions for torsion of members of noncircular cross
section are given next. Warping displacements and warping functions are discussed and
equations for angle of twist and maximum shearing stresses are given for elliptical, rec-
tangular, and triangular cross sections. Experimental solutions are presented in terms of
the membrane analogy, which also provides a powerful visual and qualitative approach
for solution of torsional problems.
Background from Chapter 1 on construction of torque diagrams and from Chapter 2
on determination of principal stress and strains is required for a thorough understanding
of the topics presented in this chapter.

1.2
Solid Circular
A cylindrical shaft is depicted in Fig. 4.1. Assumptions are required to determine the
deformation of the shaft and internal shearing stresses.
Shafts-Angle ASSUMPTION 1. Cross sections perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the shaft are
of Twist and plane prior to application of the torque T and they remain plane after the torque is
Shearing Stresses applied.

x ---+-+--~~

~\~~) \ T
"
I------------------- L --------------------~
Recta ngl e FGH! defonns into parallelogram P'G'H'!' as
torque T increases from zero to its fina l value T

FIGURE4.1

159
 ASSUMPTION 2. Surface elements of the cylinder, such as BD, are assumed to remain
straight lines after twisting takes place. Point B moves to B' and B'D is assumed to be a
straight line, which is approximately correct for small angles of twist even though the true
shape of B'D is helical. Similarly, point C moves to C' as the torque T is applied and
interior longitudinal lines parallel to surface elements such as BD are assumed to remain
straight during twisting of the shaft.
ASSUMPTION 3. A typical rectangle such as FGHl ruled on the shaft surface prior to
twist will be deformed into a parallelogram FG'H'/'. The amount of this angular distor-
tion of the rectangle is given by the angle BDB', which represents the shear strain on the
surface of the shaft between line elements BD and Fl. This shear strain on the surface of
the shaft is associated with the radius r of the shaft and is denoted by the symbol Yr' As
shown later, Yr is, in fact, the maximum shear strain, Ymax' in the shaft. Since Ymax is a small
angle, it is given by
BB'
Yr = Ymax = BD (4.1)

Similarly, inside the shaft, at a distance p from the x axis of twist,

(4.2)

Arc lengths are expressed in terms of the angle of twist

BB' = r{} (4.3)
and
CC' = p{} (4.4)

ASSUMPTION 4. The length of longitudinal elements of the shaft L is assumed to

remain constant under the action of externally applied torques.

BD=L (4.5)
Substitute Eqs. 4.3 and 4.5 into Eq. 4.1:
r{}
Yr = Ymax =L (4.6)

Similarly, substitute Eqs. 4.4 and 4.5 into Eq. 4.2:

(4.7)

Divide Eq. 4.7 by Eq. 4.6:

(4.8)

Equation 4.8 states that the shearing strain is proportional to the distance measured
radially from the axis of twist, which is the geometric axis of the cylindrical shaft. Yp varies
linearly from zero for p = 0 to Yr = Ymax for p = r.

160 Ch. 4 I Torsional Stresses. Strains. and Rotations

 ~--------------------- p ~--------------------p
(0.0) (0.0)

FIGURE 4.2

T !..E.. = 'max
p ,

FIGURE4.3

ASSUMPTION 5. Hooke's law relates the shearing strains to the shearing stress by Eq.
2.26 for the material of which the shaft is fabricated. This equation is repeated here
without subscripts. Thus

(4.9)

In order to relate shearing stress to the radial coordinate p, multiply the numerator
and denominator of the left side of Eq. 4.8 by the shearing modulus of elasticity, G:

~=~ (4.10)
GYr r

By Eq. 4.9, Eq. 4.10 becomes

M (4.11)
~
Equation 4.11 states that the shearing stress is proportional to the distance measured
'r
radially from the axis of twist. The stress 'p varies linearly from zero for p = 0 to = 'max
for p = r. Equations 4.8 and 4.11 are shown graphically in Fig. 4.2.
In order to relate external torque to internal shearing stress, refer to Fig. 4.3, showing
a typical cross section of a circular cylindrical shaft. The annular differential element of
area dA is given by

Sec. 4.2 I Solid Circular Shafts-Angle of Twist and Shearing Stresses 161
 dA = 2np dp (4.12)
Shearing stress 't" p acts over this annular area and the differential force on this differential
area is given by
(4.13)
A differential part dT of the applied torque T is resisted by shearing stresses on this
differential area such that
dT = p dF = 21tp 2't"p dp (4.14)
Equation 4.11 solved for 'rp yields
'r,
'r =-p
p r
(4.15)

Then we substitute Eq. 4.15 into Eq. 4.14 to obtain

'r, 3
dT = - 21tp dp (4.16)
r

Integration of both sides of this equation yields

f dT = ~ J:21t p3 dp
where 'r,lr is constant for a given shaft of radius r subjected to a torque T. Figure 4.2
shows that 'r,lr is the slope of the 'r versus p function. Therefore,
'r,
T=-J (4.17)
r

i 1,
where
nr4
J = p2 dA = 2n p3 dp = -
area 0 2
is the polar moment of inertia of the circular cross-sectional area. We substitute for
'r,lr = 'rplp from Eq. 4.11 into Eq. 4.17:

(4.18)

Solving Eq. 4.18 for 'r p ' we obtain the shearing stress equation for circular cylindrical
shafts:

~ (4.19)
~
and multiply both sides of Eq. 4.7 by G to obtain

Gy = GpO (4.20)
p L
But Gyp = 'rp; therefore,
GpO
'r =-- (4.21)
p L

162 Ch. 4 I Toraional Streaaea. Straina. and Rotatlona

 Then we substitute for 'p from Eq. 4.19, divide by p, and solve for e:
~ (4.22a)
~
If the torque T varies with the longitudinal coordinate x, then the differential angle
of twist de may be written as
de = T dx
JG
Integration of this equation will give the angle of twist for the shaft length over which the
variable torque is applied:

(4.22b)

Equations 4.11, 4.19, and 4.22 are the basic equations used to find the shearing stresses in
solid circular shafts and the angle of twist associated with applied torques.

EXAMPLE 4.1

Given: A circular shaft is shown in Fig. 4.4(a). The shaft is 48 in. long and has a radius of
2.00 in. It is subjected to end torques of 8500 lb-ft and is to be fabricated of material for
which G = 12.0 X 10 6 psi. Find (a) the maximum shearing stress in the shaft, (b) the
shearing stress 1.50 in. from the center of twist of the shaft, and (c) the angle of twist of the
shaft.
48 in.

-jt)
85001b-ft (a )
:J 8500 tb-fl

I
T(lb-in.)

102,0001b-in.

Typical
radial (0, 0)
1
(48,0)
, x (in. )
(b )
line

Any cross section of the shaft

(c)

L = 48 in.
Cd )
FIGURE 4.4

s.c. 4.2 / Solid Circul.r Shaft.-Angl. of Twi.t and Sh.aring Str••••• 163
 SOLUTION
(a) The internal torque versus x diagram is shown in Fig. 4.4(b). Over the length of the
shaft the internal torque is constant and equal to 8500 Ib-ft x 12 ih./ft = 102,000 Ib-in.
Equation 4.19 is the appropriate equation for finding shearing stresses in the shaft:
Tp
't" =-
P J

for p = r = 2 in.
Tr
't"max = 't"r =J

where

102,000(2)
'!max = tr =
25.13

= 18120 psi 1

(b) Since shearing stress is proportional to the distance from the axis of twist, Eq. 4.11 is
convenient for finding the shearing stress 1.5 in. from the center of the shaft.

p 1.50
't"p = -;: 't"max = 2.00 (8120)

= 16090 psi 1

The shearing stresses are plotted along a typical radial line in Fig. 4.4(c). Any cross
section of the shaft is represented in the figure and this linear variation of stress would
hold along any radial line.
(c) Equation 4.22 will be used to find the relative angle of rotation between the two ends
of the shaft.

() = TL
JG
102,000(48.0)
25.13(12.0 x 106 )

= 1 0.0162 rad or 0.930° 1

If the right end of the shaft were held fixed, the left end would rotate through an angle of
0.930° as shown in Fig. 4.4(d).

164 Ch. 4 / Torsional Stresses. Strains. end Rotations

EXAMPLE 4.2

Refer to Fig. 4.5(a) and determine the maximum shearing stress in the stepped shaft and
the relative rotation between the ends A and D. Use G = 80.0 GPa.

SOLUTION. The torque versus x plot is shown in Fig. 4.5(b), and the shearing stress
will be computed for each segment of the shaft using Eq. 4.19 with p = r = D/2 in each
case.
SEGMENT AB:
Tp 1000 N-m x (0.10/ 2) m
r=-=
J (n/ 2)(0.10/ 2)4 m4

= 15.09 MPa

D
8000 -m
3000 -m

~~---D-2-=--0.-1-5-m--~('~----D-3-=-0-.-12-m----,~
1
\D
'-'-1-----....-'

~ 1 m 12,000
Dl=O.lom ~
N-m
I 2m 2m

(a)
T
-m)
1000
x
(m)

- 3000

- 11 ,000 (b)

(3 .09M

Any
radial
line
An y
radial
line
Segment CD
Left free body
looking from D to C
Segment AB
Left free body
looking from B to A Segment BC
Left free body
(e)
looking from C to B

lock wise rota tion

looking from
A toward D
FIGURE 4.5 (d)

Sec. 4.2 I Solid Circular Shafts-Angle of Twi.t and Shearing Stre••e. 165
 SEGMENT BC:
Tp 11,000 N-m X (0.15/2) m
1:"=-=
J (n/2)(O.15/2)4 m 4

= 116.60 MPa 1

SEGMENT CD:
Tp 3000 N-m X (0.12/2) m
1:" = J = (n/2)(O.12/2)4 m 4

= 18.85 MPa 1
The maximum shearing stress, associated with the applied torques, occurs in the central
region BC and equals 16.60 MPa. Shearing stress distributions are shown in Fig. 4.5(c).
Imagine end D of the shaft to be fixed and form the following sum, which equals the
relative rotation of end A with respect to end D:
BAD = BAB + BBC + BCD
Each term of the sum will be obtained from Eq. 4.22:

B= TL
JG
B _ 1000 X 1 (-11,000) x 2 ( - 3000) x 2
AD - (n/2)(O.10/2)4(80 x 10 9 ) + (n/2)(O.15/2)4(80 x 10 9 ) + (n/2)(O.12/2)4(80 x 109 )
= 0.00127 - 0.00554 - 0.00369

= I - 0.00796 rad or -0.456° I

Signs of the torques entering the preceding equation were obtained from the torque
diagram constructed as described in Section 1.4. The negative sign means that an observer
at A looking toward D would observe a line scribed in the cross section at A to rotate
clockwise. This angular displacement is shown in Fig. 4.5(d).

1.3
Hollow Circular
In order to apply Eqs. 4.19 and 4.22 to hollow circular shafts, we need simply to modify
the equation for J, the polar moment of inertia:
Shafts-Angle
of Twist and
(4.23)
Shearing Stresses
where
J 1 = polar moment of inertia for annular area
ro = outside radius of shaft, Do = outside diameter
r i = inside radius of shaft, Di = inside diameter

166 Ch.4 I Torsional Stresses. Strains. and Rotations

 Hollow shafts carry torques more efficiently than solid shafts, since material near the axis
of twist, which has lower levels of stress in a solid shaft, has been removed from the
hollow shaft.

EXAMPLE 4.3

Refer to Fig. 4.6(a) and determine the maximum shearing stress in the hollow shaft and
the angle of twist of the shaft. Plot the variation of shearing stress along any radial line of
the shaft at any cross section between the ends. Sketch the angle of twist of the left end
relative to the right end. The following values are given: T = 30,000 lb-ft ro = 4.00 in.,
ri = 2.00 in., L = 60 in., and G = 6.00 X 106 psi.

30,000 Ib-ft 1
1- - - - - - - - -60 in.- - - - - ---ll

j- (~'-"---:::----------@1" (a) 30,OOOIb-ft

T (Ib-in.)

1
~--____- - - .,. .I_,
.
360,000 "H •.

x (in.)
~m ~~m
(b )

Any cross section of the shaft

(c)

Angle of twist
(d )

FIGURE 4.6

SOLUTION. Apply Eq. 4.23 for a hollow shaft to obtain the polar moment of inertia of
this cross-sectional area:

Sec. 4.3 / Hollow Circular Shafts-Angle of Twist and Shearing Stresses 167
 = ~ [(4)4 _ (2)4] = 377 in.4

Tp
, =-
P J

with

360,000(4.00)
't max =
377

= 13820 psi 1

Let p = r i to obtain the shearing stress at the outside of the hole in the shaft.

r· 2
,.=..2., =-(3820)
, ro rna" 4

:;: 11910 psi I

These values are plotted in Fig. 4.6(c). Note the linear variation of shearing stress with the
radial coordinate. The angle of twist is given by Eq. 4.22:

e = TL:;: 360,000(60)
JG 377(6 x 106 )

= 1 0.00955 rad or 0.547° 1

This result is shown schematically in Fig. 4.6(d).

EXAMPLE 4.4

A hollow shaft is depicted in Fig. 4.7(a), which has an inside diameter of 0.12 m over its
full length and is subjected to the torques shown. Plot the variation of torque versus the x
coordinate measured along the axis of the shaft. Determine the maximum shearing
stresses at typical cross sections between A and B, Band C, and C and D. Compute the
angle of twist of end A relative to end D of the shaft. Use G = 100 GPa.
J
SOLUTION. The torque variation along the length of the shaft is depicted in Fig. 4.7(b).
Compute polar moments of inertia of the cross sections using Eq. 4.23.

168 Ch. 4 / Torsional Stresses, Strains, and Rotations

 3333 kN-m
. m 300 kN-m

Do = 0.20m

- 1 -- -- - 1.60 m- -- -- i

(al
Torque
(kN-ml
+40
x
- 60 (ml

- 360
(bl

40 kN-m
360 kN-m 60 kN-m
~
,","~~dJ29.3M~:_ )
AD
Do = 0.20 m D, = 0.12 m
........... SCJ
J usl to left of C
")

28.9 MN/m2
~:::"::J:)J 23.6
CD
MN/m2

Do = 0.40 m Dj = 0.12 m Do=0.24m Dj=0.12m

Shearing slresses along Iypical radial lines

(cl

FIGURE4.7

SEGMENT AB:

J = 31t2 (D! - Di) = 31t2 [(0.20)4 - (0.12)4] = 13.672 X 10- 5 m 4

SEGMENT Be:

J = 3~ [(0.40)4 - (0.12)4] = 249.292 X 10- 5 m4

SEGMENT CD:

J = 3~ [(0.24)4 - (0.12)4] = 30.536 X 10- 5 m4

Maximum shearing stresses follow from Eq. 4.19 with p = outside radius of each
shaft segment:
Tp
t =-
P J

Sec. 4.3 / Hollow Circular Shaft_Angla of Twi.t and Shearing Str••••• 169
 SEGMENT AB:
40(0.10) X103
'r = 13.672 X 10- 5

= 129.3 MPa 1

SEGMENT BC: Critical just to the left of C.

360(0.20) x 103
'r = 249.292 x 10 5

= 128.9 MPa I
SEGMENT CD:
60(0.12) X 10 3
'r = 30.536 X 10- 5
= 123.6 MPa I
Plots of these shearing stresses are shown along typical radial lines in Fig. 4.7(c).
Imagine end D of the shaft to be fixed and form the following sum to obtain the
relative rotation of end A with respect to end D:
OAD = OAB + OBC + OCD
Rotations of segments AB and CD will be obtained from Eq. 4.22a and rotation of
segment BC from Eq. 4.22b. The torque in segment BC expressed as a function of x
measured from B is given by
T = 40 - 333.3x (0 ~ x ~ 1.20)
40(0.75)10 3 (1.20 (40 - 333.3x) dx
OAD = 13.672 x 10- 5 (100 x 109 ) + Jo 249.292 x 10- 5 (100 x 109 )
- 60(1.60)10 3
+ 30.536 x 10- 5 (100 x 109 )
OAD = 2.19 X 10- 3 - 0.770 X 10- 3 - 3.14 X 10- 3

lOAD = -1.72 X 10- 3 rad or -0.0985° I

The negative sign means that an observer at A looking toward D would observe a line
scribed in the cross section of A to rotate clockwise with respect to a fixed line.

PROBLEMS

4.1 Determine the maximum shearing stress in the ing stress along a typical radial line of the shaft. Calcu-
shaft depicted in Fig. P4.1. Plot the variation of shear- late the angle of twist in degrees of:

170 Ch. 4 I Tor.lon.' Str•••••• Strain •• and Rotation.

(a) End A with respect to end C. Calculate the maximum shearing stress in this shaft.
(b) Section B with respect to end C. Use G = 80.0 GPa. Use G = 80.0 G Pa. Determine the angle of twist of end
D with respect to end A of the shaft.

4.4 For the shaft depicted in Fig. P4.4, plot the varia-
I.5rn tion of torque versus a longitudinal coordinate mea-
60.000 -m
sured along the axis of the shaft. Calculate the
maximum shearing stress in this shaft. Find the angle of
twist in degrees of end B with respect to end A of this
shaft. The shearing modulus of elasticity equals 60 G Pa.
2.001
I

FIGURE P4.1 - - - - - - 3m

FIGURE P4.4

4.2 Determine the maximum shearing stress in each

segment (i.e., AB, BC, and CD) of the shaft shown in
Fig. P4.2. Determine the angle of twist in degrees of end 4.5 Determine the reslstmg torque at the base of
D with respect to end A of this shaft. Use member ABC shown in Fig. P4.5 to assure equilibrium
G = 12.0 X 10 6 psi. of the member. Plot the variation of torque versus a
longitudinal coordinate measured along the member
32 k-ft
axis. Determine the maximum shearing stress in this
shaft and plot the variation of shearing stress along a
typical radial line.

32 k-ft

1 Ct - -r----- 2 ft - -- 1 - - 1 Ct
A B D
FIGURE P4.2
1.8m

4.3 A hollow shaft is sUbjected to the torques shown in

Fig. P4.3. Plot the variation of torque versus a longitu-
dinal coordinate measured along the axis of the shaft.
2.001
30 kN-m
30 kN-m Do = 0.10 m, Dj = 0.06 m Do =0,10rn
Dj=0.06 m

2m 2m - - - 2m-

FIGURE P4.3 FIGURE P4.5

Sec. 4.3 / Hollow Circuler Shafts-Angle of Twist and Shearing Stresses 171
 m~
4.6 A uniformly distributed torque is applied to the 16 kN'm/m

shaft of Fig. P4.6. Plot the variation of torque versus a

longitudinal coordinate measured along the axis of the C ) )) )D
~ F) 'j
shaft. Compute the maximum shearing stress in this 30 kN'm Do = O.l2m 30 kN'm
shaft. Determine the angle of twist of end B with respect D = 0.08 m
j

to end A given that G = 10.0 X 106 psi.

f--o.s m + o.s m + - o.6 m-+-os m+os m--j
20 k-ft
Uniformly distributed torque 4 k-ft / ft FIGURE P4.9

4.10 A hollow circular shaft is shown in Fig. P4.1O.

D = 6 in. Determine the maximum shearing stress in this shaft
1--- - - - -10 ft and plot the variation of shearing stress along a typical
radial line of the shaft.
FIGURE P4.6

4.7 A stepped shaft is depicted in Fig. P4.7. Plot the

variation of torque versus a longitudinal coordinate
measured along the axis of the shaft. Determine the
maximum shearing stresses in segments AB, BC, and
CD of this shaft. Use G = 80.0 GPa. Compute the angle
of twist of end A with respect to end D of the shaft.

1+ -
.5? or:;,
8 kN-m B C II

O~ m f D-2- =- 0.-1-0-m1--D-3 -=-0-,0-8-m~D~ -m

6 ft ...?' '"?'

2m - +--- 2 m 2.4 m

FIGURE P4.7
lj'~~~~~~~
FIGURE P4.10
4.8 Determine the maximum shearing stress in the
shaft depicted in Fig. P4.8. Plot the variation of shear-
4.11 The maximum shearing stress is 80 MPa in the
ing stress along a typical radial line of the shaft.
shaft depicted in Fig. P4.11. Determine the applied torque
20,000 N-m Tt •

~L...--
) _ D = 0.1_5m ~()7-
1-- - - - - 5 m- - - -- - l 20,000 N-m Do = 0.12 In

D1= 0.0 m
FIGURE P4.8

1--- - 2 m- -- - I -- - 2 m - ---I
4.9 Determine the equal end torques Tl required for
equilibrium of the shaft shown in Fig. P4.9. Plot the FIGURE P4.11
variation of torque versus a longitudinal coordinate
measured along the axis of this shaft. Determine the 4.12 A uniformly distributed torque is applied to the
maximum shearing stress and plot the variation shaft depicted in Fig. P4.l2. Determine the maximum
showing stress along a typical radial line. shearing stresses in this shaft.

172 Ch. 4 I Torsional Stresses. Strains. and Rotations

 1 y-" ~ ~kf~~
Unifonnly distributed torque 6 k -m/m

7-() ) ) ) J ) J J ) ))7-
A D = 0.06 m B 6 kN
~~" ~-"
6 kN -m 2 m -m
T 10k-ft:)
FIGURE P4.12 7.S k-ft 7.S k-ft
1---1-- 4 -3.0 ft 3.0 ft
1.5 ft 2.0 ft 2.0 ft 2.0 ft
FIGURE P4.14
4.13 Plot the variation of torque versus a longitudinal
coordinate measured along the axis of the shaft depicted 4.15 In the shaft shown in Fig. P4 .15, the maximum
in Fig. P4.13. Compute the maximum shearing stresses shearing stress is 60 MPa. Detennine the corresponding
in segments AB and Be of this shaft. value of T\.

9ft

FIGURE P4.15

4.16 Plot the variation of torque versus a longitudinal

coordinate measured along the axis of the shaft shown

S ) ;;
in Fig. P4.16. Determine the maximum shearing stress
~~~~ in this shaft.

;) D}:)"
FIGURE P4.13

4.14 Plot the variation of torque versus a longitudinal

coordinate measured along the axis of the shaft shown 40 k-ft
in Fig. P4.14. Determine the maximum shearing stress 4ft 4ft I 4ft

in this shaft. FIGURE P4.16

1.1
Principal Stresses
Although applied torques give rise to shearing stresses, the Mohr's circle construction
reveals that tensile and compressive principal stresses are always associated with torsion.
and Strains These principal stresses are each equal in magnitude to the shearing stress computed from
Associated with the torsion formula, Eq. 4.19, with P = r.
Torsion A stressed element is shown at any point on the surface of a cylindrical shaft of Fig.
4.8(a) with a longitudinal x axis oriented along an element of the cylinder and a perpen-

Sec. 4A / Principal StresMa and Strains Associatad with Torsion 173

 .l'

T I
Jf) )1-
Til'

~D~- X Y (0. Tl T = Txy

Tr
T =j
T, T
TXY=J
Y
(a) (0),0) (01 , 0)

r
On

Txy --..... Ox = 0

jDt~· X (O, - T)

--
(d)

""- 'Y1I1
T
(b)
"- T,
°1 (0 , 2JC)
45 0

02 =0
0) C

""- "- "-

(E). (EI.O)
J En

'"
T:"Y

0)
(el Tr
(0. - 2JC)
FIGURE 4.8 (el

dicular y axis oriented tangent to the surface. An enlarged view of this element is shown in
Fig. 4.8(b). After establishing a convenient an - rnt coordinate system, as shown in Fig.
4.8(d), Mohr's circle representing this plane stress condition can be constructed by locat-
ing two diametrically opposite points on its circumference. One of the two points (point
X) is obtained by plotting the coordinates (0, -r) and the second (point Y) by plotting
the coordinates (0, r), where r = Tr/J. The normal stress perpendicular to the shaft
surface is zero, which means that the term plane stress is appropriate, as discussed in
Section 2.4. When these points are connected by a straight line, the center of Mohr's
circle, point C, lies at the origin of the an - Tnt coordinate system and the circle has a
radius R = r. This circle intersects the an axis at the points with coordinates (aI' 0) and
(a 3, 0) and by inspection the principal stresses are a 1 = r and a 3 = - r. Stress a 1 is tensile
and stress a 3 is compressive, and Fig. 4.8(c) shows the planes on which these maximum
and minimum normal stresses act. The maximum shearing stress is give by the ordinate to
the plotted point Y. In the special case of pure torsion, aI' a 3' r l' '2, and I rmax I all have
equal magnitudes obtained from the torsion formula r xy = Tp/J with p chosen equal to
the shaft radius in order to obtain the largest possible value for the stress.
Provided that Mohr's circle for stress has been constructed first, it is a simple task to
construct Mohr's circle for strain. Recall that 'xy = GyXY or that Yxy = ri G; then y = Tr/
JG. Points with coordinates (0, y/2), (0, -y/2) are plotted and the circle for strain com-
pleted as shown in Fig. 4.8(e). Once again, the center of the circle lies at the origin of the
coordinate system and the radius of the circle equals Tr/2JG. In the special case of pure
torsion, the principal normal strains, 8 1 and 8 3 , each have magnitudes equal to Tr/2JG

174 Ch. 4 / Tor.ional Str•••••• Strain•• and Rotation.

 and the maximum shearing strain has a magnitude equal to TrjJG. Mohr's circle for
strain based upon measured normal strains on the shaft surface is discussed in Example
4.6.
An important relationship between the elastic constants (E, G, and Jl) for homoge-
neous, isotropic materials is easily developed from information obtained from the Mohr's
circles for stress and strain shown in Fig. 4.8(d) and (e). Plane stress (Eq. 2.31) is
E
0"1 = -1--2 (8 1 + Jl8 3)
-Jl
where
Tr
8 ---
1 - 2JG'

Substitute these values, to obtain

~r = 1~ Jl2 [2~~ + Jl ( ~J~)]

Divide through by TrjJ and solve for G to obtain Eq. 2.27, which is repeated here for
convenience.

~G-
- 2(1 + Jl)
The modulus of elasticity E, the shearing modulus of elasticity, or the modulus of rigidity
(2.27)

G and Poisson's ratio Jl are not independent of each other but are related by this
equation. Experimental values may be checked with this equation and it may be used to
write equations in alternative forms. As an example, typical values of E and Jl for steel
alloys are 29.0 x 106 psi and 0.30, respectively, so that

= E = 29.0 X 106 = 11.2 X 106 si

G 2(1 + Jl) 2(1 + 0.30) p

EXAMPLE 4.5

Refer to Example 4.1 and construct a stress element from the shaft surface, then draw
Mohr's circle for stress. Determine the principal stresses and then sketch planes on which
they act. If G = 12 X 106 psi, construct the Mohr's circle for strain and state values of the
principal strains.

SOLUTION. The shearing stress computed from the torsion formula equals 8120 psi.
Figure 4.9(a) shows the appropriate plane stress element. Mohr's circle for stress is shown
in Fig. 4.9(c). Points X and Y with coordinates (0, 8120) and (0, -8120), respectively, were
plotted for the states of stress on X and Y planes of the stress element. Points X and Y
are connected, which locates the center of the circle C at the origin of the coordinate
system. The radius of the circle equals 8120 psi in this case, and the principal normal
stresses are 0'1 = 8120 psi and 0'3 = -8120 psi. These stresses are shown acting on their
associated planes in Fig. 4.9(b). In order to construct Mohr's cicle for strain, compute

s.c. 4.4 I Principal Str••••• and StraIn. A.soclat.d wIth Tor.lon 175
 y Tn/

"20,,,1 Ox = 0
X (0.8 120)
R = 8 120

jD ~"20'"
Oy= 0

--- I
X
(03. 0)
0,.

f'.-
(a)
"- y
(0. - 8120)
45· "- 03 = T xy = 8 I20 psi

/ (c)

1 "Y,lt
'T

X (0. 0.338 X 10-

3)
01 = 8120 psi

(b )

(El.O) (EI'O)
Err

(0. 0.338 X 10 3)

FIGURE 4.9 (d )

y = r j G = 8120j(12 X 106) = 0.676 X 10- 3 in.jin. Recall that yj 2 is plotted along the ver-
tical axis when constructing the strain circle. yj 2 = 0.338 X lO-3 in.jin. Plot points X and
Y in Fig. 4.9(d) with coordinates as shown. Connect these points to establish the center of
the circle C at the origin of the coordinate system. The radius of the circle equals
0.338 x lO - 3 in.jin. in this case and the principal normal strains are Sl = 0.338 x lO - 3
in.jin. and S3 = -0.338 >< 10- 3 in./in.

EXAMPLE 4.6

During the course of an experiment, careful measurements of principal strains are taken
on the surface of the shaft depicted in Fig. 4.l0(a). Directions 1 and 3 lie in a tangent
plane to the shaft surface at point P and direction 2 (not shown) is perpendicular to the
shaft surface. Axes 1 and 3 each make 45° angles with an x axis oriented along a
longitudinal element of the circular cylindrical shaft of 2.00 in. diameter. Measured results
are Sl = 0.lO6 X lO-3 in.jin. and S3 = -0.106 X lO-3 in.jin. The shearing modulus of
elasticity is 11.2 x lO6 psi for the shaft. Draw Mohr's circles for strain and stress and
state principal strains and stresses. Determine the torque T applied to the shaft when
these strains were measured.

176 Ch. 4 I Tor.lonal Str•••••• Strain•• and Rotation.

 'Ynt
"2
(0, 'Y2')

,---.-----.----.-----E
~3 ~ ~1'~
n
E3 = -0.106 X 10-3 E1 = 0.106 X 10- 3

o-t
~3 (O,¥-)
~
T ~
(b)

p~545·•
-jtJ ,
, 1
••

T
Tnt

(a) (0,2374)

(03, -'°)..-_ _
-
-+-__..-(0..:.1,'-°_)_ __ On

03 =-2374 01 = 2374 psi

(0, -2374)
FIGURE 4.10 (c)

SOLUTION. Since the stress element from the shaft surface represents a plane stress
condition, (12 = 0 and (11 > (12 > (13. The strain circle shown in Fig. 4.1O(b) was con-
structed by plotting the points designated (8 1, 0) and (8 3 , 0) and connecting them with a
straight line. The center of the circle C lies at the origin of the coordinate system and the
radius R of the circle equals 0.106 x 10- 3 in./in. The maximum normal strain equals the
measured value 8 1 = 0.106 X 10- 3 . From the circle YmaJ2 = R' = 0.106 X 10- 3, or
Ymax = 0.212 X 10- 3 in./in. In order to plot the stress circle, compute <max = GYmax = (11.2
x 106 )(0.212 x 10- 3 ) = 2374 psi. The stress circle is shown in Fig. 4.10(c). It was con-
structed by plotting the points (2374, 0) and (-2374, 0), which establishes the center C
and the radius R = 2374 psi. Maximum and minimum normal stresses read from the
circle are (11 = 2374 psi and (13 = -2374 psi, respectively. Their directions coincide with
the measured principal strain directions 1 and 3 shown on the shaft surface at point P in
Fig. 4.10(a). The applied torque will be determined from the equation < = TpjJ with
p = D/2. Since! = !max = 2374 psi and D = 2.00 in., substitution yields

7 T(2.00/2)
23 4 = (n/32)(2.00)4

Solving for T, we obtain

IT = 3729 Ib-in·1

S.c. 4.4 / Principal Str••••• and Strain. A.aGclat.d with Tor.lon 177
PROBLEMS
4.17 Refer to Fig. P4.S (p. 172) and construct a stress
element taken from a point on the surface of the shaft.
Determine the maximum and minimum normal stresses
at the point by constructing Mohr's circle for stress.
Draw a sketch of the planes on which these stresses act.
4.18 Refer to segment AB of the shaft depicted in Fig.
P4.13 (p. 173) and construct Mohr's circle for stress for
an element taken from the shaft surface. State maximum
and minimum normal stresses for this element of
segment AB and sketch the planes on which these
stresses act.
4.19 Determine principal stresses from Mohr's circle
constructions for the shaft depicted in Fig. P4.10 (p.
172).
(a) An element on the outside surface.
(b) An element on the inside surface.
4.20 Refer to segment Be of the shaft depicted in P4.7
(p. 172) and construct Mohr's circle for a surface
element. State maximum and minimum normal stresses
for this shaft segment and sketch the planes on which
these stresses act.
4.21 Refer to Fig. P4.14 (p. 173) and consider segment
DE of the shaft, then construct Mohr's circle for a
surface element. Determine principal stresses for this
segment of the shaft.
4.22 Construct Mohr's circle for segment Be of the
shaft shown in Fig. P4.1 (p. 171) and find the principal
stresses for a surface element of this shaft segment.
Sketch the planes on which these stresses act.
4.23 Consider a stress element taken from the surface
of the shaft 2 ft from the left end as shown in Fig. P4.6
(p. 172). Assume that the shaft surface is free of applied
forces at this point and construct Mohr's circle for
stress. State principal stresses for this element and
sketch the planes on which these stresses act.
4.24 Refer to the shaft shown in Fig. P4.3 (p. 171) and
consider segment AB of the shaft. Construct Mohr's
circle for stress and determine principal stresses for ele-
ments taken from :
178
(a) The outside surface of the shaft.
(b) The inside surface of the shaft.
Sketch the planes on which these stresses act.
4.25 Refer to the shaft shown in Fig. P4.4 (p. 171) and
consider a stress element taken from the shaft surface
1 m to the left of point B. Assume that the surface of the
shaft is free of applied forces where the element is sel-
ected. Draw Mohr's circles for stress and strain and
determine principal stresses and strains for this plane
stress element. Use G = 100 GPa and J.1. = 0.25.
4.26 Consider stress elements taken from the free
surface of segments AB and Be of the shaft depicted in
Fig. P4.2 (p. 171). Construct Mohr's circles for stress
and strain and find principal stresses and strains for
these elements. Use G = 11.2 X 10 3 ksi.
4.27 A uniformly distributed torque is applied to the
shaft depicted in Fig. P4.4 (p. 171). Consider a surface
stress element 1 m to the right of point A on the shaft.
Construct Mohr's circles for stress and strain for this
element and determine principal stresses and strains.
Use G = SO GPa. Assume that the surface of the shaft is
free of applied forces where the element is selected.
4.28 Select a surface element 6.00 ft from the right end
of the shaft depicted in Fig. P4.16 (p. 173) . Construct
Mohr's circle for stress and strain for this element and
determine principal stresses and strains. Use
G = 12.0 X 10 3 ksi.
4.29 Refer to Fig. P4.29 and construct Mohr's circle
for stress and strain for an outside surface element
taken from the shaft between A and B. Use
G = 100 G Pa. Find the principal stresses and strains for
this element.
I m-~- I.5 m- - - + -- -
/). ~ O . IOI1l
/), = 0.06 on
FIGURE P4.29
Ch . 4 I Torsional Stresses, Strains, and Rotations
4.30 From segment BC of the shaft shown in Fig.
P4.29 construct Mohr's circle for stress and strain for an
outside surface element. Use G = 100 GPa. Find prin-
cipal stresses and strains for this element.

4.31 Choose Tl acting on the shaft depicted in Fig. Dz = 0.16 m

P4.31 such that the maximum shearing stresses in seg- 60 kN 'm

ments AB and BC are equal. Then draw Mohr's circle

for a surface element of this shaft in order to determine 8
the principal stresses. Sketch the planes on which these
stresses act.
Dl = 0.08 m
4.32 Refer to Fig. P4.31 and let T} = 10 kN-m .
Choose a surface element from this shaft which will
have shearing stresses of the largest magnitude acting
on it and construct Mohr's circle for stress and strain
for this element. Poisson's ratio is 0.3 and the modulus
of elasticity E equals 260 GPa. FIGURE P4.31

1.5
Analytical and
Treatment was limited, in preceding sections of this chapter, to solution of torsion pro-
blems for members having either circular or hollow circular cross sections. These solu-
Experimental tions are of great practical importance because such members carry torsional loads
Solutions for efficiently. A primary assumption, verifiable by experiment, of these solutions is that plane
Torsion of cross sections of these members before twisting remain plane after twisting as shown in
Members of Fig. 4.11(a).
Noncircular Plane sections of members of noncircular cross section before twisting do not remain
Cross Sections plane after twisting. Points initially in a plane are displaced in a direction parallel to the
axis of twist of the member as shown in Fig. 4.1I(b). Such displacements, which occur in

FIGURE 4.11 FIGURE 4.11

(a) A Circular, Cylindrical Shaft Before and After Twisting. (b) A Rectangular, Prismatic Shaft Before and After Twisting.

Sec. 4.5 ! Analytical and Experimental Solutions for Torsion of Members of Noncircular Cross Sections 179
 y (a) Elliptical cross section
2T maximum shearing stress
T=--
(0.0) occurs at ends of minor axis
1100 2

-4~----~------+--'X
(a, 0)

y (b) Rectangular cross section

maximum shearing stress
occurs at midpoint of
(0,0) (0,0)
each longer side
(a, 0)

y (c) Equilateral triangu lar cross

section max imum shearing
y'3 stress occurs at midpoint
(0' - 2- 0)
of each side

__ ----~----~~--X 8 = TL
KG
where K = 04y'3
80

FIGURE 4.12

addition to in-plane displacements, are referred to as warping displacements and the

function describing them analytically is termed the warping function. If these displace-
ments are prevented from taking place, normal stresses will arise that are directed parallel
to the axis of twist. Warping displacements may be prevented by attaching the end of the
torsional member to a relatively rigid member or structure capable of nullifying such
displacemen ts.
Mathematically, the problem of torsion of noncircular cross sections involves the
solution of a partial differential equation subject to boundary conditions. Many analytical
solutions have been obtained and several are shown in Fig. 4.12. Equations for angle of
twist and maximum shearing stresses are provided for members of these cross sections. It
is assumed that warping may freely take place at the ends of the members, and thus
normal stresses associated with warping do not arise. The analysis of stresses and dis-
placements associated with warping are beyond the scope of this text.

EXAMPLE 4.7

An engineer is confronted with the problem of deciding whether he should select a shaft
of circular or elliptical cross section to resist a torque of 250,000 lb-in. Either shaft meets
the geometric clearance requirements and both are made of the same material. The
circular shaft radius is 2.00 in. and the elliptical shaft has an area equal to that of the
circular shaft, with semiminor and semimajor axes of 1 in. and 4 in., respectively. This

180 Ch. 4 I Toraional Straaaaa. Straina. and Rotationa

 application requires a shaft that is 240 in. long. Determine maximum stresses and angles
of twist of both shafts and select one shaft on this basis. Use G = 11.2 X 106 psi.

SOLUTION
CIRCULAR SHAFT:
Tp
t =-
P J

250,000(2)
t = (7t/32)(4)4

= 119,900 psi I
() = TL
JG
250,000(240)
(7t/32)(4)4(11.2 x 106 )

= I0.213 rad or 12.2 0

I
ELLIPTIC SHAFT (refer to Fig. 4.12 for equations):
2T
t=--
7tab 2
2(250,000)
7t(4)(1)2

= \39,800 psi (at ends of minor axis) I

() = TL
KG
7t(4)3(1)3 . 4
K = (4)2 + (1)2 = 11.827 tn.
250,000(240)
() = 11.827( 11.2 x 106 )

= 0.453 rad or 25.9 0

The maximum stress in the elliptic shaft is twice that in the circular shaft and the angle of
twist of the elliptic one is more than twice that of the circular one. Since both shafts have
equal volumes of material and no special clearance problems arise, the circular shaft is to
be preferred based upon the given information.

Sec. 4.5 / Analytical end Experimental Solutions for Torsion of Members of Noncircular Cross Sectiorls 181
EXAMPLE 4.8

A shaft of rectangular cross section is 0.040 m x 0.10 m with a length of 6.00 m. Deter-
mine the torque T which this shaft will safely resist if both of the following limitations are
to be met:
1. Maximum shearing stress of 600 MPa.
2. Angle of twist of 15°.
Use G = 75 GPa.

SOLUTION. Refer to Fig. 4.12 for appropriate equations. Note that the rectangle
dimensions are given as 2b x 2a, where 2b is the smaller side. In this case, 2b = 0.04,
b = 0.02 m, and 2a = 0.10, a = 0.05 m. The maximum shearing stress occurs at the mid-
point of each larger side.
T(3a + 1.8b)
r=

600 X 106 = _T...::,.[3--,(0_.0_5-,-)-::-+_1_.8-'...(0-:-.0_2)=J

8(0.05)2(0.02)2
Solve for the torque based upon maximum shearing stress to obtain

I T = 25.81 kN-m \
K = ab 3 [136 - 3.36 ~ (1 - 1~:4)]
[16 (0.02)( (0.02)4 )]
= 0.05(0.02)
3
3 - 3.36 0.05 1 - 12(0.05)4

= 159.8 X 10- 8 m 4
TL
(J = KG

15° x n T(6)
180° - 159.8 x 10- 8 (75 x 109 )
Solve for the torque based upon angle of twist, to obtain

IT= 5.229 kN-m I

Choose the smaller of these two torques: T = 5.229 kN-m. The requirement on angle of
twist is critical compared to the shearing stress requirement. If the larger torque were
applied to the shaft, the angle of twist would exceed 15°.

An experimental method for solving torsion problems termed the membrane analogy
was introduced by L. Prandtl in 1903. It is based upon the fact that the mathematical
formulation of the torsion problem and the small displacements of the homogeneous

182 Ch. 4 / Torsional Stresses, Strains, and Rotations

 Membrane

Q q con tan t over Q

membrane sur race
Typical section or membrane

Plan view or membrane

2GO
-L-

Member subjected ~= angle or twist

to torsion per uni t lenglh
G = shearing modulus
or elasticity

FIGURE 4.13

membrane under pressure give rise to the same boundary-value problems. If a membrane
is supported along its edges such that the outline is the same as that of a torsional
member cross section and subjected to a uniform upward pressure per unit area q, the
conditions for the membrane analogy are met. Such a membrane is depicted in Fig. 4.13.
The tension per unit length, Q, in the membrane is assumed to be constant throughout the
membrane for a given value of q.
Experiments with the membranes depend upon measurements of slopes of the mem-
brane and ordinates to the membrane. These ordinates are used to compute the volume
under the deflected membrane. The membrane analogy depends upon two concepts:
1. The slope of the membrane at any point is proportional to the shearing stress directed
perpendicular to the plane in which the slope is measured.
2. Double the volume under the deflected membrane is proportional to the torque.
Membrane equations and solutions are identical to those of the torsion problem if
q/ Q is replaced by 2G()/L. These concepts are depicted in Fig. 4.14. In addition to being a

Sec. 4.5 I Analytical and Experimental Solutions for Torsion of Members of Noncircular Cross Sections 183
 Pi any point on me mbrane surface
p
Slope

Section A-A of deflected membrane

P' i any pOint in cross

section of torsional
member

Plan view showing edges of supported membrane

which is ide'ltical with cross section of torsional member

I. Slope of membrane is proportional to the shearing

stress directed perpendicular to the plane in which
the lope is measured.

Deflected membrane

~
~\
V'olume under
~'--
deflected membrane.
In general, computed numerically
from measured ordinates.

2. Double the volume under lhe deflected

membrane is proportional to the torque .

Membrane _ torsion problem

Replace ~ by

FIGURE 4.14

powerful experimental method, the torsion analogy is also useful as a qualitative graphi-
cal aid for thinking about torsion problems. Calibration, which relates membrane and
torsional quantities, is based on known theoretical solutions for shearing stress and angle
of twist of shafts of circular cross section. For a specified pressure, measurements taken on
a membrane over a known circular opening enables the experimenter to find the ratio
(2G(JI L)!(qI Q). This ratio will be the same for a membrane over any other-shaped opening
provided that the pressure to which the membrane is subjected is the same as that used in
the calibration.

EXAMPLE 4.9

A series of membrane analogy experiments were performed with an elliptic shaped

boundary for the membrane with the following results:
semimajor axis length = 4.00 in.
semiminor axis length = 1.00 in.
average volume under membrane = 2.95 in. 3
average slope at ends of minor axis = 0.927 in./in.

184 Ch. 4 /Torsional Stresses, Strains, and Rotations

 A calibration membrane of circular boundary was used to determine the ratio
(2G8/L)/(q/Q) = 104 psi. Compute the torque applied to a member of this elliptical cross
section and the maximum shearing stress. Compare the experimentally determined shear-
ing stress to a theoretical value obtained from the equations of Fig. 4.12. Assume all other
values to be exact in this latter calculation.

SOLUTION
EXPERIMENTAL TORQUE AND STRESS VALUES:

T = 104 X 2 x volume = 104 (2)(2.95)

= 159,000 lb-in. 1

! = 104 x slope = 104 (0.927)

= 19270 psi 1

THEORETICAL STRESS VALUE:

2T 2(59,000)
!=--=
nab 2 n(4.00)(l.OO)2

= 19390 psi /

9390 - 9270
percent difference in stresses = 9390 x 100

= /1.28 percent /

EXAMPLE 4.10

Relate the analytical solution for a circular torsional member to the membrane equations.
Refer to Fig. 4.15 for a diagram of the membrane.
= y

---
(-r. O. 0)
-- --
Sl ope = l!!..
r

FIGURE 4.15

Sec. 4.5 / Analytical and Experimental Solutions for Torsion of Members of Noncircular Cross Sections 185
 SOLUTION. The membrane is a paraboloid of revolution with a center ordinate h as
shown in the figure. In the xz plane, a parabola through the three points (r, 0, 0), (0, 0, h),
and ( - r, 0, 0) has the equation

The slope is obtained by differentiating this function with respect to x:

dz 2h
-=--x
dx r2
Evaluate at x = -r:
2h
r
Maximum shearing stress is proportional to 2h/r. The volume under a paraboloid of
revolution is given by
volume = !nr2h
Torque is proportional to 2 x volume = nr 2h. In summary:

Analytical Solution Membrane Solution

Maximum shearing stress TrjJ

Torque r:J/r

PROBLEMS

4.33 You are to decide whether a shaft with an elliptic
or rectangular cross section should be selected to resist
a torque of 40,000 N-m. Each shaft is 2 m long and they
are to have equal areas. The elliptic shaft has semimajor
and semiminor axes of a = 0.12 m and b = 0.06 m and
the rectangle width is 2b = 0.12 m. Either shaft meets
geometric clearance requirements and both are made of
a material for which G = 75 GPA. Determine maximum
shearing stresses and angles of twist of both shafts and
select one shaft on this basis.
4.34 An equilateral triangular cross section of a shaft
has been designed with each side a = 0.10 m. The chief
engineer has asked you to submit an alternate design to
carry the same torque at the same shearing stress level.
(a) For a circular cross section, what radius would you
specify?
(b) For shafts of the same material and equal lengths,
what is the ratio of the angles of twist of these two
shafts?
4.35 Consider a shaft of elliptic cross section and refer
to appropriate equations shown in Fig. 4.12 (p. 180) and
answer the following questions.
(a) If the length of the shaft is doubled, how is the angle
of twist () affected?
(b) If the length of the major axis is halved, how is the
shearing stress affected?
(c) If the applied torque is doubled, what effect does
this have on the shearing stress?
(d) If the material is changed, such that G is doubled,
what effect does this have on the angle of twist ()? Be
sure to justify your answer by using equations.
4.36 A prismatic shaft resists a torque of 600 N-m
applied at each end of a 4.00-m length. It has a rec-
tangular cross section 0.08 m x 0.12 m. The shaft

186 Ch. 4 I Torsional Stresses. Strains. and Rotations

material has a shearing modulus of elasticity of 40.0
G Pa. Determine:
(a) The maximum shearing stress in this shaft.
(b) The angle of twist of this shaft.
4.37 Refer to Fig. 4.12 (p. 180) and write K for the
rectangular cross sections in nondimensional form by
dividing through by ab 3 . Plot the resulting quantity
K/ab 3 as a function of b/a. Let 0 < b/a ::;; 1 and describe
the two rectangles defined by b/a~ 0 and b/a = 1. Con-
sider the equation for 8 and assume that T, L, and G
remain constant, then discuss the variation of 8/ab 3
with the dimensionless ratio b/a by referring to your
plot. If, in your practice of engineering, you frequently
encountered problems involving torsion of rectangular
cross-sectioned members, briefly explain the usefullness
of your plot.
4.38 A shaft has an elliptical cross section with
b = 0.06 m, a = 0.12 m, and a length of 3.00 m. If the
maximum shearing stress in this shaft is 250 MPa,
determine the torque applied to the shaft and the angle
of twist of the shaft. Use G = 75 GPa.
4.39 The cross section of a shaft is equilateral triangu-
lar with each side a = 3 in. and a length of 6 ft. If a
torque of 40,000 lb-in. is applied at each end of this
shaft, determine the maximum shearing stress and the
angle of twist of the shaft. Use G = 11.2 x 10 6 psi.
Describe the locus of points along which the maximum
shear stresses occur in this shaft.
4.40 A rectangular-cross-section shaft measures
0.5 x 1.5 in. If the maximum shearing stress in this shaft
is 20 ksi, determine the torque T to which it is sub-
jected. If this shaft is 4 ft long and G = 12.0 X 10 6 psi,
find the angle of twist of the shaft. Describe the locus of
points along which the maximum shear stresses occur in
this shaft.
4.41 A shaft of elliptical cross section with b = 0.04 m
and a = 0.08 m has a length of 5 m and is subjected to a
torque of 20,000 N-m. Select a surface element from the
shaft at a point on the end of a minor axis of a cross
Sec. 4.5 / AnalVtical and Experimental Solutions for Torsion of Members of Noncircular Cross Sections
section and construct Mohr's circles for stress and strain
for this element. State critical information obtained
from these circles. Use G = 75 GPa.
4.42 A membrane of equilateral triangular shape with
each side a = 0.05 m was subjected to a uniform press-
ure and the following results obtained:
volume under the membrane = 3.125 x 10- 6 m 3
slope of membrane at midpoints of each of
the sides = 1.00
calibrated ratio 2G8/L = 80.0 MPa
q/Q
Compute the torque carried by a torsional member of
this cross section and the maximum shearing stress in
the member.
4.43 A membrane of rectangular shape with dimen-
sions 2.00 x 4.00 in. was subjected to a uniform press-
ure and the following results obtained:
volume under the membrane = 2.00 in. 3
slope of membrane at midpoints of longer
sides = 0.976
. f 2G8/L .
calibrated ratIO 0 - - = 20,492 pSI
q/Q
Compute the torque carried by a torsional member of
this cross section and the maximum shearing stress in
the member.
4.44 A membrane of circular boundary has a radius of
2 in. and central ordinate h = 0.4 in. Compute the
maximum slope of the membrane and the volume under
the membrane. If the shearing stress is 4000 psi, deter-
mine the corresponding torque applied to the shaft.
What constant relates membrane measurements to
shearing stresses and torques?
4.45 The constant relating membrane values to tor-
sional member values is 50,000 psi. A membrane of cir-
cular boundary has a radius of 1 in. and a central
ordinate h = 0.15 in. Determine the maximum shearing
stress and the torque applied to the corresponding cir-
cular shaft.
187
1.1
Shearing
A typical torque versus angle of twist curve for a ductile metal specimen is shown in
Fig. 4.16(a). Data for such curves may be collected by subjecting torsional specimens to
Stress-Strain
increasing torques and simultaneously measuring applied torques and angles of twist over
Properties
a specified gage length. Solid circular specimens are often tested, although thin-walled
hollow specimens have the advantage of a practically uniform shearing stress over their
thin-walled annular areas. In order to construct the linear portion of the shearing stress-
shearing strain curve from the experimental data for torque T and angle of twist 8,
Eqs. 4.19 and 4.7 are applied as follows for solid circular specimens.

Tp
, =- (4.19)
P J

Substitutions of p = ro for the outside radius of the specimen and J = (n/2)r0 yields an
equation for shearing stress, as a function of the applied torque T and the specimen size:
2 T
,=--
n r~
(4.24)

Equation 4.7 for the shearing strain yp at any radial distance p from the center of the shaft
is given by

(4.7)

The maximum shearing strain at the distance p = ro is given by

(4.25)

Equation 4.25 expresses the maximum shearing strain y as a function of measurable

quantities: r 0 the outside specimen radius, and 8 the angle of twist over the gage length L.
The linear portion of experimental torque-angle of twist data of Fig. 4.16(a) may be
transformed to the shearing stress-strain plot of Fig. 4.16(b) by application of Eqs. 4.24
and 4.25.
The initial part of the ,-y curve is linear over OP shown in Fig. 4. 16(b), and the slope
of this straight line equals the shearing modulus of elasticity G. The ordinate to point P is
the shearing proportional limit stress, p and point P is known as the shearing proportion-
allimit because above this point y is no longer linearly proportional to ,.

__ ------------~u

Rupture ----------------u
Equation of line OP: T = G'Y

o e (rad) o 'Y(in.jin. )
(a) (b)

FIGURE 4.16

188 Ch. 4 I Torsional Stresses, Strains, and Rotations

 The area under the ~-Y curve up to the proportional limit P is known as the shearing
modulus of resilience and is given by

I u = !~p Yp I (4.26)
\
Physically, the modulus of resilience represents the elastic energy stored at the surface of
the shaft per unit volume when it is stressed at the extreme fibers to the proportional
limit. This elastic energy is recoverable, which means that upon release of the torques
applied to the specimen, it will return to its original condition without being permanently
deformed. I
Construction of the nonlinear portion of the ~-Y curve from point P to point U in
Fig. 4. 16(b) requires an inelastic analysis of the torsion problem.
The general trend of the curve is shown in Fig. 4.16(b), but inelastic torsion analysis
is deferred to Section 11.2.
The modulus of rupture is obtained by calculating the shearing stress from Eq. 4.19
with the experimental rupture or ultimate torque 1',. substituted for T:

I' ~
U YoP
J I (4.27)

Equation 4.27 yields a value of ~U expressed in stress units, but this value is not truly the
maximum stress when the shaft ruptures because Eq. (4.24) only provides true stresses for
the linear portion OP of the plots. The modulus of rupture is an index of the torsional
strength of a given material and may be used to compare static resistance of various
materials under torsional loading.
The torsional toughness is defined as the work done per unit volume required to
rupture the specimen. The area under the complete curve of Fig. 4.16(b) equals the tough-
ness of the material. A number of specimens would be tested and a statistical analysis
performed in order to state mean and standard deviation values for the toughness of a
given material. In fact, statistical statements are most useful for all material properties and
"exact" values should be regarded as approximations.
The shearing stress-strain curve for a mild steel specimen is shown in Fig. 4.17. This
plot is idealized as a sloping straight line 0 Y and a horizontal straight line to the right of
point Y. Point Y is referred to as the yield point and the plot is termed the idealized
elastoplastic stress-strain curve. The ordinate to the point Y is termed the shearing yield
stress ~y and the corresponding strain is termed the shearing yield strain Yy. The shearing
modulus of elasticity G is obtained by taking the slope of the line OY that equals ~y/Yy.
T

y
Ty (psi)

' - - - + - - - - - - - - - l' (in./in.)

o 'l'Y
FIGURE 4.17

s.c. 4 •• / Shearing Str.....Str.ln Prop.rti •• 189

EXAMPLE 4.11

Data were collected for a torsional specimen having a T -e curve shaped somewhat like
Fig. 4. 16(a)
Specimen outside diameter: 4.00 in.
Specimen inside diameter: 3.60 in.
Gage length: 10.0 m.
Ultimate torque: 200. k-in.

Torque Angle of Twist

(k-in.) (deg)

0.00 0.00
15.38 0.10
30.75 0.20
46.13 0.30
61.51 0.40
76.89 0.50
92.26 0.60
107.6 0.70
109.2 0.71
118.0 1.00
123.5 2.00
129.0 3.00
134.5 4.00
140.0 5.00
151.0 7.00
162.0 9.00
173.0 11.00

The e values were not read beyond 11.00°. (a) Plot the T -e curve for this torsional
specimen; (b) determine the shearing modulus of elasticity for this material; (c) plot the
linear portion of the t-y curve; (d) determine the modulus of resilience; and (e) determine
the modulus of rupture.

200

150

.:
T 100 2.48 X 10- 3 ,25.27
"'h" Angle of twist measurements
were discontinued at (J = I 10. T= G"{
50 Ultimate torque = 200 k-in. T (ksi)
G G = 10,2000 ksi

o 2 4 6 8 10 (0,0) "( (in./in.)

(J (degrees) (b)
(a)

FIGURE 4.18

190 Ch. 4 I Torsional Stresses. Strains. and Rotations

 SOLUTION
(a) A plot of the T -() curve is shown in Fig. 4.l8(a).
(b) and (c) The point with T = 92.26 k-in., () = 0.60°, lies on the straight line portion of
the T-{) plot. Eqs. 4.19 and 4.22a will be employed to transform torques and angles of
twist to stresses and strains.
Tp 92.26(2.00)
T = J = (n/32)[(4.00)4 - (3.60)4J

= 21.35 ksi
Solve Eq. 4.22a for G:
G = TL = 92.26(10.0)
J{) (n/32)[(4.00)4 - (3.60)4J(0.6n/180)

= /10,200 ksi I
The shearing strain corresponding to a shearing stress of 21.35 ksi is given by
T 21.35
Y = - = - - = 2.09 X 10- 3 in./in
G 10,200 .
The straight line portion of the T -f) plot extends to the point with coordinates:
T = 109.2 k-in., f} = 0.71°. Corresponding shearing stress and strain for this point are
given by T = 25.27 ksi, y = 2.48 x 10 - 3. A plot of this straight line is shown in
Fig. 4.l8(b).
(d) The shearing modulus of resilience equals the area under the straight line shown in
Fig. 4.18(b). Equation 4.26:
U = '2TpYp
1

= 1(25.27)(2.48 x 10 - 3)

= E 10- 2 in-k/in.3

(e) The shearing modulus ofrupture computed from Eq. 4.19 is given by
Tp 200(2.00)
T = - = -----'-:---=.--.,-
u J (n/32)[(4.00)4 - (3.60)4J

= 146.28 ksi

EXAMPLE 4.12

An idealized shearing stress-strain diagram was constructed for a mild steel specimen as
shown in Fig. 4.19. Determine the shearing modulus of elasticity for this specimen, the
yield torque, and the corresponding angle of twist. The specimen has a diameter of
2.00 in., and the gage length, over which the angle of twist was measured, was 6.00 in.

Sec. 4.6 / Shearing Stress-Strain Properties 191

 T (ksi)

y
21.0

--~------"l(in./in.)
o 1.75 X 10- 3
FIGURE 4.19

SOLUTION. The shearing modulus of elasticity G equals the slope of the 1"-y curve
below the shearing yield point Y of Fig. 4.19. This slope is given by

slope = G = rise = (21.0 - 0) x 1000

run 1.75 x 10- 3

= 112 X 10 6 psi I
Equation 4.24 solved for T will provide the yield torque:
3
T = nro1"
2
n(2.oo/2r~(21,OOO)
2

=! 32,990 lb-in.!

Equation 4.25 solved for () will provide the angle of twist corresponding to the yield
torque:

(1.75 x 10- 3)(6.00)

2.00/2

= I 0.0105 rad or 0.602° I

PROBLEMS

4.46 An idealized stress-strain curve for the torsional (a) The shearing modulus of elasticity.
test of a hollow circular shaft is shown in Fig. P4.46. (b) The yield torque.
The specimen outside diameter is 3.50 in. and its inside (c) The angle of twist corresponding to yielding.
diameter is 3.20 in. Its gage length is 8.0 in. Determine: (d) The modulus of resilience.

192 Ch. 4 I Tor.ional IStr•••••• Strain•• and Rotation.

 T (ksi) (c) Plot the linear portion of the shearing stress-strain
curve.
12.0 (d) Determine the modulus of resilience.
(e) Determine the modulus of rupture.
Circular cylindrical specimen:
Diameter: 2.50 in.
Gage length: 8.00 in.
0 - - - ' - - , - - - - - - - - - - -.... 'Y (in./in.)
2 X 10- 3
Torque Angle of Twist Torque Angle of Twist
FIGURE P4.46
(k-in.) (deg) (k-in.) (deg)
4.47 An idealized torque versus angle of twist plot is 0.00 0.00 156.0 8.0
shown in Fig. P4.47 for a shaft of hollow circular cross 13.37 0.20 160.0 10.0
section. The shaft has a gage length of 0.3 m and 26.74 0.40 163.0 12.0
outside and inside diameters of 0.120 and 0.110 m, 40.11 0.60 167.0 14.0
respectively. Determine: 53.48 0.80 171.0 16.0
(a) The shearing yield stress and strain. 66.85 1.00 174.0 18.0
(b) The shearing modulus of elasticity. 80.22 1.20 176.0 20.0
(c) The modulus of resilience. 93.58 1.40 177.0 22.0
106.9 1.60 178.0 24.0
T(kN'm) 125.0 1.87 180.0 26.0
138.0 3.00 181.0 28.0
144.0 4.00 182.0 30.0
150.0 6.00 185.0 (Ultimate)

4.50 Data from a torsional experiment revealed a well-

pronounced torsional yield point as shown in Fig. 4.17.
For the data given below:
(a) Find the shearing modulus of elasticity.
- - - - : - ' - : - - - - - - - - - -..... IJ (degrees) (b) Find the equation of the shearing stress-strain line
8.0 below the yield point.
FIGURE P4.47
(c) Plot the stress-strain diagram for shear.
4.48 Initially, the plans for torsional experiments call (d) Find the modulus of resilience.
for solid circular cylindrical specimens which are Circular cylindrical specimen:
2.00 in. in diameter and have a gage length of 6.00 in. A Diameter: 2.00 in.
decision is made to revise these plans by using hollow Gage length: 6.00 in.
circular cylindrical specimens with an outside diameter
of 4.50 in. Determine the thickness and inside diameter Torque Angle of Twist Torque Angle of Twist
of these hollow specimens such that the shearing (k-in.) (deg) (k-in.) (deg)
stresses will be equal to those of the solid specimens.
0.0 0.0 44.1 0.8
What new gage length should be used such that the
11.0 0.2 55.1 1.0
maximum shearing strains of the hollow specimens are
22.0 0.4 62.8 1.14 (yield)
equal to those of the solid specimens? Both specimens 33.1 0.6
are to carry the same torque with equal angles of rota-
tion. 4.51 Data from a torsional experiment follow.
(a) Determine the T -() plot to scale. (Angle of twist
4.49 Data from a torsional experiment follow. measurements were terminated at () = 80°.)
(a) Determine the T -() plot to scale. Angle of twist (b) Determine the shearing modulus of elasticity.
measurements were not made beyond () = 30.0°. (c) Plot the linear portion of the shearing stress-strain
(b) Determine the shearing modulus of elasticity. curve.

Sec. 4.6 / Shearing Stress-Strain Properties 193

(d) Determine the modulus of resilience. (d) Determine the modulus of resilience.
(e) Determine the modulus of rupture. (e) Determine the modulus of rupture.
Hollow circular specimen: Circular cylindrical specimen:
Outside diameter: 0.100 m Diameter: 0.065 m
Inside diameter: 0.092 m Gage length: 0.200 m
Gage length: 0.250 m
Torque Angle of Twist Torque Angle of Twist
Torque Angle of Twist Torque Angle of Twist (N-m) (deg) (N-m) (deg)
(N-m) (deg) (N-m) (deg) O. 0.0 19,980. 12.0
O. 0.00 37,280. 20.0 2,870. 0.4 20,340. 14.0
7,100. 0.40 39,540. 30.0 5,750. 0.8 20,560. 16.0
14,200. 0.80. 41,800. 40.0 8,620. 1.2 20,900. 18.0
21,300. 1.20 42,930. 50.0 10,050. 1.4 21,240. 20.0
24,850. 1.40 43,490. 60.0 12,930. 1.8 21,350. 22.0
29,930. 5.0 44,060. 70.0 15,800. 2.2 21,470. 24.0
33,320 10.0 44,400. 80.0 16,500. 3.0 21,690. 26.0
35,580. 15.0 46,250. (Ultimate) 17,060. 4.0 21,800. 28.0
18,020. 6.0 21,920. 30,0
18,750. 8.0
4.52 Data from a torsional experiment revealed a well- 19,430. 10.0 22,800 (Ultimate)
pronounced torsional yield point as shown in Fig. 4.17.
For the data given below:
4.54 Data from a torsional experiment are given
(a) Find the shearing modulus of elasticity.
below.
(b) Find the equation of the shearing stress-strain line
(a) Determine the T -() plot to scale (angle of twist mea-
below the yield point.
surements were terminated at () = 80.0°).
(c) Plot the stress-strain diagram for shear.
(b) Determine the shearing modulus of elasticity.
(d) Find the modulus of resilience.
(c) Plot the linear portion of the shearing stress-strain
Circular cylindrical specimen:
curve.
Diameter: 0.05 m (d) Determine the modulus ofresilience.
Gage length: 0.15 m (e) Determine the modulus of rupture.
Hollow circular specimen:
Torque Angle of Twist Torque Angle of Twist Outside diameter: 4.00 in.
(N-m) (deg) (N-m) (deg)
Inside diameter: 3.60 in.
O. 0.0 4290. 0.7 Gage length: 10.0 in.
613. 0.1 4900. 0.8
1225. 0.2 5510. 0.9 Torque Angle of Twist Torque Angle of Twist
1840. 0.3 6130. 1.0 (k-in.) (deg) (k-in.) (deg)
2450. 0.4 6740. 1.1
3060. 0.5 7350. 1.2 (yield) O. 0.0 380. 50.0
3680. 0.6 62.9 0.4 385. 60.0
125.7 0.8 390. 70.0
188.6 1.2 393. 80.0
4.53 Data from a torsional experiment are given 220. 1.4
below. 262. 5.0 456. (Ultimate)
(a) Determine the T -() plot to scale (angle of twist mea- 293. 10.0
surements were terminated at () = 30°). 315 15.0
(b) Determine the shearing modulus of elasticity. 330. 20.0
(c) Plot the linear portion of the shearing stress strain 350. 30.0
curve. 370. 40.0

194 Ch. 4 / Torsional Stresses. Strains. and Rotations

ADDITIONAL CHAPTER PROBLEMS
4.55 (Sec. 4.3) Refer to Problem 4.1 (p. 170), reduce
the applied torque by 50%, and move it from B to A.
Solve as stated.
4.56 (Sec. 4.3) Solve Problem 4.2 (p. 171) after chang-
ing the shaft diameters to the following values: D\
5.00 in., D2 = 6.50 in., and D3 = 5.50 in.
4.57 (Sec. 4.3) Solve Problem 4.4 (p. 171) after chang-
ing the shaft diameter to 0.075 m.
4.58 (Sec. 4.3) Solve Problem 4.6 (p. 172) after chang-
ing each applied end torque from 20 k-ft to 40 k-ft and
the distributed torque from 4 k-ft/ft to a value consistent
with the overall equilibrium of the shaft.
4.59 (Sec. 4.3) Refer to Problem 4.8 (p. 172) and change
the applied torques from 20,000 N-m to 15,000 N-m and
the shaft diameter from 0.15 m to 0.10 m. Solve as stated
4.60 (Sec. 4.3) Solve Problem 4.10 (p. 172) after chang-
ing the shaft diameters to the following values: Do =
5.00 in and D; = 3.00 in.
4.61 (Sec. 4.3) Refer to Problem 4.11 (p. 172) and change
the shaft diameters to the following values: Do = 0.10
m and D; = 0.06 m. Solve as stated.
4.62 (Sec. 4.4) Refer to Fig. P4.5 (p. 171). Choose a
surface element from this shaft that will have shearing
stresses of the largest magnitude acting on it and con-
struct Mohr's circle for stress and strain for this element.
Poisson's ratio is 0.3 and the modulus of elasticity E
1.7*_ _
Computer The following Examples illustrate the use of the FORTRAN language in the development
Applications of computer solutions. Refer to the detailed discussion given on pages 53 and 54.
EXAMPLE C4.1
Write a FORTRAN program to calculate the shearing stresses and rotations of solid or
hollow circular cylindrical shafts. Provide sample input and output which verify the
program.
Sec. 4.7 / Computer Applications
equals 260 GPa. Determine the principal stresses and
strains.
4.63 (Sec. 4.4) Refer to Fig. P4.9 (p. 172). Given T\ =
25.2 kN . m, check the overall eqUilibrium of this hollow
circular shaft. Choose a surface element from this shaft
in the region between A and B and construct Mohr's cir-
cle for stress and strain for this element. Poisson's ration
is 0.3 and the modulus of elasticity E equals 260 GPa.
Determine the principal stresses and strains.
4.64 (Sec. 4.4) Refer to Fig. P4.11 (p. 172) and assign
T\ a value of 40.0 kN· m. Chose a surface element from
the right half of this shaft and construct Mohr's circle
for stress for this element. Determine the principal stresses.
4.65 (Sec. 4.4) Refer to Fig. P4.15 (p. 173) and assign
T\ a value of 2.50 kN· m. Select a surface element for
the critically stressed region of this shaft and construct
Mohr's circle for stress for this element. Determine the
principal stresses.
4.66 (Sec. 4.5) Consider a shaft of square cross section.
Let b = a in the appropriate equations shown in Fig.
4.12 (p. 180) and answer the following questions:
(a) If the cross-sectional area is doubled, how is the
shearing stress affected?
(b) If the length of the shaft is halved, how is the angle
of twist affected?
(c) If the cross-sectional area is doubled, how is the an-
gle of twist affected?
(d) Write a simplified equation for K for a shaft of square
cross section.
195
 00100 PROGRAM TORQUEIINPUT,OUTPUT)
00110 REAL L
00120 6 READ .,DO,DI,l,T,G
00130 IF IDO.lT.O.)STOP
00 litO PI- 3. H15927
00150 J-PI/32.·IDO··4-DI*·4)
00160 TAUO-T*DO/2./J
00170 TAUI - TAUO.OI / DO
00180 THE T A -T .L/ I J.6 )
00190 THEDEG-THETA*180./PI
00200 PRINT 10
00210 10 FORMATIIX,"INPUT DO,DI,L,T,G IN ORDER")
00220 WRITE .,DO,DI,L,T,G
00230 PRINT 12
00240 12 FO~MAT I1X,"CUTPUT TAUO,TAUI,THEDEG")
00250 WRITE *,TAUO,TAUI,THEDEG
00260 GO TO 6
00270 END

INPUT DO,DI,LtT,G IN ORDER

8. 4. 60. 300UOO. 60DOOOO.
OUTPUT TAUO,TAUI,THEDEG
3829.787234043 1914.893617021 .5485766042553
INPUT DO,DI.l,T,G IN ORDER
10. 6. 100. 500000. 10000000.
OUTPUT TAUO,TAUI,THEDEG
2927.400468384 1756.44028103 .3354553766104
FIGURE C4.1

SOLUTION. The FORTRAN source program and sample I/O are shown in Fig. C4.1.
Note that a negative value of the outside diameter DO will stop the calculations. Consis-
tent lb-in. units were used in the sample I/O.

EXAMPLE C4.2

Write a FORTRAN program to determine the torque capacity of shafts of rectangular

cross section. Read a maximum shearing stress and a maximum angle of twist in degrees
and have the program select the critical torque capacity. Provide sample input and
output which verify the program.

PROGRAM RECTORQ IINPUT,OUTPUT)

88H8
00120
REAL L,K
PRINT 2
00130 2 FORMATIIX,"TORQUE CAPACITY OF RECTANGULAR SECTION SHAFT")
OOlitO 6 READ *,A,8,L,TAUMAX,THETMAX,G
00150 IF IA.lT.O.)STOP
00160 PRINT 3
00170 3 FORMATIIX,"INPUT IN ORDER LISTED")
00180 PR INT 4
00190 4 FORMATIIX,"A,B,LENGTH")
00200 wR I TE • , A, B, L
00210 PRINT 5
00220 5 FORMATI1X,"MAX.STRESS,MAX.THETA,SHEAR MODULUS")
00230 WRITE .,TAUMAX,THETMAX,G
00240 T1-TAUMAX*8 •• A.·2·e**2/13 •• A+l.8*B)
00250 K-A*B**3*116./3.-3.36*B/A*11.-S**4/112.*A**4»)
00260 THETMAX-THETMAX*3.1415927/180.
00270 T2-TH ET MU*K* GIL
00280 IFITl.GT.T2) T-T2
002 '10 IFIl2.GE.TlI T-n
00300 PRINT 8
00310 8 FORMATIIX,"THE TORQUE CAPACITY")
00320 WRITE *,T
00330 GO TO 6
00340 END

TORQUE CAPACITY OF RECTANGULAR SECTION SHAFT

INPUT IN ORDER LISTED
A,B,LENGTH
.05 .02 6.
MAX.STRESS,MAX. THETA,SHEAR MODULUS
600000000. 15. 7.5E+ID
THE TORQUE CAPACITY
5225.7783551'1
FIGURE C4.2

196 Ch. 4 I Torsional Stresses. Strains. and Rotations

 SOLUTION. The FORTRAN source program and sample I/O are shown in Fig. C4.2.
Note that THETMAX is read in degrees but is converted to radians in the calculations.
Consistent N-m units were used in the sample I/O.

COMPUTER PROBLEMS

C4.1 Refer to PROGRAM TORQUE of Example Output: T = 8805 psi, () = 2.54°, Tt = 880.5 psi (shear
C4.1. Prepare this program for running and explore the flow).
effects of changing various input quantities by providing
varied inputs which you are to create. Check your C4.4 Write a FORTRAN program to determine the
program with inputs and outputs of Example C4.1. maximum shearing stress and rotation of a shaft of
Note that by reading a zero value for DI that this equilateral, triangular cross section. Provide for multi-
program will solve solid circular shaft problems as well ple runs of your program. Use the following numerical
as hollow circular shaft problems. values to check your program.
Input: T = 40,000 lb-in., A = 3 in., L = 72 in.,
C4.2 Write a FORTRAN program to determine the G = 11.2 X 10 6 psi.
maximum shearing stress and rotation of a shaft of Output: T = 29.6 ksi, () = 0.147 rad.
elliptic cross section. Provide for multiple runs of your
program. Use the following numerical values to check C4.S Write a FORTRAN program to find the shear-
your program. ing stress, the shear flow, apd the angle of rotation of a
Input: T = 250,000 lb-in., A = 4 in., B = 1 in., shaft of closed, thin walled, rectangular cross section.
L = 240 in., G = 11.2 X 106 psi. Equations for shearing stress and angle of rotation
Output: T = 39,800 psi, () = 25.9°. are given by:

C4.3 Write a FORTRAN program to find the shear- T

ing stress, the shear flow, and the angle of rotation of a
shaft of closed, thin-walled, circular cross section.
Provide for mUltiple runs of your program.
Equations for shearing stress and angle of rotation
are given by:
T () = nTL(Do + D i)
T=-
2At 8A 2 Gt
where t is the wall thickness of the shaft, A is the mean
of the inner and outer areas bounded by the cross-
section boundaries, and the other terms have been pre-
viously defined in this chapter. Use the following
numerical values to check your program.
Input: T = 5000 lb-in. DO = 2.00 in., DI = 1.80 in.,
L = 48 in., G = 10 x 106 psi.
T=-
2At
()=TL(B+C)
2A zGt
where t is the wall thickness of the shaft, A is the mean
of the inner and outer areas bounded by the cross-
section boundaries, Band C are the outside rectangle
dimensions, and the other terms have been previously
defined in this chapter. Provide for multiple runs of
your program.
Input: Outside rectangle dimensions 16.0 in x 8.0 in.,
length = 96 in., thickness = 0.40 in., T = 100,000 lb-in.,
G = 12 X 10 6 psi.
Output: T = 1050 psi, Tt = 420 psi (shear flow),
() = 0.00165 rad.

Sac. 4.7 I Computar Applications 197

 CHAPTER Siresses in BealDs

5.1 _ _ The beam is a very useful structural member that is employed in many different types of
Introduction structural applications, such as floor, roof, and bridge deck systems. These members are
called upon to resist bending action that is usually produced either by loads that are
perpendicular to the member (transverse loads) or by pure bending moments. Regardless
of the way the beam is loaded, the resulting action leads to two effects that are of major
significance in the analysis of beams. These two effects are the induced stresses and the
resulting deformations. Chapter 5 deals with the first of these two effects, the stresses
induced in a beam, and the subject of deformations (or deflections) is dealt with in
Chapter 6.
In order to discuss intelligently the question of stresses in beams, it is necessary to
have a good understanding of properties of areas, including centroid location and prin-
cipal centroidal moments of inertia, and their determinations. Thus, before discussing the
concept of stresses in beams, it was decided to review briefly, in Section 5.2, the various
concepts relating to properties of areas. This short review will ensure that the student has
the background needed for proper understanding of the concepts of stresses due to
symmetric and unsymmetric bending of beams.

5.2 _ _ Consider the arbitrary plane area shown in Fig. 5.1 for which the centroid, point C, has
Review of been located. At point C, an xy coordinate system has been established as shown. Proper-
Properties of ties of the cross section with respect to axes through the centroid (i.e., centroidal axes) are
Areas examined in this section.
By definition, the moments of inertia* with respect to the centroidal coordinate x and
y axes in Fig. 5.1 are given by

Ix = f y2 dA

f
(5.1a)
Iy = x 2 dA

where I x and I y represent the centroidal moments of inertia with respect to the x and y
axes, respectively. Thus, by definition, the moment of inertia of an area with respect to a

* Common usage favors the term moment of inertia. A plane area, of course, really has no .. inertia"
associated with it, and the term second moment of area is more technically correct.

198
 y

~~~~----~------ x

FIGURE 5.1

given axis requires that an element of area dA be multiplied by the square of its distance
from this axis and the resulting product integrated over the entire area. Therefore, the unit
for the moment of inertia is a length raised to the fourth power, such as in.4 in the U.S.
Customary system and m4 in the SI system.
Another quantity that is of great significance is the polar moment of inertia. This
quantity, defined with respect to a centroidal axis, is given by

(S.lb)

where J c is the centroidal polar moment of inertia and the quantity p is defined in Fig. 5.1.
By using the fact that p2 = x 2 + y2, we can express J c in terms of Ix and 1y' Thus

Jc = f p2 dA = f (x 2 + y2) dA

= f x 2 dA + f y2 dA = 1y + Ix (S.le)

Note that the concept of the polar moment of inertia has already been used in the analysis
of torsional members discussed in Section 4.2.
The radii of gyration for a given area with respect to the centroidal x and y axes in
Fig. 5.1 are defined by the equations

rx = (~)1 /2
(S.ld)
r
I
= ( :l
)1/2
Y A

Sec. 5.2 ! Review of Properties of Areas 199

 where rx and ry represent the rectangular centroidal radii of gyration with respect to the x
and y axes, respectively. A polar radius of gyration may be defined in a similar manner by
the equation

(5.1e)

where rc is the centroidal polar radius of gyration. Substitution from Eqs. 5.ld and 5.le
into Eq. 5.lc leads to a relation among the various radii of gyration. Thus

(5.1f)

Note that the unit for the radius of gyration is that of length.
The centroidal moments of inertia with respect to any set of perpendicular axes such
as nand t shown in Fig. 5.1 are, respectively,

In = ft 2 dA

f
(5.1 g)
It = n 2 dA

If the axis n is inclined to the axis x by the angle 0(, assumed positive when measured in a
counterclockwise direction, then from the geometry we conclude that
t = Y cos 0( - x sin 0(
(5.1h)
n = x cos 0( + Y sin 0(

Substitution of the first of Eq. 5.lh into the first of Eq. 5.lg leads to

In = f (y cos 0( - x sin 0()2 dA

= cos 2 0( f y 2 dA + sin 2 0( f x 2 dA - 2 sin 0( cos 0( f xy dA (5.li)

J
The mixed integral, xy dA, is known as the product of inertia with respect to the
orthogonal centroidal x and y axes and is given the symbol P xy' Thus, if Eq. 5.1a is
substituted into Eq. 5.li, we obtain
In = Ix cos 2 0( + Iy sin 2 0( - 2Pxy sin 0( cos 0(, (5.1j)

Substitution of appropriate trigonometric identities leads to

(5.1k)

Equation 5.lk is mathematically similar to Eq. 2.4 previously derived for plane stress
conditions. This property will be utilized in a later part of this section. Note that the
centroidal moment of inertia of the area with respect to the t axis (i.e., It) may be found in
a similar manner or more directly from Eq. 5.lk by replacing 0( by the quantity 0( + 90°.
Note also the sign difference in the third term on the right-hand side of Eqs. 5.lk and 2.4.

200 Ch. 5 / Stre••e. in Beam.

 The centroidal product of inertia with respect to the perpendicular axes nand t can
be represented by the relation

P nt = f nt dA (S.2a)

Substitution of Eq. 5.1h into Eq. 5.2a yields

P nt = f (x cos IX + y sin IX)(Y cos IX - x sin IX) dA

= (sin IX cos 1X)[f y2 dA - fx 2 dAJ

+ (cos 2 IX - sin 2 IX) f xy dA

P nt = (/" - Iy) sin IX cos IX + P"y(cos 2 IX - sin 2 IX)

IP nt = 1(/" - Iy) sin 21X + P"y cos 21X I (S.2b)

Once again it is observed that Eq. S.2b is mathematically similar to Eq. 2.6, which was
obtained previously for the case of plane stress. Note the sign difference in the first term
on the right-hand side of these two equations.
Equations 5.1k and S.2b for moments of inertia can be made mathematically identi-
cal with the plane stress equations 2.4 and 2.6, respectively, by satisfying the following
equalities:

(S.3)

By analogy with the plane stress concepts, we conclude that every area possesses two
in-plane principal axes of inertia. These principal axes of inertia are given the symbols u
and v and the corresponding moments of inertia the symbols I u and I v' where I u ;;:: I v •
Using the equalities in Eq. 5.3, we can develop expressions for the two principal moments
of inertia directly from Eq. 2.11 developed in Chapter 2 for plane stress. Thus

I u = 11 = 1(1" + I y) + R = IA +R
(S.4)
I v = 12 = 1(/" + I y) - R = IA - R

where

and I A denotes the average of the two orthogonal moments of inertia. Note that as in the
case of principal stresses, the two principal axes of inertia u and v are perpendicular to
each other.
As in the case of principal stresses, the principal moments of inertia I u and I v
represent the algebraic maximum and algebraic minimum values, respectively. Alterna-
tively, Iu and Iv are the moments of inertia about a set of perpendicular centroidal axes

Sec. 5.2 / Review of Properties of Area. 201

 with respect to which the product of inertia is zero. Similarly, from other plane stress
equations, corresponding equations for moments of inertia may be obtained directly, if
needed, by using the equalities expressed in Eq. 5.3. Furthermore, because of the simi-
larities between the plane stress equations and those for moments of inertia, Mohr's circle
construction, which was developed for the solution of plane stress problems, is equally
applicable to the solution of problems dealing with moments of inertia. Only minor
modifications, as implied in Eq. 5.3, become necessary
Because of the sign difference mentioned earlier between the equations for moments
and products of inertia and those for plane stress, a slight difference exists in locating the
two diametrically opposite points needed for the construction of Mohr's circle. Point X is
located using the coordinates (I x' P Xy) and point Y using the coordinates (I y' - Pxy). The
use of Mohr's circle for moments and products of inertia is illustrated in Example 5.2.
It is desirable at this point to review briefly the question of determining moments and
products of inertia of composite areas. If the moment of inertia of a composite area with
respect to a given axis is desired, the moment of inertia for each of its component parts
with respect to the given axis is found separately and the results added algebraically to
obtain the moment of inertia of a composite area. Similarly, to obtain the product of
inertia of a composite area with respect to a given set of orthogonal axes, the product of
inertia for each component part with respect to the given set of orthogonal axes is
determined separately and the results added algebraically. In order to determine the
moments and products of inertia of component parts, however, the parallel-axis theorems
are needed.
Consider the area A shown in Fig. 5.2, where X and yare centroidal axes and X and
Yare any axes parallel to X and y, respectively. Thus

Ix =f y2 dA

= f(y + a)2 dA

= f y2 dA + 2a f y dA + a2 f dA (5.4a)

1 x
y
x-
I b

I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I d

o --------- x
FIGURE 5.2

202 Ch. 5 / Stresses in Beams

 The integral f y2 dA represents the moment of inertia I x with respect to the cen-
troidal x axis. The integral f y dA represents the first moment of the area with respect to a
centroidal axis and therefore must vanish; and the f dA is, of course, the area A. Thus

I I x = Ix + Aa21 (S.4b)

Similarly,

j I y = I y + Ab 2 j (S.4c)

and

j J0 = Jc + Ad 2 j (S.4d)

Also, the product of inertia with respect to the perpendicular axes X and Y is given by

P Xy = f XY dA

= f
(x + b)(y + a) dA

= f xy dA +a f x dA +b f y dA + ab fdA (S.4e)

The integral f xy dA is the product of inertia P xy with respect to the centroidal x and y
axes. For the same reasons given earlier,

f x dA = f y dA = 0 and fdA = A.
Therefore,

j P xy = P + Aab
Xy j (S.4f)

Parallel-axis theorems are also available for radii of gyration. These can be developed
quickly from the parallel-axis theorems for moments of inertia by replacing these
moments of inertia by their values in terms of radii of gyration as expressed in Eqs. S.ld
and S.le. For example, if the moments of inertia in Eq. S.4b are replaced by their
equivalents in terms of the radii of gyration, we obtain

(S.Sa)

Similarly, from Eq. S.4c,

(S.Sb)

and from Eq. S.4d,

(S.5c)

Sec. 5.2 I Review of Properties of Areas 203

 v(u)

bill
lib)
'" =12 (el ',,=4s-
(a) II -- 8- II (b) D II(U) -+- - 11

1
lib) rrD4
1"=12 I" = 1" ='"64
I
b -
FIGURE 5.3

where rx is the rectangular radius of gyration with respect to the X axis, ry the rectangu-
lar radius of gyration with respect to the Y axis, and r0 the polar radius of gyration with
respect to an axis through point 0 as shown in Fig. 5.2.
Note that while moments of inertia can only asume positive values, products of
inertia can be positive, negative, or zero, depending upon the choice of the coordinate
axes. Also, because of the mathematical definition, P xy will be zero if one or both of the x
and y axes are axes of symmetry for the given area. Thus it may be concluded that an axis
of symmetry is, of necessity, a principal axis of inertia. However, it should be pointed out
that a principal axis of inertia is not necessarily an axis of symmetry. For example, all the
cross-sectional areas shown in Fig. 5.3 possess at least one axis of symmetry. This axis of
symmetry is one of the two principal axes of inertia for the cross-sectional area. Consider
Fig. 5.3(a), which shows a rectangular area whose base is b and whose height is h. If it is
assumed that b < h, then the moment of inertia with respect to the horizontal axis of
symmetry (i.e., bh 3 / 12) is larger than that with respect to the vertical axis of symmetry (i.e.,
hb 3 / 12). Therefore, the horizontal axis of symmetry is the u axis and the vertical axis of
symmetry is the v axis. For the circular cross section of diameter D shown in Fig. 5.3(b),
any pair of orthogonal centroidal axes represents the two principal axes of inertia u and v,
and the principal moment of inertia has a value of nD 4 / 64. In the isosceles triangular
cross-sectional area shown in Fig. 5.3(c), the vertical axis through the centroid C is the
only axis of symmetry, and therefore it is one of the two principal centroidal axes of
inertia. The second principal centroidal axis of inertia is perpendicular to the first and it
is, obviously, not an axis of symmetry. If it is assumed that b < h, then the moment of
inertia with respect to the horizontal principal centroidal axis of inertia (i.e., bh 3 / 36) is
larger than that with respect to the vertical principal centroidal axis of inertia (i.e., hb 3 /48).
Therefore, the horizontal centroidal axis of inertia is the u axis and the vertical is the v
aXIs.
Selected properties of a few plane areas are shown in Appendix D. Also, Appendix E
provides design properties for a selected group of structural shapes. Attention is directed
to the symbolic notation used in referring to the Sand W shapes. The first number
following the letters Sand W represents the nominal height of the section, while the
second number gives the weight of the section in pounds per unit of length. Thus an
S20 x 75 refers to a standard section which has a nominal height of 20 in. and a weight of
75 lb/ft. Also, a W24 x 160 refers to a wide-flange section which has a nominal height of
24 in. and a weight of 160 lb/ft. Note that structural properties have not yet been stan-
dardized in the SI system of units. When such properties are needed for the solution of a
problem in the SI system, the properties given in Appendix E need to be transformed into
SI units using appropriate transformation relations.

204 Ch. 5 I Stresses in Beams

EXAMPLE 5.1

Determine (a) the centroidal principal axes and the centroidal principal moments of
inertia for the inverted T section shown in Fig. 5.4, and (b) its rectangular centroidal radii
of gyration.

SOLUTION
(a) The centroid C of the section is located on the vertical axis of symmetry (i.e., the Y
axis) at a distance above the base equal to y, which is determined by dividing the area
into two rectangular areas Al = 16 in.2 and A2 = 12 in. 2 as shown, and using the equa-
tion
_ I
AiYi A IYI+ A 2Y2
Y=--=
Ai L Al + A2

= 16(6) + 12(1) = 386 .

16 + 12 . 10.

At the centroid C of the section, construct an x axis perpendicular to the Y axis as shown.
Since the y axis is an axis of symmetry, it follows that it is one of the two principal
centroidal axes of inertia. Obviously, then, the x axis must be the second principal
centroidal axis of inertia. Under certain conditions it is possible to determine by inspec-
tion which of the two is the u axis and which is the v axis. In complex composite sections,
however, it is necessary to determine both moments of inertia before it can be ascertained
which is the u and which is the v axis. In this case

where (/I)x and (l2)x represent the moments of inertia with respect to the x axis of
rectangular areas Al and A 2 , respectively. Thus, by using the parallel-axis theorem
expressed in Eq. 5.4b,
2(8)3
(lI)x = 12 + 16(2.14)
2
= 158.61
.
10.
4

y (v )

8 in.

_ +----,---_ X( II)
C

J1 = 3.86 in.
I
FIGURE 5.4

Sec. 5.2 I Review of Properties of Are•• 205

 Similarly,
6(2)3
= 12 + 12(2.86) = 102.16 tn.
2 . 4
(I 2 )x

Therefore,
Ix = 158.61 + 102.16 = 260.77 in. 4
Also,
I, = (I1), + (1 2),
where (I1),and (I2), represent the moments of inertia with respect to the y axis of
rectangular areas A1 and A 2 , respectively. These moments of inertia are found by using
the parallel-axis theorem expressed in Eq. 5.4c. However, since the y axis coincides with
the centroidal axes for both rectangular areas A1 and A 2 , the second term in Eq. 5.4c
vanishes and

(I1), = 12
8(2)3
= 5.33
.
tn.
4

2(6)3 .
= 12 = 36.00 tn.
4
(1 2 ),

Therefore,
I, = 5.33 + 36.00 = 41.33 in.4
Since Ix is larger than I" it follows that the x axis is the u principal centroidal axis and
the y axis is the v principal centroidal axis. Also,

! Iu = Ix = 260.77 in. ! 4 and ! Iv = I, = 41.33 in. !

4

(b) The rectangular centroidal radii of gyration are obtained by using Eqs. 5.1d. Thus

rx = (1Y /2 e~~77y/2
=

= /3.05 in. I
and

r, = (~y/2 = (4~.:3y/2

/ = 1.21 in. I
EXAMPLE 5.2

I Determine the principal centroidal axes and principal centroidal moments of inertia for
the cross-sectional area shown in Fig. 5.5(a).

206 Ch. & / Str..... In a••m.

 u

T Y( 1.216. I. 792) ---
. ----1

0.04 m

II

-~y~+---~~~~~------In
E
r-
\0
0.24 m 00 X( 10.944. - 1 . 79~)
o
E 0
II
~
."
1><
x·
o (b )
II
I:>.,

0.08 m- f - - - - i

Ca) FIGURE 5.5

SOLUTION. As in Example 5.1, the composite area is divided into the two rectangular
areas Al = 48 X 10- 4 m 2 and A2 = 96 X 10- 4 m 2 , as shown. The centroid C of the cross
section is then found as follows:
__ L Aix [48(6) + 96(10)] x 10- 008
i _ 6 _

x - L Ai - (48 + 96) x 10 4 -. 67 m

- = L AiYi = [48(26) + 96(12)] x 10- 6 = 0 1667

Y L Ai (48 + 96) x 10- m
4 •

A centroidal xy coordinate system is established as shown in Fig. 5.5(a). The moments of

inertia I x and I y and the product of inertia P xy are then determined. The moments of
inertia I x and I yare found as discussed in Example 5.1. Thus
I x = (11)x + (12)x
8 10- 8 + 4(24)3 1; 10- 8 + 96(4.67)2
= 12(4)3 ;
1 10- + 48(9.33)2 X X 10- 8

= 10.944 x 10- s m4
Iy = (Id y = (12)y

= 4(12)3 x 10- 8 + 48(267)2 x 10-8 + 24(4)3 8

X 10- + 96(1 33)2 x 10-8
12 ' 12'
= 1.216 X 10- 5 m 4
The product of inertia P xy is found in a similar manner. Thus
P xy = (P I)XY + (P 2)XY

Sec. 5.2 / Review of Properties of Areas 207

 where (P 1)xy and (P 2)XY represent the products of inertia with respect to the orthogonal x
and y axes of the rectangular areas A1 and A 2 , respectively. Thus, by using the parallel-
axis theorem expressed in Eq. 5.4f,
(P 1 )Xy = 0 + 48( -9.33)(2.67) x 10- 8 = -1.196 X 10- 5 m 4
(P 2 )Xy = 0 + 96(4.67)( -1.33) x 10- 8 = -0.596 X 10- 5 m4
The first term in Eq. 5.4f (i.e., P Xy) is zero for both rectangular areas A 1 and A2 because it
represents the product of inertia with respect to centroidal axes which are axes of sym-
metry. Therefore,
PXy = -1.792 X 10- 5 m 4
Establish an In-P nt coordinate system as shown in Fig. 5.5(b). Construct Mohr's circle for
moments and products of inertia by locating point X, whose coordinates are Ix and P Xy
(i.e., 1O.944,x 10- 5, -1.792 x 10- 5), and point Y, whose coordinates are Iy and -P Xy
(i.e., 1.216 x 10- 5, 1.792 x 10- 5). Note that the common factor 10- 5 has been omitted
from the circle for convenience. Connect points X and Y to locate the center of the circle
and complete the construction of the circle as shown in Fig. 5.5(b).
From the geometry of Mohr's circle, the following values are obtained:

OC = Ix + Iy = (10.944 + 1.216) x 10- 5 = 6.080 X 10-5 m4

2 2
R = [(CB)2 + (BX)2r/2 = [(4.864)2 + (1.792)2]1 /2 X 10- 5 = 5.184 X 10- 5 m4
Iu = OC +R = (6.080 + 5.184) x 10- 5
= 111.264 X 10- 5 m41
Iv = OC - R = (6.080 - 5.184) x 10- 5

= 1 0.896 X 10- 5 m41

28 == tan -1 1.792 = tan -1 0.368 = 202°

4.864 .

Therefote, the u axis is located at an angle of 10.1 ° ccw from the x axis and the v axis is, of
course, perpendicular to the u axis. These axes (Le., the principal centroidal axes of inertia)
are shown in Fig. 5.5(a).

EXAMPLE 5.3

Determine the centroidal moments and the centroidal product of inertia for the section
shown in Fig. 5.5(a) with respect to a new set of axes obtained by rotating the x and y
axes through 30° cwo

SOLUTION. A new set of axes, x' and y', are shown in Fig. 5.5(a) and were obtained by
rotating the x and y axes through 30° cwo Point X' on Mohr's circle shown in Fig. 5.5(b)

208 Ch. 5 / Str..... in Beam.

 is located by rotating from radius ex through an angle of 60° CWo The abscissa of this
point represents the moment of inertia with respect to the x ' axis, and the abscissa of
point Y', diametrically opposite to point X' , represents the moment of inertia with respect
to the y' axis. Furthermore, the ordinates of the two points represent th~ product of
inertia with respect to the x ' and y' axes. Thus, from the geometry of Mohr's circle,
Ix' = DC +R cos (28 + 60) = (6.080 + S.184 cos 80.2) x 10 - 5

= 1 6.962 X 10 - 5 m41
[Y' = DC - R cos (28 + 60) = (6.080 - S.184 cos 80.2) x 10 - 5

= IS.198 X 10 - 5 m41
px'Y' =- R sin (26 + 60) = -(S.184 sin 80 .2) x 10- 5

= 1- S.108 X 10- 5 m41

PROBLEMS

5.1-5.3 Determine the moments of inertia I x and [y,

~i-I__-, and the product of inertia P Xy for the three sections that
2. 0 in . are shown in Figs. PS.l , PS.2, and PS.3, respectively.

10.20 m f
8.0 in .
5.4-5.6 The sections shown in Figs. PS.4 to PS.6, have
two perpendicular axes of symmetry. For each of these
three sections, determine the principal centroidal axes
and the principal centroidal moments of inertia.
I
o ....I....-- x
o
0.07 III 5.0 in . 0.20 m

FIGURE PS.1 FIGURE PS.2 16.0 in.

y
0. 100111 FIGURE PS.4 FIGURE PS.S

--.--1--------,
0.030111

0.060 m
6.0 in.
+-
0.030 III
~---L-----x
o
0.045111

FIGURE PS.3 FIGURE PS.6

Sec. 5.2 I Review of Properties of Arees 209

5.7-5.9 The sections shown in Figs. P5.7 to P5.9, have 5.12 Consider a set of orthogonal axes one of which is
one axis of symmetry. For each of these three sections, inclined at 30° ccw from the axis of symmetry in
determine the principal centroidal axes and the prin- Fig. P5.8. Using Mohr's circle, determine the moments
cipal centroidal moments of inertia. and products of inertia with respect to this set of axes.

5.1~5.15 Determine the rectangular, principal cen-

troidal radii of gyration and the centroidal polar radius
of gyration for the sections shown in Figs. P5.4 to P5.6.

5.16-5.18 Determine the rectangular, principal cen-

10.08 ~ "008 ~I troidal radii of gyration and the centroidal polar radius
FIGURE PS.7 of gyration for the sections shown in Figs. P5.7 to P5.9.

--l003 m)--- 0.09 m--l003 III f- 5.19 The moment of inertia of the area shown in
Fig. P5.l9 with respect to the X axis is 400 in.4 and
--:r with respect to the Y axis is 2800 in.4. Determine the

t
0.03111
area and the centroidal moments of inertia I x and I y if
Ix = Y Y ' a = 7 in., and b = 2 in. Find the polar
0.06 m
moments of inertia with respect to axes through points
C and o.

FIGURE PS.8
-~ y y

3.0 in.

T
12.0 in.
o -------'--~ x

FIGURE PS.19
"

~
FIGURE PS.9
5.10 Consider a set of orthogonal axes inclined at 30°
ccw from the axes of symmetry in Fig. P5.4. Using
Mohr's circle, determine the moments and product on
inertia with respect to this set of axes.
5.11 Consider a set of orthogonal axes inclined at 45°
cw from the axes of symmetry in Fig. P5.6. Using
Mohr's circle, determine the moments and product of
inertia with respect to this set of axes.
5.20 The following information is provided about the
area shown in Fig. P5.19: Ix = 25 X 10- 6 m4, Iy = 10
X 10- 6 m4, A = 6 X 10- 4 m 2 , a = 2b, and Ix = ~Iy.
Find the distances a and b and the quantities I x and I y.
What is the centroidal polar moment of inertia for this
area?
5.21 The cross-sectional area for a beam is shown in
Fig. P5.21 and is fabricated by fastening together four
5 x 5 x~ angles (see Appendix E) to a 1 in. x 12 in.
plate. Determine:
(a) The principal centroidal moments of inertia.
(b) The principal centroidal radii of gyration as well as
the centroidal polar radius of gyration.

210 Ch. 5 / Stresses in Beams

 4 in .
0.04 m - - 10 in.
Four
5X5X* 4 in .
'- angles

t--:--'1 X 12 plate
0. 1 ~ m
12 in.

'----- ---'
14 in .
FIGURE PS.21 0.0 7 m - - lOin . .!
0.05 III 0.04 m 4 in.
FIGURE PS.23 FIGURE PS.24
5.22 The cross-sectional area of a beam is shown in
Fig. PS.22 and is fabricated by fastening together a
Cl2 x 30 channel to a WlO x 45 section (see Appendix
0.06 III
E). Determine:
(a) The principal centroidal moments of inertia.
(b) The principal centroidal radii of gyration as well as
the centroidal polar radius of gyration.

,--0.05 m +0.03 III

el2 x 30
channel FIGURE PS.2S

5.26 The cross-sectional area of a beam is shown in

Fig. PS.26 and consists of a 4 x 4 x ~ angle and a
WIO x 45 CIO x 30 channel (see Appendix E) welded together so
section as to act as a single unit. Determine:
(a) The centroidal principal axes and the centroidal
principal moments of inertia.
(b) The centroidal radii of gyration.
FIGURE PS.22

5.23--5.25 Determine, for the sections shown in cia x 30

channel
Figs. PS.23 to PS.2S:
(a) The centroidal principal axes and the centroidal
principal moments of inertia.
(b) The rectangular centroidal radii of gyration with
respect to the principal axes of inertia. FIGURE PS.26

5.3 _ _ By definition, a beam is a long and slender member that is subjected to bending action.
Flexural Stresses Depending upon the position and orientation of the loads with respect to the principal
due to Symmetric axes of inertia of the beam cross section, bending may be either symmetric or
Bending of Beams unsymmetric. Symmetric bending of beams is discussed in this section and unsymmetric
bending will be the subject of Section S.S. In both types of bending, however, the assump-

Sec. 5.3 I Flexural Stresses due to Symmetric Bending of Beams 211

 tion is made that the bending loads are so placed that they produce no twisting action in
the beam. Furthermore, the assumption is made that a beam has the same cross-sectional
configuration along its entire length (i.e., the beam is prismatic).
Consider two longitudinal planes, one of which contains the u principal axis of
inertia and the second the v principal axis of inertia for all cross-sectional areas along the
beam. Every beam, therefore, has two longitudinal principal planes which are perpendicu-
lar to each other. Symmetric bending of a beam occurs when all the bending loads lie in a
plane that is either parallel to or coincident with one of the two longitudinal principal
planes. Since, as was discussed in Section 5.2, an axis of symmetry for a cross section is a
principal axis of inertia, it follows that symmetric bending results in beams with cross
sections that have at least one axis of symmetry if the plane of the loads is parallel to or
contains this axis of symmetry for each section.
Consider, for example, the case of a beam depicted in Fig. 5.6(a), whose cross section,
as shown magnified in Fig. 5.6(b), has a vertical axis of symmetry. Obviously, this axis of
symmetry is a principal centroidal axis of inertia (denoted as the v principal axis), and a
vertical plane along the beam containing all these axes of symmetry is a longitudinal
principal plane. Also, a horizontal axis through the centroid C of the section is the second
centroidal principal axis of inertia (denoted as the u principal axis), and a horizontal plane
along the beam containing all these horizontal centroidal principal axes is a second
longitudinal principal plane. When the beam is subjected to positive bending couples
Mu ,* lying in the vertical longitudinal principal plane (i.e., the vertical plane of symmetry),
symmetric bending occurs. The beam deforms into the configuration shown in a very
exaggerated manner by the dashed curves in Fig. 5.6(a). Longitudinal fibers in the upper
part of the beam are shortened and those in the lower part of the beam are extended. At
some position between the top and bottom of the beam, there is a surface at which the
fibers are neither shortened nor extended. This surface is known as the neutral surface for
the beam. The intersection of the neutral surface with the cross section of the beam is
known as the neutral axis for the section and its intersection with the longitudinal prin-
cipal plane of the loads is known as the neutral axis for the beam. As will be shown later in
this section, the neutral axis for the section coincides with one of the two principal
centroidal axes of inertia if the beam is subjected to symmetric bending (i.e., if the plane of
the loads is either parallel to or is coincident with one of the two principal axes of inertia
for the beam cross section, the neutral axis for the section coincides with its second
principal axis of inertia). Thus in the symmetrically loaded beam shown in Fig. 5.6, since
the plane of the loads contains the v principal axis, the u principal axis coincides with the
neutral axis for the section.
The shortening of the upper longitudinal fibers in Fig. 5.6(a) is due to a system of
normal compressive stresses, and the extension of its lower longitudinal fibers is caused by
a system of normal tensile stresses. These normal stresses (both tension and compression)
have been referred to by several names, among them bending,jiber, and flexural stresses.
It should be pointed out that the flexure problem is a rather complex one, and its
exact solution is beyond the scope of this book. The simple beam theory presented in this
text is based upon a number of simplifying assumptions. However, the results obtained
are sufficiently accurate for most engineering purposes. In addition to the two assump-
tions that have already been made relating to the plane of the bending loads and the

* In this text the symbols Mu and Mv are used to signify moments that produce bending about the u and v
principal centroidal axes of inertia, respectively.

212 Ch. 5 ! Stresses In Beams

 u

a
- -
h
dx

( "-
/ .... .....

---
..... ~ · ................ a
.....
b
X

_---
-..-
//

/,/
...... ./
..... ~,

A
- - " " " " " ' 11( .A.J

(a) (b)

f\U
f \
/ \
/ \
dO

(e)

FIGURE 5.6

uniformity of the cross section along the length of the beam, several other assumptions
will be made in order to develop the analyses needed for the determination of the bending
stresses in a symmetrically loaded beam. These assumptions will be stated and discussed
as they are needed during the development.
The most significant assumption made in beam analysis states that plane cross
sections (i.e., cross sections perpendicular to the longitudinal centroidal axis of the beam)
before loading remain plane after loading. Thus the two adjacent sections a-a and b--b,
which are an infinitesimal distance dx apart, remain plane but rotate with respect to each
other into positions a'-a' and b'-b', respectively, as shown magnified in Fig. 5.6(c). The
element dx, whose ends are denoted by the symbols A and B, is coincident with the

Sec. 5.3 I Flexural Stresses due to Symmetric Bending of Beams 213

 neutral axis (N.A.) for the beam, and therefore it undergoes no deformation. Furthermore,
plane sections such as a-a and b-b rotate during deformation about their respective
neutral axes, which appear in Fig. 5.6(c) as points A and B. The rotated planes a'-a' and
b'-b' form the angle dO between them and, if extended, intersect at point 0, known as the
center of curvature for the deflected beam.
Through point B in Fig. 5.6(c) construct line DBE parallel to the rotated plane a'-a'.
If it is assumed that the beam is initially straight, then all longitudinal fibers contained
between planes a-a and b-b have the same initial length dx. A longitudinal fiber such as
FH, which is at a distance v below the neutral axis, undergoes an extension denoted by
bu , equal to segment HG in Fig. 5.6(c). Also, at the bottom of the beam, a distance c below
the neutral axis, fiber KE undergoes an extension denoted by be' equal to segment EL in
Fig. 5.6(c).
The next assumption made in the development of simplified beam theory is that
deformations are relatively small. This assumption makes it possible to relate the defor-
mations bu and be through the similarity of triangles BGH and BLE. Thus

bu HG v
-=-=- (5.6a)
be EL c
Since, by definition bu = Bu dx and be = Be dx, where Bu and Be are the strains correspond-
ing to longitudinal fibers at distances v and c below the neutral axis, respectively, Eq. 5.6a
leads to
Bu V
-=- (5.6b)

which shows that the strain is directly proportional to the distance from the neutral axis.
The assumption is now made that the material obeys Hooke's law (i.e., strain is pro-
portional to stress). Therefore, ignoring Poisson's effects, one may substitute for Bv the
value uviEu and for Be the value ue/Ee in Eq. 5.6b, to obtain

(5.6c)

where Eu and Ee are the moduli of elasticity for the material corresponding to locations
defined by the distances v and c, respectively, below the neutral axis. If the material is
assumed to be homogeneous, then Ev = Ee = E and Eq. 5.6c becomes

Uu v
-=- (5.6d)

from which
Uu ue
- = - = const = k (5.6e)
v c

Equation 5.6e can also be written in the form

(5.6f)

214 Ch. 5 / Stresses in Beams

 which states the very important conclusion that the normal bending stress (i.e., fiber
stress) produced by a bending moment is directly proportional to the distance of the fiber
from the neutral axis. For the beam loaded as shown in Fig. 5.6(a), these stresses will be
compressive above and tensile below the neutral axis. Fig. 5.6(c) shows the variation of
the bending stress over cross section a'-a' of the deflected beam. As will be shown later,
this stress distribution gives rise to a bending couple which is equal in magnitude to the
applied moment M u •
It was stated earlier that in symmetrically loaded beams, the neutral axis coincides
with one of the two principal centroidal axes of inertia. To prove this statement, consider
the differential element of area dA at a distance v below the neutral axis of the cross
section, as shown in Fig. 5.6(b). The normal bending stress at this location is (Tv, which
produces a differential normal force over the element of area dA equal in magnitude to
(Tv dA and acting along the axis of the beam (i.e., in the x direction). For any cross section

along the beam, equilibrium of forces in the x direction dictates that the algebraic sum of
the forces on a cross section such as a'-a' in Fig. 5.6(c) be equal to zero. Thus

f (Tv dA = 0 (S.7a)

Substitution of Eq. 5.6f into Eq. 6.7a leads to

k f v dA = 0 (S.7b)

Since k is not zero, it follows that

(S.7c)

where A is the area of the cross section and v represents the distance from the neutral axis
to the centroidal axis of the section. Since A cannot be zero, it follows that v must be zero
and the neutral axis (N.A.) for the section coincides with its centroidal axis, which, in this
case, is the u principal axis of inertia, as shown in Fig. 5.6(b).
In order to explain further the variation of the bending (flexural or fiber) stress over a
given cross section of a loaded beam, consider the beam shown in Fig. 5.7(a), whose
cross-sectional area shown in Fig. 5.7(b) is a rectangle and which is subjected to the pure
negative bending moment Mu. The plane of the applied moments is assumed to contain
the vertical axis of symmetry for the cross section (i.e., the v principal centroidal axis of
inertia), and therefore, as was shown earlier, the horizontal axis of symmetry (i.e., the u
principal centroidal axis of inertia) becomes the neutral axis for the section. In this case
the fibers of the beam above the neutral axis are extended and those below the neutral
axis are shortened. Thus the stress distribution over any cross section for the beam will be
such that the stresses are tension above and compression below the neutral axis.
A segment of the beam to the left of section c-c is isolated and a magnified three-
dimensional view of its free-body diagram constructed as shown in Fig. 5.7(c). Equi-
librium dictates that the resisting moment on section c-c of the beam be equal in
magnitude to the applied moment Mu. This resisting moment is due to the system of
tensile and compressive stresses shown in section c-c in Fig. 5.7(c). The neutral axis is, of
course, unstressed and, as mentioned earlier, the fibers above the neutral aXIs are sub-
jected to tension. Thus any stress elements at a distance v above the neutral axis, such as

Sec. 5.3 I Flexural Stresses due to Symmetric Bending of Beams 215

 v

M
{ I
}.
C

Ic Jl1"

(a) ,
"'- /1. .... .........
/'
/' '" '" ..... ....
..... ....

Ct 11(:-1 , ,)

(b) (e)

FIGURE 5.7

the one shown in Fig. 5.7(c) on the surface of the beam, has normal tensile stresses (T v
acting on its two planes that are perpendicular to the axis of the beam. Its other two
planes, parallel to the axis of the beam, are free of any stresses. Also, since the planes on
which (Tv act are free of shear stresses, it follows that they, as well as any planes perpen-
dicular to them, are principal planes and therefore (Tv is a principal stress. Note, however,
that this statement is valid only for the case of a beam subjected to a pure bending
moment. As will be shown later, when transverse loads are applied, planes perpendicular
and parallel to the axis of the beam are subjected to shear stresses and are, therefore, not
principal planes.
The tensile system of stresses above the neutral axis is equivalent to a tensile force F T
and the compressive system of stresses below the neutral axis is equivalent to a compres-
sive force Fe as shown in Fig. 5.7(c). Since there are no externally applied forces along the
beam (i.e., along the x axis), it follows from the equilibrium of forces in the x direction
that F T = Fe. Therefore, forces F T and Fe constitute a couple whose magnitude is F T d
(or Fe d), where d is the perpendicular distance between the two forces. This couple is the
resisting bending moment M: at section c-c and must be equal in magnitude to the
applied bending moment M u ' Thus

I M: = F T d = Fed = Mu I (5.8)

Return now to Fig. 5.6(b) and consider the element of area dA at a distance v below
the neutral axis. As stated earlier, the normal bending stress at this location is (Tv, which
produces a differential normal force acting on the element of area dA equal in magnitude
to (Tv dA. The differential force (Tv dA produces a differential resisting moment dM: equal
to the differential force (Tv dA multiplied by its moment arm v. Thus
(5.9a)

216 Ch. 5 / Stresses in Beams

 and the resisting moment at section a-a of the beam is obviously the sum of all the
differential moments over the entire area. Therefore,

f f
M~ = dM~ = 0" v v dA (S.9b)

By Eq. 5.8, the resisting moment M~ is equal to the applied moment Mu and, by Eq. 5.6f,
= kv. Making these substitutions into Eq. 5.9b leads to
o"v

Mu = k fv 2 dA (S.9c)

where the integral represents I u' the moment of inertia of the area with respect to the u
principal centroidal axis, which is also the neutral axis for the section. Thus
(S.9d)
If the value of k = 0" Jv is substituted in Eq. 5.9b and the resulting equation solved for 0" v'

we obtain

(S.ge)

The notations o"v and O"e were used, for convenience, to signify the bending stresses at
distances v and c from the neutral axis of the section, respectively. Since these stresses are
normal to cross sections of the beam, they are oriented along the axis of the beam, which
is designated in Fig. 5.6(a) as the x axis. For the sake of consistency with the stress
notation developed in Section 2.3, these stresses will be denoted by the symbol 0"x and
Eq. 5.ge will become

( Its
~eam bent a~out)
strong axIS
(S.10a)

If the plane of the loads contained the u principal centroidal axis of inertia instead of the v
principal centroidal axis of inertia, as has been assumed in developing Eq. 5.10a, the
neutral axis would be the v principal centroidal axis of inertia and the bending stress 0" x
would be given by the equation

~eam bent ~bout)

( ItS (S.10b)
weak aXIs

Equations 5.l0a and 5.l0b may be considered as special cases of a general equation
written in the form

(S. 1Oc)

where M and I are taken with respect to the same principal centroidal axis of inertia (i.e.,
the neutral axis for bending) and the quantity y is the distance from this axis to any point
in the cross-sectional area. Subsequent problems concerned with symmetric bending will
be solved by using either of the two special cases represented by Eq. 5.lOa or 5.lOb as
applicable.

Sec. 5.3 / Flexural Stresses due to Symmetric Bending of Beams 217

 f-o- - - - - 12fl , 6ft
p= 30 k

A B
If . , . - - - - - x

if
If--- 8 ft ----i:I (a)

I I
Iv :
I a

'4- ~---=---=--=-x_------J0:~ ) M.
a

(b)

FIGURE 5.S

Equations 5.10 are the famous flexure equations and may be used to determine the
flexural (bending or fiber) stress at any distance from the neutral axis for any location in a
beam where the bending moment is known. These equations, however, were derived for
the case in which the beam is subjected to a pure bending moment. Most cases that relate
to the flexure of beams are such that bending is produced by loads applied transversely to
the beam. Such a case is shown in Fig. 5.8(a). By the methods developed in Section 1.6,
any section such as a-a is subjected to a shear force V and a bending moment M, as
shown in Fig. 5.8(b). As will be shown in Section 5.4, the existence of a shear force is
equivalent to a system of shear stresses in the plane of the section which produce a certain
amount of distortion. Therefore, under these conditions, plane sections before bending do
not remain plane after bending, and one of the basic assumptions made in deriving
Eq. 5.10 is not satisfied. However, more refined solutions obtained for the flexure
problem, including the effects of shear stresses, indicate that the flexure equations give
answers that are very satisfactory for many practical purposes.

EXAMPLE 5.4

Assume the cross-sectional area of the beam in Fig. 5.8(a) to be rectangular, as shown in
Fig. 5.9(a). Let the plane of the load P be such that it contains the v principal axis of
inertia and plot the flexure stress versus the v coordinate for section a-a at a distance of
8 ft from the left support.

SOLUTION. The reactions at supports A and C for the beam in Fig. 5.8(a) are com-
puted by applying the conditions of equilibrium and are found to be
and Rc = 20 k
Consideration of the free-body diagram of that part of the beam to the left of section a-a,
as shown in Fig. 5.8(b), leads to the value of the bending moment at cross section a-a.

218 Ch. 5 I Stresses in Beams

 Thus
Q zMo =0

from which
Mu = R A (8) = 80 k-ft = 960,000 lb-in.
Note that since bending in this case is about the u principal axis of inertia (i.e., the strong
axis), the bending moment has been designated as Mu '
By inspection it can be concluded that the horizontal axis of symmetry (i.e., the
horizontal centroidal axis) is the u principal centroidal axis of inertia, and the correspond-
ing principal moment of inertia is
1 5000.
I = - (5)(10)3 = - - In 4
u 12 12'
Thus, by Eq. 5.1Oa,
960,000 x 12v 23 .
rr x = 5000 = 04v pSI

A plot of this equation is given in Fig. 5.9(b), which shows the free-body diagram of that
portion of the beam to the left of section a-a. Note the existence of the shear force v., on
section a-a. The shear stress produced by such a shear force will be dealt with in Section
5.4. Note also that the fibers of the beam above the u principal axis (i.e., the neutral axis)
are in compression and that those below the neutral axis are in tension. Thus the
maximum compressive values of rrx occurs at the top of the beam, where v = 5 in. There-
fore,
(rrx)top = 2304(5) = 11,520 psi (C)

u.
1-- - 8 ft V, = 10 k

Ox = 2304u

10.in. - r-- c+ IJ (N.A.)

- L-- f ----'

5 in.

(a) (b )

FIGURE 5.9

Sec. 5.3 I Flexural Stresses due to Symmetric Bending of Beams 219

 Furthermore, the maximum tensile stress occurs at the bottom of the beam, where v is
also 5 in. Thus
(O)bot = 2304(5) = 11,520 psi (T)
Note that only the absolute value of the coordinate v is needed in computing the flexural
stress, since its sense may be determined by inspection for any point above or below the
neutral axis.

EXAMPLE 5.5

Assume the cross-sectional area of the beam in Fig. 5.8(a) (p. 218) to be rectangular, as
shown in Fig. 5.10(a). Let the plane of the load P be such that it contains the u principal
axis of inertia and plot the flexure stress versus the u coordinate for section a-a at a
distance of 8 ft from the left support.

SOLUTION. The support reactions at A and C are the same as found in Example 5.4,
and therefore the bending moment at section a-a has the same value as determined in
Example 5.4. However, although the cross-sectional area is identical with that in Example
5.4, the applied load in this case is such that it produces bending about the v principal
centroidal axis (i.e., the weak axis). Therefore, the bending moment is designated as M v
and is given by
M v = 960,000 lb-in.
The moment of inertia with respect to the v principal centroidal axis is
1 1250
I
v
= -12 (10)(5)3 = -1-2in'4

By Eq. 5.lOb,

(J = 960,000 x 12u 9216 .

x 1250 = u pSI

A plot of this equation is given in Fig. 5.1O(b), which shows the free-body diagram of that
part of the beam to the left of section a-a. Attention is once again directed at the shear

1/

5 in. +---- + ----+------..

v(N. A.)

R~ = 10 k
(3) (b)

FIGURE 5.10

220 Ch. 5 / Stresses in Beams

 force v.. on section a-a, which will be dealt with in Section 5.4. Note that the fibers of the
beam above the v principal axis (i.e., the neutral axis) are in compression and that those
below the neutral axis are in tension. Thus the maximum compressive value of <J x occurs
at the top of the beam, where u = 2.5 in. Thus
(<Jx)top = 9216(2.5) = 23,040 psi (C)
The maximum tensile stress occurs at the bottom of the beam, where u is also 2.5 in.
Therefore,
(<Jx)bot = 9216(2.5) = 23,040 psi (T)

EXAMPLE 5.6

A floor beam in a building is approximated by the situation depicted in Fig. 5.l1(a). It has
a cross section shown magnified in Fig. 5.11(b). Assume the loads to act normal to the
0.15-m top of the T cross-sectional area. Determine (a) the maximum tensile fiber stress,
and (b) the maximum compressive fiber stress. Specify the location of these stresses.

10,000 N/m 0.05 mO.OS mO.OS m

''rtf
f A I I I .l~I D
B
,.....------, -,-
0.05 m

, '//. /.

E ~

U
301- -+- - - '<l N

(a)

(b)
33,750

26,250

34,453

E
~ ~~---~-----------~---x
:l
22,500
(d) FIGURE 5.11

Sec. 5.3 / Flexural Stresses due to Symmetric Bending of Beams 221

 SOLUTION. The centroid C of the T section is located at 0.1536 m above the bottom,
as shown in Fig. 5.11(b). By inspection, it can be concluded that the horizontal centroidal
axis is the u principal axis of inertia. * The corresponding moment of inertia is found to be
Iu = 10.186 x 10- 5 m 4
The reactions at the two supports A and B are found from consideration of equi-
librium to be
RA = 48,750 N and RB = 26,250 N
Since the loads on the beam are vertical (i.e., their plane contains the v principal cen-
troidal axis of inertia), bending of the beam takes place about the u principal centroidal
axis of inertia; hence the u axis is the neutral axis, and bending moments are designated
by the symbol M u •
For convenience, the shear and moment diagrams for the beam are constructed as
shown in Fig. 5.11(c) and (d), respectively. It is observed that there are two positions
along the beam where the bending moment is a relative maximum. These two bending
moments are found to be

at support A and
(Mu)D = + 34,453 N-m
at point D located at 3.375 m right of support A, as shown in Fig. 5.11(a).
(a) Maximum tensile fiber stress:
POSITION A: At this location the bending moment is negative. Therefore, the top fibers
are in tension and the maximum tensile fiber stress is given by Eq. 5.10a, with
v = 9.64 X 10- 2 m. Thus
_ 22,500(9.64) X 10- 2 _ MP
(CTx)top - 10.186 x 10-5 - 21.29 a

POSITION D: At this location, the bending moment is positive. Therefore, the bottom
fibers are in tension and the maximum tensile fiber stress is given by Eq. 5.lOa with
v = 15.36 X 10- 2 m. Thus

(CT x )bot = 34,453(15.36) X 10- 2 = 5195 MP

10.186 x 10- 5 • a

Therefore, the maximum tensile fiber stress in the beam occurs at the bottom fibers of the
section at position D, and its value is

I CT x = 51.95 MPa I
(b) Maximum compressive fiber stress:
POSITION A: At this location, compressive stresses occur below the neutral axis and the

* Students may convince themselves of this fact by computing the moments of inertia with respect to both
horizontal and vertical centroidal axes. Although the moment of inertia with respect to the horizontal
centroidal axis is 10.186 x 10- 5 m4, we find that with respect to the vertical centroidal axis, the moment of
inertia is 1.615 x 10- 5 m4.

222 Ch. 5 I Str••••• in a•• m.

 maximum compressive fiber stress occurs at the bottom of the section and is given by
Eq. 5.l0a with v = 15.36 X 10- 2 m. Therefore,

( ) _ 22,500(15.36) X 10- _ 3 93
2
U x bot - 10.186 x 10- 5 - 3. MPa

POSITION D: The fibers above the neutral axis at this location are in compression. The
maximum compressive fiber stress occurs at the top of the section and is given by
Eq. 5.10a with v = 9.64 X 10- 2 m. Thus
34,453(9.64) x 10- 2
(ux)top = 10.186 x 10-5 = 32.61 MPa

Therefore, the maximum compressive fiber stress in the beam occurs at the bottom fibers
of the section at position A, and its value is

I Ux = 33.93 MPa I

EXAMPLE 5.7

A W14 x 120 section is used as a simply supported beam over a span of 8 m. The
maximum flexural stress in the beam is not to exceed 100 MPa when the beam is bent
about the strong axis (i.e., the u principal axis). Include the weight of the beam in the
calculations and determine the maximum intensity of the uniform load w that may be
applied over the entire length of the beam.

SOLUTION. The W14 x 1-20 has a weight of 120 lb/ft which when transformed to SI
units yields 1750 N/m. Let W = (w + 1750) N/m be the total intensity of the uniform
load acting on the beam, including its own weight. The maximum bending moment Mu
for a simply supported beam of length L subjected to a uniform load of intensity W that
bends it about the u principal axis of inertia occurs at midspan and is given by
wE
M U =-8- (a)

Using the flexure equation, we obtain

Mu (d)
I: (v) = I: 2 = 2Ijd = s::
Mu Mu Mu (b)
(ux)max =

where Su = 2Iu/d is known as the section modulus about the strong axis (the u axis) and d
is the height of the wide-flange section.
Substituting Eq. (a) into Eq. (b), we obtain

from which

Sac. 5.3 / Flexural Stresses due to Symmetric Bending of Beams 223

 where L = 8 m , (ux)max = 100 MPa, and Su is obtained from Appendix E for the
W14 x 120 section in U.S. Customary units and transformed to SI units. Thus
Su = 190 in. 3 = 0.0031 m 3
Therefore,
8(0.0031)(100 x 106 ) 38. 0
W = = 75 N
82 '

and
w=W-1750

= 37,000 N/m = I 37.0 kN/m I

EXAMPLE 5.8

The angle section shown in Fig.5.12(a) is the cross section for a cantilever beam 20ft
long, which is to be subjected to a uniform load whose intensity is 500lb/ft acting
vertically downward. (a) Rotate the section so that it offers maximum resistance to the
bending action produced by the vertical load, and (b) find the maximum fiber stress
induced in the beam for the orientation of the section in part(a).

SOLUTION
(a) The centroid C of the section is located and an xy coordinate system established as
shown in Fig. 5.12(a). The principal centroidal axes of inertia, u and v, and the corre-
sponding moments of inertia, I u and I v' are determined using the procedure discussed in

D
3 sin I 1. 5°

~I.~ X-'------- ---\-~,..---¥ --.----.-""""- - u ( .A.)

II

3 in.
(a)

FIGURE 5.12

224 Ch. 6 / Stre••e. in Beem.

 Section 5.2. These principal centroidal axes of inertia are shown, properly oriented with
respect to centroidal x and y axes, on the section in Fig. 5.12(a). The principal centroidal
moments of inertia are found to be
Iu = 100.7 in. 4
Iv = 8.4 in. 4
Thus, to develop maximum resistance to the bending action produced by the vertical
load, the cross section must be rotated such that the u principal centroidal axis is horizon-
tal (i.e., such that the u-principal centroidal axis is the neutral axis and is perpendicular to
the applied load). The rotated cross section is shown in Fig. 5.12(b).
(b) When the cross section is rotated as shown in Fig. 5.12(b), the vertical load acts
parallel to the v principal centroidal axis and the neutral axis coincides with the u
principal centroidal axis of inertia. The fiber stress is directly proportional to the distance
of the fiber from the neutral axis, as expressed by Eq. 5. lOa. Thus to determine the
maximum fiber stress, we need to locate the point in the cross section that is farthest from
the neutral axis (Le., the u principal centroidal axis). If the cross section is drawn to scale,
the point farthest away from the neutral axis can usually be located by inspection. If the
cross section is not drawn to scale, two or more points may have to be examined before
deciding which is the most highly stressed fiber in the section. The cross section shown in
Fig. 5.12(b) is drawn approximately to scale and point B is seen, by inspection, to be the
farthest away from the neutral axis. As a check, however, the distances from the neutral
axis to both points Band D are computed:
VB = (5.5) cos 11.5 + (1) sin 11.5 = 5.59 in.
VD = (3.5) cos 11.5 + (3) sin 11.5 = 4.03 in.
Therefore, the maximum fiber stress occurs at point B at a cross section along the beam
where the bending moment assumes its maximum value. The maximum bending moment
occurs at the fixed end of the cantilever beam and is equal to
(Mu)max = 1,200,000 lb-in.
Thus, by Eq. 5.10a,

1,200,000 x 5.59
100.7

= 1 66,614 psi (C) I

PROBLEMS

5.27-5.29 A cantilever beam of length L carries a con- troidal axis for its cross-sectional area. Determine the
centrated force P acting vertically downward at the free maximum tensile and compressive flexural stresses for
end and in a plane that contains the v principal cen- each of the following three cases.

Sec. 5.3 / Flexural Stresses due to Symmetric Bending of Beams 225


L--_ _ _ _ _--' 1,5 in.
FIGURE PS.29
5.30-5.32 Repeat Problems 5.27 to 5.29 if the load P
acts in a plane that contains the u principal centroidal
axis for the cross-sectional area.
5.33 A cantilever beam 18 ft long has a rectangular
cross section 4 x 10 in. It carries a uniformly distrib-
uted load whose intensity is 350 lb/ft.
(a) If the plane of the load contains the v principal
centroidal axis of inertia, determine the maximum
tensile and compressive fiber stresses in the beam.
(b) If the plane of the load contains the u principal
centroidal axis of inertia, determine the maximum
tensile and compressive fiber stresses in the beam.
5.34 A simply supported beam 8 m long has a hollow
circular cross-sectional area whose inside diameter is
226
0.12 m and outside diameter is 0.27 m. The beam is
subjected to a concentrated force of 75 kN at midspan.
(a) For a location 3 m from the left support, show the
variation of the flexural stress from the inner to the
outer fiber.
(b) Determine the maximum tensile and maximum
compressive fiber stresses in the beam.
5.35 The beam shown in Fig. P5.35(a) has the cross-
sectional area shown in Fig. P5.35(b) such that the
12-in. top of the T section is the top of the beam and is
perpendicular to the plane of the loads. Consider the
section along the beam for which the bending moment
assumes its maximum value and plot the flexural stress
variation along the axis of symmetry of the T section.
1 4,5 in. 1 3 .0 in 1 4.5 in.
3.0 in.
12.0 in.
~
(b)
FIGURE PS.3S
5.36 The beam shown in Fig. P5.36(a) has the cross-
sectional area shown in Fig. P5.36(b) such that the
0.15-m dimension of the channel is the top of the beam
and is perpendicular to the plane of the loads. Compute
the values of the maximum tensile and compressive
stresses in the beam and specify their locations.
Ch. 5 I Stresses in Beams
 6 kt"/ m
5.38 The beam shown in Fig. P5.38(a) has the cross-
sectional area shown in Fig. P5.38(b) such that the 5-in.
dimension of the trapezoidal section is the top of the
beam and is perpendicular to the plane of the loads.
Determine the maximum tensile and compressive
stresses in the beam and specify their locations.

12 kips 12 kips
(a)
_.5 ft
0.03 III 0.03 Jl1

H-O.09 III --Il~--I

~--------------~ II

t
0.03 III

5f! 10 ft
0.06111
(n)

lil) 6 in.

FIGURE P5.36

5.37 The beam shown in Fig. P5.37(a) has the cross-

sectional area shown in Fig. P5.37(b) such that the
0.16 m base of the triangle is the bottom of the beam
and is perpendicular to the plane of the loads.
(a) Consider a section 2 m to the right of support A (b)
and determine the variation of the flexural stress along FIGURE P5.3S
the axis of symmetry for the triangular section.
(b) Compute the maximum tensile and compressive
stresses in the beam and specify their locations. 5.39 A W18 X 65 section (see Appendix E) is used as a

If I
simply supported beam over a span of 20 ft to carry a

:t}
3 kt\ / m uniform load of intensity w which includes the weight of
I I 1 the beam. If the maximum flexural stress in the beam is
30,000 psi, determine :
(a) The maximum moment in the beam.
(b) The intensity of the uniform load w acting on the
:!m 3.5m - - - 3.5111 beam.

61,,,
(a)

5.40 An S 18 X 70 section (see Appendix E) serves as a

cantilever beam with a length of 18 ft. The beam carries
a load that varies linearly from zero at the free end to a
maximum value of w k/ft at the fixed end. If the
maximum flexural stress in the beam is 40 ksi, deter-
I 0.08111
I
mIlle:
1 0 .0 111
(a) The maximum moment in the beam.
(b)
(b) The magnitude of the load intensity w, which
FIGURE P5.37 includes the weight of the beam.

Sec. 5.3 / Flexural Stresses due to Symmetric Bending of Beams 227

5.41 Two ClO x 2S channels (see Appendix E) are
welded back to back as shown in Fig. PS.41(a) and is
used for the beam depicted in Fig. PS.41(b). If the
maximum flexural stress in the beam is 100 MPa, deter-
mine the magnitude of the load P. Neglect the weight of
the beam in the calculations.
(HINT: To obtain needed section properties in SI units,
transform the values given in Appendix E using appro-
priate transformation relations.)
t
5.25 in.
p 3.0 in.
2P

! !
Two CIO X 25
back to back

J;; f---2 m----+~-2 m

7%
I 2 m----1
FIGURE PS.43

5.44 The shaft pUlley-system shown in Fig. PS.44 is

(a) (b)
used in a fabricating plant to transmit torques from one
FIGURE PS.41 location to another. Assume that the pulleys are fas-
tened rigidly to the shaft and that the end bearings at A
and E are frictionless. Concentrate on the shear and
5.42 The cross section shown in Fig. PS.42 is that for moments developed in the shaft by the belt forces ignor-
a beam that is bent about the horizontal principal cen- ing the induced torques.
troidal axis. If Iv = S.47 X 10- 6 m 4 and the bending (a) Construct the shear and moment diagrams for the
moment at some posItion along the beam is shaft.
M = 25 kN-m, determine the resultant force acting in (b) Determine the maximum tensile and maximum
the following parts of the cross section: (a) ABCD and compressive flexural stresses in the shaft. The shaft has
(b) ECFG. a hollow circular cross section in which the outside
diameter is 0.30 m and the inside diameter is O.2S m.
9 kN
0.03 IllrO.09 III 0.03 Ill~ SkN
8kN 10kN
/I
;I 8
R ~ 0.50 111
0.03 III
E
D C
+
1 C
v

°.055 III

~- -
F
1.5 m--J...
FIGURE PS.42 r--1 .511l
2.001 12kN 18kN

FIGURE PS.44
--+-1.5m --J
I
5.43 The cross section shown in Fig. PS.43 is that for
a beam that is bent about the horizontal principal cen-
troidal axis. If Iu = 1471.5 in.4 and the bending moment 5.45 The wing of an experimental airplane may be
at some position along the beam is M = - 200 k-ft, modeled as a cantilever beam, as shown in the plan and
determine the resultant force acting in (a) the horizontal elevation views of Fig. PS.4S. The cross-sectional area
rectangle and (b) the vertical rectangle. at any position along the cantilever may be assumed

228 Ch. 5 / Stresses in Beams

rectangular with a constant height equal to 0.20 m and the weight of the beam in your calculations and the
a width which varies linearly along the length of the worst possible loading condition.
beam. The load on the wing varies linearly from Wi = (a) Isolate one of the beams and show its free-body
3 kN/m at the free end to W 2 = 9 kN/m at the fixed end. diagram.
(a) Construct the shear and moment diagrams for the (b) Construct the shear and moment diagrams for the
beam. beam.
(b) Compute the maximum flexural stress at the fixed (c) Determine the maximum flexural stress in the beam.
end of the beam. Ignore effects of stress concentration
(see Chapter 12). 5.47 The cross section shown in Fig. PS.47 is that for
a cantilever beam 3 m long that is to be subjected to a
concentrated force of 8 kN acting vertically downward
T
2.3 m ~
T
1.2m
at its free end.
(a) Rotate the section so that it offers maximum resist-

1 ~
ance to the bending action produced by the vertical
load.
(b) Determine the maximum tensile and compressive
I· 8.5 m ./ stresses induced in the beam for the rotated position of
--.L
/,
the section in part (a).
0.20 m
T 0.04 m

W2 = 9 kN/ m 0.12 m
FIGURE PS.4S

5.46 A part of the roof of an industrial building is

shown in the plan and elevation views of Fig. PS.46.
The roof is supported by W14 x 22 (see Appendix E)
beams which are parallel and spaced at a distance of
8 ft from each other. These beams may be assumed to
be simply supported over a span of 20 ft . The roofing
material weighs 30 Ib/ft 2 and during the winter months
the roof may carry snow that weighs 20 Ib/ft2. Include
0.05 m 0.04 m
FIGURE PS.47
5.48 The cross section shown in Fig. PS.48 is that for
a simply supported beam 20 ft long which is to carry a
uniform load of intensity 3000 Ib/ft acting vertically
downward along the entire length of the beam.

4 in.
- lOin.

4 in.
1

12 in .

1-- n I 8 8 n----l
14 in .
'-------' T
10 in.
4 in.

FIGURE PS.46 FIGURE PS.48

Sec. 5.3 / Flexural Stresses due to Symmetric Bending of Beams 229

(a) Rotate the section so that it develops maximum
resistance to the bending action produced by the verti-
cal load.
(b) Determine the maximum tensile and compressive
stresses induced in the beam for the rotated position of
t Jl)} I 111I I !
1.5 kN/m

the section in part (a). L 2m - 3.5 m

(a)
3.5 m
5.49 The beam shown in Fig. PS.49(a) has the cross-
sectional area given in Fig. PS.49(b). All the loads on
the beam are assumed to act vertically downward along 0.06 In
the entire length of the beam.
(a) Rotate the section so that it develops maximum
resistance to the bending action produced by the verti-
cal loads.
(b) Determine the maximum tensile and compressive
stresses induced in the beam for the rotated position in
part (a). (b)

FIGURE PS.49

5.1 _ _ As was pointed out earlier, when bending of a beam is produced by transverse loads, any
Shear Stresses of its cross sections is subjected not only to the action of a bending moment M, but also
in Symmetrically to the action of a shear force V. The shear force V represents the resultant of a system of
Loaded Beams shear stresses that are distributed in some manner over the cross-sectional area of the
beam.
In order to derive an approximate distribution for the shear stresses in symmetrically
loaded beams, consider a beam subjected to an arbitrary transverse loading system such
as the one depicted in Fig. S.l3(a). For simplicity and convenience, the cross-sectional
area of the beam is assumed rectangular, as shown magnified in Fig. S.l3(b). The plane of
the applied loads is assumed to contain the v principal centroidal axis of inertia for the
section so that symmetric bending is produced. A differential segment of the beam of
length dx contained between planes a-a and b-b is isolated as a free body and shown
magnified in Fig. S.13(c). The moments on planes a-a and b-b are, respectively, M u and
Mu + dM u, where the quantity dM u represents the elemental change in moment over the
differen tial length dx. Also, the shear forces on planes a-a and b-b are V v * and v., + d v., ,
respectively, where the quantity dv., represents the elemental change in shear over the
differential length dx.
The moments M u and M u + dM u give rise to the normal stresses depicted on planes
a-a and b-b, respectively, in Fig. S.13(d). The shear forces v., and v., + dv., are resultants of
the shear stress distributions shown schematically over planes a-a and b-b, respectively.
The assumption is made that on any surface parallel to the neutral plane such as efij in
Fig. S.13(d), the shear stress is constant. Inherent in this assumption is the requirement
that the width b of the cross-sectional area is relatively smallt and that its sides intersec-

* The subscript v on the shear force V is used to emphasize the fact that this shear force is parallel to the v
principal axis of inertia.
t A more refined solution of this problem by Saint Venant indicates that the width b of the section cannot
be much larger than its height h if the approximate solution given by Eq. 5.12 is to yield satisfactory answers.

230 Ch. 5 / Stresses in Beams

 £

x
+ II ( .A.)

e, ; r. i
t
g, k II. 1
(b)

FIGURE 5.13

ting the neutral axis are perpendicular to this axis and, of course, parallel to each other.
Otherwise, the variation of the shear stress across the width of the section may be
sufficiently large to render useless the following development and the resulting equation.
The determination of the shear stress 'v x on any surface efij located at a distance V I
from the neutral axis is accomplished by isolating portion efghijkl and constructing its
free-body diagram as shown in the lower part of Fig. S.13(d). The shear stress ' vx on
surfaces parallel to the neutral plane must be accompanied by shear stresses ' x v of equal
magnitude on planes perpendicular to the neutral plane. Thus referring to Fig. S.13(d), we

Sec. 5.4 I Shear Stresses in Symmetrically loaded Beams 231

 find that the shear stress on surface ejij is 'vx and that on plane efgh is 'xv' where 'vx must
be equal to 'xv in order to satisfy equilibrium requirements, as was shown in Section 2.4.
Consider the equilibrium of forces acting on portion efghijkl in a direction parallel to
the longitudinal axis of the beam (i.e., along the x axis). There are three forces acting in
the x direction:
1. A normal force F I representing the resultant of the normal stresses on plane ijkl

i-
produced by the moment Mu. This resultant force is given by
hl2
FI = (Jx dA (5.11 a)
VI

where dA is an element of area in plane ijkl at a distance v below the neutral axis and the
stress (Jx is given by Eq. 5.10a. Thus substituting Eq. 5.10a into Eq. 5.lla yields

FI =_
Mu
Iu
i-
VI
hl2
v dA (5.11 b)

2. A normal force F 2 representing the resultant of the normal stresses on plane efgh
produced by the moment Mu + dM u • This resultant force is also given by Eq.5.11a,
where dA is an element of area in plane efgh at a distance v below the neutral axis. The
stress (J x is again given by Eq. 5.lOa, in which the moment is M u + dM U. Substitution of

i-
the value of (Jx as given by Eq. 5. lOa into Eq. 5.11a yields

F2 = M u + dM u hl2
v dA (5. 11 c)
Iu VI

3. A shear force F 3 representing the resultant of I the shear stresses 'vx acting on
surface ejij. Since the shear stress 'vx is assumed constant over the thickness b of the beam,
the shear force F 3 can be determined as the product of the shear stress 'vx and the area
over which it acts (i.e., surface area ejij, which is equal to b dx). Thus
F3 = 'vxb dx (5. 11 d)
Summing forces in the x direction leads to the conclusion that
F3 = F2 - FI (5.1 Ie)
Substitution of Eqs. 5.11b, 5.11c, and 5.1Id into Eq. 5.1 Ie and simplifying leads to

'vx b dx = __u
dM I-h 12
v dA (5.11f)
Iu VI

from which

'vx = b~u (d;:u) 1:h1 v dA 2 (5.11g)

By Eq. 1.6, the quantity dMjdx is the shear force v". The integral J~h12 v dA rep-
resents the first moment of the area between locations VI and - h/2 [shown shaded in
Fig. 5.13(b)] about the neutral axis. Alternatively, this integral represents the first moment
about the neutral axis of the area contained between an edge of the cross section parallel
to its neutral axis and the surface at which the shear stress is to be computed. This
quantity is traditionally given the symbol Qu. Making these substitutions in Eq. 5.1lg, we

232 Ch. 5 / Stresses in Beams

 obtain the equation for the magnitude of the horizontal shear stress .vx on any surface at
a distance v from the neutral axis. Thus

(S.12a)

As stated earlier, since .xv = .vx Eq. 5.12a yields not only the value of the horizontal shear
stress .vx at any location at a given distance from the neutral axis, but also the magnitude
of the vertical shear stress .xv at the same location. Also, since Eq. 5.10 yielding the
flexural stress was used in developing Eq. 5.12a, the latter equation is subject to the same
limitations dictated by the assumptions made in deriving the flexural equation.
Examination of Eq. 5.12a reveals that for a given location along a beam of a certain
cross-sectional area, v., and Iu are both constants, and therefore the value of .vx depends
upon the ratio Qjb. Thus the maximum value of the horizontal shear stress occurs at a
location in the cross section where the ratio Qjb is a maximum. In general, for most
commonly used structural shapes, this ratio is a maximum at the neutral axis for the
cross-sectional area. However, it should ne noted that there are shapes for which the
maximum value of the horizontal (and the vertical) shear stress does not occur at the
neutral axis. Therefore, we need to examine each cross-sectional configuration on its own
merit to determine the location for which Qjb is a maximum.
If the plane of the applied loads is assumed to contain the u principal instead of the v
principal centroidal axis of inertia, the shear force would be v.. parallel to the u principal
axis, bending would take place about the v principal axis, and the appropriate equation
for the shear stress would be

(S.12b)

The shear stress .ux is the horizontal shear stress at any location at a given distance from
the neutral axis, but it is also equal to .xu' the vertical shear stress at the same location.
Equations 5.12a and 5.12b may be viewed as special cases of a general equation written in
the form

(S.12c)

where Q and I are taken with respect to the same principal centroidal axis of inertia (i.e.,
the neutral axis for bending) and the shear force V is perpendicular to this axis. The
quantity t represents the thickness of the cross-sectional area measured parallel to the
neutral axis at the point where the horizontal (or vertical) shear stress. is required.
Subsequent problems concerned with symmetric bending will be solved by using either of
the two special cases represented by Eq. 5.12a or 5.12b as applicable.
Note that the development that led to Eq. 5.12a was based on consideration of the
longitudinal (horizontal) shear stress on a plane that is perpendicular to the plane of the
load such as place efij in Fig. 5.13(d). It can be shown, however (see Section 13.4 dealing
with thin-walled open cross sections), that Eq. 5.12a, and hence Eq. 5.12c, is equally
applicable to cases where the longitudinal shear stress occurs on planes that are parallel

Sec. 5.4 / Shear Stresses in Symmetrically Loaded Beams 233

 to the plane of the load. As a matter of fact, this equation may be used to determine the
average shear stress on a longitudinal plane that has any inclination to the plane of the
applied loads as long as the terms are interpreted properly. Consider, for example, the
longitudinal plane defined by the line DE in Fig. 5.13(b), which is inclined to the vertical
plane of the load. Both Q and I are taken with respect to the u principal axis of inertia
while t is the length of line DE. Note that Q is the moment about the u axis of the area to
one side of line DE and I is the moment of inertia of the entire cross section about this
axis.
If both sides of Eq. 5.12c are mUltiplied by t, the result is

I'~"<QI (5.12d)

where s is known as the shear flow and represents the amount of longitudinal shear force
per unit of length of the beam.
All of the concepts above are illustrated in the following examples.

EXAMPLE 5.9

Consider a position along the beam of Fig. 5.13 where the shear force is v" and construct
the horizontal shear stress distribution as a function of the coordinate v.

SOLUTION. The horizontal shear stress .vx

is given by Eq. 5.12a, where, for a given
b, Iu
position along the beam, the quantities v" , and are all constants and = Iu tbh 3.
To determine the horizontal shear stress .vx
at any distance VI from the neutral axis
of the rectangular cross section, Qu must be evaluated for that particular distance from its
basic definition. Thus

Qu = i
-hl2 V dA = b i-hl2 v dv = -b(h2
- - vf )
VI VI 2 4
Substitution of these quantities into Eq. 5.12a leads to
2
·vx = b{/2bh3)
v" "2 "4 - 2)
(b)(h VI

Simplification of this relation yields

6v" (h2
·vx = bh3 "4 - 2)
VI

which is the equation for a parabola. At the top and bottom of the rectangular cross-
sectional area, where VI is equal to +h/2 and -h/2, respectively, .vx
becomes equal to
zero. The maximum value for .vx
is observed to occur at the neutral axis for the rectangu-
lar area where VI = O. Thus

Therefore, for a rectangular cross-sectional area as shown in Fig. 5.14(a), the horizontal
shear stress varies parabolically, as shown in Fig. 5. 14(b). Since, for any distance VI from

234 Ch. 5 / Stre••a. in Beam.

 ,....--~f-----. - - - - ---

" -I- + tI ( .A.)

T"X

I
------

\---b
(a) (b)

FIGURE 5.14

the neutral axis, the vertical shear stress 'xv is equal to the horizontal shear stress 'vx, the
distribution shown in Fig. 5.14(b) also gives the values of the vertical shear stress.

EXAMPLE 5.10

Consider a position an infinitesimal distance to the right of support A in the beam shown
in Fig. 5.11(a) (p. 221). Plot the horizontal shear stress distribution at this position with
respect to the v coordinate axis for the T cross section shown in Fig. 5.11(b) (p. 221).

SOLUTION. The shear force v" an infinitesimal distance to the right of support A in
Fig. 5. 11 (a) was found in the solution of Example 5.6 to be + 33,750 N. The positive sign
indicates that the sum of the applied forces to the left of the section of interest is upward
(i.e., the resisting shear force at the section of interest is downward). Also, from the
solution of Example 5.6, Iu = 10.186 X 10- 5 m4. Two separate expressions have to be
written for the horizontal shear stress, one for the flange and the second for the stem of
the T section.
The horizontal shear stress 'vx at any location in the flange of the T section at a
distance V 1 from the neutral axis is given by Eq. 5.12a. Thus

Since b for the flange is 0.15 m,

O.0964 iO.0964
Qu =i v dA = 0.15 v dv = 7.5 x 10- 2 (92.93 x 10- 4 - vi}
VI VI

and

33,750 x 7.5 x 10- 2 ( 293 -4 2)

'vx = 0.15(10.186 x 10-5) 9 . x 10 - V1

= 16.567 x 10 7 (92.93 x 10 - 4 - vi) N/m2

= 165.67(92.93 x 10- 4 - vi) MPa

Sec. 5.4 / Shear Stresses in Symmetrically Loaded Beams 235

 u

J
0.05 m u
1. 18 MPa 3.55 MPa

0.0 964 m
I 0'Dj64 m
+ _ ____ I----------+--T .~
3.9 1 MPa

u (N.A.)
1 C

o. 1536 m

(a) (b )
FIGURE 5.15

which represents the equation of a parabola applicable only in the range

0.0464 < VI ::; 0.0964
The horizontal shear stress 'vx at any location in the stem of the T section a distance
VI from the neutral axis is also given by Eq. 5.12a, where b is 0.05 m and

Qu = 1-0.1536v dA = 0.05 1-0.1536

Vi V1
V dv = 2.5 x 10 - 2(235.93 x 10 - 4 - vi}

Therefore,
33,750 x 2.5 x 10 - 2 - 4 2
'vx = 0.05(10.186 x 10-5) (235.93 x 10 - VI)

= 16.567 x 10 7 (235.93 x 10- 4 - vi} N/m2

= 165.67(235.93 x 10- 4 - vi} MPa
which represents the equation of a parabola applicable only in the range
-0.1536::; VI < 0.0464
The T cross section is redrawn in Fig. 5.l5(a) for convenience. A plot of 'vx versus V
is obtained from the preceding two equations and shown in Fig. 5.l5(b). Note the abrupt
increase in the value of the horizontal shear stress from 1.18 MPa at the very bottom of
the flange to 3.55 MPa at the very top of the stem. This is obviously due to the abrupt
decrease in the width from 0.15 m in the flange to 0.05 m in the stem of the section. It
should also be pointed out that the horizontal shear stress distribution for the flange is
not realistic, as these shear stresses must vanish along the bottom free edges of the flange,
and we must look at the distribution shown in Fig. 5.15(b) as a reasonable approximation
for the stem and that part of the flange which forms the continuation of the stem. As in
the case of the rectangular cross section examined in Example 5.9, the maximum value of
the horizontal shear stress, which is 3.91 MPa, occurs at the neutral axis for the T section.

236 Ch. 5 I Stresses in Beams

EXAMPLE 5.11

The cross section shown in Fig. 5.16 is that for a beam subjected to loads that contain the
u principal centroidal axis. At some location along the beam, the shear force v.. is known
to be equal to 25 k. Determine (a) the vertical shear stress at a distance of 3 in. below the
top of the section, and (b) the horizontal shear stress at the neutral axis.

SOLUTION
(a) By Eq. 5.12b,

At a distance of 3 in. below the top of the section (i.e., at the junction between the
horizontal rectangle and the two vertical rectangles), the width h may be taken either an
infinitesimal distance above (h = 4 in.) or an infinitesimal distance below (h = 8 in.) the
junction. Thus, at the junction, we have a shear stress discontinuity as was discussed in
Example 5.10 and depicted in Fig. 5.15(b). Obviously, the remaining quantities in
Eq. 5.12b are the same for either of the two positions in the neighborhood of the junction.
Thus
Iv = 2[-f2(2)(8)3] + -f2(4)(2)3 = 173.3 in.4
Qv = Al VI = [2(2 x 3»){2.5) = 30.0 in. 3
Therefore, for an infinitesimal distance above the junction

(4)(~~3.3) (30.0)
= 11.08 ksi I

_ Ill.
~ .
1 -- - 4 ill. 2 in .

3 in.

t
ii, = 2.5 in.

2 in.

o
II
3 ill.

FIGURE 5.16

Sec. 5.4 / Sh.ar Str••••• in Symm.trically Loaded B.am. 237

 and for an infinitesimal distance below the junction,
25
• xu = (8)(173.3) (30.0)

= I 0.54 ksi I
(b) The horizontal shear stress .ux at the neutral axis is again given by Eq. 5.12b. At this
position in the cross section, the width h has a unique value equal to 8 in. and the
quantity Qv is computed as follows:
Qv = A1 V1 + A2 v2
= [2(2 x 3)](2.5) + [(1)(8)](0.5)
= 34.0 in. 3
Thus, at the neutral axis,

(8)(~~3.3) (34.0)
:;: I0.61 ksi I

EXAMPLE 5.12

The cross-sectional area shown in Fig. 5.17 is that for a beam subjected to loads that
contain the v principal axis. The cross section is fabricated by fastening two 12 x 1 in.
plates using two 4 x 4 x t angles (see Appendix E) as shown. The diameter of the bolts

1·---D--12in·--D----i°1
.. ..1.

T
h
-r- I in.

2. 78 in. ~~:
u (N.A.)
3.7, in.
-L. 12in.

L
9.72 in.

-II in. I--

FIGURE 5.17

238 Ch. 5 / Str••••• In Beam.

 marked D is i in. and have a longitudinal spacing PD = 6 in. The diameter of the bolts
marked E is i in. and their longitudinal spacing PE is to be determined. The shear force in
the beam is known to be v., = 30 k. Determine (a) the shear force carried by each of the
two bolts marked D and the cross shear stress in these bolts, and (b) the spacing PE for
bolts E if the magnitude of the shear force carried by each of these bolts is equal to 15 k.
What is the cross shear stress in bolts E?

SOLUTION
(a) The centroidal u and v axes are located as shown in Fig. 5.17 and the moment of
inertia about the bending u (i.e., N.A.) is determined to be III = 431.84 in.4. Note that
while more accurate analyses may include the effect of bolt holes, these holes are not
included in the present calculations.
The bolts marked D are subjected to a longitudinal shear flow s at the junction
between the horizontal plate and the two angles. This shear flow is given by Eq. 5.12d,
which when specialized to the case at hand becomes
v.,
svx = T.. Q..
In this equation Q.. is the moment of the rectangular area above the junction about the
neutral axis of the entire cross section and equals 12 x 1 x 2.78 = 33.36 in. 3 • Thus

= 30 x 33.36 = 2 32 k/·
Svx 431.84 . m.

Therefore, the total shear force 2Fx carried by two bolts marked D is the shear flow
multiplied by the longitudinal spacing PD. Thus
2F x = (Svx)PD = 2.32(6) = 13.92 k
and the shear force carried by each bolt is

Fx = 13;2 = 1 6.96 k I

All of the bolts marked D are in single shear and, consequently, the cross shear stress
tD in these bolts is

_ Fx _ 6.96 -\22 69 k i\
tD - A bolt - {n/4)(5/8)2 - . s

(b) The bolts marked E are subjected to a longitudinal shear flow S at the junction
between the vertical plate and the two angles. Again, this shear flow is given by Eq. S.12d,
which when specialized to the case under consideration becomes

v"
s""=TQ..
II

In this equation Q.. is the moment of the vertical rectangular area about the neutral axis
of the entire cross section and is equal to 12 x 1 x 3.72 = 44.64 in. 3. Thus
30 x 44.64 .
SIIX = 431.84 = 3.10 kim.

Sec. 5.4 / Shear Stresses in Symmetrically Loaded Beams 239

 The total shear force F x carried by each of the bolts marked E is the shear flow multiplied
by the unknown spacing PE [i.e., Fx = (Sux)PE]. Since Fx= 15 k, we have
15 = 3.lOpE
and

PE = 1 4.84 in. I

Observing that bolts E are SUbjected to double shear, we obtain the cross shear stress
rEin these bolts as follows:

rE
- -Fx- - 15 - ~
- 2A bolt - 2(n/4)(W -
14 kl
2. 7 s

EXAMPLE 5.13

A loaded beam and its cross-sectional area are shown in Fig. 5.18(a) and (b). (a) Consider
a position along the beam an infinitesimal distance to the left of support B. At this
position, compute the principal stresses and the maximum in-plane shear stresses at point
P which is located in the web an infinitesimal distance below the junction. (b) If the
material is aluminum, for which E = 70 GPa and J1 = 0.25, determine the in-plane prin-
cipal strains and the magnitude of the maximum in-plane shear strains. What is the
magnitude of the absolute maximum shear strain?

SOLUTION
(a) The centroid C of the section is located at 0.1375 m above the bottom and centroidal
u and v axes are established as shown in Fig. 5.18(b). The principal centroidal moment of
inertia about the u axis is found to be Iu = 138.542 X 10-.6 m4. The shear and moment
diagrams for the beam are shown, respectively, in Fig. 5. 18(c) and (d).
At an infinitesimal distance to the left of support B, v" = - 35.00 kN and M u =
- 20.00 kN-m. The negative sign on the shear force means that this shear force is upward
and the negative sign On the moment means that fibers above the neutral axis (i.e., the u
axis) are in tension. Alternatively, instead of constructing complete shear and moment
diagrams, we may obtain the values of v" and Mu by considering the equilibrium of the
free-body diagram of that part of the beam to the left of the position of interest. Such a
free-body diagram is shown in Fig. 5.18(e).
A stress element at point P located at 0.0625 m above the neutral axis is shown in
Fig. 5.18(e) and magnified in Fig. 5.18(f). Two planes in this stress element are perpen-
dicular to the longitudinal axis of the beam (X planes) and the other two planes are
parallel to this axis (V planes). Since this element is above the N.A., the normal stress (J x is
tension. Also the shear stress rxv on the right vertical plane must be upward because the
shear force is upward. These two stresses are computed as follows:
20.00 x 103 62
138.542 x 10-6 (0.0 5)

= 9.023 MPa

240 Ch. 5 / Stresses in Beams

 1_. r
10k

15 k 1m .-
J J J 0.05 m

71i 0.0625m
4m 2m--j +- C ~;:·)
R8 = 45 k r
I 0.15 m
0. 1375 m
(a)

0.05 OJ
10.00
-'-
z~ r-------~~----------+_--------~ __ x
0.025111 0.025 m

';:,.'
(b)

35.00
20.83 (el

E
z "f----------------~------------~_ x X plane

I
~
'::£~ ; , MPa
= = i.316
VPlanc~9.023 MP.
P
20.00
(d )
I (f)
I
I
15 k , 1m I
J ~ ~ ~ ~
\ I
118 . 2°
0A = 4.512 MPa
Pc. ) Mu =20.00 kN-m IV
1
I
4m V. = 35.00 kN T, = 5.599 MPa

25 kN
ee)

<13 = 1.087 MPa

FIGURE 5.18
(g)

v" 35.00 X 10 3
'xv = hIu Qu = (0.05)(138.542 X 10-6) (0.05 X 0.15 X 0.0875)

= 3.316 MPa
Construction of Mohr's circle for the stress element of Fig. 5.18(f) and analysis of its
geometry leads to the following values:

(11 = 1 10. 111 MPa I (13 = 1-1.087 MPa I 'max = '1 = '2 = 1 5.599 MPa I

Sec. 5.4 I Shear Stresses in Symmetrically Loaded Beams 241

 Note that this is a plane stress condition for which U2 = O. Also, the plane on which Ul
acts makes an angle of 18.2° ccw from the X plane as shown in Fig. 5.18(g). Observe that
the maximum in-plane shear stresses Tl and T2 are identical with the absolute maximum
shear stress I Tmax I which is given by (Ul - (3)/2 = 5.599 MPa.
(b) The principal strains may be obtained directly from the stress-strain transformation
relations expressed in Eq. 2.34' by setting U 2 = O. Since only the in-plane principal strains
are required, only two of the three equations need to be used, namely those for 8 1 and 8 3 ,
Thus
J1
81 =
U1
E -E (U 2 + ( 3)

10.111 x 106 0.25 (0 _ 1087 x 106)

70 X 109 70 X 109 .

= 1148.3 x 10- 6 1

U3 J1
8
3
=E
- - -E
( ul +u)
2

1.087 X 106 0.25 6

= - 70 X 109 - 70 X 109 (10.111 x 10 + 0)

= 1- 5 1.6 x 10- 1 6

Note that the directions of the principal strains 8 1 and 83 coincide with the directions of
the principal stresses uland u 3, respectively.
The maximum in-plane shear strains 1'1 and 1'1 may be obtained directly from a
stress-strain transformation relation similar to Eq. 2.29. Thus
I'max = 1'1 = 1'2
=-=
Tmax 2(1 + J1)T max
G E

= 2(1 + 0.25)(5.599 X 106) = 1 200.0 x 10- 6 1

70 x 109 . .

By Eq. 2.26b,

II'max I = 8 1 - 83 = (148.3 + 51.6) x 10- 6 == 1200.0 x 10- 6 1

Thus, for this particular problem, the absolute maximum shear strain is the same as the
maximum in-plane shear strains ')'1 and ')'2'

242 Ch. 5 / Stres.e. in Beams

PROBLEMS

5.50-5.52 A 20-ft simply supported beam carries a

100-k concentrated vertical load at midspan the plane r -- -------,
IJ
..l
of which contains the v principal centroidal axis of 3.0 in.

T
inertia for the cross-sectional area of the beam. Find the
I. = 147 1.5 in.'
magnitude of the indicated shear stresses for each of the
following three cases. c + +-------r-"

IJ
12.0 in
5.50 The cross section of the beam is shown in
Fig. P5.50. Determine the horizontal shear stress 2 ft
from the left support and:
(a) 6 in. above the bottom of the section.
(b) At the neutral axis for the section. FIGURE P5.52

r--- - 16.0in. - -- l 5.5~5.55 A cantilever beam 4 m long carries a

uniform load of intensity 10 kN/m over its entire length.
Assume the load to act vertically downward and paral-
lel to the v principal axis of inertia. Find the magnitudes
FIGURE P5.50 of the indicated shear stresses for each of the following
three cases.
5.51 The cross section of the beam is shown in
Fig. P5.51. Determine the vertical shear stress 5 ft from 5.53 The cross section of the beam is shown in
the right support and: Fig. P5.53. Determine the vertical shear stress 3 m from
(a) In the web, 1.5 in. below the top of the section. the free end of the beam and:
(b) At the neutral axis for the section. (a) 0.07 m below the top of the section.
(b) At the neutral axis.
3.0 in. 2. 0 in. j.- 3.0 in.-l
m--l v

T' -
0.20
11.5 in.

01
v ," = 25.92 x 10- 6 m4

r - - ------' 378.0 ;" '

t
C+ ---f---+- 1/ 6.0 in --',<---+_ _ 1/

I
~1 1 15 in.
FIGURE PS.S3

~--------------~ FIGURE P5.54

FIGURE P5.51
5.52 The cross section of the beam is shown in
Fig. P5.52. Determine the horizontal shear stress 8 ft
from the left support and:
(a) In the web, 3 in. below the top of the section.
(b) At the neutral axis for the section.
5.54 The cross section of the beam is shown in
Fig. P5.54. Find the horizontal shear stress 2 m from
the free end of the beam and :
(a) 0.12 m above the bottom of the section.
(b) At the neutral axis.
(NOTE: Assume that Eqs. 5.12 are applicable to this
case.)

Sec. 5.4 I Shear Stresses in Symmetrically Loaded Baams 243

5.55 The cross section of the beam is shown in
Fig. PS.SS. Determine the vertical shear stress at the j
7 k
3k 1m
fixed end and:
(a) 0.03 m below the top of the section an infinitesimal L-----....j£\---
I _1];~2-B---'
distance into the web.
- 2 In - / - -- 3.5 m - I 3.5 m -
(b) At the neutral axis.
(a)
0.Q3 m
-.1 1 ,I, 0.06 m O.IO m -- ~
0.06 m -
1/
0.03 In
-
.
I I

I" = 21 ,67 X 10- 6 1114

1
P p
VI
0,09 m + - ------..- 1/ E
C 0
-t
0 II

0.075 III
-<- I--
0.03 III
I
(b)

FIGURE P5.57
FIGURE PS.SS

5.56 Assume that Eqs. S.12a to S.12c are equally

applicable to the case of a solid circular cross section.
Show that the maximum longitudinal (horizontal) or
vertical shear stress at the neutral axis is given by " = 12 kips 12 kips
!(Vj A), where V is the shear force and A is the cross-
sectional area of the section.

5.57 The beam shown in Fig. PS.S7(a) has the cross

section depicted in Fig. PS.S7(b). Assume the plane of
the loads to contain the v principal axis of inertia. - +-- - - 10 ft - - -f---
(a) Determine the magnitude of the horizontal shear
(3)
stress in the webs at points P at a position along the
beam an infinitesimal distance to the left of support A.
(b) Find the magnitude of the maximum vertical shear
stress at a position along the beam an infinitesimal dis- () in.
tance to the left of support A.
(c) Find the magnitude of the maximum horizontal 1-
shear stress in the beam. 3 in,
Given: Iu = 29.13 X 10 - 6 m4.

5.58 The beam shown in Fig. PS.S8(a) has the cross 1 in.
section illustrated in Fig. PS.S8(b). Assume the plane of (b)

the loads to contain the v principal axis of inertia. FIGURE PS.S8

244 Ch. 5 / Stresses in Beams

(a) Determine the magnitude of the vertical shear stres~
5 in. below the top of the section at a location along the
beam an infinitesimal distance to the left of the left
support.
(b) Find the magnitude of the maximum vertical shear
stress at a location along the beam an infinitesimal dis-
tance to the left of the left support. u
Given: I u = 116.0 in.4.
.5 in}--

5.59 The beam shown in Fig. P5.59(a) has the cross

section depicted in Fig. P5.59(b). Assume the plane of I
4 in. C+ I- - + - l/
the loads to contain the v principal axis of inertia.
(a) Find the magnitude of the vertical shear stress in
the web at point A at a position along the beam an
infinitesimal distance to the right of the left support.
(b) Compute the magnitude of the maximum horizontal
shear stress at a position along the beam an infinitesi·· (1.»

mal distance to the right of the left support. FIGURE PS.60

(c) Determine the magnitude of the maximum horizon-
tal shear stress in the beam. 5.61 Consider the cross-sectional area shown in
Given: Iu = 15.73 X 10 - 6 m4. Fig. P5.61, which is that for a beam subjected to loads
whose plane contains the v principal axis of inertia.
{) ,()2 III
0.03 III
Given: Iu = 13.04 X 10 - 6 m4.
(a) At some position along the beam, the vertical shear
r stress at point A, an infinitesimal distance into the web,
(),03'11 is 7.0 MPa. Determine the magnitude of the shear force
t-
v" at this position along the beam.
(b) At the same position along the beam as in part (a),
+ 1/ 0.0 III
the bending moment is Mu = 20.0 kN-m. Find the prin-
C
cipal stresses and the maximum in-plane shear stresses
at point A. Show these stresses on properly oriented
~1.5m..1. 1l.51\1
(a)
planes.
FIGURE PS.S9 (1.» 0,02m
0.03 m 0.03 m

5.60 The beam shown in Fig. P5.60(a) has the cross --'---- , - - - - - - - ,
0,02m
section illustrated in Fig. P5.60(b). Assume the plane of
the loads to contain the v principal axis of inertia.
(a) Compute the magnitude of the vertical shear stress
3 in. above the bottom of the section at a location along u
the beam 3 ft from the left support. E
v;:,
(b) Determine the magnitude of the maximum horizon-
tal shear stress at a location along the beam 3 ft from L..-_ _ _ _--A ..L.
'"
o
0
the left support.
(c) Find the magnitude of the maximum horizontal O.02m
shear stress in the beam.
FIGURE P5.61
Given: Iu = 234.7 in.4.

Sec. 5.4 ,I Sheer Stresses in Symmetricelly Loaded Beams 245

5.62 Consider the cross-sectional area shown in 5.65 The cross-sectional area shown in Fig. P5.65 is
Fig. P5.61, which is that for a beam carrying loads that for a simply supported beam with a span of 20 ft
whose plane contains the v principal axis of inertia. Let and carrying a concentrated vertical load P = 75 k at
the shear force and bending moment at some position midspan whose plane contains the v principal axis of
along the beam be, respectively, Vv = 120.0 kN and inertia. Consider point A which is an infinitesimal dis-
Mu = 50.0 kN-m. Consider point B, which is an infini- tance below the junction between the two rectangles.
tesimal distance into the web of the section and For the position along the beam an infinitesimal dis-
compute the principal stresses and the maximum in- tance right of the 75-k load, determine at point A the
plane shear stresses. Show these stresses on properly principal stresses and the maximum in-plane shear
oriented planes. stresses. Show these stresses on properly oriented
planes.
5.63 The cross-sectional area shown in Fig. P5.63 is
that for a beam carrying loads whose plane contains the 6 in . 3 in. 6 in.
v principal of inertia. At some position along the beam, B
the shear force Vv is known to have a magnitude of 140 lJ
kips. Given: Iu = 787.0 in.4. 6 in.
(a) Compute the magnitude of the vertical shear stress
3 in. above the bottom of the section.
(b) Determine the magnitude of the maximum horizon- + - -- _11 3 in.
tal shear stress and specify its location in the section.
•
A
I" = 871.0 in .4
6 in.
t
2 in.

FIGURE PS.6S
2.5 in.

5.66 Repeat Problem 5.65 for point B instead of point

2 in.
8 in . A. All other conditions remain the same.

5.67 The cross-sectional area shown in Fig. P5.67 is

fabricated by fastening two C8 x 13.75 channels to an
S12 x 35 section (see Appendix E) as shown using two
2 in.
I
I" = 787.0 in.4

FIGURE PS.63

5.64 Consider the cross-sectional area shown in

Fig. P5.63, which is that for a beam carrying loads
whose plane contains the v principal axis of inertia. Let
the shear force and bending moment at some position
along the beam be, respectively, Vv = 150.0 k and Mu =
-600.0 k-ft. Consider point A, which is an infinitesimal
distance into the web of the section and compute the
principal stresses and the maximum in-plane shear
stresses. Show these stresses on properly oriented
planes. FIGURE PS.67

246 Ch. 5 ! Stresses in Beems

rows of i-in.-diameter bolts spaced longitudinally at a
distance of 8 in. The shear force in the section is known
to be V;, = 50 kips. Determine the shear force carried by
each bolt and the cross shear stress induced in it.
Neglect bolt holes in the computations.
5.68 Refer to the cross-sectional area shown in Fig.
P5.67 which is fabricated by fastening two C6 X 13
channels to an Sl5 x 50 section (see Appendix E) using
two rows of bolts spaced, longitudinally, at 6 in. from
each other. The shear force in the section is Vv = 20 k
and the cross shear stress in the bolts is 20 ksi. Deter-
mine the diameter of the bolts. Neglect bolt holes in the
computations.
5.69 The cross section for a timber beam is fabricated
as shown in Fig. P5.69 by nailing four rectangular
timber members using steel spikes whose diameter is
0.003 m. The shear force in the section is v" = 2 kN. If
the cross shear stress in the spikes is known to be
30 MPa, determine the longitudinal spacing of these
spikes. Neglect spike holes in the computations.
FIGURE PS.69
5.70 Refer to the cross-sectional area shown in
Fig. P5.69. The steel spikes used in fabricating this cross
section have a diameter of 0.004 m and are spaced lon-
gitudinally at 0.20 m from each other. If the cross shear
stress in the spikes in known to be 40 MPa, determine
Sec. 5.4 / Shear Stresses in Symmetrically Loaded Beams
the shear force in the section. Neglect spike holes in the
computations.
5.71 A W16 x 31 section (see Appendix E) is strength-
ened by fillet welding a -i x 5 in. plate to the top flange
as shown in Fig. P5.71. The shear force in the section is
known to be 50 k. Determine the shear flow in the weld
which is assumed to be continuous along the length of
the beam.
~ X 5·in. plate
J L
r l
WI6 X 31
I I
FIGURE PS.71
5.72 A W21 x 83 section (see Appendix E) is strength-
ened by fastening a 1 x 8 in. plate to the bottom flange
using two rows of i-in.-diameter bolts as shown in
Fig. P5.72. This cross section is that for a simply sup-
ported beam 30 ft long that carries a concentrated force
P at midspan. If the longitudinal spacing of the bolts is
8 in. and the cross shear stress in them is known to be
15 ksi, determine the magnitude of the load P. Neglect
bolt holes in the computations.
W21 X 83
FIGURE PS.72
247
5.73-5.75 For the conditions stated below, compute 5.74 Point A defined in Problem 5.64. Let
the in-plane principal strains and the magnitude of the E = 10 X 106 psi and J-l = 0.30.
maximum in-plane shear strains. What is the magnitude
of the absolute maximum shear strain? 5.75 Point A defined in Problem 5.65. Let
E = 30 X 106 psi and J-l = 0.25.
5.73 Point B defined in Problem 5.62. Let E = 70 GPa
and J-l = 0.25.

5.5 It was stated earlier that symmetric bending of a beam takes place if the plane of the
Flexural Stresses bending loads is either parallel to or contains one of the two longitudinal principal planes.
due to Unsymmetric bending occurs, however, if the bending loads lie in a plane that is inclined to
Unsymmetric the longitudinal principal planes. Unlike symmetrically loaded beams, whose cross sec-
Bending of Beams tions rotate about a neutral axis that is one of the two principal centroidal axes of inertia,
cross sections of unsymmetrically loaded beams rotate about a neutral axis that is not one
of the two principal centroidal axes of inertia.
Consider the arbitrary cross-sectional area shown in Fig. 5.19, for which the u and v
principal centroidal axes have been determined. Assume this cross-sectional area to be
that of a beam for which the plane of the loads, denoted as L, makes the clockwise angle
cp with the longitudinal principal plane that contains the v principal centroidal axis of
inertia. For any position along the beam, the bending moment M may be represented by

v L

FIGURE 5.19

248 Ch. 5 / Stresses in Beams

 the right-hand rule, as a vector perpendicular to plane L, as shown in Fig. 5.19. The sense
of the moment vector M would depend upon the way the beam is loaded and supported.
Without loss of generality, the moment vector M in this development is assumed to be
pointed to the right. This moment vector may be decomposed into its two perpendicular
components M u = M cos <P and M v = M sin <p. Thus the un symmetric bending problem
may be considered as two separate cases of symmetric bending produced by Mu and Mv
and occurring simultaneously. This concept will be used later in determining the flexural
stress produced under unsymmetric bending conditions.
As in the case of symmetric bending, the assumption is made that bending is pro-
duced either by pure bending moments or by transverse loads. Under these conditions,
the same conclusion is reached as was reached in the case of symmetric bending (see the
development of Eq. 5.7 and subsequent conclusions) that the neutral axis for bending
must pass through the centroid of the section. Let the neutral axis for bending make the
clockwise angle 13 from the u principal centroidal axis, as shown in Fig. 5.19. If it is
considered further that all the assumptions made in the case of symmetric bending are
equally applicable in the case of unsymmetric bending, then we conclude, as was con-
cluded earlier from Eq. 5.6f, that the flexural stress is directly proportional to the distance
from the neutral axis. Thus for an element of area dA at a distance '1 from the neutral axis,
the flexural stress ax * can be written as
ax = K'1 (5.13a)
where K is a constant of proportionality and '1 can be expressed in terms of the dimen-
sions u and v by the equation
'1 = v cos 13 + u sin 13 (5.13b)
Substitution of Eq. 5.13b into Eq. 5.13a yields
ax = K(v cos 13 + u sin 13) (5.13c)
Equilibrium of moments with respect to the u principal centroidal axis leads to

Mu = faxv dA

=K f (v cos 13 + u sin f3)v dA

= K [cos 13 fv 2 dA + sin 13 f vu dA ]
The first integral in this equation represents I u' the moment of inertia of the area with
respect to the u principal centroidal axis. The second integral is zero because it represents
the product of inertia with respect to prinicipal axes of inertia. Thus
(5. 13d)
Similarly, by considering equilibrium of moments about the v principal centroidal axis, we
conclude that
(5.13e)

* As in previous developments, the x axis is assumed to be along the longitudinal axis of the beam.

Sec. 5.5 / Flexural Stresses due to Unsymmetric Bending of Beams 249

 From the geometry in Fig. 5.19 and by using Eqs. 5.13d and 5.13e, we obtain

= G:) tan p (5.13f)

Solving Eq. 5.l3ffor tan p leads to

I
tan p= ...!! tan cp (5.14)
Iv

Equation 5.14 determines the orientation, from the u principal centroidal axis of inertia, of
the neutral axis for unsymmetric bending in terms of the principal centroidal moments of
inertia Iu and Iv and the orientation, angle cp, of the plane of the loads with respect to the
v principal centroidal axis of inertia. To one side of the neutral axis, fibers are stretched
(tensile zone), and to the other side, fibers are compressed (compression zone). In the
particular case where cp is zero (i.e., symmetric bending), we conclude from Eq. 5.14 that p
is also zero, which means that the neutral axis coincides with the u principal centroidal
axis of inertia, as was concluded earlier in analyzing symmetric bending. It is important to
remember that while the angle cp is measured from the v axis, the angle p is measured
from the u axis.
The determination of the flexural stress produced under conditions of unsymmetric
bending is facilitated, as stated earlier, by considering the unsymmetric bending case as
two separate cases of symmetric bending occurring simultaneously. In other words, the
flexural stress at any location in a given cross section will be the algebraic sum of the
stresses produced by Mu and by Mv' Thus, referring to Fig. 5.19, the moment M u, acting
alone, would produce symmetric bending of the section about the u principal centroidal
axis of inertia, and therefore the flexural stress at any location defined by the coordinates
u and v would be given by Eq. 5.10a. Also, the moment M v , acting alone, would produce
symmetric bending of the section about the v principal centroidal axis and, consequently,
the flexural stress at the same location in the section would be given by Eq. 5.lOb.
Therefore, the total flexural stress at a given location in the cross section would be the
algebraic sum of the flexural stresses resulting from Eqs. 5.10a and 5. lOb. Thus, under
conditions of unsymmetric bending, the flexural stress is given by

(5.15)

The use of Eqs. 5.14 and 5.15 in the solution of unsymmetric bending problems will be
illustrated in the following examples.

EXAMPLE 5.14

A cantilever beam 15 ft long has a rectangular sectional area as shown in Fig. 5.20. The
beam carries a concentrated load P = 10,000 lb at the free end. This load is inclined to
the v principal centroidal axis of inertia through a 30° counterclockwise angle, as shown.

250 Ch. 5 / Stresses in Beams

 u

,'\.;.:0_-+-_."
0

FIGURE 5.20

Locate the neutral axis and determine the maximum tensile flexural stress induced in the
beam.

SOLUTION. The principal centroidal moments of inertia are found to be

and
The plane of the load is inclined at 30° ccw from the v principal centroidal axis of inertia.
Therefore, <I> = 30°. Thus, by Eq. 5.14,
I
tan {3 = ~ tan <I>
Iv
170.7)
=( 42.7 tan 30 = 2.31
and

Since the plane of the load is counterclockwise from: the v principal axis, the neutral axis
defined by the angle {3 is counterclockwise from the u principal axis of inertia. This
neutral axis is shown properly oriented in Fig. 5.20. Fibers in the beam downward and to
the right of the neutral axis are in the compression zone, and those upward and to the left
of the neutral axis are in the tension zone.
The maximum tensile flexural stress occurs at the position along the beam where the
bending moment is a maximum- at the fixed end of the beam. At this position
M = 150 X 103 ft-Ib = 1800 x 10 3 in.-lb

Sec. 5.5 / Flexural Stresses due to Unsymmetric Bending of Beams 251

 This moment, and its two perpendicular components Mu = 1559 X 10 3 in.-Ib and Mv =
900 X 10 3 in.-Ib are shown in Fig. 5.20. Since the flextural stress is directly proportional
to the distance from the neutral axis, the maximum tensile flexural stress occurs in the
tensile zone of the cross section (shown shaded in Fig. 5.20) at the point farthest from this
axis.
If the cross-sectional area and the orientation of its neutral axis are drawn approx-
imately to scale, it is usually possible to determine, by inspection, the point in either zone
that is farthest from the neutral axis. In some cases, however, the determination of such
points may require a little more effort. For the case under consideration, the maximum
tensile flexural stress occurs at point A, as shown in Fig. 5.20. This stress is found by the
use of Eq. 5.15. The first term in this equation represents the flexural stress at point A due
to the moment M u , which produces bending about the u axis. Thus, insofar as Mu is
concerned, the u principal centroidal axis is the neutral axis for bending. Above this axis,
fibers are in tension and below it fibers are in compression. Thus the stress at point A
produced by Mu is tension. The coordinate v in the first term of Eq. 5.15 represents the
distance of point A from the neutral axis (i.e., the u axis) and is equal to 4 in. The second
term in Eq. 5.15 represents the flexural stress at point A due to the moment M v' which
produces bending about the v axis. Insofar as M v is concerned, the v principal centroidal
axis is the neutral axis for bending. Fibers located to the left of this axis are in tension and
those to the right of this axis are in compression. Therefore, the stress at point A pro-
duced by Mv is also tension. The coordinate u in the second term of Eq. 5.15 is the
distance of point A from the neutral axis (i.e., the v axis) and is equal to 2 in. Thus the
maximum tensile flexural stress, by Eq. 5.15, is

((1) = 1559 X 103 (4) 900 x 103 (2)

x A 170.7 + 42.7
= 36,532 + 42,155

This stress is relatively high, but there are certain high-strength alloy steels that are
capable of resisting such high stresses elastically.

EXAMPLE 5.15

A simply supported beam 6 m long carries a uniform load of intensity 2000 N/m along its
entire length and acting vertically downward. The cross-sectional area for the beam is the
angle shown in Fig. 5.21 and the uniform load acts normal to the 0.10-m side, which is
the top of the beam. Assume that the load is so placed that no twisting of the section
occurs and determine the maximum tensile and maximum compressive flexural stresses in
the beam.

SOLUTION. The centroid C of the section is located as shown in Fig. 5.21. The prin-
cipal centroidal axes of inertia, u and v, and the corresponding moments of inertia, Iu and
I v' are determined by the methods developed in Section 5.2. These principal centroidal
axes of inertia are shown properly oriented in Fig. 5.21. The principal moments of inertia
are found to be

252 Ch. 5 / Stresses in Beams

 v

( , A ,)

~------~------ A

0.08 m

M ~----~--------~~

Mu FIGURE 5.21

and Iv = 2.386 X 10- 6 m 4

Since the plane of the loads is vertical and the v principal centroidal axis is inclined to the
vertical at an angle of 17.0° ccw, the angle 4> = 17.0°. The orientation of the neutral axis
can now be determined from Eq. 5.14. Thus
I
tan f3 = -!! tan 4>
Iv
18.219 °
= - - tan 17.0 = 2.33
2.386
and
f3 = 66.8°
This neutral axis is shown properly oriented in Fig. 5.21. Points in the cross section
downward and to the left of the neutral axis are in the tension zone (shown shaded) and
those upward and to the right of the neutral axis are in the compression zone.
The maximum tensile and maximum compressive flexural stresses occur at midspan,
where the bending moment M assumes its maximum value. The maximum bending
moment is found to be

Sec. 5.5 / Flexural Stresses due to Unsymmetrlc Bending of Beams 253

 M = 9000 N-m
This moment and its two perpendicular components Mu = 8610 N-m and Mv = 2630
N-m are shown in Fig. 5.21.
Since the flexural stress is directly proportional to the distance from the neutral axis,
the maximum tensile flexural stress occurs at point A, which is the farthest point in the
tension zone from the neutral axis. The stress at this point is given by Eq. 5.15. The first
term in this equation represents the flexural stress due to M u , which produces bending
about the u principal centroidal axis. On one side of this axis (i.e., above and to the left),
Mu produces compression and on the other side (i.e., below and to the right) it produces
tension. Thus the flexural stress produced at point A by Mu is tension. The quantity v
represents the distance from this point to the u axis and is found from the geometry of the
section to be
VA = (0.1146) cos 17 + (0.0054) sin 17 = 0.1112 m
The second term in Eq. 5.15 represents the flexural stress due to M v' which produces
bending about the v principal centroidal axis. On one side of this axis (i.e., above and to
the right), M v produces compression and on the other side (i.e., below and to the left) it
produces tension. Therefore, the flexural stress produced at point A by Mv is also tension.
The quantity u represents the distance from this point to the v axis and is found to be
uA = (0.1146) sin 17 - (0.0054) cos 17 = 0.0283 m
Thus the maximum tensile flexural stress, by Eq. 5.15, is

( ) _ 8610(0.1112) 2630(0.0283)
U x A - 18.219 X 10- 6 + 2.386 x 10 6
= (52.55 + 31.19) x 106

= 183.74 MPa I
Similarly, the maximum compressive flexural stress occurs at point B, the farthest
point from the neutral axis in the compression zone for the section. Both Mu and Mv
produce compression at this point. The quantities U B and VB are found to be
0.0254 .
UB = -- + (0.0654 - 0.0254 tan 17) sm 17 = 0.0434 m
cos 17
VB = (0.0654 - 0.0254 tan 17) cos 17 = 0.0551 m

Therefore, the maximum compressive flexural stress, by Eq. 5.15, is

( ) _ 8610(0.0551) 2630(0.0434)
Ux B - - 18.219 X 10- 6 - 2.386 X 10- 6
= (-26.04 - 47.84) x 106

= 1-73.88 MPa 1

254 Ch. 5 / Str..... in aeam.

PROBLEMS

In the following problems, assume the loads to be so
placed that they produce no twisting action.
5.76 A simply supported beam 18 ft long carries a
uniform load of intensity 1500 lb/ft along its entire
length. The cross section for the beam is a 5 x lOin.
rectangular area oriented in such a way that the plane
of the loads L is 20° cw from the v principal centroidal
axis of the section, as shown in Fig. P5.76. Locate the
neutral axis and determine the maximum tensile and
maximum compressive flexural stresses in the beam.
5.78 A cantilever beam 4 m long carries a uniform
load of intensity 5000 N/m along its entire length and
acting vertically downward. The cross-sectional area for
the beam is the angle shown in Fig. P5.78 and the
uniform load acts normal to the 0.15-m side, which is
the top of the beam. Locate the neutral axis and deter-
mine the maximum tensile and maximum compressive
flexural stresses in the beam.
0.03 m

L
0. 17 m

10 in. + /I
0,03
1--
Tn
0.12 III

FIGURE P5.78

5.79 The cross-sectional area shown in Fig. P5.79 is

FIGURE P5.76
5.77 A cantilever beam 7 m long carries a concen-
trated load of 5000 N at its free end. The cross section
for the beam is a rectangle and the plane of the load L
is inclined to the v principal axis as shown in Fig. P5.77.
that for a simply supported beam 10 ft long that carries
a concentrated load of 3000 lb at midspan acting verti-
cally downward. The concentrated load acts normal to
the 4-in. side of the angle, which is the bottom of the
beam. Locate the neutral axis and compute the
maximum tensile and maximum compressive flexural
stresses in the beam.
y

~'+-3i"
Locate the neutral axis and compute the maximum
tensile and the maximum compressive flexural stresses
in the beam.
-----+---
'I- 0.08 m
u

0.16 n1
+ /I

I in,

o 1--' x
FIGURE P5.77 FIGURE P5.79

Sec. 5.5 / Flexural Stresses due to Unsymmetric Bending of Beams 255

5.80 The beam shown in Fig. P5.80(a) has the cross-
sectional area depicted in Fig. P5.80(b). Assume the
loads to act vertically downward and their plane to be
normal to the O.05-m side of the section, which is the
top of the beam. Compute the maximum tensile and
maximum compressive flexural stresses in the beam.

~ 0.04 mf-o.os m-l

y
(a)
.-----------' t I~m

0.09 m

'------1--t
0.02 m
-1 rO.03m~

L I 0.03 m
FIGURE P5.81 ~------~ !
(b)

0.02 m
o
r O.07 m----1
--~!-------'X

(b)

FIGURE P5.~

r- 6 --12 r--
(3)

5.81 The beam shown in Fig. P5.81(a) has the cross- in. in.
sectional area illustrated in Fig. P5.81(b). Assume the
loads to act vertically downward and their plane to be I --------
2~.
normal to the O.l2-m side of the section, which is the
top of the beam. Compute the maximum tensile and
maximum compressive flexural stresses in the beam. 1
8 in.

5.82 The beam shown in Fig. P5.82(a) has the cross-

sectional area depicted in Fig. P5.82(b). Assume the --------.1
I 2 in.

2 r----6- --1---' T
loads to act vertically downward and their plane to be FIGURE P5.82
parallel to the stem of the Z section. Determine the --1'--
in-. in .
maximum tensile and maximum compressive flexural
stresses in the beam. (b)

256 Ch. 5 / Stresses in Beams

5.83 The beam shown in Fig. P5.83(a) has the cross-
sectional area illustrated in Fig. P5.83(b). Assume the
loads to act vertically downward and their plane to be
normal to the 0.14-m side of the section, which is the
top of the beam. Compute the maximum tensile and
maximum compressive flexural stresses in the beam. Let
Q = 12.5 kN and L = 2 m.
5.84 The beam shown in Fig. P5.84(a) has the cross-
sectional area depicted in Fig. P5.84(b). Assume the
5-in. side of the trapezoidal section to be the top of the
beam and that the plane of the loads makes a 60° angle
with the beam top. Find the maximum tensile and
maximum compressive flexural stresses in the beam.
10,0001b 10.0001b

LL 'I~
~~--------------4L ------------ --~-%-'- - -8 n- - --I-- /- 4 fl ~
(a)
(a)

r O.04 111 t 0.04111 t- o.ot> 111----j

T
0 .04111

'------' _J__
0 .0 8m

10 in.

(b) (b)

FIGURE P5.83 FIGURE P5.84

ADDITIONAL CHAPTER PROBLEMS

5.85 (Sec. 5.2) Refer to Fig. P5 .21 (p. 211). Replace
the four angles by four 8 x 8 x 1 angles and the plate
by a 1.5 x 16 plate (see Appendix E) and determine:
(a) the principal centroidal moments of inertia, and
(b) the principal centroidal radii of gyration.
5.86 (Sec. 5.2) Refer to Fig. P5.26 (p. 211). Replace
the angle by a 6 x 6 x 1 angle and the channel by a
C15 x 50 channel. (see Appendix E). Compute:
(a) the principal centroidal moments of inertia, and
(b) the principal centroidal radii of gyration.
5.87 (Sec. 5.3) Refer to Problem 5.35 (p. 226) and solve
it after making the following changes:
left concentrated load from 3000 lb to 5 k,
left uniform load from 300 lblft to 2 klft,
right concentrated load from 2000 lb to 3 k, and
right uniform load from 150 lblft to 1 k/ft.
All other dimensions in the problem remain unchanged.
5.88 (Sec. 5.3) Refer to Problem 5.36 (p. 226) and solve
it after making the following changes:

Sec. 5.6 / Computer Applications 257

 left overhang from 1.5 m to 2.0 m,
span between supports from 6.5 m to 8.0 m, and
maximum load intensity from 6 kN/m to 4 kN/m.
The cross-sectional dimensions remain unchanged.
5.89 (Sec. 5.3) A W21 x 50 section (see Appendix E)
is used as a simply supported beam over a span of 30 ft
to carry a concentrated load P at midspan. If the max-
imum flexural stress in the beam is 20 ksi, determine:
(a) the maximum moment in the beam, and
(b) the magnitude of the load P.
5.90 (Sec. 5.3) An S20 x 75 section (see Appendix E)
serves as a cantilever beam with a length of 20 ft. The
i
beam carries a load that varies linearly from w k/ft at
the free end to w k/ft at the fixed end. If the maximum
flexural stress in the beam is 50 ksi, determine:
(a) the maximum moment in the beam, and
(b) the magnitude of the load intensity w, which includes
the weight of the beam.
5.91 (Sec. 5.4) Refer to Problem 5.59 (p. 245) and solve
it after making the following changes:
left overhang from 1.5 m to 2.0 m,
span between supports from 6.5 m to 8.0 m, and
maximum load intensity from 6 kN/m to 4 kN/M.
The cross-sectional dimensions remain unchanged.
5.92 (Sec. 5.5) Refer to the cross section shown in Fig.
P5.78 (p. 255). Let this cross section be that for a sim-
ply supported beam with a span of 6 m carrying a uni-
form load of intensity 4 kN /m along its entire length and
acting normal to the 0.15-m side, which is the top of the
beam. Locate the neutral axis and determine the maxi-
mum tensile and maximum compressive flexural stresses
in the beam.

5.1*_ _
Computer The following Examples illustrate the use of the FORTRAN language in the development
Applications of computer solutions. Refer to the detailed discussion given on pages 53 and 54.

EXAMPLE C5.1

Consider the cross-sectional area shown in Fig. CS.l(a) where the dimensions are shown
symbolically. (a) Derive equations to locate the centroid of the section and to compute the

--b------l.\ ~
If--'
88l8g
00110
OOllO
00138
:~~fRA~x~I¢"C51CI~PUT.OUTPUTI
5 READ •• H.B.T
IFCH.EQ.O.A~D.B.EQ.D.AND.T.EQ.OI STOP
Xl-a.·Z-T"l+T.H
0014 XZ-Z •• CH+B-TI
00150 X3-CB-TI.CZ •• H-TI+H •• Z
00160 X4.CT/1Z.I*CB.T •• Z-T •• 3+H•• 31
00170 X5-a.T-T •• Z
00180 X6-X3/XZ-CH-T/2.1
00190 X7-HH
00200 xa-X3/Xl-H/l.
OOZIO X9-CT/1Z.I.CIB-TI •• 3+H.T •• ZI
OOZlO X10-X1/Xl-Il/2.I*IB+TI
00130 Xll-X1/XZ-Cl/2.I.T
00250 XBAR-X1/X2
00160 YBAR-X3/X2
00270 IX-X4tX5.X6•• l+X7.xe•• z
OOleo IV-X9+X5.X10 •• Z+X7.Xli •• Z
00290 PXY-X5.X6.XIO+X7.xe.x 1
00310 WRITE •• H,B.T.XBAR,YBAR.IX.lV.PXY
00310 GO TO 5
00330 END
(b)

(c)
(a) FIGURE CS.1

258 Ch. & / Str••••• in a.am.

 moments and product of inertia with respect to x and y centroidal axes. (b) Write a
computer program to obtain the quantities in part (a) for any set of values h, b, and t.
Find these quantities for (i) h = 6 in., b = 4 in., and t = 2 in.; (ii) h = 0.6 m, b = 0.4 m,
and t = 0.2 m; and (iii) h = 0.30 m, b = 0.15 m, and t = 0.05 m.

SOLUTION
(a) Subdivide the cross-sectional area into two rectangles Al and A2 as indicated in
Fig. C5.l(a). The centroid C is located as follows:

_
x=--=
LxiA i (b - t)(t)(T) + (t)(h) G)
ZAi (b - t)(t) + (t)(h)
b2 - t 2 + th
2(h + b - t)

_ LYiAi (b - t)(t)(h -~) + (t)(h) G)

Y= zA i · = (b - t)(t) + (t)(h)
(b - t)(2h - t) + h 2
2(h + b - t)

Locate centroidal x and Y axes and determine I x' I y , and P xy as follows:

I x = (ll)x + (l2)x

= 112 (b - t)t 3 + (b - t){y - (h - ~) J

+ /2 th 3
+ th (y - ~r
= /2 [bt 2 - t 3 + 3]h + (bt - t2{y - (h -~) J
+ th(Y - ~r
I y = (ll)y + (l2)y

= 112 t(b - t)3 + (b - t){x - ~ (b + t)T

+ -1 ht 3 + th (xt-)-2
12 2

= t [(b - t)3 + ht 2] + (bt - t 2 )

12 [1
x - "2 (b + t) J2
+ th(X - ~r
Sec. 5.6 / Computer Applications 259
 = (b - t)r[x - ~ (b + t)][y - (h -~)]
+ th ( x - ~)(y - ~)
(b) For convenience in writing the required computer program, let
Xl = b 2 - t2 + th
X 2 = 2(h +b- t)
X 3 = (b - t)(2h - t) + h2
t
X
4
= -
12
[bt 2 - t3 + h3 ]

Xs = (bt - t 2 )

t
X9 = 12 [(b - t)3 + ht 2 ]

X lO = [x - ~ (b + t)] = [~~ - ~ (b + t)]

Therefore,
_ Xl _ X3
X=- Y=-
X2 X2
Ix = X4 + Xs(X~) + X7(X~)
Iy = X9 + Xs(Xio) + XiXL)
PXy = X S(X 6 )(X lO ) + X 7 (X S )(X ll )
The required computer program is shown in Fig. CS.l(b). The output values along
with the input data are shown in Fig. CS.l(c).

EXAMPLE CS.2
A simply supported beam with a span L carries a uniform load of intensity w over its
entire length. The cross-sectional area of the beam is the triangle shown in Fig. CS.2(a).

260 Ch. 5 / Stresses in Beams

 'I' ~-j
-rh

'NJ
"3
w

I I I I I
°ll)"
h
2h
"3
I

~
x

j 1-
wL
2"
(a) (b)

B H LLO SIGTEN
10. 12. 2.. .33W33
3 O. XO. O.SIGCOHP
10. 12. 21t0 .33333 21t. -7.199928 11t.399856
10. 12. 240 .33333 48. -12.799872 25.59971t1t
10. 12. 24e .33333 72. - 6.799832 33.599661t
10. 12. 21t0 .33333 9b, -19.199808 38.399616
18: if: f:S
10. 12. 21t0
:~~~~)
.33333
l~~: -19.9998 39 999~
- 9.199808 38.399616
168. -16.799832 33.599661t
10.
0.
12.
12.
2ltS .33333
21t .33333
192. -12.799872 25 1 599741t
216. -7.199928 11t.~99856
10. 12. 240 .33333 21t0. 1t.850638409456E-13 -9.70127b818911E-13
(c)

l---'----'----~--~---'---+-- x (ft)

-30 FIGURE CS.2

Sec. 5.6 / Computer Applications 261

 Assume the plane of the load .to contain the v principal centroidal axis. Let x be a
longitudinal coordinate measured from the left end of the beam and develop a computer
program to find the maximum tensile and maximum compressive flexural stresses in the
beam from x = 0 to x = L in increments of -toL.
Use this computer program to find the
required stresses for the case when b = 10 in., h = 12 in., L = 20 ft, W = 4 k/ft and plot
these two stresses versus x.

SOLUTION. The centroid C of the section is determined and located as shown in

Fig. C5.2(a). Centroidal u and v principal axes of inertia are also established and from
Appendix D, the moment of inertia with respect to the bending u axis is Iu = l6bh3.
The moment Mu acting at any position along the beam defined by the coordinate x
may be obtained from the free-body diagram shown in Fig. C5.2(b). Thus zMo = 0 leads
to

and

Fibers above the N.A. (u axis) are in compression and those below the N.A. are in tension.
The flexural stress is given by Eq. 5.10a. Therefore,

= - [(~L)x - (~)X2J ~~~3

= - [(W2L)x - (~)X2J(:~2)
and
Mu
(atenlmax = I v
u

The needed computer program is shown in Fig. C5.2(c) along with the output values
when b = 10 in., h = 12 in., L = 240 in. and W = 0.33333 k/in. Note the need for inputting
a set of values with consistent units. Plots of (aten)max and (acomp)max versus x are shown,
for this case, in Fig. C5.2(d).

262 Ch. 5 / Stresses in Beams

COMPUTER PROBLEMS

C5.1 Equation 5.1k,
In = i(1 x + I y) + i(1 x - I y) cos 2ex - P xy sin 2ex
gives the value of the moment of inertia In with respect
to any axis n inclined to the x axis through the ccw
angle ex in terms of Ix, I y , PXy , and ex. Write a computer
program that would give the values of In in the interval
form ex = -180° to ex = + 180° in increments of 20 for
any set of values of I x' I y, and P xy' Apply this program
to the following values: I x = 22.0 x 10 - 6 m 4, I y = 9.0
provides the value of the product of inertia P nt with
respect to any set of orthogonal axes nand t in which n
is inclined to the x axis through the ccw angle ex. Write a
computer program that would given the values of P nt in
the interval ex = 0° to ex = -180° in increments of 100
for any set of values I x' I y, and P xy' Apply this program
to the following values: Ix = 10.94 X 10- 5 m 4, Iy = 1.22
0
X 10- 5 m 4, and P Xy = -1.79 X 10- 5 m4.
PARTIAL ANSWERS: P nt = -5.10 X 10- 5 m 4 for ex =
- 30 0
•

X 10- 6 m 4, and P Xy = 5.0 X 10- 6 m4.

PARTIAL ANSWERS: ex = 20 0, In = 17.27 X 10- 6 m 4 ; C5.4 Consider the cross-sectional area shown in
ex = 40°, In = 11.70 X 10- 6 m4. Fig. CP5.4, where the dimensions are shown symboli-
cally.
C5.2 Equations 5.4 provide the values of I. and Iv, the (a) Derive equations to locate the centroid of the
maximum and minimum moments of inertia, for a given section and to compute the principal centroidal
cross-sectional area. These equations are repeated here moments of inertia.
for convenience (b) Write a computer program to obtain the quantities
I. = i(1 x + I y) + R in part (a) for any set of values b, h, t 1 , and t 2 • Apply
this program to the following sets of values:
Iv = i(1 x + I y) - R (i) b = 8 in., h = 8 in., t 1 = t 2 = 2 in.
where (ii) b = 0.200 m, h = 0.200 m, t1 = 0.05 m, t2 = 0.075m.
R = {[t(1x - Iy)]2 + (pX)2} 1/2 PARTIAL ANSWERS: (i) I. = 290.7 in.4, Iv = 90.7 in.4.

(a) By analogy with the stress equations, show that the

angle ex defining the orientation of I. with respect to the
x axis is given by

ex = 21 tan -1 It (1 Px xy- I y) I
Note that the angle {3 defining the orientation of I v with
respect to the x axis is given by
T h

{3 = ex + 90 0

(b) Write a computer program to determine the values

of I. and I v and the orientation of their axes relative to -j t2 f-~ (b - (2 )-1
~
the x axis for any set of values of I x' I y' and P xy' Find
FIGURE CS.4
I u' I v' and their orientations for
(i) Ix = 896 in.4, Iy = 464 in.4, P xy = -480 in.4.
C5.5 Refer to Example C5.1 and expand the computer
(ii) Ix = 9.78 X 10- 6 m 4, Iy = 9.78 X 10- 6 m 4, P Xy =
1.22 X 10- 6 m4. program to also give the principal moments of inertia I.
and I v and the orientation of their axes with respect to
PARTIAL ANSWERS: (i) I. = 1206 in.4, Iv = 154 in.4,
the x axis. Find these quantities for
ex = 32.9°, (3 = 122.9°.
(i) h = 6 in., b = 4 in., and t = 2 in.
(ii) h = 0.30 m, b = 0.15 m, and t = 0.05 m.
C5.3 Equation 5.2b,
PARTIAL ANSWERS: (i) I. = 53.33 in.4, ex = -18.43°,
P nt = t(I x - I y) sin 2ex + P xy cos 2ex Iv = 13.33 in.4, {3 = 71.57°.

Sec. 5.6 ;' Computer Applications 263

CS.6 Refer to Example C5.2 and write a computer
program to find the value of the horizontal shear stress
'C vx at the N.A. in the beam from x = 0 to x = L in
increments of loL. Apply this program to the case when
b = 10 in., h = 12 in., L = 20 ft, and w = 4 kjft and plot
'C vx versus x for this case. Assume that Eqs. 5.12 apply in
this case.
PARTIAL ANSWERS: x = 0, 'C xv = 0.88 ksi; x = 10 ft,
'C xv = O.

264 Ch. 5 I Stresses in Beams

 CHAPTER Delleclions 01 BelOls

1.1 A number of practical reasons for studying beam deflections may be cited. If these
Introduction
deflections become excessive, plaster cracking, which is expensive to repair, may occur in
buildings. Shafts acting in bending may become misaligned in their bearings due to large
deflections, resulting in excessive wear and possible malfunction. High-rise structures,
which contain beam components, may deflect enough to cause psychological stress among
the occupants even though failure may be unlikely. Extensive glass breakage in some
recently constructed tall buildings has been partially attributed to excessive deflections.
The general trend toward construction and manufacture of lighter, more flexible com-
ponents that are safe from a stress or load-carrying capacity standpoint has led to a
number of problems at least partially attributable to deflections that are too large to be
tolerated either on physical or psychological grounds or a combination of both.
In addition to these reasons, a knowledge of deflection calculations forms the basis
for analysis and design of indeterminate structures. Equations of equilibrium must be
supplemented by compatibility equations which involve deflection calculations, as dis-
cussed in Chapter 9. Again, modern machine and structural designs are more likely to
involve indeterminate systems, and these cannot be investigated without a knowledge of
deflection calculations.
Small, elastic deflections of initially straight beams are discussed in this chapter.
Calculations of these deflections under service or working loads has been and is likely to
remain a very important engineering consideration for optimum design.
The curvature of a bent elastic beam is directly proportional to the applied bending
moment and inversely proportional to its bending stiffness. The bending stiffness is given
by the product of the modulus of elasticity and the area moment of inertia (or second
moment of the area) with respect to the axis of bending. Once this relationship is estab-
lished, the governing differential equation for bending of beams follows by approximating
the beam curvature by the second derivative of beam displacements (or deflections) with
respect to a coordinate measured along the axis of the beam. This coordinate is denoted
by x and has been used in Section 1.8 to write bending moment equations. The method of
determining beam deflections by two successive integrations will depend upon a knowledge
of these bending moment equations for proper problem formulation. This method of
Section 6.3 has the advantage of yielding the equation of the elastic curve, which means
that the deflection at any point along the beam axis may be obtained by substitution of
the appropriate x value into the resulting equation. In Section 6.4 the derivatives of the
elastic curve equation are explored with an emphasis on their physical significance.
The method of superposition of Section 6.5 is of great practical importance, since it

265
 enables the engineer to combine previously solved deflection problems to obtain solutions
for complex loading conditions that would be difficult to solve otherwise.
Construction of moment diagrams by parts discussed in Section 6.6 forms the basis
for effective use of the area-moment method of Section 6.7, which is a valuable method for
finding slopes and deflections at selected points of interest along the beam axis. It is also
readily adapted for finding maximum deflections.
Singularity functions of Section 6.8 provide a means of writing a single bending
moment function which is valid over the entire beam length even when multiple loadings
are applied. Use of singularity functions together with the method of two successive
integrations enables us to greatly reduce the number of constants of integration.
Castigliano's second theorem of Section 6.9 provides an alternative method based
upon work and energy concepts for determination of slopes and deflections at specified
points along a beam axis. Study of the method will clarify the concept of work done on a
beam by externally applied forces being stored internally in the beam as elastic strain
energy.

1.2
Moment- A differential element of a beam subjected to pure bending is shown in Fig. 6.1(a). Cross-
Curvature sectional axes u and v, which are principal axes, are shown in Fig. 6.1(b). Arc AB rep-
Relationship resents an edge view of the neutral surface. On this surface the fibers are neither shortened
nor lengthened, as discussed in Section 5.3 (p. 211). In Fig. 6.1(a) the edge views of the end
cross sections, which remain plane, are extended by dashed lines to intersect at 0, the
center of curvature. The radius of curvature p is measured from the center of curvature to

a = center of curvature
p = radius of curvature

/ \
/ \
/ \
/ \
/ \
/ \
/ \
/ \
p+v
/
/ \
/ \
/ \
/ \
/ \

Mu~ ds
D E 1I

(a) Side view (b) Cross section

Beam element subjected to pure bending

FIGURE 6.1

266 Ch. 6 I Deflections of Beems

 the arc AB, the neutral surface in the edge view. Before the bending moments were
applied, all fibers of this beam element were neither shortened nor lengthened and were of
equal length. Since arc AB is unstretched, then the initial length of all fibers is given by
Arc AB = ds = p dO. Now consider fibers at any distance v below the neutral surface.
These fibers which are lengthened appear in edge view as arc DE. The final length of these
fibers is given by arc DE = (p + v) de. The unit strain ex of these fibers is obtained from
final length - initial length
ex = ---i-=n'--it-ia-I-l-e-n-g-th---'''----
Substituting, we obtain
(p + v) de - p de v
ex =
p de p

Fiber DE increased in length, which means that ex is positive for fibers below the neutral axis
and negative for fibers above the neutral axis for positive bending moments.
Recalling that the curvature K is given by the reciprocal of the radius of curvature p
and rearranging, we write:
ex
K=-=- (6.1)
P v
Ignoring Poisson effects, we can view the fiber DE as being uniaxially stressed, which
means that Eq. 2.28 is valid and is repeated here for convenience:
(2.28)
Substitution of Eq. 5. lOa into Eq. 2.28 yields

(6.2)

Substitution of Eq. 6.2 into Eq. 6.1 leads to

(6.3)

Equation 6.3 expresses the fact that the beam curvature at any beam section is directly
proportional to the applied moment Mu at that section and inversely proportional to the
bending stiffness EI u' where E is the modulus of elasticity of the beam material and luis
the moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area of the beam with respect to the u
principal centroidal axis. The u axis intersects the v axis at the centroid C of the cross-
sectional area and the u axis is the neutral axis of the cross section.
The horizontal plane defined by the locus of all u axes of the initially straight beam
becomes a curved cylindrical surface after application of equal moments at the ends of the
beam. This cylindrical surface, which is unstrained, is referred to as the neutral surface.
Rigorously, Eq. 6.3 is only valid for a beam subjected to pure bending (i.e., shear forces
are not present). For beams that are long compared to their cross-sectional dimensions,
the effect of shear is small compared to the effect of moments in producing deformations.
Equation 6.3 will be applied, even in the presence of shears, with the reservation that
short, deep beams may require special analysis.

Sec. 6.2 / Moment-Curvature Relationship 267

EXAMPLE 6.1 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

A steel I beam is subjected to end moments M u' It is 12 in. deep, symmetric about both
the u and v axes, and has a moment of inertia of area of its cross section I u equal to
600 in.4. Determine the end moments applied to the beam when the normal stress in the
beam reaches 30 ksi and find the corresponding curvature K and radius of the curvature
p. Use E = 30,000 ksi and neglect the weight of the beam.

SOLUTION. Solve Eq. 5.l0a for Mu:

M = (Jx1u = 30(600)
u v II
= 13000 k-in. !

From Eq. (6.3):

p 30,000(600)

= 11.667 X 10 - 4 1/in.!

p = ! = 6000 in.
K

1.3
Beam Deflections
A beam is subjected to two equal couples M u' as depicted in Fig. 6.2. These couples are
positive, as shown, and the beam deflects downward when they act on it. The deflection of
-Two Successive the beam is denoted by v at any section a distance x from the origin 0 at the left end of
Integrations the beam. Deflection v locates points on the neutral surface after the couples have been
applied to the beam and the function v = f(x) defines the curve line referred to as the
elastic curve or the deflected shape. This curved line is an edge view of the neutral surface.

II = f(x)
Beam deflec lion

(0 ----- -- _~_•..A_~\
;;
Mil l - -1
f--x I
Curved line is
"clastic cu rve"
or "defl ecled shape"

FIGURE 6.2

268 Ch. 6 / Deflections of Beams

 The function v = f(x), which will be determined by two successive integrations of the
appropriate differential equation, is continuous and differentiable. The first derivative of
this function with respect to x, dv/dx, represents the slope of the elastic curve and is a
derived functionj'(x), which is also a function of x.
To derive the governing differential equation for beam deflections (or displacements),
an approximation will be developed for beam curvature and this will be substituted into
the moment-curvature relationship given by Eq. 6.3. In beginning calculus courses, the
curvature of any plane curve is discussed and the equation for curvature is stated in terms
of first and second derivatives as follows:
1 ±d2v/dx 2
K=-= P [1 + (dv/dx)2]3/2
(6.4)

Elastic beam deflections are small compared to beam lengths and the slopes are also
small. In the denominator of Eq. 6.4 the term [1 + (dv/dx)2]3/2 is approximately equal to
1, since the slope squared is very small compared to 1. The positive sign will be chosen for
the second derivative on the right-hand side of Eq. 6.4. This choice is consistent with the
positive bending moments shown in Fig. 6.2. Since the first derivative varies in the follow-
ing fashion as x increases-negative slope at point 0, zero slope at point A, and positive
slope at point B-the second derivative will be positive for the bent beam of Fig. 6.2. The
curvature is given approximately by

(6.5)

Substitution of Eq. 6.5 into Eq. 6.3 yields

(6.6)

Equation 6.6 is the governing differential equation for beam deflections. It is an approx-
imation for small elastic displacements of beams, which yields values sufficiently accurate
for engineering applications provided that the beams are long compared to their cross-
sectional dimensions and moment effects predominate as compared to shear effects. Appli-
cations of this equation will be considered for which Ely remains constant over full or
partial beam lengths and for which My will, in general, be a function of x. It should be
noted that the flexure formula, Eq. 5.10a, was utilized in deriving Eq. 6.6, and thus all the
assumptions made and the limitations of this former equation apply also to this governing
differential equation for beam deflections.
EXAMPLE 6.2 _____________________________________________

A simply supported beam of length L is shown in Fig. 6.3(a). It is loaded by a constant

downward uniform load over a distance of O.6L from the left reaction and is free of
loading over the remainder of its span. Determine the elastic curve equations and the
slope equations for this beam. It has a constant bending stiffness Ely. Use v1 to denote
deflections of segment AB and v2 to denote deflections of segment Be.

SOLUTION. Since the loading is different for the segments AB and Be of the beam, we
consider each separately in writing the governing differential Eq. 6.6.

Sec .•.3 / aeam Deflaction_Two Successive Integrations 269

 v

t w
~ ~ ~ C
A IR
x

Rl :; 0.42 wL R2 :; O.IBwL
0.6L O.4L

L
(8)
wx
I-X/2~
t r
D!)Mu (0 <; X <; 0.6L)

x---j
(b)

0.6t L

~
EI)Mu

Rl = 0.42 wL 1--0.3L • II X - 0.3L----1

-x 0.3L (0.6L <; x <; L)

'---I- -X---1 (c)

FIGURE 6.3

SEGMENT AB:
(0 ~ X ~ 0.6L)
The appropriate free-body diagram for obtaining Mil is shown in Fig.6.3(b).
Summing the moments of the forces with respect to an axis through point D, we obtain

Mil = Rl X - wx(~) where Rl = 0.42wL

Substitution into Eq. 6.6 gives

d2 vl wx 2
EI" - d 2 = 0.42wLx - -
x 2
To perform the first of two successive integrations used to solve the differential equation,
mUltiply by dx and integrate term by term as follows:

EI" f 2
ddx;
V dx = 0.42wL f x dx -"2w f x 2 dx

dv x 2 wx 3
EI _1 = o42wL - - - + Ci (a)
"dx . 2 6

270 Ch. 6 / Deflections of aeams

 Again multiply by dx throughout and integrate term by term:

Ely f~: dx = 0.21wL f x 2 dx - ~ f x 3 dx + CI f dx

(b)

SEGMENT BC
(0.6L :s; x :s; L)
The appropriate free-body diagram for obtaining My is shown in Fig.6.3(c).
Summing moments of forces with respect to an axis through point E, we obtain
My = 0.42wLx - 0.6wL(x - 0.3L)
My = -O.18wLx + 0.18wL2
Substitution into Eq. 6.6 gives
d2v2
Ely dx 2 = -O.18wLx + 0.18wL;2
Multiply by dx throughout and integrate term by term:

Ely f~:; dx = -0.18wL f x dx + 0.18wE f dx

dV2
Ely dx = -O.09wLx2 + O.18wL2x + C 3 (c)

Multiply this equation by dx and integrate term by term:

Ely f~: dx = -O.09wL f x 2 dx + O.18wL2 f x dx + C3 f dx

Elyv2 = -O.03wLx 3 + O.09wL2X2 + C 3 x + C4 (d)

In Eqs. (a) to (d) four constants of integration C I , C 2 , C 3 , and C4 appear, since
indefinite integrations were performed. These constants will be evaluated by applying the
four boundary conditions, which may be stated as follows:
LEFT END OF THE BEAM: x = 0, VI = O. Physically, this means that the left support does
not settle wh~n the loads are applied. We have assumed that this support is not deform-
able or it is perfectly rigid.
RIGHT END OF THE BEAM: x = L, V2 = O. The right support is perfectly rigid.
SECTION AT POINT B LOCATED O.6L FROM THE LEFT SUPPORT: x = O.6L, VI = v2 .* Physi-
cally, this means that the beam segments AB and BC have the same deflection at point B.
Also at x = O.6L,
dV I _ dV2
or
dx - dx

* Some writers refer to these conditions as "matching conditions," but in this text we have adopted the
convention of referring to them as boundary conditions, since they refer to conditions at the boundary between
segments AB and Be of the beam.

Sec.6.3/ aeam Deflection_Two Succe•• lvelntagration. 271

 Physically, this means that the beam segments AB and BC have the same slope at point
B. Substitution of these four boundary conditions into Eqs. (a), (b), (c), and (d) gives:
x = 0, VI = 0 into Eq. (b):

0= 0 - 0 + 0 + C2 (e)
x = L, v2 = 0 into Eq. (d):
0= -0.03wL4 + 0.09wL4 + C 3 L + C4 (f)

X = 0.6L, VI == V2 into Eqs. (b) and (d):

W
0.07wL(O.6L)3 - 24 (O.6L)4 + C I(O.6L) + C 2
= -0.03wL(O.6L)3 + 0.09wU(O.6L)2 + C 3(O.6L) + C4 (g)
X = 0.6L, v~ = v2 into Eqs. (a) and (c):
(06L)2 w(O 6L)3
0.42wL - '2- - ~ + CI = -0.09wL(O.6L)2 + 0.18wU(O.6L) + C 3 (h)

Equations (e) to (h) contain four unknowns C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , and C 4 • Solving these simulta-
neous, linear, algebraic equations gives
C I = -0.0294wU, C3 = -0.0654w.u,
Back substitution of these constants into Eqs. (a), (b), (c), and (d) provides the elastic curve
and slope equations.
SEGMENT AB (0::::;; x::::;; 0.6L):

BIu ~~ = 0.21wLx2 - ~ x 3 - 0.0294wV (i)

3 W 4
EIuVI = 0.07wLx - 24 x - 0.0294wLx
3
0)
SEGMENT BC (O.6L::::;; x::::;; L):

EIu d:
dv
= -0.09wLx2 + 0.18wUx - 0.0654w.u (k)

EIuv2 = -0.03wLx 3 + 0.09WUX2 - O.0654w.ux + 0.OO54wL4 (I)

Note that all constants, except i and n,

are stated decimally. This is more convenient
since a pocket calculator was used to reduce errors in algebraic manipulations.

EXAMPLE 6.3 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _......_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Refer to elastic curve and slope equations (i) to (I) of Example 6.2 and obtain an equation
for the maximum vertical displacement of the beam. Evaluate the maximum displacement
for the following numerical values: w = 5000 Iblft, L = 30 ft, Iu = 4000 in.4, and
E == 29 X 106 psi.

272 Ch. 8 / Deflection. of aeem.

 SOLUTION. Assume that the maximum displacement occurs between Band C. The
maximum displacement occurs where dv 2 /dx of Eq. (k) of Example 6.2 equals zero.
-0.09wLx2 + 0.18wL2x - 0.0654w£l = 0

This quadratic has two roots: 0.477 Land 1.523L. Both roots must be discarded because
Eq. (k) is valid only for the interval (0.6L S x s L) and both these roots lie outside this
interval. Our initial assumption that the maximum displacement occurs between Band C
is incorrect. We now assume that the maximum displacement occurs between A and B.
Equate dv1/dx of Eq. (i) to zero:

0.21wLx2 -"6W x 3 - 0.0294wU = 0

Solving this cubic by iteration to obtain the real positive root, we develop a tabulation as
follows:

Trial (x/L)

0.5 0.00226667
0.47 -0.00031483
0.473 -0.00005421
0.4737 0.00000653
0.4736 -0.00000215

Using x = 0.4736L as a good approximation for the root, we note that this value lies in
the interval (0 s x s 0.6L) for which Eqs. (i) and G) are valid. Substitute this root into
Eq. G) to determine the maximum displacement:

Substitute given numerical values to obtain

-0.008584(5000)(-h)(30 x 12)4
v1 = 29 x 106 (4000)

V1 = -0.518 in. I
The minus sign means that the displacement is directed downward in a sense
opposite to the positive sense of V 1 , assumed upward in solving Example 6.2.

EXAMPLE 6.4 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Write the equations of the elastic curve and its slope for the beam depicted in Fig. 6.4.
Locate the point of maximum downward deflection between supports A and Band
compare this deflection to the upward deflection at point C.

Sec. 6.3 / Beam Deflections-Two Successive Integrations 273

 ~1
/ --,----'\~ ) =~, (O';;;x" 2 L )

R, = M

(b )

RA = "2P ..-______x"-----_ _ _ _ _-i

3 P
M = -"2P (x - 2L ) + "2x
M = P(3 L - x) (2 L "x" 3L)
(e)

FIGURE 6.4

SOLUTION. It will be necessary to solve this problem in two parts by considering

separate free-body diagrams as shown in Fig. 6.4(b) and (c). Two separate moment func-
tions are required, which are valid for segments AB and BC of the beam. These two
moment functions are associated with two differential equations of the form of Eq. 6.6.
Since the solution of each second-order differential equation requires the introduction of
two constants of integration, a total of four constants will arise in solving this problem.
Four constants require four boundary conditions for their evaluation. These boundary
conditions may be stated as follows:
The beam does not deflect at point A: x = 0, VI =0
The beam does not deflect at point B: x = 2L, VI =0
The beam deflections and slopes are continuous functions at point B:
x = 2L
x = 2L
Subscripts 1 and 2 denote displacements and slopes valid over lengths AB and BC of the
beam, respectively.
SEGMENT AB (0 ~ x ~ 2L): Consider the free-body diagram shown in Fig. 6.4(b) and
adopt the prime notation for derivatives with respect to x.
P
E1 u v"I = -2 x

274 Ch. 6 / Deflections of Beams

 Integrating once:

P
Integrating again: E1uVI = 12 x
3
+ CIx + C l
SEGMENT BC (2L ~ x ~ 3L): Consider the free-body diagram shown in Fig. 6.4(c) and
express the moment as a function of x.
P 3
M =- x - - P(x - 2L) = -Px + 3PL
2 2
Eluv~ = -Px + 3PL
pXl
Integrating once: E1u V2 = - T + 3PLx + C3
6Px 3PL
3 l
Integrating again: E1uvl = - + -2- x + C3 x + C4

Apply the boundary conditions for determination of the four constants of integration.
x = 0, VI = 0: implies that C 2 =0
P
x = 2L, VI = 0: 0 = 12 (2L? + C I (2L) + 0
PL2
C I =--3-

P P
x = 2L, v~ = V2 = - (2L)2 + CI = - - (2L)2 + 3PL(2L) + C 3
4 2
pJ3 - -tPJ3 = -2PJ3 + 6PL2 + C 3
C 3 = -lfpJ3

X = 2L, V2 = 0: 0= - ~ (2L)3 + 3~L (2L)2 + C 3(2L) + C4

= -1PIJ + 6P/J - 230p/J + C4
C4 = 2P/J
Substitution of these values for the constants into the elastic curve and slope equations
yields
V = _1_ (l:..- x3 _ pJ3 x) (0 ~ x ~ 2L)
I E1u 12 3

v' = _1_ (!:.. x 2 _ PJ3) (0 ~ x ~ 2L)

1 E1u 4 3

V = -1 (P 3PL
- - x3 + - - x2 - -10 PL2x + 2P/J ) (2L ~ x ~ 3L)
2 E1u 6 2 3

(2L ~ x ~ 3L)

Sec. 6.3 / Beam Deflections-Two Successive Integrations 275

 To locate the point of maximum downward deflection between A and B, equate V't to zero
and solve for x.

Substitute this value of x into the Vt equation to obtain the maximum downward deflec-
tion between A and B.

v = _1 [~(2.j3 L)3 _ P L2 (2.j3 L)]

t E1u 12 3 3 3

-7.j3 P/J
27 E1u

where the negative sign signifies a downward deflection. The maximum upward deflection
occurs at point C (the right end of the beam). Substitute x = 3L into V 2 to obtain this
maximum upward deflection.

'1 [ P 3PL 10 2 ]
v2 = E1u -"6 (3L)3 + 2 (3L)2 -"3 PL (3L) + 2P/J

where the positive sign signifies an upward deflection. These deflections may be readily
compared by forming their ratio.
~= P/J/Elu 27
I Vtl (7.j3/27)(P/J/El u) - 7.j3
=§]
The upward deflection at C is 2.23 times as large as the maximum downward deflection
between A and B.

PROBLEMS ____________________________________________________________

6.1(a) A beam is subjected to equal and opposite end
couples, as shown in Fig. P6.1. Flexural stresses in this
beam are to be limited to 25 ksi. If its flexural rigidity
E1u = 20 x 109 Ib-in. 2 and it is 14 in. deep, determine
its curvature and radius of curvature. The beam cross
sections are symmetric about the u axis of bending. Let
E = 10 X 106 psi.
(b) For storage purposes, i-in.-diameter aluminum rod
is wound around a circular drum which has a diameter
of 6 ft. Assume elastic behavior and determine the flex-
ural stress that is induced in the rod when it is wound
around the drum. Let E = lOx 106 psi.
(c) For ease in storage and transportation, steel sheet

276 Ch. 6 I Deflections of aeems

1.5 X 10- 4 m thick and 0.60 m wide is wrapped around
a spool that has a radius of 0.75 m. lfthe steel behaves
elastically, determine the flexural stress induced in the
sheet steel when wrapped around the spool. Let
E = 70 GPa.
(b) Express the deflection of the free end of this cantile-
ver in terms of P, L, E, and c.
(c) Determine the flexural stress of largest magnitude at
the fixed end in terms of P, L, and c. Is this stress tensile
or compressive?

FIGURE P6.1

6.2 A cantilever beam of regular trapezoidal section is

loaded uniformly as shown in Fig. P6.2.
(a) Select an origin at the fixed end and write the equa-
tion of the elastic curve for this beam.
FIGURE P6.3
(b) Determine the deflection at the free end of this can-
tilever in terms of w, L, E, and b. 6.4 A concentrated force P is applied to the beam of
(c) Express the maximum tensile stress at the fixed end constant bending stiffness El u as shown in Fig. P6.4.
in terms of w, L, and b. Is this the normal stress of The governing differential equations have been inte-

A
largest magnitude at the fixed end? v grated to yield:
Pb 3
E1uVI=6LX +C I X+C 2 (O$;x$;a)

d:
Pb P
E1u V2 = 6L x 3 - "6 (x - a? + C 3 x + C4 (a ~ x $; L)

(a) State the boundary conditions and evaluate the

constants C I , C 2 , C 3 , and C 4 • Use L = a + b if you
find it convenient.
(b) Let a = b = L/2 in your equations and check to see
that the center deflection is given by VI = v2 =
I3b pIJ/48El u •
v p
lL-.::..-_~
~8b .,
B c
FIGURE P6.2
Constant E1u _x
6.3 Refer to the cantilever beam shown in Fig. P6.3
and choose an origin at the fixed end.
(a) Determine the reactions at the fixed end, then write
the equation of the elastic curve and the slope equation,
both as functions of x measured from the fixed end.
r- a -I-
FIGURE P6.4
b---t°l

Sac.6.3/ Beam Deflection_Two Successive Integrations 277

6.5 Refer to Fig. P6.5, choose an ongm at A, and
express the deflection of the center of the pulley B as a
function of W, L, E, and I u' The pulley is fastened to
the center of the beam with a frictionless small pin and
the cable is inextensible.
Cons tan t f lu B r
/
~-------~--------~--------~--------~
FIGURE P6.5
6.6 Refer to the beam depicted in Fig. P6.6 and write
the equations of the elastic curve and the slope for this
beam. Determine the location of the maximum deflec-
tion and express this deflection as a function of wo , L,
E, and I u' (The roller at B is constructed such that a
downward force may be exerted on the beam.) What is
the maximum bending moment in this beam, and where
does it occur along the span?
Wo
x
~---------- L ----------~
FIGURE P6.6
6.7 A beam shown in Fig . P6.7 is loaded with a couple
Mo at its right end as shown. Choose an origin at A
and write the equation of the elastic curve. Locate the
point where the maximum deflection occurs and express
this deflection in terms of M 0 ,L, E, and I u •
Constant £/u
L
FIGURE P6.7
278
6.8 In Fig. P6.8 both rigid pulleys are frictionless and
the cable is inextensible. Determine the downward
movement of the weight W , when it is applied statically,
as a function of W, a, E, and I u' Choose your origin at
point F and use the method of two successive integra-
tions.
F
~====~========~
/
----~-- ~ ------~
FIGURE P6.S
6.9 Refer to the beam shown in Fig. P6.9 and state the
four boundary conditions required to determine the
equation of the elastic curve. Determine this equation
and its derivative function for this beam. Express the
deflection under the load as a function of P, L, E, and
I u' Is this deflection the maximum deflection? If not,
express the maximum deflection as a function of P, L, E,
and Iu '
2L
Constant E /1/ x
FIGURE P6.9
6.10 A large-diameter steel pipe is lifted by a crane as
shown in Fig. P6.1O. At a certain stage it is suspended
horizontally at rest. Determine at this stage the vertical
deflection of the ends A and D with respect to the lift
locations Band C in terms of w, L, E, and I u ' where W is
the weight per foot of the pipe. At this same stage deter-
mine the upward deflection of the pipe at its middle
section in terms of w, L, E,and I u ' Ignore deformations
of the crane and supporting cables.
Ch. 6 I Deflections of Beams
 ing differential equation twice and evaluate the con-
stants using the boundary conditions at x = L.
Consider the limiting case such that as a -> 0, then
Pa-> Mo and write the equations for slope and deflec-
tion due to an end applied couple, Mo' U

p
t
~~ p

x Constant E1u

~~
~aJ
FIGURE P6.10 ,. L
·1
6.11 Choose an origin at A and write the equations of FIGURE P6.12
the elastic curve for the beam shown in Fig. P6.ll.
Express the center deflection of this beam in terms of Q, 6.13 A couple M I is applied at the center of the beam
L, E, and I" . Determine Q such that the center deflec- shown in Fig. P6.13. Express the slope at the center of
tion of this prestressed concrete beam will be limited to the beam as a function of M 1 , L, E, and I". Construct
1 in. under the action of these Q forces . Given: the shear and moment diagrams for this beam.
E = 3.8 X 106 psi, Iu = 48,000 in.4, and L = 45 ft. v

t
ex
M,

T ~ %
Constan t flu
0 %
17 In. ...•.
'"
,-.::'
~
I· L
2 'I, ~-----1
FIGURE P6.13

IS in. 6.14 Choose an origin at A for the simply supported

beam depicted in Fig. P6.14. Write the equation of the
C r os~ sect Ion elastic curve for each segment of the beam and express
tnl:J rged
the deflection at the center of the beam in terms of w, L,
E, and I u' Construct the shear and moment diagrams
Q Q for this beam.

B c D ·~ t"

COnSl,a n[ t:J~
B

----~-----~------+-----~_____1
FIGUREP6.11 j - -+-- - -
6.12 Refer to the cantilever loaded as shown in ons t:IOI1:I.

Fig. P6.12. For x > a, M = -Pa. Integrate the govern- FIGURE P6.14

Sec. 6.3 I Beam Deflection8-Two Succe88ive Integration8 279

6.15 Write the equation of the elastic curve for each
segment of the beam depicted in Fig. P6.1S. Locate the
point of maximum downward deflection and compare
the magnitude of this deflection to the magnitude of the
deflection at point C. Express these deflections in terms
of W, L, E, and I u •
c X
~--------------rr-------"
~------ 2L ------~--- L
(HINT: You will need to consider segments AB and Be
of the beam separately and use matching conditions at
8.) Draw the shear and moment diagrams for this beam.
6.17 Write the equation of the elastic curve for each
segment of the beam shown in Fig. P6.l7. Choose an
origin at B and express the deflection at A and the
deflection at the center each as functions of P, L, E, and
I u ' Determine the ratio of the absolute values of these
deflections. Express the slope of the beam at point A in
terms of P, L, E, and Iu' Show your results on a sketch
of the elastic curve.
v

FIGURE P6.15
11 x
6.16 Choose an origin at point B for the beam L--_ _-{

depicted in Fig. P6.16 and derive the equations of the

elastic curve. Express the deflection at point A as a
function of w, L, E, and I u • FIGURE P6.17

6.18 You are to derive expressions for the center

deflections of two beams which are both simply sup-
ported, and have equal lengths L and equal flexural
rigidities EI u' The first beam is subjected to a concen-
trated load at its center and the second beam is sub-
jected to a uniform load W such that W = P/ L. Are the
center deflections of these two beams equal? If not,
- - - - :!L - - - - -
what is the ratio of the center deflection of the first to
FIGURE P6.16 the center deflection of the second?

1.1
Derivatives of
The elastic curve equation given by the function v = v(x) and its first four derivatives with
respect to x are readily associated with the physical problem of the bending of a loaded
the Elastic
beam.
Curve Equation
The slope of the elastic curve is given by the first derivative of v(x) with respect to x:
and Their
Physical dv
Significance -- = tan
dx
e (6.7)

For small angles tan e is approximately equal to e, which yields

Id"
dx 01~ (6.8)

e
where is given in radians.
Equation 6.6, EI u(d 2 v/dx 2 ) = M u' express the bending moment at any section in the
bent beam as the product of the bending stiffness (EIJ and the second derivative of v(x)

280 Ch. 6 / Deflections of Beams

 with respect to x. Differentiate Eq. 6.6 with respect to x (assuming that EI u is constant) to
yield

(6.9)

But dMjdx = V, by Eq. 1.6. Thus

(6.10)

which states that the bending stiffness (EI.) multiplied by the third derivative of vex) with
respect to x equals the shear V at any section of the bent beam.
Differentiate Eq. 6.10 with respect to x, to yield
d4 v dV
EI - = - (6.11)
u dx 4 dx

But dV /dx = - w, by Eq. 1.5. Thus

(6.12)

which states that the bending stiffness multiplied by the fourth derivative of vex) with
respect to x equals the negative of the load intensity w at any section of the bent beam.
Equations 6.7 to 6.12 are applicable as long as these functions of x are continuous
and differentiable. Special problems arise at points where these functions are discontin-
uous. For example, the shear function is discontinuous at points where concentrated loads
are applied. Similarly, the moment function is discontinuous at points where concentrated
couples are applied.

EXAMPLE 6.5 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

(a) Refer to Fig. 6.5(a), in which a simply supported beam is loaded by a sinusoidal
loading. Determine the reactions acting on the beam, then find the shear, moment, slope,
and deflection as functions of x and represent these functions graphically. (b) Without
finding the reactions, start with Eq. 6.12 and derive the equation of the elastic curve.

SOLUTION
(a) Each reaction equals half the total downward load applied to the beam. This total
downward load equals the area under the w-x curve.

R1 = R2 = w1 (L12 sin nx dx
Jo L
= W1
n
L (L12 sin nx
Jo L L
(7:
dX)

= R2 w L
= _1-
[ -cos -nXJL I2 = _
- w_1_L (0 - 1)
n Lon

Sec. 6.4 / Derivatives of the Elastic Curve Equation and Their Physical Significance 281
 Substitution of the sinusoidal loading intensity w into Eq. 6.12 yields
d4 v . 1tX
El U -d 4 = -Wl sm-
x L
Multiply through by dx, adjust the differential and integrate as follows:

EI
u
f dxd v dx = -
4
4
W1
1t
L f sin 1tX
L
(~ dX)
L

d3v W L 1tX
EI -
U dX 3 = -1tl - cos -L + C 1

a4v-= -IV IV
.
= IVI Sin T1IX
£ lu - 4
dx

I~ I I---------- L --------_--I Rl
(a) Loading

hli L 7rX
V=--cos-
11 I.

L----------L-----~c----------------,_---X

(b) Sheaf IV I L
(L. - -1I- )
wl L 2
(1./2'-2-)
71

~---------------~----------L----~ ~x
(0,0) (1..0)
__
(e) Momen!

-WI L3 (d ) (El u) X slope

(0 ' - - 3 - )
71

(L.O)
~~~------~~~----------~~---- x

FIGURE 6.5

282 Ch. 6 / Deflections of Beams

 At the left end of the beam, the shear equals the reaction, and this condition will be used
to find the constant of integration C 1 . Thus at x = 0,
WI L d3 v
V=-=EI
n u dx 3

by Eq. 6.10. Therefore,

WI L WI L
- - = - - cos 0 + C 1
n n
and

which leads to

This function is shown graphically in Fig. 6.5(b). It shows the variation of shear across the
beam span and is the usual shear diagram. Note that the loading, which is symmetric
about the center of the beam, leads to an anti symmetric shear about the center of the
beam. Multiply through by dx, adjust the differential, and integrate as follows:

EI
u
f d v dx = w1 L fcos nx (~dX)
3
dx 3 nZ L L
2

dZv W LZ nx
EI -
u dxz
= _1-
nZ
sin -
L
+ C2

At the left end of the beam, the moment equals zero, and this condition will be used to
find the constant of integration C z . Thus at x = 0, M = E1u(dzv/dxZ) = 0, by Eq. 6.6.
Therefore,
W L2
o = _n1z- sin (0) + Cz
and

which leads to

This function is shown graphically in Fig. 6.5(c). It shows the variation of moment across
the beam span and is the usual moment diagram. Note that symmetric loading leads to
antisymmetric shear and symmetric moment about the center of the beam.
Again, multiply through by dx, adjust the differential, and integrate as follows:

EI
u
f dZv dx =
dx 2
W1
n3
IJ f sin nx
L
(~ dX)
L

dv -W 1 JJ nx
EI - =
u dx
3
n
cos -
L
+ C3

Sec. 6.4 / Derivatives of the Elastic Curve Equation and Their Physical Significance 283
 Since the beam is loaded symmetrically, the slope at the center of the beam will vanish,
and this condition will be used to find the constant of integration C 3 • Thus at x = L/2,
dv/dx = O. Therefore,
-wE n
o =--cos-+
n3 2
C
3

and

which leads to
dv -WI E nx
E1 - = cos-
u dx n 3 L

The function EUdv/dx) is shown graphically in Fig. 6.5(d). Division of the ordinates by
the constant E1u would provide values for the slopes of the elastic curves at each point
across the beam span. Slopes to the left of the center are negative and those to the right of
the center are positive. Note that symmetric loading leads to antisymmetric slopes about
the center of the beam. Once more, multiply through by dx, adjust the differential, and
integrate as follows:

E1
u
f dx
-w
-dv dx = - -1-
n4
L4 f cos -nx (n
L
- dx )
L

At the left end of the beam the deflection is zero, and this condition will be used to find
the constant of integration C 4 •
L4
!
-W
o= n
sin (0) + C4

C4 = 0
-WI L4 . nx
v = SIn-
E1u n 4 L

The function v(x) is shown graphically in Fig. 6.5(e). It shows the variation of the deflec-
tion across the beam span and is the usual equation of the elastic curve. Note that a
symmetric loading leads to a symmetric elastic curve about the center of the beam.
Overall review of Fig. 6.5 reveals that a symmetric loading function is followed by an
antisymmetric shear function, and so on. This observation is a useful aid for reviewing
results to check their reasonableness.
(b) Reactions need not be determined, since four successive integrations of Eq. 6.12 will
give v as a function of x together with four constants of integration. These four constants
will be evaluated with boundary conditions stated below. The ends of the beam do not
deflect vertically:
x = 0, v = 0 and x = L, v = 0

284 Ch. 6 I Deflections of Beems

 The ends of this simply supported beam cannot resist bending moments, and these
moments are directly proportional to second derivatives of v with respect to x:

x = 0, v" = ° and x = L, v" = °

Equate the flexural rigidity (E1 u) multiplied by the fourth derivative of v with respect to x
to the negative of the loading intensity function ( - w) in accord with Eq. 6.12:

Multiply through by dx, adjust the differential, and integrate as follows:

E1 f -dx
d4V w1 L
dx = - - - f'sm -rex -re dx
u 4 re L L

E1 v = - -
IN.
- - cos -rex)
Wl L (
+ C1
u re L

Multiply through by dx, adjust the differential, and integrate to give

W 13 . rex
l
E1 u v" = sm - + C 1 X + C 2
- - 2-
re L

Multiply by dx, adjust the differential, and integrate to give:

Multiply by dx, adjust the differential, and integrate to give

- W1 L4 . rex C 1 3 C 2 2
E1uv= re4 smT+6x +T x +C 3 X+C 4

Boundary conditions will now be substituted in these equations in order to evaluate the
constants C 1 through C4 ·

x = 0, v = 0: implies that C4 = °
X = 0, v" = 0: implies that C 2 = °
X = L, v" = 0: implies that C l = 0, since sin re = °
x = L, v = 0: implies that C 3 = 0, since sin re =°
Since all constants of integration vanish in this particular case, the equation of the elastic
curve becomes
-Wl L4 . rex
V= sm-
E1u re 4 L
This agrees with the result obtained in part (a). Loading, shear, bending moment, slope,
and displacement plots are shown in Fig. 6.5.

Sec. 6.4 I Derivatives of the Elastic Curve Equation and Their Physical Significance 285
PROBLEMS ____________________________________________________________

6.19 The equation of the elastic curve of a simply sup- intensity function w(x) into Eq. 6.12 and perform the
ported beam of length L and constant bending stiffness necessary integrations to express shear, moment, slope,
EI u is given by and deflection of the beam as a function of x.

1 (-W i X 5 wi Lx 3 7WiE )
v = E1u 120L + ---y;- - ~ x
where x is measured from an origin at the left end with
v directed positive upward and x directed positive to the
right. Determine the bending moment and the loading
as functions of x. Sketch the loaded beam.

6.20 The equation of the elastic curve of a cantilever

beam of length L and constant bending stiffness is
given by

V
1
= EI u
(-Wi
36013
x6 Wi
+ 18 x
L 3
- -8- x
Wi L2 2)
~-------------- L ----------------
Const.nt EJ.
where x is measured from an origin at the left end with
v directed positive upward and x directed positive to the FIGURE P6.22
right. Determine the shear and the loading as functions
of x. Which end of the cantilever is fixed? Sketch the
loaded beam. 6.23 A simply supported beam supports a tank with
water at a depth h as shown in Fig. P6.23. The beam
b.21 The simply supported beam of Fig. P6.21 is sub- and tank have a I-ft dimension measured perpendicular
jected to the loading shown with x measured from the to the plane of the figure. Water exerts a force on the
left end of the beam. Derive equations for shear, beam given by yh, where y is the unit weight of the
moment, slope, and deflection as functions of x by sub- water and you may neglect the weight of the tank in
stituting the given loading intensity functions w(x) into your analysis. Assume that the tank bottom is sufficient-
Eq. 6.12 and performing the required integrations. ly flexible to conform to the curvature of the deflected
beam. Using the method of this section determine the
center deflection of the beam and choose the water
depth h such that the center deflection is limited to
'" = \\'1 (I)I/2
u

1
''1:1

1j
h\ Constant E/u _x

FIGURE P6.21
/ ~7?/
6.22 Refer to the cantilever depicted in Fig. P6.22 with ~------------L = 30 ft------------.j,!
an origin at the free end A. Substitute the given loading FIGURE P6.23

286 Ch. 6 / Deflections of Beams

1.00 in. The beam is 30 ft long, y = 62.4 Ib/ft 3 for water,
and E1u = 6.83 x 109 Ib-in. 2 .
6.24 An airplane wing may be analyzed as a cantilever
beam as indicated in Fig. P6.24. The upward loading is
regarded as negative and is given by
the loading intensity as a function of x. Substitute this
function w(x) into Eq. 6.12 and perform the necessary
integrations required to express shea-r, moment, slope,
and deflection of the beam as functions of x. Sketch
these functions and check to see that all boundary con-
ditions are met.

W = -Wi ( -X)1 /2
L
Use the method of this section to find the deflection of
the free end B of this wing. Regard EI u as constant for
this preliminary analysis.

I.. L

cos 2L
lTX
IV = IV I

L
X_-~A

B \J
FIGURE P6.24
COlIstall l/, l"

6.25 A linearly varying loading is applied to the FIGURE P6.26

simply supported beam of Fig. P6.25. For an origin at
point A, substitute the loading function w(x) into
Eq. 6.12 and derive equations for shear, moment, slope, 6.27 A cantilever beam of length L and constant
and deflection as functions of x. Sketch these functions bending stiffness EI u has a bending moment given by
and check to see that all boundary conditions are satis- W 1x_
M= __
5
fied. 20IJ
v where the origin for x is located at the right, free end, v
W=W I LX is directed positively upward and x is positive to the
left. Determine the shear and loading as functions of x.
Sketch the loaded beam.
x

L 6.28 With an ongIn at the top of the cantilever

FIGURE P6.2S
6.26 The cantilever beam is loaded as shown in
Fig. P6.26. An origin has been chosen at B to express
depicted in Fig. P6.28 the loading varies as the cube of
x/ L to a maximum intensity of Wi' when x = L. Substi-
tute this given loading intensity function w(x) into
Eq. 6.12 and perform the necessary integrations
required to express shear, moment, slope, and deflection

Sec. 6.4 / Derivatives of the Elastic Curve Equation and Their Physical Slgnlflcanca 287
as functions of x. Sketch these functions and check to v
see that boundary conditions at both ends of the beam
are satisfied.

FIGURE P6.30

6.31 In Fig. P6.31 the beam is fixed at its base and free
at its top. It is subjected to a linearly varying loading.
(a) Substitute this given loading function into Eq. 6.12
and derive equations for shear, moment, slope, and
deflection as functions of x.
L
(b) Express the deflection of the upper end of this can-
tilever in terms of WI' L, E, b, and h.
(c) Determine the tensile and compressive stresses at
the lower end of this beam in terms of WI' L, b, and h.

Constant EI"
x

FIGURE P6.28

6.29 A simply supported beam depicted in Fig. P6.29

is loaded by a sinusoidally varying load. Substitute this
given loading function into Eq. 6.12 and perform the L
necessary integrations required to express shear,
moment, slope, and deflection of the beam as functions
of x. Sketch these functions and check to see that all
boundary conditions are met.
. TfX
v
W = IVI Sill 2L

Constant E1u x v/ IV = wl(l-f)

FIGURE P6.31
L

FIGURE P6.29 6.32 A cantilever beam with an inverted-tee cross

6.30 The simply supported beam shown in Fig. P6.30
is loaded as indicated with an origin at A. Derive equa-
tions for shear, moment, slope, and deflection as func-
tions of x by substituting the given loading intensity
function w(x) into Eq. 6.12. Sketch these functions and
check to see that all boundary conditions are satisfied.
section is shown in Fig. P6.32.
(a) Choose an origin at the fixed end and substitute the
given loading intensity function w(x) into Eq. 6.12 and
perform the necessary integrations required to express
shear, moment, slope, and deflection of the beam as
functions of x.
(b) Determine WI to limit the free-end deflection of this

288 Ch. 6 / Deflections of Beams

cantilever to 1.00 in. Given: L = 15 ft and EI = 5.00
X 10 10 Ib-in.2 .
II intensity functions w(x) expressed as shown. Substitute
this given function into Eq. 6.12 and perform the
necessary integrations required to express shear,
moment, slope, and deflection as functions of x. Sketch
these functions and check to see that the boundary con-
ditions are satisfied.

FIGURE P6.3S
FIGURE P6.32
6.36 Loading on the beam shown in Fig. P6.36 varies
6.33 A simply supported beam of length L and con- as a linear function of x measured from an origin at A.
stant bending stiffness EI has an elastic curve given by
II
Use this loading intensity function w(x) in Eq. 6.12 and
v = _1_ (~X6
EIII 90I3
_~ 30 L
WI x5 + WI L
18
x3 _ WI
30
IJ x)
derive equations for shear, moment, slope, and deflec-
tion of the beam as functions of x. Sketch these func-
tions and consider the following special cases for
where the origin for x is located at the left end, v is checking the results:
directed positively upward and x is positive to the right. (a) WI = W 2 , corresponding to a uniform loading.
Determine the bending moment and loading as func- (b) WI = 0, corresponding to a loading diagram of tri-
tions of x. Sketch the loaded beam. angular shape.
Note that this is the solution for Problem 6.25, with WI
6.34 A parabolically distributed loading is applied to replaced by W 2 .
the simply supported beam shown in Fig. P6.34. Substi-
tute the given loading intensity function w(x) into W2- W I
IV = IVI + <- -
L -)x
Eq. 6.12 and perform the necessary integrations
required to express shear, moment, slope, and deflection
of the beam as functions of x. Sketch these functions
and check to see that all boundary conditions are satis- x
fied . An origin has been selected at A. L

FIGURE P6.36

6.37 An ongm has been chosen at point A for the

simply supported beam depicted in Fig. P6.37. Express
Constan t 1:.'1" x
1fX
w=w, cosI

I -- - - - - L
FIGURE P6.34
Constant E/~ x
L
6.35 An origin was chosen at the left end of the simply
supported beam shown in Fig. P6.35 and the loading FIGURE P6.37

Sec. 6.4 / Derivatives of the Elastic Curve Equation and Their Physical Significance 289
the shear, moment, slope, and deflection as functions of
x by substitution of the loading function w(x) into
Eq. 6.12. Sketch these functions and check to see that
all boundary conditions are met.
6.38 A cantilever beam of length L has a rectangular
cross section (b x h) and a modulus of elasticity E.
Loadings are applied vertically and perpendicular to the
width b of the cross section. Maximum bending stress (1
occurs at the fixed end of the cantilever. Express the
ratio of the free end deflection v to the length L as a
function of (1, E, and the length-to-depth ratio L/h for
the following cases.
(a) Uniform loading w over the full length.
(b) Concentrated load P applied at the free end.
Compute the free-end deflection for each of these cases
given: L = 12 ft, E = 12 X 106 psi, L/h = 12, and
0" = 16,000 psi.

0.5 Equation 6.6, EI u(d 2 v/dx 2) = M u' with M u a function of x, is an ordinary, second-order
Beam Deflections
-The Method differential equation. An ordinary differential equation is said to be linear if the dependent
of Superposition variable and its derivatives appear only to the first power in the equation. The dependent
variable v appears only in the second derivative d 2v/dx 2 of Eq. 6.6, and since this deriv-
ative is raised to the first power, the differential equation is a linear one. The coefficient,
EI u' mUltiplying the second derivative d2v/dx 2, is termed the bending stiffness and is
assumed to be constant over full or partial beam lengths. The modulus of elasticity E is a
constant that relates stress to strain in the beam, and the moment of inertia luis a
constant for prismatic beams over their lengths. Bending moment Mu appearing on the
right side of Eq. 6.6 is a function of x derived by applying the equations of equilibrium to
beam segments of variable length x.
The equations of equilibrium are formulated for the undeformed beam. As a conse-
quence, these equations and conclusions drawn from them are valid only as long as the
small deflections do not affect the action of the applied forces.
Consider a given beam subjected to two separate loadings and use subscripts 1 and 2
to denote the two analyses. Write equations of the form of Eq. 6.6 for each separate
loading:
d2 v I
E1u dx 2 = Mul (6.13)

d2v2
E1u dx 2 = Mu2 (6.14)

If Eqs. 6.13 and 6.14 are solved separately for VI and v2 , the sum of these deflections,
denoted by v3 , may be written
V3 = VI + v2 (6.15)
Now, form the sum of the Eqs. 6.13 and 6.14 and note that d2/dx 2 is a linear operator:

(6.16)

or
(6.17)
where
Mu3 = Mul + Mu2 (6.18)
IfEq. 6.17 is solved for V 3 , the result will be the same as that given by Eq. 6.15.

290 Ch. 6 / Deflections of Beams

 The method of superposition of beam deflections is expressed by Eq. 6.15, and it is
readily extended from two loadings to n loadings. In summary, superposition is valid for
beam deflections because the governing differential equation is linear, and the bending
moments are independent of the small displacements of the beam. This method is best
illustrated by examples solved with the aid of Table 6.1 (continued on p. 292).

TABLE 6.1
Equations for Beam Slopes and Deflections of Selected Cases

Case I. Simply supported beam-uniformly distributed loading

v -wI! -5wL4
v = ~ (I! - 2Lx2 + x')
t
IJ = - - V=--
1 24£1, 24£1, 384£1,
1J 2 = -1J 1 Maximum at center

Case 2. Simply supported beam-concentrated load at any point

Pb(b 2 _ L2) Pbx - Pb(13 - b2)'12

~
IJ = ----:-::-::--::--' v = - - (b 2 + x 2 - 13) v=
1 6EI,L 6EI,L 9.jj£I,L
~_x (0 s x S a) Maximum at

r---- L '1 IJ _ _P_ab-'.(2_L_-_b)

2 - 6£I,L
v = -Pb
6£I,L
[~(X _
b
a)' + (13 - b 2)x - xl] x = J13 ~b 2

(a S x S L)

Case 3. Simply supported beam-couple C applied at left end

v -CL -c13
IJ = - -
1 3£1, V =
-CLx [(X)2
6£1, L - 3 L + 2]
(x) v=---
9.jj £1,
CL Maximum at
IJ--
2 - 6£1,

Cen ter deflection

-c13
v=--
16£1,

Case 4. Cantilever beam-uniformly distributed loading

v -wI! _wx 2 _wL4

t IJ = - -
2 6£1,
V = - - (x 2 + 613 - 4Lx)
24£1,
v=--
8£1,

~ J Jli§t2~x Maximum at right end

--L----l
1+-1-

Case 5. Cantilever beam-concentrated load at any point

_Pa 2 _Px 2 _Pa 2
IJ - - - v=--(3a -x) v =--(3L -a)
2 - 2£1, 6£1, 6£1,
(0 S x S a) Maximum at right end
_Pa 2
v =--(3x -a)
6£1,
(a S x S L)

Sec. 6.5 / Seem Deflections-The Method of Superposition 291

 TABLE 6.1 (continued)
Case 6. Cantilever beam--couple C applied at right end
v CL Cx 2 c13
(} = -
~)C
~
V=- V=--
2 £1. 2£1. 2£1.
• x Maximum at right end

I- L---I
Case 7. Cantilever beam-linearly varying load
v -wU wx 2 -wL4
(} = - - V = - - - (IOU - 10L2 x + 5Lx 2 - x'), V=--
2 24El. 120L£I. ' 30El.

• x Maximum at right end

Case 8. Cantilever beam-parabolically varying load

wU _wL4
(} = - - V=--
2 60£1. 72£1.
Maximum at right end

EXAMPLE 6.6 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Refer to Fig. 6.6(a) and use the method of superposition to determine the center deflection
of the beam shown. The moment of inertia of the beam cross section 1u = 4.0 x 10- 5 m 4
and the modulus of elasticity E = 100 GPa. Loads are applied perpendicular to the u
principal axes of inertia of the cross sections.

SOLUTION. Decompose the problem into two cases, shown in Fig. 6.6(b) and (c). Note
that by the principle of superposition the total deflection at the center equals the sum of
the component deflections due to the uniform and concentrated loading, respectively.
Thus

Refer to Table 6.1 for the appropriate deflection formulas.

CASE 1:
-5wL4
V ----
b - 384Elu

CASE 2:
Pbx
v = - - (b 2 + x2 - 13) (0 ~ x ~ a)
c 6E1uL

Since P is applied at the center of the beam and the deflection under the load is required,
x = b = Lj2, which yields

292 Ch. 6 / Deflections of Beams

 v

r w = 2000 N/ m

----
_x

(b)
(a)

~TN~_,
(e)
FIGURE 6.6

_PL3
Vc = 48El u
5wL4 pIJ
V = -------
a 384Elu 48El u
Substitute the appropriate numerical values using consistent units:
- 5(2000)(6)4 8000(6)3
va = 384(100 X 10 9 )(4 X 10 - 5) - 48(100 X 109 )(4 X 10- 5)
= -8.44 X 10- 3 - 9.00 X 10- 3

= 1-17.44 X 10- 3 m I
The negative sign means that the deflection is directed downward.

EXAMPLE 6.7 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Refer to Fig. 6.7(a) and use the method of superposition to determine the end deflection
and slope of the cantilever beam shown. The moment of inertia of the beam cross section
lu = 160 in.4 and the modulus of elasticity E = 30 X 103 ksi.

SOLUTION. Decompose the problem into the two cases shown in Fig. 6.7(b) and (c).
Note that the end deflection and slope equals the sum of the component deflections and
slopes due to the concentrated load and the couple, respectively. In writing the super-
position equation, consider all deflections to be positive and the correct sign will follow
from the values of Table 6.1.

Refer to Table 6.1 for the appropriate deflection formulas.

Sec. 6.5 / Beam Deflections-The Method of Superposition 293

 Ii

~
(a)

====~~-:r--==r·,
12ft _I t
(c) .Jr C = 20 k-ft
FIGURE 6.7

CASE 3:
_Pa 2
Vb = - - (3x - a) (a::::;; x::::;; L)
6E1u
Since P is applied at the midpoint of the cantilever beam and the deflection at the right
end is required, a = L/2 and x = L, which yields

CASE 4:

Substitute the appropriate numerical values using consistent units:

- 5(2)(12 x 12)3 20(12)(12 X 12)2
va = 48(30 x 10 3)(160) + 2(30 x 103)(160)

294 Ch. 6 / Deflections of Beams

 = -0.130 + 0.518

= I0.388 in. I
The positive sign means that the deflection is directed upward.
Similarly, for slopes, the superposition equation becomes
ea = e + ec
b

Again referring to Table 6.1 for the appropriate slope formulas from cases 5 and 6, we see
that
e _ - P(L/2)2 CL
a - 2El u + El u
Substitute the appropriate numerical values using consistent units :
e_ -2(6 x 12)2 20 x 12(12 x 12)
a - 2(30 x 10 3 )(160) + 30 X 10 3(160)

= -0.00108 + 0.00720
= I 0.00612 rad or 0.351 0 I
The positive sign means that the tangent has rotated counterclockwise from the
unloaded to the loaded configuration.

PROBLEMS ____________________________________________________________

6.39 Use the method of superposition and Table 6.1 6.40 Refer to Fig. P6.40 and choose distance a as a
(p. 291) equations in order to express C in terms of P fraction of L such that the deflections of the free ends of
and L such that the deflection at the free end of the the two cantilevers will be equal when P = 1Wl L. Use
cantilever of Fig. P6.39 will have a zero value. equations from Table 6.1 (p. 291).

Constant E1u

ConSlanl E/II

FIGURE P6.39 FIGURE P6.40

Sec. 6.5 / Beam Deflections-The Method of Superposition 295

6.41 Two simply supported beams are shown in Table 6.1 (p. 291) for the appropriate formulas and use
Fig. P6.41. Use equations from Table 6.1 (p. 291) to the method of superposition.
show that the deflection of the beam at point C with the
load P applied at point B equals the deflection of the
beam at point B with the load P applied at point C.
This is a special case of Maxwell's Law of Reciprocal
Deflections.

c D
Constant £ 1.

f-a-I--I·-a--*·I---. --2a----I

A B D

~a --~-- --+------2a----~
FIGURE P6.41

6.42 Refer to Fig. P6.42 and observe that the total

force applied to each beam is the same (i.e., P = wL). FIGURE P6.44
Determine the ratio of the center deflections of these
two beams by using equations from Table 6.1 (p. 291). 6.44 A wooden beam measuring 34 in. x 1.875

1
in. x 3 8. 75 in. was subjected to a concentrated force at

55I· I I'v I
Constan t EI «
I I midspan by the small testing machine as shown in
Fig. P6.44. A span of 32 in. was used for this simply
supported beam and the 3.875-in. side was placed verti-
L cally. The load deflection plot is linear up to a load of
1
1060 Ib, for which the corresponding center deflection is
lp = wL 0.060 in.

;J;1 ?it
Constant t:l « (a) Calculate the modulus of elasticity from these
bending test results.
(b) Find the maximum flexural, tensile stress corre-
I· L
2
L
2 ·1 sponding to this center load of 1060 lb. Where does this
stress occur in the beam?
FIGURE P6.42
(c) Find the maximum horizontal shearing stresses in
this beam and state where they occur.
6.43 Determine the deflection at the center of the (d) Use the principle of superposition to show that the
simply supported beam depicted in Fig. P6.43. Refer to deflection due to the beam weight is negligible com-
pared to the deflection due to the load applied by the
18 kN·m 18 kN-m testing machine. The wood weighs 82 Ib/ft3.
~ £1. = 5.80 x 10' kN-m' ~

bi--------L-=--12-m--------;})d 6.45 Apply formulas from Table 6.1 (p. 291) to deter-
mine by superposition the center deflection and end
FIGURE P6.43 slopes of the beam depicted in Fig. P6.45.

296 Ch. 6 / Deflections of Beams

 18kN 18kN
Constant
thickness = O.lb

T
£Iu = 8.00 X 103 k _01 2

2m I
I 01T 1m -
I
FIGURE P6.45

t
3ft

6.46 A double-T-section cantilever is shown in

Fig. P6.46. Determine its slope and deflection at the free
end using the method of superposition. The flexural
rigidity E1u = 6.00 x 103 kN_m2 • Appropriate formulas
3ft
are given in Table 6.1 (p. 291).

FIGURE P6.48

6.49 Determine the slope and deflection at the right

end of the cantilever depicted in Fig. P6.49. Use the
method of superposition and appropriate formulas from
Table 6.1 (p. 291). What is the largest flexural stress in
this beam? Where does it occur along the span? The
beam is symmetric about the bending axis and has a
FIGURE P6.46
depth of 12.0 in. The modulus of elasticity is 10.0 x 10 6
psi and lu = 900 in.4.
6.47 Find the slope and deflection at the free end B of
the cantilever shown in Fig. 6.47. Use Table 6.1 (p. 291)
and the method of superposition.

3 kN/m upward

8
B

FIGURE P6.47 ~",o.o,,~6k

6.48 A cantilever beam is loaded as shown in
Fig. P6.48. Determine the slope and deflection at the
free end using the method of superposition and appro- FIGURE P6.49
priate formulas from Table 6.1 (p. 291). Let
E = 30 X 106 psi and b = 3.80 in. Show that the 6.50 A simply supported wooden beam is subjected to
maximum flexural stress in this beam is well below its two concentrated forces, as shown in Fig. P6.50. If
yield stress of 50 ksi. P = 2000 lb and E = 2.00 X 10 6 psi, determine the

Sec. 6.5 / Beam Deflections-The Method of Superposition 297

center deflection of this beam using the method of
superposition and appropriate formulas from Table 6.1
(p. 291). Find the maximum horizontal shearing stresses
in this beam and carefully describe where they occur.
the method of superposition and consider two cases as
follows.
(a) Bending about the " strong axis " or the u axis as
shown.
(b) Imagine the beam rotated counterclockwise through
90° about its longitudinal axis such that it bends about
the "weak axis" or the v axis. The beam is a W27 x 102
(see Appendix E) and E = 30 X 106 psi.

M
o -==;:i"'/";0 I
10ft~
IO"J
H
9.5 in .
r--
A

FIGURE P6.52
FIGURE PI.50
6.53 Determine the deflection at the center of the
beam loaded as shown in Fig. P6.53. Also find the
6.51 In Fig. P6.51 , the cantilevers AB and CD at the slopes at the ends of this beam by superposition using
sides are each subjected to a downward force of rxwL/2 the appropriate formulas from Table 6.1 (p. 291).
at their ends Band C. Use appropriate equations of
Table 6.1 (p. 291) to determine the value of rx such that
the end deflections of the cantilevers will be equal to
one-half the total deflection of this determinate struc-
ture at its center. Construct shear and moment dia-
grams for this structure. Express ordinates in terms of w
and L.

f h'lE I
c!
12 ft -~+---- 12 ft

~A t B D~ FIGURE P6.53

f-- 2L OtL 2L
6.54 Use the method of superposition and Table 6.1
Hi nges at B and C
constan t £ 1" (p. 291) to find the slope and deflection at the free end B
of the cantilever shown in Fig. P6.54.
FIGURE P6.51
10 kN

6.52 Determine the equal and oppositely directed end 3m 5m

couples Mo which may be applied to the ends of the A B

0r-----------~
beam shown in Fig. P6.52 such that the center deflec- £1" = IO.40X 103 kN-m 2

tion due to these couples will be limited to 0.60 in. Use " FIGURE P6.54

298 Ch. 6 / Deflections of Be.ms

1.1
Construction of Writing equations for bending moments as a function of x and plotting the associated
Moment Diagrams moment diagram was discussed in Section 1.8, but it is convenient to develop a new
by Cantilever approach in this section which will prove quite useful in applying the area-moment
Parts method developed in Section 6.7. This method for construction of moment diagrams
considers the original beam to be replaced by a series of cantilever beams that are loaded
by the system of applied forces and reactions of the original beam. Each cantilever is
loaded by a single force or couple. Location of the fixed end of these cantilevers is
arbitrary, since bending moments Mu in a beam are physical quantities that are indepen-
dent of the choice of an origin for the dependent variable x in terms of which the
moments may be expressed. Individual moment diagrams are constructed for each cantil-
ever, and if these diagrams are superimposed, the resulting diagram is the correct and
complete moment diagram as constructed by the methods of Section 1.8. The method is
illustrated in Examples 6.8 and 6.9. Reference will be made to Table 6.2, which contains
four cases of moment diagrams for cantilever beams.

TABLE 6.2
Moment Diagrams for Selected Cantilever Beams

Ca e 1. Concentrated load at any point Case 3. Uniform loading over length b from free end
tp
~r-______~a______-Lt__~b~__

-pa~line
-wb(a + %)

Case 2. U niform loading over length a from fixed end Case 4. Couple M applied at a distance a from fixed end

• + 11"1 L I_ _ __ _ _ _ . J -_ __

EXAMPLE 6.8 _____________________________________________

Refer to Fig. 6.8(a) and construct the moment diagram for this beam by three different
approaches as follows: (a) Draw free-body diagrams, write the moment equations as a
function of x, and plot the functions; (b) use the method of cantilever parts by choosing
the fixed ends of the cantilevers at point B; and (c) use the method of cantilever parts by
choosing the fixed ends at point C.
Refer to Table 6.2 for cantilever moment diagrams.

Sec. 6.6 / Construction of Moment Diagrams by Cantilever Parts 299

 SOLUTION
(a) The solution is depicted in Fig. 6.8(d). Appropriate free-body diagrams are shown in
Fig. 6.8(b) and (c). It is left as an exercise for the student to check these equations and the
moment diagram.
(b) The solution is depicted in Fig. 6.9. Appropriate cantilevers and their moment dia-
grams are shown in Fig. 6.9(b) and (c). Cantilever AB shown in Fig. 6.9(b) is loaded by the
reaction RA = P/2. Cantilever BC, loaded by the force P applied downward at C, is
shown in Fig. 6.9(c). If cantilever moment diagrams of Fig. 6.9(b) and (c) are superim-
posed (or added algebraically), the resulting diagram will be that of Fig. 6.8(d).
(c) The solution is depicted in Fig. 6.10. Appropriate cantilevers and their moment dia-
grams are shown in Fig. 6.1O(b) and (c). Cantilever AC, shown in Fig. 6.10(b), is loaded by
the reaction RA = P/2. Cantilever AC, shown in Fig. 6.10(c), is loaded by reaction RB =
!p at B and is free of loading between A and B. If cantilever moment diagrams of
Fig. 6.10(b) and (c) are superimposed (or added algebraically), the resulting diagram will
be that of Fig. 6.8(d).

O"~===7}k~n ==
, ===::::::::leI P_ x

RA =~ !
~-----20 -------+---a

J1==================~B~======~I:
(a)

A
LI________. .JI ~) Mu = - ; x (O';; x';; 20) 7)k

~!-
RB =t P
x 1-- - - - -2a----------I- - - -o
( b) (a )

!
.----- -___ 2a ______----'B~~ (Fix ed en d a t B)

RA =~
M" = -~x + f p{X - 2a) (20';;x';; 3a)
- Po p
(el (b)

(Fixed e nd at 0 ) ~o
c
(20,0) (30, 0)

-" V
~~------------~~----~._----_x a

(d) (e)

FIGURE 6.8 FIGURE 6.9

300 Ch. 6 / Deflections of Beams

 A B

J;k
-pi
RA - "2 ~""------ 2u ------f---,a ------i
(a)

R, = ~ jF=================3a===============c~~ Fixed end C

-t Pa

A 11 c~ Fixed end C
========================::;::==========::::t
=t
a
t
C!

R8 P

A
~ t~
11 a C
(e)

FIGURE 6.10

Anyone of the three methods used above for drawing the moment diagram has
yielded correct results, but there are distinct advantages in using the method of cantilever
parts when the area-moment method of Section 6.7 is utilized to determine beam deflec-
tions.

EXAMPLE 6.9 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _- - - - - - -

Construct moment diagrams by cantilever parts for the beam depicted in Fig. 6.l1(a).
Choose the fixed ends of the cantilevers at point C. Refer to Table 6.2 for cantilever
moment diagrams.

SOLUTION. The three cantilevers and their corresponding moment diagrams are
shown in Fig. 6.11(b) to (d). Cantilever CD, shown in Fig. 6. 11 (b), is loaded with a
uniform load wand the corresponding moment function is parabolic. Cantilever AC,
shown in Fig. 6.1 1(c), is loaded by a downward load P at point B and is free of loading
between A and B. The corresponding moment function is linear. Cantilever AC, shown in
Fig. 6.l1(d), is loaded by the upward reaction RA = iwa at point A and the corresponding

Sec. 6.6 I Construction of Moment Diagrams by Cantilever Parts 301

 P = 4wa
w

A B!
;}}71 IIII tD
J)7;
t RA = t ,;a
a
Rc = ¥\Va
a

(a)
\V

~ IIIIIl
~c a D

_ \Va 2
2
F (b)

P =4\Va

!
A
a 1
B
a

c~

'~ -4'~'
2a
c~

(d)
FIGURE 6.11

moment function is linear. If the cantilever moment diagrams of Fig. 6.l1(b) to (d) are
superimposed (or added algebraically), the resulting diagram would coincide with the one
obtained by the method of Section 1.8 for constructing moment diagrams.

1.7
Beam Deflections
Two theorems form the basis for the area-moment method, and these depend upon the
moment curvature relationship expressed by Eq. 6.6:
-The Area-
Moment Method d2 v
E1u dx 2 = Mu

302 Ch. 6 I Deflections of ae.ms

 General load ing

tangenlS at
A and B

~----------XB----'-~----~
j
equa ls
(3 )
j
arca under
~ _ _ _ Mu.
£ 1" diagram
between

L -_ _ _ _ ~ __________ ~~ _ _ _ _- L_ _ _ _ ~ ______ x

(b )

FIGURE 6.12

Theorem I is developed by integrating this equation between limits XA and XB , as shown

in Fig. 6.12.
XB d2V lXB M
l -dx- _ u dx (6.19)
XA dx 2 - XA E1u

I
dv _ _
_ dv I - Mu dx
lXB _ (6.20)
dx XB dx XA - XA EI u
By Eq. 6.8, the left side of Eq. 6.20 may be written as eB - eA' to yield

(6.21)

Equation 6.21 is the mathematical form of the first area-moment theorem. In order to
interpret the integral on the right side of this equation, refer to Fig. 6.12(b), which con-
tains a plot of the moment diagram, whose ordinates have been divided by the bending
stiffness EI u at each point along the beam span. A differential area under this curve equals
(MJEl u) dx. Thus the integral on the right side of Eq. 6.21 equals the area under the
MJEl u diagram between the limits X A and x B •

Theorem I. The angle change between two tangents to the elastic curve [such as A and B
of Fig. 6.l2(a)] equals the area under the MJEl u diagram between the same two points A
and B.

Sec. 6.7 / Beam Deflections-The Area- Moment Method 303

 Figure 6.13 depicts the geometric and other information involved in the derivation of
the second theorem. In Fig. 6.13(a), a tangent is drawn at any point A a distance X A from
the origin at the left support, and the second theorem will provide a means of calculating
the tangential deviation tBA at any point B a distance XB from the origin. In general,
tangential deviations are measured normal to the original beam axis from certain points
on the elastic curve to tangents drawn to the elastic curve at other points.
Points C and D are located a differential distance dx = dX I apart on the elastic curve
of Fig. 6.13(a). This differential segment is located a distance Xl to the left of point B,
which has been chosen as the origin for the variable Xl' Consider the differential angle d(}
between the tangents to the elastic curve at points C and D and the differential tangential
deviation dt, which is a differential part of the total deviation tBA and relate d(} and dt as
follows:
dt = Xl d(}
This differential equation is valid because beam displacements and slope angles are small
even though they are shown relatively large in the figure for convenience. Equation 6.8,
dv/dx = (), substituted into Eq. 6.6,

v General loading

fSA

I
Tangent to
elastic curve dO
at point A

f -- - - - - XIF - - - -----.
(3)

(b)

FIGURE 6.13

304 Ch. 6 I Deflections of Beams

 d2v _ ~ Mu (dV) _
dX2 - dx dx - EI u
yields
dO _ Mu
(6.22)
dx - E1u
which may be written dO = (MJE1u) dx. Substitute this expression for dO into dt = Xl dO
with dx = dX I to obtain

dt = (Mu)X I dX I (6.23)
E1u
Integrate Eq. 6.23 with limits on t from zero to t BA and limits on x I from zero to X IF'

tBA iXIF M
io dt = t BA =
0
_u X I
E1u
dx I (6.24)

Equation 6.24 is the mathematical form of the second theorem. Subscripts of the tangen-
tial deviation t refer to the point where the deviation is to be determined (i.e., B) and to
the point where the tangent is drawn (i.e., A). Thus tBA refers to the tangential deviation at
B with respect to a tangent drawn at A. Note that the sequence in which the subscripts
are written is very important. hi order to interpret the integral on the right side of
Eq. 6.24, refer to Fig. 6.13(b), which contains a plot of a moment diagram whose ordinates
have been divided by the bending stiffness E1u at each point along the beam span. A
differential area under this curve equals (MJE1u) dx l , and when this differential area is
multiplied by Xl to produce (MJElu)x l dx 1 , the result is the differential first area moment
with respect to point B, the origin for Xl' Upon integration from zero to X IF ' the right
side of Eq. 6.24 represents the first area moment of the M/E1u diagram between A and B
with respect to B.

Theorem II. The tangential deviation tBA at any point B with respect to a tangent drawn to
the elastic curve at any point A equals the first area moment of the M/E1u diagram between
A and B with respect to point B.

Equation 6.24 may be written in another form by noting that the integral on the right
side of the equation equals Al Xl' where Al equals the area under the M/E1u diagram
between A and B and Xl locates the centroid of this area Al with respect to point B,
where the tangential deviation tBA is to be determined. A generalization to n component
areas under the M/Eludiagram is readily written as follows:
n

tBA = L AiXli
i= I
(i = 1, 2, ... , n) (6.25)

It is important to realize that, in general, angle changes and tangential deviations

obtained from the two theorems are not usually of direct interest but are an indirect
means of obtaining beam deflections. This will be illustrated in Examples 6.10 and 6.11.
The difference between beam deflections and tangential deviations is shown qualitatively
in Fig. 6.14. Positive deviations are those for which the elastic curve lies above the
tangent, and negative deviations are those for which the tangent lies above the elastic
curve.

Sec.6.7/ aeam Deflection_The Area-Moment Method 305

 Gene!"'JI loading
Undeformed ___....--r-.. . . Elast ic ellrve
I

Tangential
elastic curve -- deviations
Denections lies above
Elastic cu rve ta ngent Tangent to
(or displacements)
clastic cu rve
(a) at point A

(b)

\
Tangent to
el ast ic curve
at point H
Tangential deviatjons
(c)
FIGURE 6.14

Slopes () are positive when the tangent to the elastic curve has rotated counter-
clockwise from the undeformed to the deformed position. This is consistent with the
mathematical definition of positive slope for a coordinate system with an origin located at
the left of the beam with x positive to the right and v positive upward. The first area-
moment theorem refers to changes of slope, and these will be considered positive counter-
clockwise with increasing values of x, which is consistent with the positive sign
convention for M jE1u diagram ordinates.
Selected properties of a few plane areas are shown in Appendix D. These properties
will facilitate the use of the area-moment method in the solution of beam deflection
problems.

EXAMPLE 6.10 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Use the second area-moment theorem to determine the slope at the left end () A and the
deflection at the right end Vc for the beam depicted in Fig. 6.15(a). The beam is loaded by
a concentrated load P at its right end and is supported by a pin at A and a roller at B.
The bending stiffness EI u is a constant. Express the answers in terms of P, L, E, and I u.

SOLUTION. Correct reactions of Pj2 downward at A and 1P upward at B were com-

puted by writing the equations of equilibrium for the beam, and these reactions are shown
on Fig. 6.15(a). Applying the area-moment theorems depends upon a precise understand-
ing of the geometry of a given problem. Students should refer to Fig. 6.l5(a) as they study
the following statements as a prelude to solving the problem.
I. The beam is straight prior to application of the load P. Straight line ABC represents
this initial position of the beam.

306 Ch. 6 I Deflections of Beams

 2. The load P is gradually applied to the right end of the beam, and it bends until an edge
view of the neutral surface takes on the shape of the curved line ABF referred to as the
elastic curve.
3. Points A and B do not deflect because the rigid pin and roller at these reactions,
respectively, are assumed to rest on nondeformable surfaces. In other words, settlement
of the supports is assumed to be prevented.
4. A tangent drawn to the elastic curve at point A is the straight line ADE. Tangents may
be drawn to the elastic curve at any point, but only two points A and B, which do not
deflect, are practical choices for solving this problem.
5. Two tangential deviations tBA and tCA are shown in the figure. Tangential deviations
are measured perpendicular to the undeformed beam axis from points on the tangent
drawn to the elastic curve. (Point B also lies on the initial position given by the
straight line ABC, since the support at B does not settle.) The tangential deviation tCA
extends perpendicular to the undeformed beam axis from point E on the tangent to
point F on the elastic curve.

Tangent to
clast ic curve
at point A D

Constant EI"

~---------- L -------

(a)

~I A I = total area

(b )

(c)

FIGURE 6.15

Sec. 6.7 I Beam Deflections-The Area-Moment Method 307

 6. The slope at the left end is () A' which is the angle between the straight line ABC and
the tangent ADE. The deflection at C is V c , which is measured perpendicular to the
undeformed beam axis from C to F. Deflections and slopes shown in Fig. 6.15(a) are
greatly exaggerated compared to the beam length. Actual slopes and deflections are
small when the stresses are elastic, and the theory of this chapter is a small-deflection
theory.
Refer to triangle ADB and recall that for small angles tan () == ():

Triangles ADB and AEC are similar triangles; thus

EC DB
CA BA
where
EC = EF - CF = tCA - Vc

CA =!L
DB = tBA
BA =L
Substituting yields
tCA - Vc = tBA

!L L
Solve for vc:

The slope () A and deflection Vc have been expressed in terms of tangential deviations
by referring to the geometry of this particular problem depicted in Fig. 6.15(a). Success in
applying the two area-moment theorems is closely related to making a correct sketch
similar to Fig. 6.15(a) and expressing the desired unknowns, such as ()A and vc, symboli-
cally in terms of tangential deviations, such as tBA and t CA '
To apply the second area-moment theorem, construct the moment diagrams by
cantilever parts as shown in Fig. 6.15(b) and (c). In this case the fixed ends of the cantile-
ver were chosen at the right end C. Quite often it will be advisable to choose the fixed
ends at the end opposite to the end where the tangent is drawn. For example, in this
solution the tangent was drawn at the left end, A, and the fixed ends of the cantilevers
chosen at the right end, C. If a tangent is drawn at a point other than the extremities of
the beam, it may be advisable to choose the fixed ends for the cantilevers at the point
where the tangent is drawn.
To find the tangential deviation tBA by the second theorem, take the moment of the
MjE1u diagram between A and B with respect to B. In this particular problem only the
cantilever moment diagram shown in Fig. 6.15(b) is involved, since the moment in the
cantilever of Fig. 6.15(c) vanishes between A and B; that is, only that part of the MjE1u
diagram between points A and B should be considered.

308 Ch. 6 I Deflections of aeems

 tBA ="2
1(-PL) (13" )
2EIu (L)
-pIJ
L = 12EIu

area arm
The negative sign means that point B on the elastic curve lies below the tangent. But

OA = I tBA I

pel
L

~ I(-PL1j12EIJ I ~I
L 12EIu

The rotation is counterclockwise from the undeformed to the deformed position of the
beam.
To find the tangential deviation tCA by the second theorem, take the moment of the
MulEIu diagram between A and C with respect to C. The complete triangle moment
diagrams shown in Fig. 6.15(b) and (c) are involved and their moments are to be taken
with respect to point C. From Eq. 6.25,

----y----
area arm area arm

But

I-8EIu 1(a downward deflection at point

= -PL1
- C)

EXAMPLE 6.11

Refer to Fig. 6.16(a) and use the area-moment method to determine the rotation of the
tangent at A, the deflection at the center B, and the maximum deflection of the beam
together with its location. Express results in terms of w, a, E, and I u •

SOLUTION. Refer to Fig. 6.l6(b) and note the tangent drawn to the elastic curve at
point A. Since the angle ()A is small,
() _ tCA
A-
2a

Sec. 6.7 / Beam Deflections-The Area-Moment Method 309

 From similar triangles ABE and ACF,
BE CF
AB AC
or

1
IV

__ ---------a·--------·~--------- a'----------
(a)

A 0" Initial positio n of beam C

Tangent to
elastic curve
at point A F
(b )

AI = total area
wa 2
4£1" ......

(c)

a- - .! a
20 XIl ={ o

parabol~
A2~ ~~~:u
a/
-
(d)

f I' Ela tic

curvc
Ini tia l position or beam
/

,.r-~'t~ ~- '
~,
Tangent al /J
.,.---------x----------II As lime Ihat x > (J
(e)

FIGURE 6.16

310 Ch. 6 / Deflections of Beems

 VB + tBA =teA
-
a 2a
Solving for VB' we obtain

Construct moment diagrams by cantilever parts and divide ordinates by EI u as shown in

Fig. 6.16(c) and (d). Apply the second area-moment theorem to determine teA and t BA .
The tangential deviation tBA equals the moment of the area under the MJEI u
diagram between A and B with respect to B. The diagram of Fig. 6.16(d) is not involved,
since Mu = 0 for this cantilever between A and B. Referring to Fig. 6.16(c) and noting that
the moment at B in this cantilever is wa 2 /4, we find that the tangential deviation becomes
1 wa 2 1 wa4
tBA = "2 4EIu a"3 a = 24EIu
area arm
The tangential deviation teA equals the moment of the area under the MulEIu diagram
between A and C with respect to C. The complete diagrams shown in Fig. 6.16(c) and (d)
are both involved in computing teA' From Eq. 6.25,
teA = Al Xll + A2 X12
2 2
= -1 -
wa- (2a) -1 . 2a + -1 (-wa
- -) a (1- a)
2 2EIu 3 3 2EIu 4
area arm area arm

= ~~: G- 2~)
7 wa 4

But

The rotation at A is clockwise, as shown in Fig. 6.16(b), and

1
VB = "2 teA - tBA

5wa4
downward.
48EI u

Sec. 6.7 / aeam Deflection_The Area-Moment Method 311

 In order to locate and determine the maximum deflection, refer to Fig. 6.16(e). At
point D, where the deflection is a maximum, the slope of the tangent is zero or the tangent
is horizontal. Apply the first area-moment theorem to locate the distance x from A to D.
If we assume that x> a and recall that «(}D - (}A) equals the area under the MjEIu
diagram between A and D, the appropriate equation for x becomes

(} _ (} =! (~ !
wa 2 ) x _ w(x - a)2 ( _ a)
D A 2 2a 2Elu 3 2EIu x
But (}D = 0 and (}A = - 7wa 3/48EI u' The negative sign is required for (}A since the slope of
the elastic curve for v positive upward and x positive to the right is negative.

o _ (_ 2. wa 3) =! wa x 2 _ ! w(x - a?
48 EIu 8 EIu 6 EIu

Substitution of x = rla, where (1 ~ rl ~ 2) and algebraic simplification leads to the follow-

ing cubic equation in rl:
8rl 3 - 30rl 2 + 24rl - 1= 0
Newton's method, after several iterations, yields a value of rl = 1.080444, which will
be rounded off to 1.08 to give a value of x = 1.08a.
In order to find the maximum deflection, refer to Fig. 6. 16(e) and note that vmax = tAD'
The tangential deviation tAD equals the moment of the area under the MjElu diagram
between A and D with respect to A.

Vmax = tAD = ~ :;~ xGx) - ~ E~u (x ~ a)2 (x - a{ a + ~ (x - a)]

area arm area arm

where x = 1.08a.
1 wa 4 wa 3
vmax = 12 - (1.08)3 - -6- (0.08)3(1.06a)
EIu EIu

wa 4
0.105 -
Elu

For this particular problem, vmax is only slightly larger than the deflection at the center,
which equals 0.104(wa 4 /El u)'

EXAMPLE 6.12 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Use the second area-moment theorem to determine the deflection at point C of the
cantilever beam depicted in Fig. 6.17. This beam has a varying moment of inertia as
shown in the figure. Express the deflection at C in terms of P, a, E, and I u'

SOLUTION. Draw the tangent to the elastic curve at point A, the fixed end of the
cantilever beam as shown in Fig. 6.17(a). This tangent to the elastic curve at the fixed end

312 Ch. 6 / Deflections of Beams

 Tangent to
elastic
cu rve at A
A B
--_ E1u
2£1. ,=---0::-- - - - -

~--- o --------+_-------

(a)
°
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I _ 2 I
- XII;'30 -1
M I I
Elu ~----------------r-----+---------~r---- X

-Po
I
2£1"

- Pa
Blu

'; ;12;a + -ta ; ta

'\"13 =(/ +ta = t a
( b)

FIGURE 6.17

of the cantilever is also the undeformed axis of the beam and thus, in this special case, the
deflections will equal the tangential deviations. For point C this may be expressed as
follows:

Construct the M.I EI. diagrams as shown in Fig. 6.l7(a). The tangential deviation tCA
equals the moment of the entire M.lEI. diagram with respect to the right end C. From
Eq.6.25

3 Pa 3
Vc = -----
2 EI.

The negative sign means that the tangent lies above the elastic curve, which corresponds
to a downward deflection at point C.

Sec. 6.7 I Beam Deflections-The Area-Moment Method 313

EXAMPLE 6.13 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Use the second area-moment theorem to determine the center deflection of the symmetric
beam, which is symmetrically loaded as shown in Fig. 6.18. This beam has a varying
moment of inertia as shown in the figure. Express the deflection in terms of P, a, E, and
1 1 , Compare this deflection to the deflection of a beam with constant bending stiffness
Ell of total length 4a subjected to the same loading.

SOLUTION. Draw the tangent to the elastic curve at point B in Fig. 6.l8(a). A tangent
drawn to the elastic curve at B is parallel to the undeformed beam axis. In this case the
tangential deviation teB equals the deflection VB' By Eq. 6.25

o - -+-- 0
A Undeformed beam C

""'~___4I.'!~~~-ICB..=VBL. --
Ca) Ta ngenl 10 e laslic curve al B

Po
8£1"
~----------------~~_+--~--r_----~-------. X
_ 2
XII = TU

1'13 = a + fa = ta

(b )

FIGURE 6.18

314 Ch. 6 / Deflections of Beams

 1
= - -Pa- a
2 2Elu
(2)
- a
3
+ -1- - (5) + - - (3)
2 3
Pa a - a
SElu
Pa (a) - a
SElu 2

VB = tCB =--
11 Pa 3
24 Ell

The center deflection of a beam with constant bending stiffness Ell of total length 4a
subjected to a center loading P equals 1(Pa 3/ Ell). The ratio of these deflections is Ii.
which means that the beam of constant bending stiffness Ell deflects almost three times
as much at the center as the beam shown in Fig. 6.lS(a).

PROBLEMS ____________________________________________________________

6.55 A beam of length L is simply supported. It is
loaded with a downward uniform loading of intensity w
and has a constant bending stiffness EI u. Use the area-
moment method to determine the center deflection and
end slopes of this beam in terms of w, L, E, and I u •
6.56 Refer to the beam shown in Fig. P6.56 and deter-
mine a numerical value for IX such that the center deflec-
tion will be equal in magnitude to the deflections at the
Fig. P6.57. Express your answers in terms of w, L, E,
and I u. Find a numerical value for the ratio of the
magnitude of the end deflection to the center deflection.
6.58 Determine f3 such that the end deflections of the
beam shown in Fig. P6.58 will vanish. What is the cor-
responding center deflection of this beam in terms of w,
L, E, and lu?

1.,.
p='w~1
applied loads P. Use the area-moment method and note
that the beam and its loading are symmetric.

i J £J J
w

p p
Constant £ lu
A E c D
L .,. L L .,
Constant £1u

I---L--+I-'- -aL- -+·I -L---1 FIGURE P6.58

FIGURE P6.56 6.59 A cantilever beam of length L and constant

bending stiffness Elu is fixed at its left end and free at its
6.57 Use the area-moment method to determine the right end. It is subjected to a downward concentrated
center and end deflections of the beam shown in load P at a distance a from its left end and a distance b
from its right end, with L = a + b. Use the area-
moment method to determine the slope and deflection
A B £ c D at its right end in terms of P, L, a, E, and I u •

r
/
/
6.60 A cantilever beam is subjected to a counter-
clockwise couple C at its right free end. This beam has a
L ·1· 2L- - ------+-- L-1 length L and a constant bending stiffness EI u. Apply the
Constant £lu area-moment method to express the slope and deflec-
FIGURE P6.57 tion at its free end in terms of C, L, E, and lu.

Sec. 6.7 I Beam Deflactions-The Area-Moment Method 315

6.61 Apply the area-moment method to determine the P = 2WQ
2w
following deflections and slopes of the beam depicted in
Fig. P6.61.
(a) Deflection at A.
(b) Slope at B.
(e) Maximum deflection between Band C.
(d) Deflection 1.5a to the right of B.
(e) Slope at C.

E3 Jo,1
(f) Deflection at D.
I 101

Express answers in terms of P, a, E, and I u •

MD = Pa
Crosssec lion -'

I B Constant EI" ~ 'D'i' magn ified

A 7bb; ~
]
-1I ~ 3a---------+O~lI FIGURE P6.63 I
. --------------- ~------------~
~ 6.64 Find the end slopes and the deflection at B for
FIGURE P6.61 the beam shown in Fig. P6.64 using the area-moment
method. Express answers in terms of M B, a, b, L, E,
and Iu '
6.62 The beam shown in Fig. P6.62 has an I-shaped
/YIn
cross section which is given in terms of a constant t.
Determine the deflections at points Band D in terms of
P, L, E, and t using the area-moment method.
4P r--- - - - -,l/ - -
c L

r-----~~----~rr-------JD
FIGURE P6.64

6.65 In Fig. P6.65 the beam has a box-shaped cross

section given in terms of a single constant b. Determine
the deflection at A and the maximum deflection
201
I l..l
T21 ~ \r:I----------------~
L --.f\J
T
161
E1u
A---~~~/
Constant
-B-----~C

1
L
~------- L ------~
"2
..l21
Cross section T I - b-j

T
FIGURE P6.62 magnified

ross section
I.Sb u

1
6.63 The cross section of the beam shown in magnified
Fig. P6.63 is defined by the single quantity t. Apply the
area-moment method to determine the deflection at A
and the maximum deflection between Band C in terms L....----......

of W, a, E, and t. FIGURE P6.65 Constant thickness = 0.1 b

316 Ch. 6 / Deflection. of aeam.

between points Band C. Use the area-moment method (c) Maximum deflection of the beam.
and express answers in terms of M A' L, E, and b. (d) Deflection at C.
(e) Slope at D.
6.66 Apply the area-moment method to determine the Express answers in terms of w, a, E, and Iu.
following deflections and slopes of the beam depicted in
Fig. P6.66.
(a) Slope at A.
(b) Deflection at B.
(c) Deflection at C.
(d) Slope at D.
Express answers in terms of P, b, E, and I u •
FIGURE P6.68
M 8 =Pb

6.69 Refer to Fig. P6.69 and determine the center

deflection of the beam using the area-moment method.
Express your answer in terms of P, a, E, and I u •
2b- ---o+
P
~---------- 4b --------~

FIGURE P6.66 c
Constant E1u
6.67 Use the area-moment method to determine the
deflection at C in terms of w, L, E, and d. The loaded
beam is shown in Fig. P6.67 and it has a double-box
r- a -I- a -I' a -I- a--1
FIGURE P6.69
section that is bent about the v axis. The applied loads
act in the negative u direction. 6.70 Use the area-moment method to determine the
w deflection at point C of the beam shown in Fig. P6.70 in

I !
terms of P, b, E, and I u. Also find the slope at point B in
terms of the same quantities.

~ """m'EI;!i B /.
C
B
p

'L ~ ---1 ~ ________________~_____-JC

Constant EI.

t
u
I-r-~-4b----+t'I-' -b--1
c,=~,;o,
magnified TI 01 01 i- "
..l...
FIGURE P6.70

6.71 Determine the center deflection of the beam

shown in Fig. P6.71 using the area-moment method.
FIG U RE P6.67
r--u----l
Constant thickness = O. ld
Express this deflection in terms of w, b, E, and Iu.

i)llll
w w

6.68 Apply the area-moment method to determine the Consta~ t Elu

B
following deflections and slopes of the beam depicted in /.
Fig. P6.68.
(a) Slope at A.
(b) Deflection at B.
r- b -I- b .1.
FIGURE P6.71
b
I· b--1
Sec. 6.7 / Beam Deflectiona-The Area- Moment Method 317
6.72 Express the deflection of the center of the beam
shown in Fig. P6.72 in terms of M 0 ' L , E, and I" . Use
the area-moment method. Also find the slope at point A
in terms of the same quantities.
6.76 Use the area-moment method to find the deflec-
tion at point A of the beam depicted in Fig. P6.76.
Express the answer in terms of P, a, E, and II .
p p

I}.
Constant Efu

'M'(~ B
•
;&
C
A F

I· L
2 ·1·
L
2 ·1 - 20 20
FIGURE P6.72 FIGURE P6.76

6.73 Determine the center deflection of the beam 6.77 Refer to Fig. P6.77 and use the area-moment
depicted in Fig. P6.73 in terms of w, b, E, and Iu' Use method to find the deflection of point C in terms of w, a,
the area-moment method. E, and I l '
IV

A J J J J ~ J J J I c

Ql Cons!:n! EI.
B J)J
c
r-b'l ' 4b ,1, 4b .,. b-j
FIGURE P6.73 FIGURE P6.77

6.74 Refer to Fig. P6.74 and use the area-moment 6.78 Use the area-moment method to find the deflec-
method to determine the deflection at point C as a func- tion at point B of the beam depicted in Fig. P6.78.
tion of P, a, E, and II ' Express the answer in terms of w, a, E, and II .

FIGURE P6.74 FIGURE P6.78

6.75 Refer to Fig. P6.75 and use the area-moment 6.79 Refer to Fig. P6.79 and use the area-moment
method to determine the deflection at point C as a func- method to find the deflection at point D in terms of P, a,
tion of P, a, E, and II . E, and II'
p
p

.------..J D
c .-------'
A B A
o- +-- -- 30- ---j
"
FIGURE P6.75 FIGURE P6.79

318 Ch. 6 / Deflections of Beams

1.8*_ _ The method of two successive integrations is a relatively simple technique for determining
Beam Deflections
beam deflections when the loading on the beam is continuous and expressible by a single
-Singularity
continuous function. This method, however, becomes extremely cumbersome for cases
Functions
where the beam is subjected to concentrated forces and moments or to distributed loads
that change in intensity abruptly. This type of problem can be handled much more
conveniently and also much more elegantly by the use of special mathematical tools
known as singularity functions, specifically designed to handle discontinuous functions.
Only those properties and operational procedures of singularity functions needed for
beam deflections will be given in this section.
A singularity functionf(x) may be written in the following form, using angle brackets
to distinguish it from ordinary functions:
f(x) = <x - a)n (6.26)
where x is any distance along the beam, a is a specific value of x, and n is any positive or
negative integer, including zero. For cases where n ;::: 0, the singularity function expressed
in Eq. 6.26 obeys the following operational rules:
1. When x < a the quantity <x - a)n vanishes.
2. When x ;::: a, the quantity <x - a)n becomes the ordinary function (x - a)n and obeys
the same rules as any other ordinary function.

3. f <x - a)n dx =
<x_a)n+l
n +1
+ C.
The use of singularity functions in solving beam deflection problems will be illus-
trated in Examples 6.14 and 6.15.
EXAMPLE 6.14 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

The cantilever beam shown in Fig. 6.19 is subjected to the concentrated load P, the
concentrated moment Q, and the uniformly distributed load w. Determine the deflection
at the free end of the cantilever using singularity functions and the method of two
successive integrations.

SOLUTION. Without the use of singularity functions, one would write a moment equa-
tion for each of the three segments of the cantilever beam defined by the ranges
o ::; x ::; L/3, L/ 3 ::; x ::; 2L/ 3, and 2L/ 3 ::; x ::; L. The method of two successive integra-

FIGURE 6.19

Sec. 6.8 / Beam Deflections-Singularity Functions 319

 tions would then be applied to each of the three beam segments, yielding three slope and
three deflection equations. These six equations would contain six constants of integration.
Consequently, six boundary and matching conditions would be required to obtain six
simultaneous equations, the solution for which would be tedious. Obviously, the tedious-
ness of the solution would increase for beams with more concentrated loads and/or
moments and segmented distributed loads. With the use of singularity functions, most of
these objections are eliminated, since only one moment equation is needed for the entire
beam. By applying the method of two successive integrations, this single moment equa-
tion yields one slope and one deflection equation, containing two constants of integration.
These two constants of integration require only two boundary conditions, which lead to
the solution of only two simultaneous equations. Thus, using the coordinate system
shown in Fig. 6.19,

(a)

Note that when x < L/3, the quantities (x - L/3)0 and (x - 2L/3)2 vanish according to
the first operational rule of singularity functions, and all that remains in the moment
equation is the term - Px. Thus M u = - Px for 0 :s; x :s; L/3. When L/3 :s; x :s; 2L/3, the
quantity (x - L/3)0 becomes (x - L/3)0 according to the second rule of singularity
functions, and therefore it is equal to unity. The quantity (x - 2L/3)2, however, is zero
according to the first rule. Hence M u = - Px - Q for L/3 :s; x :s; 2L/3. Similarly, one may
show that Mu = -Px - Q - (w/2)(x - 2L/3)2 in the interval 2L/3 :s; x :s; L. Therefore,
Eq. (a) defines the bending moment Mu for the entire beam and the differential equation
of the elastic curve may be written in the form

E1uv"=Mu= -px-Q(x-~)O _(~)(X_2~)2 (b)

Using the third operational rule, we can integrate Eq. (b) to obtain the slope equation.
Thus

Eluv'= _Pt _Q(X_~)l -(~)(X-2~y +C 1

One boundary condition in this problem is the fact that v' = 0 when x = L. Applying the
second operational rule for singularity functions, we find that this boundary condition
leads to

from which

(c)

Therefore, the slope equation may now be written as follows:

Px 2 / L)l W / 2L)3 pI! 2QL wI!
E1u v' = -2- Q\X -"3 -"6 \x -3 +2+-3-+ 162 (d)

Integrating Eq. (d), we obtain the deflection equation. Thus

320 Ch. 6 / Deflections of aeams

 EI v
u
= _ PX 3
6
_ ~/ x_
2 \
!::)2
3
_~24 /\ x _ 2L)4
3
+ PI3 x
2
2QL wIJ c
+ -3- x + 162 x + 2

The second boundary condition requires that v = 0 when x = L. Hence

= _ pIJ _ (~)(2L)2 _ (~)(!::.)4 pIJ 2QI3 wL4

o 6 2 3 24 3 + 2 + 3 + 162 + C 2

from which
pIJ 4QL2 11wL4
C -------- (e)
2 - 3 9 1944
Substituting Eq. (e) into the deflection equation yields

EI v = _ Px 3
u 6
_ ~/ x_
2 \
!:.)2
3
_~24 /\ x _ 2L)4
3
PI3 2QL wIJ) pIJ 4QI3 11wL4
+ ( 2+-3-+ 162 x - -3- - -
9 - - 1944 (f)

The deflection at the free end of the cantilever is obtained from Eq. (f) by setting x = 0
and by applying the first operational rule, which necessitates that both L/3)2 and <-
<-2L/3)4 become zero. Therefore,

= __1_ (P JJ 4QL2 11 W L4)

vx;o EI u -
3 + 9 + 1944

EXAMPLE 6.15 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

The simply supported beam shown in Fig. 6.20(a) is subjected to a uniformly distributed
load of intensity w over a portion of the span. Using singularity functions and the method
of two successive integrations, determine the equation of the elastic curve and the deflec-
tion of the beam at midspan.

SOLUTION. The support reactions are found in the usual manner to be

3wL 5wL
R --
A - 32 and RB -
-
-
32

as shown in Fig. 6.2O(a). The principle of superposition is now used to break down the
distributed load into segments that can be handled by singularity functions. Thus the
given load may be thought of as the algebraic sum of the loads shown in Fig. 6.20(b) and
(c). Using the given coordinate system, we can write the differential equation for the
elastic curve of the entire beam as follows:

(a)

Sec. 6.8 / aeam Deflections---Singularity Functions 321

 Two successive integrations lead to the slope and deflection equations as follows:

(b)

EI
u
V 3wL
= -- x3
192
- (W)(
-
24
x - -L)4 + (W)(
2
-
24
x - 3L)4
-
4
+C 1X + C2 (c)

The two boundary conditions needed for the determination of C 1 and C 2 are v = 0 at
x = 0 and v = 0 at x = L. Therefore, substituting the first condition into Eq. (c) and
utilizing the first operational rule for singularity functions, we find that C 2 = O. By
substituting the second condition into Eq. (c) and making use of the second operational
rule for singularity functions, the value of C 1 is determined. Thus
81wU
C1 =- 6144

322 Ch. 6 / Deflections of Beams

 Hence the equation for the elastic curve of the beam may now be determined from Eq. (c)
by substituting the values of C 1 and C 2 . Therefore,

EI v = 3wL x3 _ (~)/ x _ ~)4 + (~)/ x _ 3L)4 _ 81wU x

u 192 24 \ 2 24 \ 4 6144
The deflection of the simply supported beam at midspan is found by setting x = L/2.
Since both terms <x - L/2)4 and <x - 3L/4)4 vanish at this value of x, the deflection at
midspan is found to be

57wL4
V =-
12,288Elu

PROBLEMS ____________________________________________________________

Use singularity functions in the solution of all of the fol-

lowing problems.

6.80 Refer to the simply supported beam shown in

Fig. P6.80 and let P = 4000 lb, L = 18 ft, E = 30 X
106 psi, and Iu = 750 in.4. Determine the deflection at +-- - - 3L- - - -+--

r
midspan.
v
FIGURE P6.82

r--- i ----+t---- i ---+t~-- i 6.83 Using the coordinate system shown in Fig. P6.83
develop the slope and deflection equations for the entire
beam. Also compute the slopes and deflections at points
FIGURE P6.80 Band D.

6.81 The cantilever beam shown in Fig. P6.81 is sub-

jected to a concentrated couple Q at the left end and to
the uniformly varying load whose maximum intensity is A
W

i: c
or
w. Determine the maximum deflection of the cantilever
in terms of w, L, E, and 1u. t1 L L L
4"-
7)k
I
, -2
L
x

"4 2
FIGURE P6.83
([Q =WL2
6.84 Determine the deflection at the free end of the
r----- i ------+------ i ------~ cantilever beam shown in Fig. P6.84 in terms of P, L, E,

r
and lu.
FIGURE P6.81

±~
I
6.82 Compute the deflection of the overhanging beam L L
shown in Fig. P6.82. 2 2
(a) At the midpoint between supports A and B.
(b) At end C.
Express your answers in terms of w, L, E, and 1u • FIGURE P6.84

Sec. 6.8 / Beam Deflaction_Singularity Functions 323

6.85 Compute the deflection at midspan for the simply ,. . :. :. A..--__ p = 8 k.N
supported beam shown in Fig. P6.85. Let L = 18 ft,
E = 30 X 10 6 psi and Iu = 1000 in.4. ~= 3m

B
p = 20,000 Ib

FIGURE P6.8S

6.86 Compute, in terms of w, L, E, and I u' the deflec-

tion under the load P for the beam shown in Fig. P6.86. FIGURE P6.87

IV
1 p = wI. wL2

tII
Q =-y-

~
6.88 A cantilever beam is loaded as shown in

A ~ Fig. P6.SS. If w = SO N/m, P = 6000 N, L = 4 m,

E = 70 X 109 N/m2, and Iu = 30 X 10- 6 m4, determine
L L the deflection at the free end of the cantilever beam.

r
1. L
4" 4" 4 "4
FIGURE P6.86

tJ
IV

6.87 Compute the deflections at A and B for the can-

I
tilever beam loaded as shown in Fig. P6.87. The follow-
ing values are given: E = 200 X 10 9 N/m2 and Iu = 10
L
"2 +- L
"4 +
X 10 - 4 m4. FIGURE P6.88

1.1*_- Alberto Castigliano (1847-1884), when he was 26 years old, presented his thesis for the
Beam Deflections
-Castigliano' s engineer's degree to the Turin Poly technical Institute in Italy, and it contained a state-
Second Theorem ment of his famous theorems. His second theorem will be derived for any body fabricated
of a linearly elastic material with unyielding supports and then applied to obtain beam
deflections. *
The system of forces Pi in Fig. 6.21(a) (where j = I, 2, 3, ... , n) do external work on
the body, which is stored as internal strain energy in the body. By the law of conservation
of energy the external work must be stored in the deformable body, since losses (e.g.,
temperature change in the body due to heat generated) are ignored. No work is done at
the supports by the reactions because the displacements at the reactions are zero, since
the supports are assumed to be rigid.
The effect on the strain energy V of changing anyone of the forces Pi by an amount
dP i is depicted in Fig. 6.21(b). This change dU in the internal energy stored when added
to V yields

* Castigliano's first theorem, although applicable to nonlinearly elastic materials, and therefore more
general, is not as widely used and hence will not be covered in this text. The interested reader should consult
Appendix H or any advanced text on the subject for further information.

324 Ch. 6 I Deflections of Beams

 U
\1 U= internal
strain energy stored
= external work done
by for.ces
PI . P2•· . . Pi.·· ., PN

""""==----- - - - - - ' ' - - - - ' - - - -- - Pj

(al

Then, apply forcesP I , P2• ... , P" . . . ,PN

Apply dP, lirst (dPj "rides along")

r-, ~ (c) (d)

/If" I'
~
/ I
\ '1
1'"
/If"
dO = - .-dx Eq.(6.22)
/ \ 1:.1"
z.. --_..--' .> I
cix I FIGURE 6.21
(el

au
U + dU = U + -;-
uP
dP i (6.27)
i

Now reverse the order in which the forces are applied. First apply dP i as shown in
Fig. 6.21(c) and then apply the forces P;(i = 1, 2, ... , n) as depicted in Fig. 6.21(d). This
operation leads to
U + dU = t dP i dV i + dP i Vi + U (6.28)
The factor of one-half in the first term on the right side of Eq. 6.28 is required, since dP i
builds up from a zero value to a final value of dP i with an average value of 1dP i . Then as
the forces P;(i = 1, 2, ... , n) are applied to store an internal energy U, the force dP i at its
final value is carried along through the deflection Vi' which gives rise to the second term
on the right side of Eq. 6.28.
The total strain energy stored (U + dU) is independent of the order in which the
forces are applied, which means that Eq. 6.27 equals Eq. 6.28. Order of application of the
forces is immaterial because elastic deformation is reversible and energy losses are
neglected. Equating these two equations leads to
au 1
U + -8P dP· = -2 dP. dv·
I I I
+ dP. v· + U
I I
(6.29)
i

Sec. 6.9 / Beam Deflection&-Castigliano's Second Theorem 325

 The term tdP i dV i is a second-order differential and without approximation may be
dropped from the equation. This yields the mathematical form of Castigliano's second
theorem:

(6.30)

The first partial derivative of the strain energy with respect to anyone of the external
forces of the system is equal to the deflection of the point of application of that force Pi'
and in the direction of that force. The body to which the system of forces is applied is
fabricated of linearly elastic material, the supports are unyielding, and the principal of
superposition has been employed in the derivation. Equation 6.30 may also be interpreted
to apply to moments and slopes as well as to forces and deflections. If Pi is replaced by Mi
and Vi is replaced by Oi' then the equation may be used to obtain rotations. This use of the
equation will be covered in the examples.
To apply Castigliano's second theorem to the problem of beam deflections, an equa-
tion for the strain energy stored in a bent beam in terms of the external forces applied to
the beam must be developed. The effects of shear will be ignored in comparison to
bending in development of this equation. Refer to Fig. 6.21(e), which shows a differential
length dx of beam subjected to bending moments, and recall that the work done by a
couple equals the average value of the couple multiplied by the angle of rotation of the
couple. The couples Mu build up from an initial value of zero to a final value Mu as the
loads are increased gradually from zero to their final static values, which means that the
average couple is MJ2 acting on each face of the differential beam segment and each face
rotates through an angle d012, as shown. Thus

Mu dO 1
dU 2 x
2
x
2 "2 Mu dO (6.31)
---v--- --.--- ~ ~

differential two couples, average angle of

internal one on each couple rotation
strain face of the of each
energy element couple
From Eq. 6.22, dO = MJEI u dx, and when substituted into Eq. 6.31, the differential
strain energy stored in the beam element of differential length dx becomes

dU = M; dx (6.32)
2EIu
Integrate both sides of Eq. 6.32 to obtain the equation for the bending strain energy
stored in a beam. The integration on the right-hand side of Eq. 6.33 extends over the
complete length of the beam, as indicated by the symbol L.

U- i L
M2 dx
_u_
2EIu
(6.33)

Three examples will clarify the application of Eqs. 6.30 and 6.33 to the problem of
determining beam slopes and deflections.

326 Ch. 6 / Deflectione of aeams

EXAMPLE 6.16 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Use Castigliano's second theorem to find the deflection of the cantilever beam at its free
end A as shown in Fig. 6.22(a). Then determine the rotation of the beam at point A.

SOLUTION. Refer to the free-body diagram shown in Fig.6.22(b) and the moment
equation Mu = -Px, which is valid over the entire beam length. Express the total inter-
nal strain energy stored in the beam as follows:

U = fM~ dx

i
2EIu

(_PX)2 dx =p-/J
L 2
= -1- -
2EIu 0 6EIu
By Eq. 6.29,

The positive result means that the senses of the force and deflection are in agreement. In
this case the deflection is directed downward.
To obtain the end rotation of the cantilever beam, a fictional couple M 1 is applied at
the left end of the beam as shown in Fig. 6.22(c). Once the internal strain energy U is
differentiated partially with respect to M I ' then M I is assigned the value of zero, which
results in the correct value for the rotation. From Fig. 6.22(d), Mu = - Px - M I will be
utilized to determine U in Eq. 6.33:

= -1-
2EI u i0
L
(p 2X 2 + 2PM x
I
+ M2)I dx

/J(P\3
= -1- --+PM
2EIu
L2+M2L)
2
1 I

au 1
- =- (P/3 + 2MIL)
aMI 2EIu
Equate M 1 to zero to obtain the correct equation for () A:

This rotation has a positive sign, which indicates agreement between () A and MI' Since
M 1 is ccw, ()A is ccw, as indicated in Fig. 6.22(c). The foregoing solution could have been
shortened by interchanging the order of integration and differentiation as shown below,
since the loadings P and M 1 are both independent of x, which is the variable of integra-
tion.

Sec. 6.9 / Beam Deflection-castigliano·s Second Theorem 327

 p

------
L
AF=============~~==~

v
,.. _ - - ConstantElu
VA (a)

(b)

(c)

M{ ~==DM.-P'-M'
~X~ (d)

FIGURE 6.22

U = 2EI
1 i L
( - Px - M 1)2 dx

i
u 0

oU= -
- 1 L
(-Px - Md(-l) dx
OMI EIu 0

= -1
EIU
lL 0
(Px + M 1) dx

Since the differentiation has been performed, it is permissible to let M 1 = 0 prior to

integration.

is ccw, in agreement with the ccw sense of MI' The result is the same as that obtained
() A
previously.

328 Ch. 6 / Deflectiona of Beama

EXAMPLE 6.17 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Use Castigliano's second theorem to find the rotation at the left end of the simply
supported beam depicted in Fig. 6.23(a) loaded by a linearly varying loading.

SOLUTION. Refer to Fig. 6.23(b) for the appropriate free-body diagram and the
bending moment function, where M I is a fictitious couple that will be set equal to zero
after differentiation partially with respect to MI'

where

U = -1-
2EIu
i [(WI
0
L
L - -
--
6
Ml)
L
x +M 1 - -WI x 3J2 dx
6L

au = EIuJo
aMI
1 r
L[(WI L M 1)
- 6 - - T x+M l -
WI 3J( -1.+
6L x
X 1) dx
Let M 1 = 0 in the foregoing equation.

I---- - - - - - - - L
(a)

Me --
RI
x
(b )

FIGURE 6.23

Sec. 6.9 / Beam Deflections-Castigliano's Second Theorem 329

 () A and M 1 are both cw, as indicated in Fig. 6.23.

EXAMPLE 6.18 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Use Castigliano's second theorem to find the deflection at the center of the beam depicted
in Fig. 6.24(a) in terms of P, a, E, and I u'

SOLUTION. Introduce the fictitious force Q at the center of the beam where the deflec-
tion is sought, since a real force is not applied at this location. Refer to Fig. 6.24(b) and
write the following moment functions by drawing the appropriate free-body diagrams.
The reader is urged to draw the necessary diagrams and check the following equations.
The origin for x is located at the left end of the beam.
Mu = (~P + tQ)x (0::;; x ::;; 2a)

Mu = (~P + tQ)x - P(x - 2a) = -1PX + 2Pa + tQx (2a ::;; x ::;; 3a)
Mu = (ip + tQ)x - P(x - 2a) - Q(x - 3a)

Mu = ( - j)x + 2Pa - ~ Qx + 3Qa (3a ::;; x ::;; 6a)

U 1 i [(2- + -1) J2 + -2EIu1- i - -1

= --
2EIu
2a

3
P
2
Q x dx
3a
(
3
Px + 2Pa + - 1 )2
2
Qx dx

- i - -1 +
0 2a

+ -1 1 + )2
6a
( Px 2Pa - - Qx 3Qa dx
2EIu 3 2

-au = - 1i (2- + -1) x

3a

+ - 1i - -1 + 12 )(12 )
2a 2 3a
P Q - dx ( Px 2Pa +- Qx - x dx
aQ EIu 3
0 2 2 EIu 3 2a

+ _1_ (6a ( _ ~ Px + 2Pa _ -21 Qx + 3Qa)(- ~ x + 3a) dx

EIu J3a 3 2
Let Q = 0 in the preceding equation, since the differentiation partially with respect to Q
has been completed.

au = - 1
-
aQ EIu
i (2 )
0
2a
- P
3
2
-x dx
2
+- 1i
EIu
3a

2a
( - - 13Px + 2Pa ) 12
- x dx

330 Ch. 8 / Deflections of aeams

 + E~ u 1: a
( - ~ Px + 2pa)( - ~ x + 3a) dx
Carrying out the integrations above and substitution of the limits yields

au
-=V =
aQ C

The sense of Vc and Q are both downward as shown in Figure 6.24(a) and (b), which
means that the deflection is directed downward.

lP
A C Constant E1u B
x

/
Uc

2a 40
(a)

!
p Q

20 1 a ! 3a

it x

t
R I = l3 p + Q
2 (b)

FIGURE 6.24

PROBLEMS ____________________________________________________________

6.89 Refer to Fig. P6.67 (p. 317) and use Castigliano's
second theorem to find the deflection at point C of this
beam in terms of w, L, E, and d.
6.90 Refer to Fig. P6.62 (p. 316) and find the rotation
at point A in terms of P, L, E, and t by applying Casti-
gliano's second theorem.
6.91 Refer to Fig. P6.65 (p. 316) and use Castigliano's
second theorem to find the rotation at point A of this
beam in terms of M A' L, E, and b.
6.92 Apply Castigliano's second theorem to find the
rotation at point B of the beam shown in Fig. P6.64
(p. 316) in terms of M B , a, b, E, and I u •
6.93 Find the deflection of point C of the beam shown
in Fig. P6.70 (p. 317) using Castigliano's second
theorem.
6.94 Refer to Fig. P6.61 (p. 316) and use Castigliano's
second theorem to express the deflection at point A in
terms of P, a, E, and I u ' Replace M D by Pa after differ-
entiating partially with respect to P.

Sec. 6.9 I Beam Deflections-Castigliano'. Second Theorem 331

6.95 Use Castigliano's second theorem to determine
the deflection of point C of the beam shown in
Fig. P6.66 (p. 317) in terms of P, b, E, and I u' Replace
M B by Pb after differentiating partially with respect
to P
ADDITIONAL CHAPTER PROBLEMS
6.97 (Sec. 6.3) A beam ABC is of length 2L and it has
a flexural rigidity of EI. Point B lies midway between
points A and C. It is supported at point A on the left by
a pin and at point B by a roller. A clockwise couple Mo
is applied at point C which is free to deflect. Write the
equations of the elastic curve and slope for each of the
two regions: AB (0 :5 X :5 L) and BC (L :5 x :5 2L).
Express your equations as functions of x, M o, L, and EI.
Use the method of two successive integrations.
6.98 (Sec. 6.3) A cantilever beam of length L and flex-
ural rigidity EI is free at its left end and fixed at its right
end. It is subjected to a linearly varying downward load
that varies from an intensity of zero at its left end to an
intensity W at its right end. Choose an origin at the left
and write the equations of its elastic curve and slope as
functions of x, w, L, and EI. Use the method of two
successive integrations.
6.99 (Sec. 6.3) A simply supported beam of length L
and flexural rigidity EI is loaded by a downward acting
linearly varying loading with an intensity WI at its left
end and an intensity W2 at its right end. Choose an origin
at the left end and write the equations of its elastic curve
and slope as functions of x, WI> W2, L, and EI. Use the
method of two successive integrations.
6.100 (Sec. 6.3) A cantilever beam of length L and flex-
ural rigidity EI is free at its left end and fixed at its right
end. It is loaded with a clockwise couple C applied at
its left end. Choose an origin at the fixed end and write
the equations of its elastic curve and slope as functions
1.11*_
Computer The following Examples illustrate the use of the FORTRAN language in the development
Applications of computer solutions. Refer to the detailed discussion given on pages 53 and 54.
332
6.96 Refer to Fig. P6.68 (p. 317) and determine the
deflection of point C in terms of w, a, E, and I u by
applying Castigliano's second theorem. Replace P by wa
after differentiating partially with respect to P.
of x, C, and EI. Use the method of two successive in-
tegrations.
Problems 6. JO 1-6. I 04 are to be solved by the method
presented in Sec. 6.4 (pp. 280-290). In each case you
are to verify the deflection as a function of x as given
in Table 6.1 (pp. 291-292).
Problem Number Case Number of Table 6.1
6.101 1
6.102 4
6.103 7
6.104 8
6.105 (Sec. 6.5) Use the method of superposition and
Table 6.1 (p. 292) to solve this problem. A cantilever
beam of length L and flexural rigidity EI is loaded by
an end couple C (Case 6) and a linearly varying load
(Case 7). Express the couple C as a function of wand
L such that the deflection of the free end of this canti-
lever will equal zero. What is the corresponding slope
at the free end in terms of w, L, and EJ?
6.106 (Sec. 6.5) Use the method of superposition and
Table 6.1 (p. 292) to solve this problem. A cantilever
beam of length L and flexural rigidity EI is loaded with
an end couple C (Case 6) and a parabolically varying
load (Case 8). Express the couple C as a function of W
and L such that the deflection of the free end of this
cantilever will equal zero. What is the corresponding slope
at the free end in terms of w, L, and EJ?
Ch. 6 / Deflections of Beams
EXA~PLE C6.1 _________________________________________________

Write a FORTRAN program to determine the maximum rotation and the deflections of a
cantilever beam with a loading that varies parabolically as shown in Fig. C6.1. Divide the
span L into 10 parts and compute the deflection at these points along the beam. Refer to
Table 6.1 (p. 292), case 8, for the equations.

SOLUTION. The source PROGRAM CANTPAR and sample I/O are given below.
Note that reading a value of 9999 for W will stop the calculations. The maximum
rotation is computed in radians but converted to degrees before being written out. Con-
sistent lb-in. units were used for the sample I/O.

88i~8 ~~~rRtD,tANTPAR(INPUT,OUTPUTI
00120 PRINT 2
00130 2 FURMAT (IX,"CANTILEVER WITH PARABOLIC LOADING"I
001~0 0 READ *,W,L,E,IU
00150 IF (W.EO.9999ISTOP
OOlbO PRINT 10
00t70 10 FORMAT (lX,"INPUT W,L,E,IU IN ORDER"I
00 80 .RITE .,w,L,E,IU
00190 DELX-L110.
00200 X-O.
00210 THEMA~·w.L .. 3f(bO.E*IUI
00220 PI·3.1415927
00230 THEMD EG-THEHAX.1801 PI
00240 PRINT 12
88118 ~~I~~R~='~t~b~8UTPUT HAX. ROTATION AT FREE END"I
00270 20 V-(-./(12.*E*Iull*(X*.b/(30*L**21-L.*3*X/5.+L*.4/0.)
00280 PRINT 14
00290 14 FORMAT (IX,"DIST.FROM FREE ENe ,DEFLECTION")
00300 WRITE *,x,V
00320 IF (X.GT.cL-O.OOIIIGO TO 0
00330 X-X+DELX
00340 GO TO 20
00350 END

CANTILEVER WfTH PARABBLIC LOADING

INPUT w,l, E, U IN DR ER
200. 3bO. 30000000. 1500.
OUTPUT MAX. 'OTATION AT FREE END
.198014211072
DIST.FROM FRtE END ,DEFLECTION
O. -1.0308
DIST .FROM fREE END, DEFLEC TION
3b. -.91238420730
DIST.FROM FREE END ,DEFLECTION
72. -.78798127104
DIST.FROI1 FREt END ,DEFLECTION
108. -.6637031b~44
UI ST.FROM fREE tND ,DEFLECTION
144. -.53998534656
DIST.FROM FREE END ,DEFLECTION
180. -.41796
DIST.FKOM fREE tND ,DEFLECTION
21b. -.2~997858816
DIST.FROI1 FREE tND ,DEFLECTION
252. -.19028369664
DIST.FRDH FREE END ,DEFLECTION
288. -.09583017964
DIST.FROM FREE END ,DEFLECTION
324. -.02725560576
DIST.FROM FREE END ,DEFLECTION
3bO. O.

FIGURE C6.1

Sec. 6.10 I Computer Applicetions 333

EXAMPLE C6.2 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Write a FORTRAN program to determine the deflections of a simply supported beam

which is loaded with a linearly varying loading as shown in Fig. C6.2. Divide the span L
into 10 parts and compute the deflection at these points along the beam.

SOLUTION. The source PROGRAM SSLIN and sample I/O are given in Fig. C6.2.
Note that reading a value of 9999 for W l will stop the calculations. The equation for the
deflection V is relatively long and it was divided into three parts (PART 1, PART 2, and
PART 3) for programming convenience. Consistent Ib-in. units were used for the
sample I/O.
u

88i~8 ~~~tR'O.tSLIN (INPUT,OUTPUT)

00120 PRINT 2
00130 2 FO~~ATlIX."Dt:FLECTIONS LINEAR LOADING SII~PLE SUPPORTS")
00140 bREAD *,wl.w2,L,t,IU
001;0 IF (w 1. EQ. 99'N) STOP
001bO PRINT 10
00170 10 FORMAT (lX,"INPUT wl,w2,L,E,IU IN ORDER")
00180 WRITE *,wl,.2,l,E,IU
00190 DELX-l/I0.
00200 X-O.
00210 20 PART1--wl*X**4/24.-w2*X**S/(120.*L)
00220 PART2 -Wl*X**S/( 120.*L) +( wl*L 13.+Io2*lIb. )*U+3/O.
00230 PART3-I-Wl*L*+3/45.-7.*w2*L**3/3bO.)*X
00240 V-I PAH1+PART2+PART3) IIE*IU)
002bO PR I NT H
00270 14 FORMAT (lx,"DIST.FROM LEFT END, DEFLECTION")
00280 WRlTE*X.V
00290 IFIX.GT.(L-0.001))GO TO 6
00295 X-X+CELX
00300 GO TO 20
00310 END

SIMPlE SUPPORTS
~~~bfC~i~~~'L.~!~5ARI~O~~b~~
200. 300. 30C. 30COUOOO. 1500.
DIST.FROM LEFT END, DEFLECTION
O. o.
DIST.FROM LEFT END. DEFLECTION
36. -.3766725504
DIST.FROM LEfT END. DEfLECTION
72. -.7142473728
DIST.fROM LEfT END. DEfLECTION
108. -.9808428072
DIST.fROM LEfT END. DEFLECTION
144. -1.152768d896
DIST.FROM LEfT ENO, DEFLECTION
180. -1.215
DIST.FROM LEFT tND, DEFLECTION
216. -1.lblHd7104
DIST.FROM LEfT END. DEFLECTION
252. -.995v387328
DIST.fROM LEfT END. DtFLECTION
28~. -.728Q782272
OIST.FROM LEfT ENU. DEFLECTION
324. -.3861530496
OIST.FROM LEfT END. DEFLECTION
360. O.

FIGURE C6.2

334 Ch. 6 I Deflections of Beams

COMPUTER PROBLEMS

C6.1 A simply supported beam of length L and flex- C6.3 A cantilever beam of length L and flexural rigid-
ural rigidity EI u is subjected to a clockwise couple C at ity El q is fixed at its left end and free at its right end. It
its left end. Write a FORTRAN program to determine is subjected to a linearly varying downward load which
its deflection. Start with X = 0 and use increments of varies from an intensity W at its fixed end and an inten-
LIIO. Check your program with the following numerical sity of zero at its free end. Write a FORTRAN program
results. to determine its deflection. Start with X = 0 and use
Input: L = 200 in., E = 10 X 106 psi, IU = 500 in.4, increments of LllO. Check your program with the fol-
C = 1,250,000 in.-lb. lowing numerical results.
Output: Input: L = 10 m, EIU = 4.00 x 10 7 N_m 2 , W = 2000
N/m.
X (in.) V (in.) Output:
X (m) V (m)
0 0.0
20 -0.285 0 0.00000
40 -0.480 -0.00038
60 -0.595 2 -0.00137
80 -0.640 3 -0.00278
100 -0.625 4 -0.00449
120 -0.560 5 -0.00638
140 -0.455 6 -0.00838
160 -0.320 7 -0.01043
180 -0.165 8 -0.01250
200 0.0 9 -0.01458
10 -0.01667

C6.2 A simply supported beam of length L and flex-
ural rigidity EI is subjected to a concentrated load P,
directed downward, at its center. Write a FORTRAN
program to determine its deflection. Start with X = 0
and use increments of LIIO. Check your program with
the following numerical results:
Input: L = 400 in., E = 10 X 106 psi, IU = 800 in.4,
P = 6000 lb.
Output:
X (in.) V (in.)
C6.4 A cantilever beam of length L and flexural rigid-
ity EI u is fixed at its left end and free at its right end. It
is subjected to a downward, uniform loading of inten-
sity W. Write a FORTRAN program to determine its
deflection. Start with X = 0 and use increments of LI10.
Check your program with the following numerical
results.
Input: L = 20 m, EIU = 8.00 x 10 8 N_m 2 , W = 1000
N/m.
Output:
X (m) V (m)

o 0.0 0 0.0
40 -0.296 2 -0.0005
80 -0.568 4 -0.00175
120 -0.792 6 -0.00367
160 -0.944 8 -0.00608
200 -1.000 10 -0.00885
240 -0.944 12 -0.01188
280 -0.792 14 -0.01507
320 -0.568 16 -0.01835
360 -0.296 18 -0.02167
400 0.0 20 -0.02500

Sec. 6.10 / Computer Applications 335

 CHAPTER CllIlJined Siresses and
Theories 01 failure
7.1
Introduction In the preceding chapters methods were developed and discussed for the analysis of
members subjected to one type of load only. For example, Chapter 3 dealt with members
subjected only to axial loads, Chapter 4 with members subjected only to torsional loads,
and Chapter 5 with members subjected only to flexural loads. There are numerous engi-
neering situations relating to structural and machine applications, however, in which
members are subjected to the simultaneous action of two or more types of loads.
Four different load combinations are considered in this chapter. These are (1) axial
and torsional loads, (2) axial and flexural loads, (3) torsional and flexural loads, and (4)
torsional, flexural, and axial loads. In all instances, the material is assumed not to be
stressed beyond the elastic limit, to justify the use of the principle of superposition. This
principle then leads to the development of analytical methods that make it possible to
examine the stress condition induced by anyone of the four load combinations mentioned
here.
When a member is subjected to uniaxial tension or compression, one can predict,
with a certain degree of confidence, the magnitude of the uniaxial load at which failure by
yielding or by inelastic action would occur. However, when a member is subjected to
combined loads, the cause of failure cannot be so easily ascertained, and resort is made to
one of the many theories that have been proposed to predict failure under combined
loads. The four most commonly used theories of failure are developed and discussed, and
they are then compared to each other under a specific state of stress to emphasize the
differences that exist among these various theories.

7.2 There are many engineering situations in which a member is called upon to resist the
Axial and
Torsional simultaneous action of axial and torsional loads. Familiar examples of such situations
Stresses include the case of the screw stem and that of the drill shaft. For example, as the screw is
driven by a screw driver, turning and pushing occur simultaneously. The turning effect
results in a system of resisting shearing forces between the screw and the material into
which it is being driven that gives rise to a resisting torque. The pushing effect leads to
compression action in the screw. Thus the stress analysis in the stem of the screw should
account for the action of both the torque and the compression load.
Analysis of combined axial and torsional loads is accomplished by the use of the
principle of superposition, which was introduced and used in Section 2.9. For simplicity
and convenience, only members with solid or hollow circular cross sections will be
analyzed in this section, although the method of superposition is equally applicable to any

336
 arbitrary cross-sectional area as long as the material is not stressed beyond the pro-
portionallimit.
Consider, for example, the circular shaft shown in Fig. 7.1(a), which is subjected to
the combined effects of the tensile axial force P and the torque T. By the principle of
superposition, this member can be considered to be subjected to two independent loading
systems as shown in Fig. 7.1(b) and (c). The member shown in Fig. 7.l(b) is acted upon by
the action of the axial force P acting alone, and therefore the stress system induced in the
shaft, at any cross section along its length, is a simple uniform normal stress distribution
whose intensity a x is given by Eq. 3.1. The member shown in Fig. 7.1(c) is sUbjected to the
torque T acting alone and, at any cross section along the shaft, there is induced a shear
stress distribution, i xv ' given by Eq. 4.19, that varies linearly from zero at the center to a
maximum value at the outside surface of the circular cross section. Thus to investigate the
most severe stress condition existing in the shaft as a result of the combined action of P
and T, one should consider any stress element on the surface of the shaft such as the one
depicted at point B in Fig. 7.1. This stress element has two planes parallel and two planes
perpendicular to the axis of the shaft. For convenience, the xv coordinate system is so
chosen that the x axis is along the shaft. The stress condition at point B due to the axial
load P acting alone is shown in Fig. 7.l(b), and that at the same point due to the torque T
acting alone is shown in Fig. 7.1(c). The superposition of these two stress conditions
results in the stress element depicted in Fig. 7.1 (a). Note that this is a plane stress
condition, since the stress in the u direction [perpendicular to the cylindrical surface of the
shaft but not shown in Fig. 7.1(a)] is zero. Having determined the combined stress
condition, we can compute the principal stresses and the maximum shear stress by the use
of Mohr's circle. This procedure is further illustrated in Example 7.1.

"t
~
T
1'/ 0-
I

IV
L(I
/
X
/
/"

8
T•••

0,
r
" I
I

(a)

"

(b)

c}
,.~;( /' lOr'"
~ -; ,. 8

-
I

(e)

FIGURE 7.1

Sec. 7.2 I Axial and Torsional Stresses 337

EXAMPLE 7.1 ________________________________________________

During a drilling operation, the 4-in.-diameter shaft of an oil rig is subjected to a push
P = 80 k and a torque T = 60 k-in. as shown schematically in Fig. 7.2(a). Consider a
point on the surface of the shaft and determine (a) the principal stresses and the maximum
in-plane shear stresses r 1 and r 2 . Show these stresses on properly oriented planes. What is
the value of the absolute maximum shear stress? (b) Determine the magnitude of the
principal strains and of the maximum in-plane shear strains Yl and Y2 as well as the
absolute maximum shear strain. Assume that E = 30 X 106 psi and J1. = 0.3.

SOLUTION
(a) A point B is selected at some location on the surface of the shaft as shown in Fig.
7.2(a). Note that all points on the surface of the shaft are subjected to the same stress
condition and consequently, the exact location of point B is of no consequence.

T= 60 k-in.

p= 80 k
T= 60 k-in.

-.....
B
I+ 78kSi

+B
+-- ----------U

I (e) Tnr
I

p p

(a) (b)

V(O , - 4.78)

t ~ (d)

8 = 28.14· - I"\ I 0A =~' 19 k t .

~-'.,S,"'

03=8.~Si ~
0 1 = 2.56 ksi

(e)

FIGURE 7.2

338 Ch. 7 / Combined Stresses and Theories of Failure

 The free-body diagram of that part of the shaft below point B is shown in Fig. 7.2(b).
Also shown in this figure is a stress element at point B. Two planes of this stress element
are perpendicular to the shaft axis and the other two parallel to this axis. This stress
element is shown magnified in Fig. 7.2(c) in relation to the vy coordinate plane. By Eq.
3.1,

(f
Fn
=-= - -80
- = -637 k SI.
y A 12.57 .
Also, by Eq. 4.19,
Tp 60(2) .
"C
yv
= -J = - - = 478
25.13 . kSl
These stresses are shown on the stress element in Fig. 7.2(c). Mohr's circle for this stress
condition is constructed as shown in Fig. 7.2(d) and we find the following values from its
geometry:
OC = -3.19
R = 5.75

(f 1 = OC + R = / 2.56 ksi /

(f3=OC-R=/-8.94kSi /

"C max = "C 1 = "C 2 = R = /5.75 ksi 1

(fA = OC = 1-3.19 ksi 1

(J = -1 tan- 1 -4.78 = ~
2814 0

2 3.19 .
Note that this is a plane stress problem in which (f2 = 0 has a direction which is perpen-
dicular to the surface of the shaft. The remaining stresses are shown on a properly
oriented stress element in Fig. 7.2(e). Thus the principal stress of largest magnitude
«(f 3 = 8.94 ksi) acts on a plane inclined to cross sections of the shaft at a 28.14 0 ccw angle.

The absolute maximum shear stress is given by Eq. 2.16. Thus

= /5.75 ksi I
which, in this case, is identical with "C 1 and "C 2 •
(b) The magnitude of the principal strains may be obtained directly by using the stress-
strain transformation relations and letting (f2 = O. Thus, by Eq. 2.34',

Sec. 7.2 I Axial and Torsional Stresses 339

 2.56 X 10 3 0.3 3

30 X 106 30 X 106 (0 - 8.94 x 10 )

= 1 174.7 x 10- 6 1

= 0 - 30 0.3 6 (2.56 x 10 3 - 8.94 X 103 )

xlO

= 163.8 x 10- 6 1

8.94 X 103 0.3 3

30 X 10 6 30 X 106 (2.56 X 10 + 0)

= 1- 323.6 X 10- 6 1
The shear strains Y1 and Y2 may be obtained from a relation similar to Eq. 2.29. Thus
r1 r1
Ymax = Y1 = Y2 = G = E/2(1 + J.l.)

= 5.75 X 103 = [498.3 x 1O-6[

30 x 106 /2(1.3)
Finally, the absolute maximum shear strain is given by Eq. 2.26 (b). Thus
I Ymax I = 8 1 - 83 = 498.3 X 10- 6
which, in this case, is identical with Y1 and Y2'

PROBLEMS ____________________________________________________________

7.1 An oil drilling rig with a 0.12-m-diameter shaft
jams during a drilling operation and needs to be
retracted. An axial pull P = 650 kN and a torque
T = 20 kN-m are required for the retraction process
applied as in Fig. 7.1. Determine the magnitudes of the
principal stresses and of the maximum in-plane shear
stresses r 1 and r 2 on the surface of the shaft. What is the
magnitude of the absolute maximum shear stress on the
surface of the shaft?
7.2 A hollow steel shaft 5 m long, 0.15 m outside
diameter, and 0.06 m inside diameter is fixed rigidly at
one end and subjected to an axial tensile force of
500 kN and a torque of 15 kN-m at the other end.
Determine:
(a) The principal stresses and the maximum in-plane
shear stresses r 1 and r 2 on the surface of the shaft. Show
these stresses on properly oriented planes.

340 Ch. 7 / Combined Stresses end Theories of Feilure

(b) The change in length and the angle of twist of the
shaft.
Assume that E = 200 X 109 N/m2 and J1 = 0.25.

7.3 A 4-in.-diameter solid shaft is subjected to the

torques and to the axial force shown in Fig. P7.3. Con- Diameter = 0.08 m
I
struct the torque and force diagrams and compute the Outside diamet er = 0.12 m
I
magnitudes of the principal stresses at the most severely Inside diameter = 0.04 m
stressed point or points in the member. FIGURE P7.S

7.6 A hollow shaft with a length of 2.0 m, an outside

diameter of 0.30 m, and an inside diameter of 0.20 m is
subjected to the loads shown in Fig, P7.6. Determine:
(a) The magnitudes of the principal stresses and the
maximum in-plane shear stresses r 1 and t 2 at the most
severely stressed point or points in the shaft. What is
f---15 in. • I· 20 in.---I the absolute maximum shear stress at this point(s).
(b) The change in length and the angle of twist of the
FIGURE P7.3
shaft if E = 70 G Pa and.J1 = 0.30.

7.4 A composite shaft is subjected to the torques and

to the axial load shown in Fig. P7.4. Determine: 4OkN~
0.40 m
(a) The magnitudes of the principal stresses and the
absolute maximum shear stress at the most severely
stressed point or points in the member. ~
~ 7
(b) The total deformation and total angle of twist of tht:;
composite member.
Assume that Est = 30 X 10 6 psi and Eal = 10 X 106 psi ®kN
and let G = (16)E for both materials.
2.om~
T, = 70 k-in.
~ FIGURE P7.6

4-in. diameter 7.7 The solid steel shaft shown in Fig. P7.7 is sub-
aluminum
p= 60 k jected to a torque T = 5 kN-m and an axial force P.
The diameter of the shaft is 0.10 m, and if the principal
stress of largest magnitude at point B is known to have
I· 30 in. - - - - - + - - - - 2 0 in. ----l a magnitude of 100 MPa, what is the value of the force
P?
FIGURE P7.4
T= 5 kN-m

7.5 A hollow steel shaft 0.12 m outside diameter is ~

rigidly welded to a 0.08-m solid steel shaft and subjected P---I--
to the torques and to the compressive axial force as
shown in Fig. P7.5. Construct the torque and force dia-
grams and determine the magnitudes of the principal
stresses and the absolute maximum shear stress at the 1-.- - - 3 m -------+i.I
most severely stressed point or points in the member. FIGURE P7.7

Sec. 7.2 I Axial and Torsional Stresses 341

7.8 Solve Problem 7.7 if, instead of the principal stress (b) The shojrtening of the shaft and its angle of twist if
of largest magnitude at point B, the maximum in-plane E = 30 X 106 and Jl = 0.25.
shear stress 'rmax is known to be 50 MPa. All other y
conditions in the problem remain the same. t
7.9 The solid steel shaft shown in Fig. P7.9 is sub-
jected to a torque T and an axial force P = 150 k. The
diameter of the shaft is 4 in., and if the principal stress
of largest magnitude at point B is known to have a
magnitude of 30 ksi, what is the value of the torque T?
T- I
I
I
I
I
I

1
36 in. I
I
I
I
B II ___
I ___

.... -t-~1--?""'==------.. x
~4in.
1+1'---8 -----1·1
ft
FIGURE P7.9 z

7.10 Solve Problem 7.9 if instead of the principal stress
of largest magnitude at point B, the maximum in-plane
shear stress 'rmax is known to be 15 ksi. All other condi-
tions in the problem remain the same.
7.11 A 12-in.-nominal-diameter standard pipe (see
Appendix E) is fixed at its base and held in position by
the two cables AB and CD, as shown in Fig. P7.11. The
tension in each cable is known to be 30 kips. Compute:
(a) The principal stresses and the absolute maximum
shear stress on the outside surface of the shaft at any
section removed from either end.
FIGURE P7.11
7.12 Refer to Problem 7.4 and, for the point(s) selected
in that problem, compute the magnitude of the prin-
cipal strains and of the maximum in-plane shear strains
Yl and Y2 as well as the absolute maximum shear strain.
Let E = 10 X 10 6 psi and Jl = 0.25.
7.13 Refer to Problem 7.6 and, for the point(s) selected
in that problem, determine the magnitude of the prin-
cipal strains and of the maximum in-plane shear strains
Yl and Y2 as well as the absolute maximum shear strain.
Let E = 200 G Pa and Jl = 0.3.

7.3
Axial and The simultaneous action of axial and flexural loads occurs frequently in machine and
Flexural structural members. A very common example of such occurrence is the case of certain
Stresses types of traffic light frames. An idealized model of such a frame is shown in Fig. 7.3(a), in
which, for simplicity, the weight of the traffic light fixture and that of the horizontal
member AB have been grouped together into one single force P acting at point A.
Equilibrium dictates that, at any cross section in the vertical member BE, there exists a
normal force F. = P and a bending moment M = Pd as shown in the free-body diagrams
of Fig. 7.3(b) and (c). The combined effects of F. and M may be determined by the
principle of superposition.
Consider the free-body diagram of vertical member DE of Fig. 7.3(c), which is repeat-
ed magnified in Fig. 7.4(a). By the principle of superposition, this vertical member may be

342 Ch. 7 / Combined Stresses and Theories of Failure

A r - -d B assumed to be subjected to two independent loading systems as shown in Fig. 7.4(b) and
(c). The member shown in Fig. 7.4(b) is acted upon by the compressive axial force Fn

1 acting alone, and therefore the induced stress system at any cross section of the member is
a uniform normal stress distribution (compression in this case) whose intensity (]y is given
by Eq. 3.1 (i.e., (]y = Fn/ A). This uniform stress distribution is shown for an arbitrary cross
(3) section a-a in the lower part of Fig. 7.4(b). The member shown in Fig. 7.4(c) is subjected
to the action of the bending moment M u acting alone, and at any cross section in the
member, the induced normal (flexural) stress distribution, (]y' is given by Eq. 5.10 [i.e.,
E (]y = (MjI.)v] if it is assumed that symmetric bending exists. As a matter of fact, a
rectangular cross section as shown in the top part of Fig. 7.4(a) is assumed, and all
problems in this section are considered to deal with symmetric bending cases. The flexural
stresses resulting from the action of the moment M u vary linearly from zero at the neutral
axis (i.e., the u axis) to maximum compression on the left edge and maximum tension on
the right edge of the member. This linearly varying stress distribution is shown for the
arbitrary cross section a-a in the lower part of Fig. 7.4(c). Since the stresses shown in Fig.
7.4(b) and (c) are both normal stresses acting over the same cross section of the member,
they may be superposed (added algebraically). Examination of the stress distribution
shown in Fig. 7.4(b) and (c) reveals that those fibers to the left of the neutral axis for

FIGURE 7.3

;-r-
Mil ~,

D
1";'
D
,--Mil

Q- -1/ 1/-
y
-0 1/- y -1/

' -- ' -- -'-IJ '-- +--- ' - "

L -"
/-;,
Mil

(a) (b) (e)

FIGURE 7.4

Sec. 7.3 I Axial and Flexural Stresses 343

 bending [point N.A. in Fig. 7.4(c)] are subjected to compression due to F n and also due to
M u' Therefore, the stresses to the left of the neutral axis are additive. On the other hand,
the fibers to the right of the neutral axis are subjected to compression due to Fn and
tension due to Mu . Thus the stresses to the right of the neutral axis subtract from each
other. Therefore, the superposition of the two stress systems in Fig. 7.4(b) and (c) yields
the stress distribution shown in the lower part of Fig. 7.4(a), which is the result of the
simultaneous action of the normal force F n and the bending moment M u' Thus the
resultant stress, uY ' at any point in the cross section of the member subjected to the
combined action of Fn and Mu is given by

(7.1)

where the addition of the two terms is to be interpreted in an algebraic sense (i.e., each of
the two terms may be either positive or negative). Note that the fiber of zero stress for the
combined action of Fn and Mu [point 0 on the lower part of Fig. 7.4(a)] does not coincide
with the neutral axis for bending [i.e., point N.A. in Fig. 7.4(c), which is the projection of
the u principal centroidal axis] but is shifted slightly to the right of this axis. The extent of
the shift in a given situation would depend upon the relative magnitudes of the normal
stresses produced by Fn and Mu' The location of point 0 may be determined by setting
the value of u y in Eq. 7.1 equal to zero. The resulting equation yields the value of v from
the u axis for which the combined stress vanishes. The fiber of zero stress for the com-
bined action of F nand M u is sometimes referred to as the neutral axis, but, in this book, to
avoid confusion, the term neutral axis is reserved for bending only and the expression
fiber or axis of zero stress for the simultaneous combined effects of axial forces and
bending moments.
Application of the foregoing principles will be illustrated in Example 7.2.
EXAMPLE 7.2 _____________________________________________

A short compression block is subjected to an eccentric load (i.e. a load that does not pass
through the centroidal axis of the member) P = 500 kN, as shown in Fig. 7.5(a). However,
the load is applied in such a way that it is contained within the v-x principal longitudinal
plane of the member, as shown in Fig. 7.5(b). Construct the normal stress distribution in
the member at any section, such as a-a.

SOLUTION. Isolate that portion of the compression member to the right of section a-a
and construct its free-body diagram as shown in Fig. 7.5(c). Note that equilibrium dictates
that at any section a-a there be present a compressive force F n = P = 500 kN and a
bending moment Mu = Pe = 500(0.04) = 20 kN-m.
It is evident that, in this case bending takes place about the u principal axis of inertia,
and therefore symmetric bending occurs. The principal moment of inertia with respect to
the u principal controidal axis is found to be Iu = 3.5 x 10- 5 m4.
The bending (flexural) stress due to the moment Mu is given by Eq. 5.10. Thus
Mu
(u x )! = - V = 571.4v MPa
Iu
where v represents the distance, in meters, from the neutral axis (the u axis) to any point

344 Ch. 7 / Combined Stresses and Theories of Failure

 in the cross section. The top fibers are in tension and the bottom fibers in compression.
This stress distribution is plotted in Fig. 7.5(d). The normal stress due to the compressive
force P is given by Eq. 3.1. Thus

which is a constant compressive stress across the section and is represented in Fig. 7.5(e).
Superposition of the stresses (a x)1 and (axh according to Eq. 7.1 yields

v
0.04 m 0.04 m
u
10
.;

.;

.;

.; p = 5 0O k
.;
, (a)
0
I

OX = 53.712 M /m1(T)

0.094 m

/
x
F,,=P=5 OOkN r
e =jO.04 m
20 k - m 1' = 500 kN

(e) , (d) Ux = 43.426MN/m2(C)

= 44.643 M 0.0 16 III

Ux ax = 9.069 MNlm 2( T)
0}---- -l....--T"7

.
"' (e)

FIGURE 7.5

Sec. 7.3 / Axial and Flexural Stresses 345

 u x = - 44.643 + 571.4v (a)
where the second term is taken as positive for fibers above the neutral axis and negative
for fibers below this axis. Thus, at the very top of the section where v = 0.094 m,
Ux = -44.643 + 571.4(0.094)
= 9.069 MPa (T)
and at the very bottom of the section where v = 0.076 m,
Ux = -44.643 + 571.4(0.076)
= - 88.069 MPa
= 88.069 MPa (C)
The point of zero stress is obtained by setting u x = 0 in Eq. (a) and solving for v. This
leads to a value for v = 0.078 m, which locates the point of zero stress at 0.078 m above
point N.A. or at 0.016 m below the top of the section. The combined stress distribution
represented by Eq. (a) is shown in Fig. 7.5(f). Alternatively, the stress distribution of Fig.
7.5(f) represents the algebraic addition of the distributions shown in Fig. 7.5(d) and (e).

EXAMPLE 7.3 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _.

A simply supported beam AD is subjected to a 20-k force at point D inclined 30° to its
longitudinal axis as shown in Fig. 7.6(a). The cross section for the beam is a rectangle, as
shown magnified in Fig. 7.6(b). The load is so applied that symmetric bending about the u
axis of the section takes place. Consider a section along the beam an infinitesimal distance
to the left of support B and determine the magnitudes of the principal stresses and the
absolute maximum shear stress at (a) a point at the top of the section, (b) at a point at the
centroid of the section, and (c) at a point 1.5 in. below the top of the section.

SOLUTION. The support reactions are found by the methods of statics to be

Av = 3.33 k Ax = 17.32 k Bv = 13.33 k
These reactions are shown on the free-body diagram of the entire beam in Fig. 7.6(c). The
free-body diagram of that portion of the beam to the left of the section of interest is
shown magnified in Fig. 7.6(d). Equilibrium requires that at the section of interest there be
a bending moment Mu = 239.76 k-in., a normal tensile force Fn = 17.32 k, and a shear
force v., = 3.33 k, as shown in Fig. 7.6(d). The existence of a shear force makes this type of
problem slightly different from that discussed in Example 7.2 and results in a system of
shear stresses in the cross sections of the beam as discussed in Section 5.4. These shear
stresses have to be included in the analysis along with the normal stresses produced by F n
and Mu'
(a) A stress element at the top of the section [point E, Fig. 7.6(d)] is isolated in such a
way that two of its planes are parallel and the other two perpendicular to the longitudinal
axis of the beam (i.e., to the x axis). This stress element is shown in Fig. 7.6(e). Since the
shear stress due to v., at the top of the beam is zero (see Section 5.4), the only stress acting
on this element is a normal stress U x on the X plane due to the action of both Fn and Mu
and is given by Eq. 7.1. Thus

346 Ch. 7 / Combined Stresses snd Theories of Failure

 v

o t
I
AI B D 30·
th"" ----------- k-L~
6 in.
c+ u

W;; tfk I~ I
1--- - - - - 6 ft - - - - --\-- 2f1 20 k

Cal 2in· 1
(b)

-'"
v t
N I

~' 4~-- ----~ t - -~*

A. = 3.33 k B. = 13.33 k
(e)

E
G
17.32 k
-----x F t---+--.~ Fn = 17.32 k
A

L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _----l Mu = 239.76 k-in.

(d)
3.33 k

0.31 k i

v t °t ~2kSi

--{]J: E
t--
U:c
- -- x
= 21.42 ksi
8
~4kSi
1
-- x

(el
f (f) (g)

FIGURE 7.6

(1 = Fn + Mu V = 17.32 + 239.76(3) = 1.44 + 19.98 = 21.42 ksi

x A Iu 12 36
Thus this stress element represents a uniaxial stress condition which is a special case of
the plane stress problem. Since there are no shear stresses on either of the two planes, we
conclude that these two planes are principal planes and that

I (11 = 21.42 ksi I and

Sec. 7.3 / Axial and Flexural Stresses 347

 Also, by Eq. 2.16, the absolute maximum shear stress at the point is found to be

= \10.71 ksi

(b) A stress element is selected at the centroid of the section [point F, Fig. 7.6(d)] with
planes as described in part (a). This stress element is shown in Fig. 7.6(f). At the centroid
of the section, the flexural stress due to Mu is zero (see Section 5.3). Therefore, this stress
element is subjected to a normal stress (1x due to F n and a shear stress. xv due to v.,. These
values are computed below and are shown in Fig. 7.6(f). Thus, by Eq. 3.1,
Fn 17.32 .
(1 = - = - - = 1.44 kSI
x A 12
and, by Eq. 5.12a,
• = v.,Qu = 3.33(9) = 042 k .
xv bI u 2(36) . SI
The principal stresses may now be obtained from a Mohr's circle solution. Such a solu-
tion leads to

I (11 = 1.55 ksi I I (13 = -0.11 ksi I

Note that since this is a plane stress condition, one of the three principal stresses is zero,
labeled here as (12 to satisfy the requirement that (11 ~ (12 ~ (13.
The absolute maximum shear stress is determined from Eq. 2.16. Thus

I .max I = (11-(13
2 =
1 0.83 kSI·1

(c) A stress element with planes as defined in part (a) is isolated at a point 1.5 in. below
the top of the section [point G, Fig. 7.6(g)]. This stress element is shown in Figure 7.6(g).
The stresses acting on this element are computed as follows:
By Eq. 7.1,

_ 17.32 239.76 )
- 12 + 36 (1.5

= 1.44 + 9.99 = 11.43 ksi

By Eq. 5.12a,
v., Qu 3.33(6.75) .
·xv = bI u = 2(36) = 0.31 kSI

From a Mohr's circle solution, the following principal stresses are determined:

(11 = 11.44 ksi I I (13 =- 0.008 == 0 I

348 Ch. 7 I Combined Stresses and Theories of Failure
 The value of 0" 3 is sufficiently small to justify the assumption that it is equal to zero.
The absolute maximum shear stress is given by Eq. 2.16,

= I 5.72 ksi I

PROBLEMS ____________________________________________________________

7.14 Determine the normal stress distribution at a-a is known to be 120 MPa. Determine the force P.
section a-a of the machine link shown in Fig. P7.14. Given: Iu = 57.95 X 10- 6 m4.
What is the principal stress of largest magnitude at this
section?

~
1I0'069~
a ..,-
0.07 m
C+ 0.05 m
v -..-
0.07 III
0.40 III --'-

L 1
"\ a 0.15 m
,......L--LL---L--L..L...-....., 0.05 III
0.50m Section a - a
0.70 m 0.40 m
FIGURE P7.16

Section o-a
7.17 Assume the load acting on the cantilever beam
shown in Fig. P7.17 to be applied at the centroid of the
FIGURE P7.14
T section and to be contained in the plane of symmetry
of the beam. Compute the principal stresses and the
7.15 Determine the maximum tensile and maximum absolute maximum shear stress at a point on top of the
compressive stresses at any section such as a-a of the T section at location a-a in the beam. Given: Iu = 337.9
member shown in Fig. P7.15. X 10- 6 m4.

10 in.
100 k
o a --.--+-+-11---11
2 in . 2 in .

~
i n.
Seclior'l a - D
2 in.
f - - 3m----l
2 in.
FIGURE P7.17
Sed ion a - a
FIGURE P7.1S 7.18 Refer to the beam in Fig. P7.17 and compute the
principal stresses and the absolute maximum shear
7.16 The frame of a machine press is shown in Fig. stress at point B, which is an infinitesimal distance into
P7.16. The maximum tensile normal stress at section the web of the T section at location a-a in the beam.

Sec. 7.3 I Axial and Flaxural Stressas 349

7.19 A compression member is subjected to an eccen-
tric load as shown in Fig. P7.19. Plot the normal stress
distribution at section abed of the member. What is the
value of the absolute maximum shear stress at this
section?
determine the principal stresses and the absolute
maximum shear stress at the top of the rectangular
section. Assume the 40-k load to act through the cen-
troid of the cross section at point A.
40 k

I
5 in. -:L-+--~ --:'-+--+--_ u
I
I
I 11
I
I

1
12 in.
d l
1,------
/1
/ I
/ I
--t------
}------
/
/ Seclion a - a
/ FIGURE P7.21

FIGURE P7.19
7.20 The compression block shown in Fig. P7.20 is
subjected to the load P = 150 kN, which is eccentric
with respect to both the u and v principal centroidal
axes of the rectangular cross section, as shown. Deter-
mine the normal stresses at the four corners A, B, C,
and D. Ignore the effects of stress concentration (see
Chapter 12).
7.22 Refer to the beam of Fig. P7.21 and for the same
location along the beam defined in Problem 7.21 , deter-
mine the principal stresses and the absolute maximum
shear stress at the centroid of the rectangular section.
7.23 Refer to Fig. P7.23. The principal stress of largest
magnitude at the top of section a-a is known to be 20
MPa. Find the magnitude of the load P.

O.IOm
---4 I-
III
I
I
~ID
Sections a-a
I and b-b
I
D}- ___ _ c
p
FIGURE P7.23
/
/
/ 7.24 Refer to Fig. P7.23. The absolute maximum shear
/
/ stress at the top of section b-b is known to be 50 MPa.
A
Find the magnitude of the load P.
FIGURE P7.20
7.25 The cantilever beam shown in Fig. P7.25 has a
7.21 Consider a location an infinitesimal distance to hollow circular cross section in which the outside diam-
the right of support C in the beam of Fig. P7.21 and eter is twice the inside diameter. If the principal stress of

350 Ch. 7 / Combined Stresses and Theories of Failure

largest magnitude at the bottom of section b-b is to be
limited to 50 ksi, what should be the outside diameter
of the beam. Let L = 12 ft, P = 20 k, and (J = 30°.
p
FIGURE P7.25
7.26 A W14 X 120 section (see Appendix E) is used for
the beam shown in Fig. P7. 25. If the absolute maximum
shear stress at the bottom of section b-b is known to be
25 ksi, what is the magnitude of the load P which acts
in a plane that contains the v principal axis of inertia?
Let L = 15 ft and (J = 45°. Ignore the weight of the
beam.
7.27 Compute the principal stress of largest magnitude
in section a-a of the frame shown in Fig. P7.27. Let
F = 50 kN.
c
1.5 III
0.15
f-I.'--- - Y ;01-;"- - -D 0.08 III
f'C..-_ _--.-1 - 1 Sections a - a
-L--t-
A
1.5 m and b - b
7.28 Consider section b-b of the frame shown in Fig.
P7.27. Select the point that is most severely stressed in
this section and compute the principal stresses and the
absolute maximum shear stress. Let F = 50 kN.
Sec. 7.3 I Axial and Flexural Stresses
7.29 Refer to Problem 7.17 and compute the magni-
tude of the principal strains at the top of the T section.
Find also the magnitude of the maximum in-plane shear
strains Yl and Y2 as well as the absolute maximum shear
strain. Let E = 200 x 106 G Pa and 11 = 0.30.
7.30 Refer to Problem 7.21 and compute the magni-
tude of the principal strains at the top of the rectangular
section. What is the absolute maximum shear strain?
Let E = 30 X 106 psi and 11 = 0.25.
7.31-7.32 When a member is subjected to eccentric
compressive loading, it experiences a combination of
direct compression stresses in addition to bending
which produces tensile as well as compressive stresses. If
the compressive load is properly placed within the
cross-sectional area of the member, tensile stresses are
eliminated and the member is subjected only to com-
pressive stresses. This is particularly significant for
brittle materials (such as concrete and cast iron) that are
weak in tension but strong in compression. That
portion of the cross-sectional area within which the
compressive load must act to avoid tensile stresses is
known as the kern of the section.
7.31 Determine the kern for a solid circular cross
section whose diameter is D.
7.32 Show that the kern of a rectangular cross section
is as shown in Fig. P7.32.
III
--.a
<) T
6"
a
+ a
6"
-L
a
r~+~1 "2
b
1
FIGURE P7.32
351
7.1
Torsional Many mechanical and structural components are called upon to resist the simultaneous
and Flexural action of torsional and flexural loads. A typical example of such a member is the crank
Stresses shaft of an automobile engine. An idealized model of such a member is shown in Fig.
7.7(a). The force Fl = F is transmitted from the piston through the connecting rod and is
eccentric to the axis of the crank shaft so as to produce the required rotary motion. This
force, F 1 = F, creates three types of action in the crank shaft: twisting, bending, and direct
shear.
The eccentric force F 1 = F may be transformed into a force F 3 = F and a torque
T = Fe by applying two equal, collinear, and opposite forces F 2 = F and F 3 = F at point
o. Point 0 is the origin of an x-u-v coordinate system in which the x axis is coincident
with the longitudinal centroidal axis of the crank shaft. Note that the force system

J-fB[jE:~~:;:
u

1
~ ..... -
~
f Ox
Fl =F
(a)

~
Gt.::,
u

~11

0 .....
•
...-- ...-
x D
Mx = T = Fe

:f=
d G-f.·
Fl = F (b)
f
c{?
~--~=-----"""" ~= F

(e)

FIGURE 7.7

352 Ch. 7 / Combined Stresses and Theories of Failure

 consisting of F 1 = F and F 2 = F represents a couple (torque) equal in magnitude to Fe
and produces twisting of the crank shaft about its longitudinal centroidal axis (i.e., about
the x axis). The remaining force F 3 = F produces bending of the crank shaft about axes
parallel to the v axis. The magnitude of the bending moment M v varies linearly from zero
at point 0 to a value equal to FLat the fixed support.
The principle of superposition is again used to solve this problem. Under the
assumption that the crank shaft is not stressed beyond the proportional limit of the
material, the principle of superposition makes it possible to consider the member shown
in Fig. 7.7(a) as consisting of the two members shown in Fig. 7.7(b) and (c). The member
shown in Fig. 7.7(b) is subjected to the pure torque T = Fe and that shown in Fig. 7.7(c)
to a bending moment M v and to the direct shear v" caused by the force F 3 = F.
Consider the two points Band D on the surface of the crank shaft at a distance d
from the origin of the coordinate system. Under the action of the pure torque Mx = T =
Fe in Fig. 7.7(b), a stress element at point B is SUbjected to the shear stress (.xu)l =
TpIJ = FeclJ, in which c is the radius of the crank shaft. This same element is not
stressed as a result of the action of the bending moment Mv in Fig. 7.7(c), because it lies
on the neutral axis for bending. However, the force F 3 = F gives rise to a shear force
v" = F, which leads to a shear stress as explained in Section 5.4, and at point B the value
of this shear stress (.xuh is approximately equal to 1'FIA, where A is the cross-sectional
area of the crank shaft. This value, (.xu)2 = 1'FI A, follows from the application of Eq. 5.l2b
to a circular cross section (see Problem 5.56). It should be pointed out, however, that for
members that are long in comparison to their cross-sectional dimensions, the direct shear
stress is relatively small in comparison to the shear stress produced by the twisting couple.
Note the use of the right-hand rule and double-headed vectors to represent M x and M v in
the free-body diagrams of Fig. 7.7(b) and (c), respectively.
A stress element at point D is subjected to a shear stress .xv = (.xu)l = FeclJ as a
result of the torque in Fig. 7.7(b), and to a tensile fluxural stress U x = (MvI1v)u = Fdcll v as
a result of the bending moment Mv in Fig. 7.7(c). However, at point D the effect of the
direct shear v" due to F 3 = F is zero. The stress elements for points Band D are depicted
for the separate actions of the torque and of the bending moment in Fig. 7.7(b) and (c),
respectively. The superposition of these two separate actions leads to the composite stress
elements shown in Fig. 7.7(a). Note that the shear stress .xu on element B is the difference
between (.xu)l and (.xub since these shear stresses at this point are opposite to each other
in sense. However, at point H, diametrically opposite to point B on the surface of the
crank shaft, these two shear stresses would have the same sense, and the resultant shear
stress .xu would be the sum of (.xu) 1 and (.xu)2 .
Once the composite stress element at a given point on the crank has been established,
Mohr's circle solution is used to determine the principal stresses and the maximum shear
stress acting at the point. This procedure is illustrated in Example 7.4.
EXAMPLE 7.4 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Let the force F acting on the crank shaft of Fig. 7.7(a) be 8000 lb. Assume the diameter of
the crank shaft to be 4 in. and e, d, and L to be 6, 10, and 15 in., respectively. Determine
(a) the principal stresses and the absolute maximum shear stress at point D, and (b) the
principal stresses and the absolute maximum shear stress at the point where the crank
shaft is most highly stressed. Show all of these stresses on properly oriented planes. Ignore
the effects of stress concentration (see Chapter 12).

Sec. 7.4 / Torsional and Flexural Stresses 353

 i~20"
D
L_ -f--~ - -- - - - . x ------x
12,732 psi 19,099 psi

(a) -r== (b)

10.9° 0,\ = 9550 psi

1Tmaxl= 10,286 psi

OJ = 1058 psi

OJ = 736 psi
FIGURE 7.8

SOLUTION
(a) The stress element at point D on the surface of the crank shaft is redrawn, for
convenience, in Fig. 7.8(a) in relation to x-v coordinate system of Fig. 7.7. The stresses (Jx
and "xv are computed as follows:
By Eq. 5.10,
= Mv = Fd = (8000)(10)(2) = 12732 i
(Jx Iv U Iv U (n/64)(4)4 ' ps

By Eq. 4.19,

= = Tp = Fee = (8000)(6)(2) = 3820 s·

"xv "vx J J (n/32)(4)4 p 1

A Mohr's circle solution leads to the following principal stresses:

1 (J 1 = 13,790 psi 1 1 (J3 = -1058 psi

By Eq. 2.16,

= 17424 psi I
The principal stresses (J 1 and (J 3, as well as the absolute maximum shear stress, are shown
in Fig. 7.8(a) on an element properly oriented with respect to the X plane (i.e., with
respect to the plane perpendicular to the axis of the crank shaft). In other words, the
plane on which the principal stress (J 1 acts is inclined at ISS ccw from the normal cross
sections of the crank shaft.

354 Ch. 7 / Combined Stresses and Theories of Failure

 (b) The torque is constant along the length of the crank shaft and, consequently, the shear
stress 'xv on the surface of the crank shaft is the same along the entire length. As indicated
previously, however, the bending moment varies linearly from zero at point 0 to
FL = (8000)(15) = 120,000 lb-in. at the right support. Thus the most severely stressed
points in the crank shaft are points E and G at the right support, where the flexural
stresses assume their maximum values. Note that while the flexural stress at point E is
tensile, it is equal in magnitude to the compressive flexural stress at point G. Note also
that the effect of the direct shear v" at these two points is zero. Thus the principal stresses
and the absolute maximum shear stress, while opposite in sense, would have identical
magnitudes at both points, and therefore only the stresses at point E will be investigated
in this solution.
The stress element at point E is shown in Fig. 7.8(b), in which 'xv = 'vx has the same
value (3820 psi) as that determined in part (a) and the flexural stress is given by Eq. 5.10.
Thus

= (120,000)(2) = 19099 i
(n/64)(4)4 ,ps
A Mohr's circle solution leads to the following principal stresses

I 0"1 = 19,835 psi I

By Eq. 2.16,

I
= 10,286 psi I
The principal stresses 0"1 and 0"3 as well as the absolute maximum shear stress are shown
in Fig. 7.8(b) on an element properly oriented with respect to the X plane (i.e., with
respect to the plane perpendicular to the axis of the crank shaft). In other words, the
plane on which the principal stress 0"1 acts is inclined at 10.9 0 ccw from the normal cross
sections of the crank shaft.

PROBLEMS ____________________________________________________________

7.33 The following data apply to the crank shaft u

shown in Fig. P7.33: F = 30 kN, diameter = 0.10 m,
e = 0.75 m, d = 0.40 m, and L = 0.70 m. Determine the
principal stresses and the absolute maximum shear
.=:---_ x
stress at point B.
Show all these stresses on properly oriented planes.
~---- d ------~

1----- - - - - - L - - -- --------1
FIGURE P7.33

Sec. 7.4 / Torsional and Flexural Stresses 355

7.34 The following data apply to the crank shaft
shown in Fig. P7.33: diameter = 3 in., e = 6 in., d =
20 in. The maximum value of the tensile stress at point
D is known to be 25,000 psi. Determine the force F.
7.35 Compute the principal stresses and the absolute
maximum shear stress at point B on the outside surface
of the hollow shaft shown in Fig. P7.35. Show these
stresses on properly oriented planes. The pulley is fas-
tened rigidly to the shaft. Let a = 0.4 m, b = 1.0 m,
e = 0.5 m, and F = 25 kN.
FIGURE P7.35
7.36 Compute the principal stresses and the absolute
maximum shear stress at point D on the outside surface
of the hollow shaft shown in Fig. P7.35. Show these
stresses on properly oriented planes. Let a = 0.5 m,
b = 1.0 m, C = 0.6 m, and F = 50 kN.
7.37 Refer to the shaft shown in Fig. P7.35. Compute
the magnitude of the load F if the principal stress of
largest magnitude at point B is 60 MPa. Let a = 0.30 m,
b = 0.8 m, and e = 0.5 m.
7.38 Determine the principal stresses and the absolute
maximum shear stress at point B on the surface of the
4-in.-diameter shaft shown in Fig. P7.38. Show these
stresses on properly oriented planes. The two 18-in.-
diameter pulleys are,fastened rigidly to the solid shaft,
which is supported in frictionless bearings at its two
ends. These two bearings may be assumed to act as
simple beam supports.
356
3k 18 in. 1ik
f-2ft-J
12.5ft-....L
T-2 ft--.j
FIGURE P7.38
7.39 Compute the principal stresses and the absolute
maximum shear stress at point E on the surface of the
shaft described in Problem 7.38. Show all these stresses
on properly oriented planes.
7.40 Refer to the system shown in Fig. P7.40. The
shaft of the motor is hollow with an outside diameter of
3 in. and an inside diameter of 2 in. Determine the mag-
nitudes of the principal stresses and the absolute
maximum shear stress at:
(a) point A.
(b) point B.
1--15 in'--!
8k
FIGURE P7.40
7.41 Refer to the system shown in Fig. P7.41. The
shaft is hollow with an outside diameter of 0.15 m and
an inside diameter of 0.1 0 m. The two pulleys are identi-
cal, each with a diameter of 0.90 m, and are keyed to
the shaft, which is supported by flexible bearings at its
two ends. If the principal stress of largest magnitude at
point A is known to be 75 MPa, find the value of the
Ch. 7 / Combined Str•••••• nd Th.ori•• of F.ilur.
unknown tension F in the belt. What are the maximum 100 lb. Ignore the weight of the pipe and that of the
in-plane shear stresses r 1 and r z at point A? wrench in your calculations.

7.44 Refer to Fig. P7.43 and the description in

Problem 7.43. Determine the principal stresses and the
maximum in-plane shear stresses r 1 and r z at point B.
Show all of these stresses on properly oriented planes.
What is the absolute maximum shear stress at point B?

7.45 A 3 m x 1.5 m sign is supported by a column

with a hollow circular cross section whose outside
F diameter is 0.100 m and inside diameter is 0.075 m, as
3F 3F shown in Fig. P7.45. The wind pressure p on the sign
F may be assumed evenly distributed over its entire area.
FIGURE P7.41 Neglect the weight of the sign and that of the pipe and if
the principal stress of largest magnitude at point A is
300 MPa, determine the magnitude of the wind pressure
7.42 Refer to the system shown in Fig. P7.41 and p.
described in Problem 7.41. If the absolute maximum
shear stress at point B is 50 MPa, determine the value
of the unknown tension F in the belt. What are the

1
principal stresses at point B?

7.43 A l1-in. 'standard' threaded pipe (see Appendix

E) is being unscrewed by means of a pipe wrench as ~-- 3 m- ------l
shown in Fig. P7.43. Determine the magnitudes of the
principal stresses and the absolute maximum shear
stress at point A when the force F on the wrench is

FIGURE P7.45

7.46 Refer to the sign shown in Fig. P7.45 and

described in Problem 7.45. Let the wind pressure
p = 0.5 kN/mz and determine the principal stresses and
the maximum in-plane shear stresses r 1 and r z at point
B. Show these stresses on properly oriented planes. Find
also the absolute maximum shear stress at point B.

7.47 Refer to Problem 7.35 and determine the magni-

tudes of the principal strains and the maximum in-plane
shear strains Yl and Yz at point B. What is the absolute
maximum shear strain at this point? Let E = 70 X 109
FIGURE P7.43
N/m2 and J1 = 0.25.

Sec. 7.4 / Torsional and Flexural Stresses 357

7.48 Refer to Problem 7.44 and determine the magni-
tudes of the principal strains and the maximum in-plane
shear strains 1'1 and 1'2 at point B. What is the absolute ~
5 in.
maximum shear strain at this point? Let E = 30 X 106 y
psi and Jl. = 0.3. A.

*7.49 Determine the principal stresses and the absol-

ute maximum shear stress at point A for the beam
shown in Fig. P7.49. Show these stresses on properly
T r"-----,.~--I 0 k

oriented planes. Ignore warping.

I~6;"~2f'
FIGURE P7.49

7.5 In numerous cases, structural and machine members are subjected to the simultaneous
Torsional,
Flexural, and action of torsion, flexure, ;{nd direct axial loads. This type of loading occurs, for example,
Axial Stresses in shafts that are keyed to bevel gears. The geometry of the bevel gear is such that, in
general, the interacting force between two mating gears has components that cause exten-
sion or contraction of the shaft in addition to twisting and bending, which may occur in
more than one plane. A simplified model of such a member bent in one plane only is
depicted in Fig. 7.9(a), which differs from the member shown in Fig. 7.7(a) in that an axial
tensile force P has been added. The eccentric force F 1 = F is transformed into a force
F 3 = F that produces bending, direct shear, and a torque T = Fe as was discussed in
Section 7.4. Assuming that the shaft is not stressed beyond the proportional limit, one
may use the principle of superposition to separate the composite action shown in Fig.
7.9(a) into the three separate actions shown in Fig. 7.9(b) to (d). As indicated in Section
7.4, the member shown in Fig. 7.9(b) is subjected to the pure torque Mx = T = Fe and
that shown in Fig. 7.9(c) to the direct shear v.. = F and the bending moment Mv = Fd
produced by the force F 3 = F. The member shown in Fig. 7.9(d) is subjected to the pure
tensile axial force Fn = P that produces extension of the shaft fibers. Note the use of the
right-hand rule and double-headed vectors to represent Mx and Mv in the free-body
diagrams of Fig. 7.9(b) and (c), respectively.
Once again, consider the two points Band D on the surface of the shaft at a distance
d from the origin of the coordinate system. An element at point B as shown in Fig. 7.9(b)
is subjected to the shear stress (Txu)1 = TpjJ = FecjJ, in which c is the radius of the shaft.
If we consider the action of the bending moment Mv as shown in Fig. 7.9(c), the element
at point B is unstressed, since it lies on the neutral axis for bending. As explained earlier,
the direct shear stress (Txuh at point B is, approximately, 1FIA, where A is the cross-
sectional area of the shaft. This shear stress is shown on the element at point B in Fig.
7.9(c). The tensile force P in Fig. 7.9(d) produces a uniform tensile stress distribution on
any cross section of the shaft. Thus, owing to the force P, an element at point B is
subjected to the tensile stress (0)1 = FJA = PIA as shown in Fig. 7.9(d).
An element at point D in Fig. 7.9(b) is acted upon by the shear stress Txv = (Txuh =
FecjJ. This same element in Fig. 7.9(c) is subjected to the flexural tensile stress
Mv Fdc
(0)2=T u = T
v v

358 Ch. 7 I Combined Stre••e. and Theorle. of Failure

 Fl = F (a)

Mx = T = Fe

H------- d ------~

Fl = F (b)

(e)

t ~IIB
F" = p

~(OX)1
(d )

FIGURE 7.9

Finally, this element in Fig. 7.9(d) is subjected to the tensile stress (aJl = PIA.
The stresses developed at points Band D from the separate actions depicted in Fig.
7.9(b) to (d) are superposed to yield the composite stress elements shown for these two
points in Fig. 7.9(a). The Mohr's circle solution is then applied to obtain the principal
stresses at these points. Such a solution is illustrated in Example 7.5.

Sec. 7.5 I Torsional, Flexural, and Axial Stresses 359

EXAMPLE 7.5 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Let the force F acting on the shaft of Fig. 7.9(a) be 10 kN and the tensile force P be
50 kN. Assume the diameter of the shaft to be 0.10 m and e, d, and L to be 0.20, 0.30, and
0.50 m, respectively. Determine (a) the principal stresses and the absolute maximum shear
stress at point D, and (b) the principal stresses and the absolute maximum shear stress at
the point where the shaft is most highly stressed. Show all these stresses on properly
oriented planes. Ignore the effects of stress concentration (see Chapter 12).

SOLUTION
(a) The stress element at point D is redrawn, for convenience, in Fig. 7.l0(a) in relation to
the x-v coordinate system of Fig. 7.9. The stresses ax and 'xv = 'vx are determined as
follows:

----_ x
36.93 MPa

(a)

ITm~' 1= 2 1.09 MP"

03 = 2.62 MP"
I'

1~· 19Ml'a
I
L __
E
------x
57.30 Ml'a

(b)

I Tm ~' 1= 30.41 Ml'a

0) = 1.76MPa

FIGURE 7.10

360 Ch. 7 I Combined Stresses and Theories of Failure

 where, by Eq. 3.1,

and, by Eq. 5.10,

Mv Fd
(axh =Tv u =Tv u
= 10 x 10 3 (0.30)(0.05) = 30.56 MPa
n/64(0.1O)4
Therefore,
ax = 6.37 + 30.56 = 36.93 MPa
By Eq. 4.19,
Tp Fee
, =-=-
xv J J

10 x 10 3 (0.20)(0.05)
= n/32(0.10)4 = 10.19 MPa

A Mohr's circle solution leads to the following principal stresses:

I a! = 39.56 MPa I a3 = -2.62 MPa

By Eq. 2.16,

= 121.09 MPa I

All these stresses are depicted on properly oriented planes in Fig. 7.10(a).
(b) Both the torque and the axial load are constants along the entire length of the shaft.
Therefore, both the shear stress 'xv and the tensile stress (ax)! on the surface of the shaft
are the same along its entire length. The bending moment, however, increases to a
maximum value at the fixed support. At this location, the bending moment produces a
flexural stress (aJ2' which is tension at point E and compression at point G. Since the
direct normal stress at both points is tensile, the most severely stressed point in the shaft
is point E, where (ax)! and (axh are additive. The stress element at this point is shown in
Fig. 7.1O(b), in which 'xv has the same magnitude (10.19 MPa) as found in part (a) of the
solution, and the normal stress ax is determined as follows:
ax = (ax)! + (axh
where, by Eq. 3.1,
P 50 X 10 3
(ax)! = A = (n/4)(0.10)2 = 6.37 MPa

Sec. 7.5 I Torsional, Flexural, and Axial Stresses 361

 and, by Eq. 5.10,

= 10 x 103 (0.50)(0.05) = 5093 MP

n/64(0.10)4 . a
Therefore,
(Jx = 6.37 + 50.93 = 57.30 MPa
A Mohr's circle solution yields the following principal stresses:

(J 1 = 59.06 MPa 1 (J3 = -1.76 MPa I

By Eq. 2.16,

= 130.41 MPa I
All of these stresses are shown on properly oriented planes in Fig. 7.10(b).

PROBLEMS ____________________________________________________________

7.50 The following data apply to the shaft shown in
Fig. P7.50: F = 25 kN, P = 300 kN, diameter = 0.08
m, e = 0.30 m, d = 0.60 m, L = 0.65 m. Determine
the principal stresses and the absolute maximum shear
stress at point B. Show all of these stresses on properly
oriented planes
u
1 at the point where the shaft is most severely stressed in
11----d - - - - - - - I
~----L----------~
in., and L = 60 in. The maximum value of the compres-
sive stress at point D is known to be 8000 psi. Deter-
mine P and F.
7.53 The following data apply to the shaft shown in
Fig. P7.50: P = 5F, diameter = 5 in., e = 45 in., d = 40
in., and L = 70 in. The absolute maximum shear stress
15,000 psi. Find P and F. Ignore the effects of stress
concentration (see Chapter 12).
7.54 The following data apply to the shaft shown in
Fig. P7.50: P = 10 F, diameter = 0.10 m, e = 0.40 m,

FIGURE P7.SO d = 0.60 m, and L = 0.80 m. The absolute maximum

7.51 Determine the principal stresses and the absolute
maximum shear stress at the point where the shaft
described in Problem 7.50 is most highly stressed. Show
all these stresses on properly oriented planes. Ignore the
effects of stress concentration (see Chapter 12).
7.52 The following data apply to the shaft shown in
Fig. P7.50: P = 7F, diameter = 4 in., e = 40 in., d = 40
shear stress at point D is known to be 90 MPa. Deter-
mine P and F.
7.55 Refer to the hollow shaft shown in Fig. P7.55.
Compute the principal stresses and the absolute
maximum shear stress at point B on the outside surface
of the hollow shaft. Show these stresses on properly
oriented planes. Let a = 0.4 m, b = 1.0 m, C = 0.50 m,
F = 25 kN, and P = 50 kN.

362 Ch. 7 / Combined Stresses and Theories of Fellure

 7.60 Refer to the system shown in Fig. P7.60. The
shaft is hollow with an outside diameter of 0.15 m and
an inside diameter of 0.10 m. The two pulleys are identi-
cal, each with a diameter of 0.90 m, and are keyed to the
shaft, which is supported by flexible bearings at its two
ends. If the principal stress of largest magnitude at point
A is known to be 100 MPa, find the value of the
unknown tension F in the belt. What are the maximum
in-plane shear stresses r 1 and r 2 at point A?

10 F

FIGURE P7.55 10 F

7.56 Repeat Problem 7.55 for point D on the outside F

surface of the hollow shaft shown in Fig. P7.55.
7.57 Refer to the shaft shown in Fig. P7.55. Let
P = 5F, a = 0.50 m, b = 1.00 m, and c = 0.60 m. Deter-
mine the values of P and F if the principal stress of
largest magnitude is 120 MPa at the point where the
shaft is most highly stressed. Ignore effects of stress con-
centration (see Chapter 12).
7.58 Refer to the system shown in Fig. P7.58.
Compute the principal stresses and the absolute
maximum shear stress at point B on the surface of the
4-in.-diameter shaft. Show these stresses on properly
oriented planes.
3F
3 F
F
FIGURE P7.60
7.61 Refer to the system shown in Fig. P7.60 and
described in Problem 7.60. If the absolute maximum
shear stress at point B is 80 MPa, determine the value
of the unknown tension F in the belt. What are the
principal stresses at point B?
7.62 A It-in. 'standard' threaded pipe (see Appendix
E) is being unscrewed by means of a pipe wrench and a
pull P = 2000 lb, as shown in Fig. P7.62. Determine the

3 k 15 k

50 k

80 k

3k 15 k

f--2 ft __.-I
125 ft-L
12 ft--j
FIGURE P7.58

7.59 Repeat Problem 7.58 for point E on the surface of

the shaft shown in Fig. P7.58. FIGURE P7.62

Sec. 7.5 I Torsional, flexural. and Axial Stresses 363

 /'
magnitudes of the principal stresses and the absolute 10 In.
maximum shear stress at point A when the force F on
the wrench is 150 lb. Ignore the weight of the pipe and
that of the wrench.

7.63 Refer to Fig. P7.62 and the description in

Problem 7.62. Determine the principal stresses and the
maximum in-plane shear stresses ! 1 and ! 2 at point B.
Show all of these stresses on properly oriented planes.
What is the absolute maximum shear stress at point B?

7.64 A 3 m x 1.5 m sign is supported by a column

with a hollow cross section whose outside diameter is
0.100 m and inside diameter is 0.075 m, as shown in Fig.
P7.64. The wind pressure p on the sign may be assumed
evenly distributed over its entire area. The weight of the
sign is 10.0 kN and the weight of the pipe above points
FIGURE P7.66
A and B is 2.0 kN. If the principal stress of largest
magnitude at point A is 350 MPa, determine the magni-
tude of the wind pressure p. and the absolute maximum shear stress at point C on
, , , the surface of the hollow shaft. Let the outside and
inside diameters of the shaft be 4 and 3.5 in., respec-

lo t
tively.
/'

L
7.67 Refer to the gear system shown in Fig. P7.66. Let
/p P = 1.5F. If it is known that the absolute maximum
shear stress at point D is 10 ksi, determine the magni-
6.75 m 3m~ tudes of P and F. The shaft is hollow with outside and
inside diameters equal to 4 and 3.5 in., respectively.

7.68 Refer to the system shown in Fig. P7.68. If the

......
principal stress of largest magnitude at point A is 40 ksi
8
18 m.

/~t:7
FIGURE P7.64
- -- l
1
7.65 Refer to the sign shown in Fig. P7.64 and 1
I
described in Problem 7.64. Let the wind pressure 1
I
p = 0.5 kN/m2 and determine the principal stresses and I
the maximum in-plane shear stresses !l and !2 at point I
B. Show these stresses on properly oriented planes. Find bt+ 140 111 .
1
also the absolute maximum shear stress at point B. ~-------~ I
I
~I , n 1
1
7.66 Refer to the gear system shown in Fig. P7.66. I
1
Gear A applies a vertical force P = 5 k and a horizontal I
force F = 4 k on gear B. Compute the principal stresses I
FIGURE P7.68

364 Ch. 7 I Combined Stresses and Theories of Failure

when the load Pis 120 k, detennine the diameter of the
shaft.

7.69 Refer to the system shown in Fig. P7.68. Let the

diameter of the shaft D = 5 in. and the absolute
maximum shear stress at point B be 20 ksi. Determine
the magnitUde of the load P.

7.70 Refer to Problem 7.62 and determine the prin-

cipal strains and the maximum in-plane shear strains Yl
and Yz at point A when the force F on the wrench is 100
lb. What is the absolute maximum shear strain at this
point? Let E = 30 X 106 psi and J.l = 0.25.

7.71 Refer to Problem 7.65 and determine the prin-

cipal strains and the maximum in-plane shear strains Yl
and Yz at point B. What is the absolute maximum shear
strain at this point? Let E = 70 GPa and J.l = 0.30.

*7.72 Refer to the system shown in Fig. P7.72. The

tension in cable Be is known to be 2000 kN. Determine
the principal stresses and the absolute maximum shear FIGURE P7.72
stress at point A. Show these stresses on properly
oriented planes. Ignore warping.

7.1* For purposes of this section, the failure of a member is defined as one of two conditions:
Theories of
Failure 1. Fracture of the material of which the member is made. This type of failure is character-
istic of brittle material behavior.
2. Initiation of inelastic (plastic) behavior in the material. This type of failure is the one
generally exhibited by ductile material behavior.
When a member is subjected to simple tension or compression, failure, as defined
above, occurs when the applied axial stress reaches a limiting value (10' If the member is
ductile, (10 represents the yield point or the yield strength of the material; if the member is
brittle, it represents the ultimate or the fracture strength. However, when a member is
subjected to a biaxial or triaxial state of stress, the cause of failure, whether by fracture or
by inelastic action, is unknown and failure is predicted by one of several theories of
failure. It should be noted that a given material may fail in either a brittle or a ductile
manner, depending on such factors as temperature, load rate, and specimen size. There-
fore, materials are not uniquely characterized as either" brittle" or "ductile."
A failure theory is a criterion that is used in an effort to predict the failure of a given
material when subjected to a complex stress condition, from knowledge of the properties
of this material as obtained from the simple tension, compression, or torsion tests. Several
theories have been proposed, but only four of the most widely used theories will be
presented and discussed briefly.

Sec. 7.6 / Theories of Failure 365

 Statement of Theories of Failure

The Maximum Principal Stress Theory

According to this theory, failure of a member subjected to any state of stress occurs
when the principal stress of largest magnitude, I O"max I, in the member reaches the limiting
value 0"0' as obtained from the simple tension or compression test. Thus, according to this
theory, it is immaterial how complex or how simple the state of stress in a member is.
This member will fail when the principal stress of largest magnitude in the member
reaches the critical value 0"0' which is assumed in this section to be numerically the same
for tension and for compression. Since, in a given situation, the principal stress of largest
magnitude 10"max I may be either 0"1 or 0"3' the maximum principal stress theory may be
represented mathematically as follows:
or (7.2)
For ductile materials 0"0 in Eq. 7.2 is the yield point or the yield strength, and for brittle
materials it is the ultimate or the fracture strength as obtained from the simple tension or
compression test.
Experimental evidence shows that the maximum principal stress theory does not
predict the behavior of ductile material satisfactorily. However, it has been found that this
theory of failure is in close agreement with the results of experiments for brittle materials.
Thus the maximum principal stress theory is generally used to predict failure of brittle
materials such as cast iron when subjected to complex stress conditions.

The Maximum Principal Strain Theory

The maximum principal strain theory predicts failure of a member subjected to any
combination of loads, when the principal strain of largest magnitude, 18max I, in the
member reaches a limiting value 8 0 , This limiting or critical value 8 0 is obtained from the
simple tension or compression test and represents the strain corresponding to the yield
point or the yield strength (i.e., 80 = O"o/E) in the case of a ductile material. Thus since
Hooke's law is assumed in the determination of 80' this theory of failure is applicable only
when the stresses are within the proportional range for the material. Furthermore, the
quantity 80 = O"o/E is assumed in this section to have the same numerical value in tension
and in compression.
The principal strain of largest magnitude, 18max I, could be one of the two principal
strains 8 1 and 83' depending upon the stress conditions existing in the member. Thus the
maximum principal strain theory may be represented by the following mathematical
expression:
or (7.3a)
where 8 1 and 8 3 are defined by Eq. 2.34' in terms of the three principal stresses 0"1' 0"2' and
0"3' In the special plane stress case in which one of the three principal stresses, say 0"2' is
zero, the following relations may be written to represent the maximum principal strain
theory. Thus, if

it follows that
(7.3b)

366 Ch. 7 / Combin.d Str••••• and Th.ori•• of Failure

 Also, if

it follows that
(7.3c)
As in the case of the maximum principal stress theory, the maximum principal strain
theory has been found by experiment to be unsatisfactory for the prediction of ductile
material failure. However, it is reasonably adequate to predict failure of brittle materials if
for 60 we use the strain at fracture.

Maximum Shaar Stress Theory

The maximum shear stress theory states that a member subjected to any state of stress
fails when the absolute maximum shear stress I 't max I in the member reaches the critical
value 'to as obtained from the simple tension or compression test. The critical or limiting
value 'to is the maximum shear stress in the tension or compression test when failure by
yielding (inelastic action) occurs. For a uniaxial stress condition, the shear stress is equal
to one-half the value of the normal stress, as may be concluded from Mohr's circle.
Therefore, in the simple tension or compression test, when yielding takes place, 'to = (10/2.
The absolute maximum shear stress for any combination of stresses may be found in
terms of the principal stress by Eq. 2.16 to be ((11 - (13)/2. Thus a mathematical expression
may be written to represent the maximum shear stress theory of failure as follows:

1(11 ~ (131 = ~o
from which
(7.4)
Thus for a given state of stress, the principal stresses (11 and (13 are determined by the
methods of Sections 2.4 and 2.S. The absolute value of the difference between these two
principal stresses is then equated to the property (10 as obtained from the simple tension
or compression test. As stated earlier, the quantity (10 is assumed in this section to have
the same numerical value in tension and in compression.
Experimental evidence indicates that the maximum shear stress theory is in reason-
able agreement with the performance of ductile materials, and it is, therefore, commonly
used to predict the behavior of these materials under complex states of stress. Attempts to
predict behavior of brittle materials by this theory have not been successful.

The Energy of Distortion Theory

According to the energy of distortion theory, failure of a member subjected to com-
bined loads takes place when the strain energy per unit volume used up in changing the
shape of the member (energy of distortion) becomes equal to the energy of distortion per
unit volume absorbed at failure by inelastic action in the uniaxial tension or compression
test. Thus this theory assumes that only a part of the total strain energy stored in a
member (the energy of distortion part) is responsible for failure of the member by inelastic
action. The remaining part, known as the energy of volume change, is responsible for the
change in volume of the member and does not contribute to failure by inelastic action.

Sec. 7.6 / Theories of Failure 367

 Some experimental evidence exists that supports this assumption: Several materials were
subjected to large hydrostatic pressure, resulting in appreciable (recoverable) changes in
volume but no changes in shape, and no failure by yielding was detected.
To develop a mathematical relation that expresses the energy of distortion theory, we
need to decompose the total strain energy per unit volume, U, imparted to a member into
its two component parts. As mentioned earlier, these two component parts are the energy
of distortion per unit volume, ud , and the energy of volume change per unit volume, uv •
Thus
(7.5a)
and
(7.5b)
Therefore, to determine the energy of distortion per unit volume Ud for any state of stress,
one needs to determine the total strain energy per unit volume, u, and subtract from it the
energy of volume change per unit volume, uv •
The total strain energy per unit volume, u, stored in a member subjected to a uniaxial
state of stress in which the only nonzero principal stress is (11 is given by Eq. 3.6 to be
U = (118t/2. The strain energy per unit volume stored in a member subjected to a triaxial
state of stress represented by the three principal stresses (11' (12' and (13 may be obtained
by superposition if it is assumed that the material is linearly elastic and not stressed
beyond the elastic limit. Thus

(7.6a)

Substitution of the values of the three principal strains in terms of the principal stresses
from Eq. 2.34' leads, after simplification, to the total strain energy per unit volume stored
in a member subjected to a triaxial state of stress. Thus
1 2 2 2
U = 2E [«(11 + (12 + (13) - 211«(11(12 + (12(13 + (11(13)] (7.6b)

Consider a unit volume of material subjected to the three principal stresses (11' (12' and
3. The principal strains associated with (J 1, (12' and (J 3 are, respectively, 81, 82' and 83
(J

and may be expressed in terms of these stresses by Eq. 2.34'. Thus the change in volume
per unit volume, Av , becomes
(7.7a)
Since the strains 81, 82 , and 83 are very small quantities, their products may be neglected
in comparison to unity, and the change in volume per unit volume may be written as
(7.7b)
The total strain energy per unit volume given by Eq. 7.6b may be separated into the two
component parts U v and U d by resolving the three principal stresses (J 1, (J 2' and (J 3 acting
on the unit volume shown in Fig. 7.11(a) into the two states of stress shown in Fig. 7.11(b)
and (c). The state of stress shown in Fig. 7.l1(b) represents a hydrostatic stress condition
in which all three principal stresses are equal to the quantity (J A. The quantity (J A needs to
be adjusted to that the stress condition shown in Fig. 7.1 1(b) produces the entire volume
change in the unit element. It follows, then, that the stress condition shown in Fig. 7.11(c)

368 Ch. 7 / Combined Stresses and Theories of Failure

 (a) (bl (e)

FIGURE 7.11

would produce all of the distortion in the unit element without producing any volume
change. If the stress condition shown in Fig. 7.11(c) is to produce no volume change in the
unit element, then, by Eq. 7.7b, the algebraic sum of the three principal strains produced
by the three principal stresses a 1 - a A' a 2 - a A' and a 3 - a A must be equal to zero. Thus
using Eqs. 2.34' and 7.7b, we obtain

Av = E1 {(a 1 - a A) - J.l[(a 2 - a A) + (a 3 - aAm

1
+ E {(a 2 - a A) - J.l[(a 1 - a A) + (a 3 - aAm

1
+ E {(a 3 - a A) - J.l[(a 1 - a A) + (a 2 - aAm = 0 (7.Sa)

When Eq. 7.8a is solved for a A' we obtain

a A = ¥a 1 + a2 + ( 3) (7.Sb)
which indicates that in order for the state of stress in Fig. 7.11(c) to produce no volume
change in the unit element, the hydrostatic stress a A must be equal to the average of the
three principal stresses. Under these conditions, the entire volume change in the unit
element is produced by the state of stress shown in Fig. 7.11(b), and the energy of volume
per unit volume, uv ' may be obtained by adding the energies produced by the three
stresses a A in a manner analogous to Eq. 7.6a. Thus
1 1
Uv = 2: a A E (a A - J.la A - J.la A)

(7.9a)

When the value of a A is substituted from Eq. 7.8b, we obtain the following relation for the
energy of volume change per unit of volume:

Sec. 7.6 / Theories of Failure 369

 1 - 2J.l
Uv = 6E (0"1 + 0"2 + 0"3)2 (7.9b)

The energy of distortion per unit volume, U d , may now be obtained from Eq. 7.5b by
substituting for U its value from Eq. 7.6b and for U v its value from Eq. 7.9b. Thus

(7.10a)

After rearranging terms and simplifying, Eq. 7.10a can be written in the following form:

Ud = 1 ~J.l [(0"1 - 0"2)2 + (0"2 - 0"3)2 + (0"3 - 0"1)2] (7.10b)

Equation 7.10b provides a means of finding the energy of distortion per unit volume
under any stress condition provided that the three principal stresses are known. In the
uniaxial tension or compression test for which the only nonzero principal stress is 0"1'
failure by inelastic action occurs when this principal stress reaches the limiting value 0"0'
Thus the energy of distortion per unit volume stored in the material during the uniaxial
tension or compression test is given by the expression

(7.11)

which is obtained from Eq. 7.10b by setting 0"2 and 0"3 equal to zero and 0"1 equal to 0"0'
The quantity expressed in Eq. 7.11 represents a unique property for a given material and
is assumed, in this Section to be numerically the same in tension and in compression.
The energy of distortion theory may now be stated mathematically as follows: failure
by inelastic action of a member subjected to a complex state of stress occurs when the
energy of distortion per unit volume in this member as given by Eq. 7.lOb reaches the
critical value of the material given by Eq. 7.11. Thus
1+J.l 1+J.l 2
(;E [(0"1 - 0"2)
2
+ (0"2 - 0"3)
2
+ (0"3 -
2
0"1) ] = 3E 0"0 (7.12a)

which, when simplified, reduces to

(0"1 - 0"2)2 + (0"2 - 0"3)2 + (0"3 - 0"1)2 = 20"~ (7.12b)
Equation 7.l2b represents the energy of distortion theory of failure by yielding (i.e., by
inelastic action)-which has been found to provide the best overall agreement, among all
other theories of failure discussed here, with the behavior of ductile materials.
The relation expressed in Eq. 7.12b may also be obtained on the basis of what has
come to be known as the octahedral shear stress theory. This theory states that failure by
inelastic action of a member subjected to combined loads occurs when the octahedral
shear stress in this member reaches a critical value equal to the octahedral shear stress at
yielding in the uniaxial tension or compression test.
The octahedral plane is defined as one whose normal makes equal angles with the

370 Ch. 7 / Combined Stresses and Theories of Failure

 three principal directions. For a triaxial state of stress represented by 0"1' 0"2' and 0"3' the
octahedral shear stress, 'roct> is given by
'roct = t[(0"1 - 0"2)2 + (0"2 - 0"3)2 + (0"3 - 0"1)2J1 / 2 (7.12e)
In the uniaxial tension or compression test for which the only nonzero principal stress is
0" l' failure by inelastic action occurs when this principal stress reaches the limiting value
0" o. Thus the octahedral shear stress at failure by yielding in the uniaxial tension or
compression case is obtained from Eq. 7.12c by setting 0"2 = 0"3 = 0 and 0"1 = 0"0 and is
found to be
(7.12d)

Therefore, a mathematical expression for the octahedral shear stress theory of failure
results when Eq. 7.12c is set equal to Eq. 7.12d. Thus

"31 [(0"1 - 0"2)

2
+ (0"2 - 0"3)
2
+ (0"3 - 0"1)
2J1 /2 J2
= 30"0

from which
(0"1 - 0"2)2 + (0"2 - 0"3)2 + (0"3 - 0"1)2 = 20"~ (7.12e)
which is identical to Eq. 7.12b.

Comparison of Theories of Failure

Each of the theories of failure that has been presented agrees with results of experi-
ments only under certain conditions of stress and for a specific type of material behavior
(i.e., ductile or brittle). In other words, none of the various theories of failure predicts
failure successfully under all possible load combinations and for both ductile and brittle
materials. As has already been pointed out, experimental evidence has shown that, in
general and as a rule of thumb, the maximum principal stress and maximum principal
strain theories of failure are successful in predicting failure of brittle materials, while the
maximum shear stress and the energy of distortion theories (or the octahedral shear stress
theory) are successful in predicting failure of ductile materials.
In addition to the type of material (ductile or brittle), theories of failure may be
compared to each other under an infinite number of states of stress. Their comparison
under one state of stress will not, in general, be the same as their comparison under other
states of stress. Therefore, in comparing theories of failure, one has to be careful in
specifying not only the type of material, but also the state of stress under which the
comparison is being made. In this text a theoretical comparison is made of the four
theories of failure that were presented earlier on the basis of the plane stress condition
shown in Fig. 7.12(a). Note that as discussed in Sections 7.2, 7.4, and 7.5, such a stress
condition results from the application to a member, of a torque and an axial load; a
torque and a bending moment; or a torque, an axial load, and a bending moment.
The first step in the application of anyone of the theories of failure is to determine
the three principal stresses, since all of the four theories have been expressed here in terms
of these stresses. Thus by the use of a Mohr's circle solution, the principal stresses are
found to be as follows:

Sec. 7.6 / Theories of Failure 371

 1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

O ~----~----~--L-~~---L~ ____J
1.0
(a) (bl

FIGURE 1 .12

(J 3 =2 -
(Jx
J(2 ) (Jx
2
2
+ r xv
and, of course, (J2 = 0, since Fig. 7.l2(a) represents a plane stress condition.
Application of the four theories of failure to the stress condition depicted in Fig.
7.12(a) is accomplished as follows.

The Maximum Principal Stress Theory

Since the principal stress of largest magnitude is (J l ' Eq. 7.2 expressing this theory
may be written

Simplification and division by the quantity (J~ leads to the following dimensionless expres-
sion for the maximum principal stress theory of failure:

(7.13a)

The Maximum Principal Strain Theory

Equation 7.3b is the applicable relation, since for the stress condition shown in Fig.
7.l2(a), the principal strain of largest magnitude is C1 ' Thus

372 Ch. 7 / Combined Stresses and Theories of Failure

 If the value of J.l is assumed to be 0.3 and the relation is simplified and divided by IT~, one
obtains the following approximate dimensionless expression for this theory of failure:

(7.13b)

The Maximum Shear Stress Theory

Equation 7.4 expressing this theory of failure becomes

2 (~xr + r;v = ITo

Simplification and division by IT~ yields the following dimensionless relation for the
maximum shear stress theory offailure:

(7.13c)

The Energy of Distortion Theory

Substitution of the values of the three principal stresses into Eq. 7.12b yields

Simplification of this relation and division by the quantity IT~ results in the following
dimensionless expression for this theory of failure:

(7.13d)

Equations 7.13 are plotted in Fig. 7.12(b). It can be seen that, for the stress condition
shown in Fig. 7.12(a), the four theories of failure are in perfect agreement only for the case
where rxv/lTo = 0 (i.e., for the uniaxial case where the stress element is subjected to ITx
only). For any other combination of ITx and rxv acting on the element, the four theories of
failure provide different answers. For example, for a stress condition in which ITJlT o = 0.5,
failure of the member would occur when rxvllTo = 0.433, 0.500, 0.582 and 0.707, according
to the maximum shear stress theory, the energy of distortion theory, the maximum
principal strain theory, and the maximum principal stress theory, resper.tively. However,
for any combination of ITx and r xv' the maximum shear stress theory of failure is the most
conservative, and the maximum principal stress theory of failure is the least conservative.
EXAMPLE 7.6 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

A solid circular shaft is subjected to a torque T = 40,000 lb-in. and a bending moment
M = 80,000 lb-in. Assume the material to be steel, for which the yield strength in tension
and compression ITo = 30,000 psi. What should be the diameter of the shaft so that failure
does not take place by yielding according to the energy of distortion theory?

Sec. 7.6 / Theorie. of Failure 373

 SOLUTION. A stress element similar to the one shown in Fig. 7.12(a) is selected on the
surface of the circular shaft, and the stresses ax and 'xv are computed in terms of the
unknown diameter d as follows.
By Eq. 5.10,

80,000(d/2) 814,873.3 .
pSI
(n/64)d 4
By Eq. 4.19,
Tp
, =-
xv J

40,000(d/2) 203,718.3 .
pSI
(n/32)d 4
A Mohr's circle solution yields the principal stresses as follows:
862,964.7 . -48,091.4 .
a1 = d3 pSI a3 = d3 pSI

Application of the energy of distortion theory, Eq. 7.l2b, yields

( 862,964.7)2 (48,091.4)2 (911,056.1)2 = 2(30000)2

d3 + d3 + d3 '

Solution of the preceding equation leads to the following value for diameter d:

Id = 3.09 in. I
(Note that this solution may also be obtained by use of Eq. 7.13d.)

EXAMPLE 7.7 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Solve Example 7.6 using the maximum shear stress theory of failure instead of the energy
of distortion theory.

SOLUTION. The three principal stresses as determined in terms of the unknown diam-
eter d in Example 7.6 are repeated here for convenience. Thus
862,964.7 . -48,091.4 .
a1 = d3 pSI a3 = d3 pSI

The maximum shear stress theory, Eq. 7.4, yields the following relation:

911,056.1 = 30000
d3 '

Therefore,

374 Ch. 7 / Combined Stresses and Theories of .Failure

 d = 3.12 in. I
(Note that this solution may also be obtained by use of Eq. 7.13c.) Thus for the specific
stress condition in this problem, the diameter required by the maximum shear stress
theory of failure is only slightly larger than that needed by the energy of distortion theory.
It should be noted, however, that the difference in the values of the diameter predicted by
these two theories depends, to a large extent, upon the state of stress acting on the
member (i.e., upon the relative magnitudes of ax and .xv).

EXAMPLE 7.8 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

A circular pipe made of a brittle material has a 0.10-m inside diameter and a 0.15-m
outside diameter. It is subjected to a torque T = 70 kN-m and a compressive axial force
P kN. The material is known to have an ultimate compressive strength 0'0 = 250 MPa
and an ultimate tensile strength 0'0 = 100 MPa. Determine the maximum value of the
compressive force P so that the member does not fail according to the maximum prin-
cipal stress theory.

SOLUTION. A stress element similar to the one shown in Fig. 7.12(a) is selected on the
surface of the hollow shaft and the stresses ax and .xv are computed. Note that ax is
expressed in terms of the unknown force P. Thus
Tp (70 x 103 )(0.075)
·xv = J = (n/32)(0.154 _ 0.104 _ 0.104) = 131.63 MPa
P P x 103
ax = - A= - (n/4)(0.152 _ 0.10 2) = -0.102P MPa
The principal stresses are now computed using a Mohr's circle solution and are found to
be as follows:
0'1 = [j(131.6W + (0.051P)2 - 0.051P] MPa

0'3 = -[j(131.6W + (0.051P)2 + 0.051P] MPa

Since the ultimate strengths in tension and compression are considerably different from
each other, both properties have to be investigated as follows.
TENSILE PROPERTY: The maximum principal stress theory, Eq. 7.2, yields the following
relation:
j(131.6W + (0.051P)2 - 0.051P = 100 (a)

Solution of this relation leads to a value of P = 718.3 kN. Note that any compressive load
P greater in magnitude than 718.3 kN leads to a tensile stress value 0'1 [given by the
left-hand side of Eq. (a)] which is less than the tensile property of 100 MPa. Thus,
according to the tensile property of this brittle material, any compressive load larger than
718.3 kN is acceptable.

Sec. 7.6 / Theories of Feilure 375

 COMPRESSIVE PROPERTY: Again, the maximum principal stress theory Eq. 7.2, yields the
following relation when applied to the compressive property of this material:
J(131.63)2 + (0.051P)2 + 0.051P = 250 (b)
Solution of Eq. (b) yields a value for P = 1771.8 kN. Any compressive load greater than
1771.8 kN would lead to a compressive stress (13 [left-hand side of Eq. (b)], which is
greater than the compressive property of 250 MPa for this brittle material.
Thus the compressive property is the limiting factor, and both tensile and compres-
sive properties are satisfied by ensuring that the compressive load has a maximum value
of

IP = 1771.8 kN I

EXAMPLE 7.9 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Refer to the hollow shaft described in Example 7.8 and assume the brittle material to be
one for which the ultimate strength in tension (10 = 250 MPa and the ultimate strength in
compression (10 = 700 MPa. Determine the maximum value of the compressive load P so
that the member does not fail according to the maximum principal strain theory. Assume
that Jl = 0.28.

SOLUTION. The three principal stresses, in terms of the unknown force P, as deter-
mined in Example 7.8 are repeated here for convenience. Thus
(11 = [j(131.6W + (0.051P)2 - 0.051P] MPa

(12 = 0
(13 = -[J(131.63)2 + (0.051P)2 + 0.051P] MPa
As in Example 7.8, both tensile and compressive characteristics of the material need to be
investigated, as follows.
TENSILE PROPERTY: Application of the maximum principal strain theory, Eq. 7.3b, using
the tensile ultimate strength (10 = 250 MPa, yields
(1 + Jl)j(131.63)2 + (0.051P)2 - (1 - Jl)(0.051P) = 250

Substituting Jl = 0.28 and simplifying yields the following quadratic equation:

p2 _ 6.30 X 10 3p - 21.45 X 106 = 0
Solution of this quadratic equation leads to P = 8750 kN. Note that any compressive
load smaller in magnitude than 8750 kN would satisfy the tensile criterion.
COMPRESSIVE PROPERTY: Application of the maximum principal strain theory, Eq. 7.3c,
using the compressive ultimate strength (10 = 700 MPa, yields

(1 + Jl)j(131.6W + (0.051Pf + (1 - JlXO.051P) = 700

Substituting Jl = 0.28 and simplifying leads to the following quadratic equation:
p2 + 17.66 X 103 P - 158.46 X 106 = 0

376 Ch. 7 / Combined Stresses and Theories of Failure

 The solution of this quadratic equation leads to P = 6545 kN. Any compressive load of
lesser magnitude than 6545 kN would obviously satisfy the compressive criterion.
Therefore, the compressive property of the material is the controlling factor, and
both tensile and compressive properties are satisfied by ensuring that the compressive
load has a maximum value of

P = 6545 kN

PROBLEMS ____________________________________________________________

7.73 A solid circular shaft is subjected to a torque
T = 50,000 lb-in. and a tensile axial force P = 75,000 lb.
Assume the material to be steel for which the yield
strengths, ([0' in tension and compression are numeri-
cally identical and equal to 30,000 psi. Determine the
diameter of the shaft so that it does not fail by yielding,
using the maximum shear stress theory of failure.
7.79 Assume the shaft described in Problem 7.73 to be
made of a brittle material for which the ultimate or
fracture strengths, ([0' in tension and compression are
assumed identical and equal to 10,000 psi and for which
Poisson's ratio Ii = 0.30. Determine the diameter of the
shaft using the maximum principal stress theory so that
the shaft does not fail by fracture.

7.74 Assume the same conditions as in Problem 7.73
and find the diameter of the shaft using the energy of
distortion theory.
7.75 A hollow circular shaft of 0.05 m inside diameter
and 0.09-m outside diameter is sUbjected to a bending
moment M = 7.2 kN-m and a torque T. Assume the
material to be aluminum for which the yield strengths,
([0' in tension and compression are numerically identi-
cal and equal to 200 MPa. Use the maximum shear
stress theory and determine the value of the torque T so
that the shaft does not fail by yielding.
7.76 Solve Problem 7.75 using the energy of distortion
theory instead of the maximum shear stress theory.
7.77 A solid circular shaft is subjected to the simulta-
neous action of a torque T = 50,000 lb-in., a bending
moment M = 120,000 lb-in., and a compressive axial for
P = 80,000 lb. Assume the material to be steel for which
the yield strengths, 0"0, in tension and compression are
numerically identical and equal to 30,000 psi. Deter-
mine the diameter of the shaft by the maximum shear
stress theory so that it does not fail by yielding.
7.78 Solve Problem 7.77 using the energy of distortion
theory instead of the maximum shear stress theory.
7.80 Repeat Problem 7.79 using the maximum prin-
cipal strain theory.
7.81 A hollow shaft of 0.05 m inside diameter and 0.09
m outside diameter is subjected to a bending moment
M = 7.2 kN-m and a torque T. Assume the material to
be brittle, for which the ultimate or fracture strengths,
([0' in tension and compression are assumed identical
and equal to 125 MPa and for which Poisson's ratio
Ii = 0.30. Determine the maximum value of the torque
T by the maximum principal stress theory so that it
does not fail by fracture.
7.82 Repeat Problem 7.81 using the maximum prin-
cipal strain theory instead of the maximum principal
stress theory.
7.83 A 4-in. solid circular shaft is subjected to the
simultaneous action of a torque T = 70,000 lb-in., a
tensile force P = 100,000 lb, and a bending moment M.
Assume the material to be ductile for which the yield
strengths, ([0' in tension and compression are numeri-
cally identical and equal to 30,000 psi. Use the
maximum shear stresss theory to determine the largest
value of the moment M that the shaft can carry without
failure.
7.84 Repeat Problem 7.83 using the energy of distor-
tion theory instead of the maximum shear stress theory.

Sec. 7.6 I Theories of Fellure 377

ADDITIONAL CHAPTER PROBLEMS

7.85 (Sec. 7.2) Solve Problem 7.1 (p. 340) after making (J = 30 If the beam is bent about its strong axis, de-
0 •

the following changes: termine the principal stresses and the absolute maximum
shear stress at the top of section b-b.
shaft diameter from 0.12 m to 0.10 m,
axial pull P from 650 kN to 800 kN, and
7.90 (Sec. 7.3) Repeat Problem 7.89 if the beam is bent
torque T from 20 kN-m to 30 kN-m.
about its weak axis.
All other information remains unchanged.
7.91 (Sec. 7.4) Solve Problem 7.35 (p. 356) after mak-
7.86 (Sec. 7.2) Solve Problem 7.7 (p. 341) after making ing the following changes:
the following changes:
dimension a from 0.4 m to 0.6 m,
shaft diameter from 0.10 m to 0.12 m, and dimension b from 1.0 m to 1.5 m,
torque T from 5 kN-m to 10 kN-m. dimension c from 0.5 m to 0.7 m, and
load F from 25 kN to 20 kN.
All other information remains unchanged.
All other information remains unchanged.
7.87 (Sec. 7.3) Solve Problem 7.19 (p. 350) after mak-
ing the following changes: 7.92 (Sec. 7.5) Solve Problem 7.55 (p. 362) after mak-
ing the following changes:
the magnitude of the load from 120 k to 200 k, and
the location of the load from 3 in. to 4 in. dimension a from 0.4 m to 0.6 m,
dimension b from 1.0 m to 1.5 m,
All other information remains unchanged.
dimension c from 0.5 m to 0.7 m,
load F from 25 kN to 20 kN, and
7.88 (Sec. 7.3) Solve Problem 7.21 (p. 350) after mak-
load P from 50 kN to 75 kN.
ing the following changes:
All other information remains unchanged.
the load at A from 40 k to 30 k, and
the angle of inclination from 300 to 200 •
7.93 (Sec. 7.5) Solve Problem 7.66 (p. 364) after mak-
All other information remains unchanged. ing the following changes:
the vertical force P from 5 k to 7 k, and
7.89 (Sec. 7.3) A W24 x 146 section (see Appendix E)
the horizontal for F from 4 k to 3 k.
is used for the beam shown in Fig. P7.25 (p. 351). Let
the load P = 50 k, the length L = 25 ft, and the angle All other information remains unchanged.

7.7* _ _
Computer The following Examples illustrate the use of the FORTRAN language in the development
Applications of computer solutions. Refer to the detailed discussion given on pages 53 and 54.

EXAMPLE C7.1 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Refer to the system shown in Fig. C7.1(a). (a) Develop a computer program to find the
maximum and minimum in-plane principal stresses, the maximum in-plane shear stresses,
and the absolute maximum shear stress at point A, and (b) apply this computer program
to the case where (i) F = 10 k, p = 9 in., q = 12 in., e = 10 in., 1= 20 in., and D = 4 in.;
and (ii) F = 60 kN, p = 0.25 m, q = 0.35 m, e = 0.4 m, I = 0.60 m, and D = 0.12 m.

378 Ch. 7 / Combined Stresses and Theories of Failure

 (b)

00100 PROGRAM EXAMC71 (INPUT,OUTPUT)

00105 REAL L
OOllu PI 83.14l,9205
OOlZO 5 READ*,F,P,~,E,L,O
00130 IF (F.EQ.O) STOP
00140 Xl-lb IPI
00150 XZ8P/(SQRTIP**Z+O**ZII
OOlbO X38F*E/O**3
00110 X484 /PI
00180 X5-F/(SORT(P**2+Q**ZII
001'10 Xb-l 10**Z
OOZOO X7-( (6 I*P*1I0)-Q
OOZlO TAUXu·Xl*X2*X3
00220 SIGX=X4*X5*Xb*X7
~uZ30 SIGMAx80.'+Sl~X+S~RT«0.5*SIGX)**Z+TAUXU**2)
00Z40 SIGMIN-O.5*SIGX-SORT«0.5*SIGX)**2+TAuXU**2)
00250 TAU1.SQRT(IO.5*~IGXI**Z+TAUXU**2)
00270 T'UAaS·O.~*ISlGMAx-SIGMIN)
0028J "RITE *,f,P,Q,E,L,D,SIGMAX.SIG~IN, TAUl. TAU2,TAlJAB)
00Z90 GO TO 5
00300 END

...!- 2-_q__e___l_.!l.....
t8: ~~51~351~4 ~g .. 12 1~lg~~~~~~~6~~ :t2~~o!~6~g~5~i '~3~~:~~~t~6~~ +~~~~:~S~t;66~
(d)

FIGURE C7.1

Sec. 7.7 ! Computer Applications 379

 SOLUTION
(a) Consider the free-body diagram shown in Fig. C7.1(b). At the cross section of the shaft
where point A is located, we must have the following internal forces and moments in
order to sustain equilibrium.

(compressive normal force in the x direction)

(shear force in the v direction)

(moment about the u axis)

M=( J p2q+ q2 )Fe

v
(moment about the v axis)

M
x
= T J p2p+ q2 )Fe
= ( (moment or torque about the x axis)

Note that v;, produces no shear stress at point A and that Mv produces no normal stress
at this point. Hence the stresses at point A are entirely due to Fn, Mu, and T. Thus,
referring to the enlarged stress element shown in Fig. C7.l(c), we have

= ~ (J p2F+ q2) ~2 C~l -

q)

The maximum and minimum principal stresses are found as follows:

Since 0, it follows that

J(2 )
(Jy =
2

2+
(Jx (Jx 2
(J max = (J 1 = + r xu

2 - J( 2 )
Also
2
(Jx (Jx 2
(J min = (J 3 = + r xu

380 Ch. 7 / Combined Stresses and Theories of Failure

 The maximum in-plane shear stresses are

t max = t1 = t2 = J(~xy + t;u

The absolute maximum shear stress is

2
For convenience in writing the computer program, let

8pl
X 7 =--q
D
Therefore,
t xu = (X 1XX 2)(X 3)

(Ix = (X 4)(X sXX 6)(X 7)

The required computer program is shown in Fig. C7.1(d) together with the output for the
two sets of inputs stated in the problem. Note the need to have a consistent set of units in
each case so that the output will be in consistent units. Thus for case (i) the output will be
in ksi units, and for case (ii) the output will be in kN/m2 or kPa.

EXAMPLE C7.2 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

A shaft with solid circular cross section of diameter D is subjected to the simultaneous
action of a torque T, an axial force P, and a bending moment M. The material is ductile
and has identical yield strengths, (10' in tension and compression. Use the energy of
distortion theory of failure and develop a computer program to find the maximum value

Sec. 7.7 / Computer Applications 381

 of the moment M for given values of D, T, P, and ao. Apply the program to the case
when (i) D = 4.00 in., T = 60,000 lb-in., P = 80,000 lb-in., and a o = 25,000 psi; and (ii)
D = 0.12 m, T = 10 kN-m, P = 300 kN, and ao = 250,000 kPa.

SOLUTION. For a shaft subjected to the simultaneous action of a torque T, an axial

force P, and a bending moment M, a stress element at a point where the shaft is most
severely stressed, with two planes parallel and two perpendicular to its longitudinal axis,
will be as shown in Fig. C7.2(a). Since we are dealing with magnitudes of stresses on the
most severely stressed point, it is immaterial whether the axial force P is tension or
compression. If, for example, P is tension, we would locate the point on the shaft where
the moment M produces maximum tension and superpose this tension on that produced
by P. Similarly, if P is compression, we would locate the point on the shaft where the
moment M produces maximum compression and superpose this compression on that
produced by P. Actually, all of the quantities M, T, and P need to be treated as pure
numbers without regard to sign.
The stresses ax and 'xv on the stress element of Fig. C7.2(a) are found as follows:
M. F.
a =-v+-
x I. A

M(D/2) P M P
(n/64)D4 + (n/4)D2 = 10.186 D3 + 1.273 D2

Tp
, =-
xv J

T(D/2) _ 5 09 ~
(n/32)D4 - . 3 D3

From Eq. 7.13d, which expresses the energy of distortion theory, we obtain

Substituting the values of ax and 'xv given above, we obtain

M
( 10.186 D3 + 1.273 P)2 + 3 (5.093 D3T)2 = a~
D2

00100 PROGRAM tXAMC72 CINPUT,OUTPUT)

00110 5 REAO*,D,T,P,SIGO
00120 IFCO.EQ.O) STOP
00130 XI-0.2500*P*O
00140 X2-0.7500*T**2
001~0 X3-0.01~b*CP**2)*CO**2)
OOlbO X4-0.0090*CSIGO.*2)*CO**b)
00170 M--0.5.Xl+0.5*Hi~TCX1"2-4.C X2+X3-X4))
00180 WRITE+,D,T,P,SIGO,M
00190 GO TO 5
00200 END

(b)

(a)
D T p M
4. bOOOU. bOOOO. 25000. 107914
.12 10. 30(,. 250000. 3b

(c)
FIGURE C7.2

382 Ch. 7 / Combined Stresses and Theories of Failure

 Simplifying and rearranging terms, we obtain the following quadratic equation in M:
M2 + (0.2500PD)M + (0.75OOT 2 + 0.0156p 2D2 - 0.00960"~D6) = 0
This quadratic equation yields two roots, one positive and one negative. The negative
root is discarded on physical grounds. Thus the only valid solution is

M= - 0.25~OPD + tJ(0.2500PD)2 _ 4(0.7500T 2 + 0.0156p 2D2 - 0.00960"~D6

For convenience in writing the computer program, let
Xl = 0.25OOPD
X 2 = 0.75OOT2
X3 = 0.0156P2D2
X 4 = 0.00960"~ D6
Therefore,
M= - tX 1 + tJXi - 4(X2 + X3 - X 4)
The computer program needed for the solution of this equation is shown in Fig.
C7.2(b) and the outputs together with the two sets of input values are given in Fig.
C7.2(c). Note the need for a consistent set of input values. The units for the moment in the
first set are lb-in. and those for the second set, kN-m.

COMPUTER PROBLEMS

C7.1 Solve Example C7.1 for point B instead of point C7.S A shaft with solid circular cross section of diam-
A. eter D is sUbjected to the simultaneous action of a
PARTIAL ANSWERS: (i) O"max = 1.094 ksi, O"min = - 20.830 torque T, an axial force P, and a bending moment M.
ksi, I'tmax I = 10.960 ksi. The material is ductile and has identical yield strengths,
0"0' in tension and compression. Use the energy of dis-
C7.2 Solve Example C7.1 for point C instead of point tortion theory of failure and develop a computer
A. program to find the maximum value of the axial force P
PARTIAL ANSWERS: (i) O"max = 13.376 ksi, O"min = - 1.280 for given values of D, T, M, and 0"0' Apply the program
ksi, I't max I = 7.328 ksi. to the case when
(i) D = 6.00 in., T = 200,000 lb-in., M = 300,000 lb-in.,
C7.3 Solve Example C7.1 for point D instead of point and 0"0 = 30,000 psi.
A. (ii) D = 0.12 m, T = 10 kN-m, M = 15 kN-m, and
PARTIAL ANSWERS: (i) O"max = 1.916 ksi, O"min = - 15.286 0" 0 = 200,000 kPa.
ksi, I 'tmax I = 8.601 ksi. PARTIAL ANSWERS: (i) P = 416,242.5 lb.

C7.4 Repeat Example C7.2 using the maximum shear C7.6 Repeat Problem C7.5 using the maximum shear
stress theory instead of the energy of distortion theory. stress theory instead of the energy of distortion.
PARTIAL ANSWER: (i) M = 104,804Ib-in. PARTIAL ANSWERS: (i) P = 404,855.0 lb.

Sac. 7.7 / Computar Applications 383

 CHAPTER CllUOIn ThelPI and Anallses

1.1 Members that resist axial or eccentric compression forces are found in many structures
Introduction
and machines, and the overall behavior of such columns or struts will be studied in this
chapter. Local, torsional, and lateral buckling and the like, although quite important in
engineering, are beyond the scope of this text.
Fundamental concepts of the stability of equilibrium are developed and studied in
detail with the aid of a column model. Equilibrium of a system is stable, unstable, or
neutral, depending upon whether the potential energy of the system is a minimum,
maximum, or constant, respectively. Mathematical criteria enable the engineer to classify
the state of equilibrium of a system as stable, unstable, or neutral. This background is
essential for understanding buckling phenomena.
Rational understanding of prismatic column behavior began about 200 years ago
with the study of ideal or perfect columns by Leonard Euler, a Swiss mathematician, who
developed his now famous equation for the critical (or Euler) buckling load applicable to
long columns. Relaxation of idealizing assumptions leads to a study of eccentrically
loaded and initially curved columns.
Empirical equations developed to fit experimental data for allowable column loads
are studied by means of examples, including the factors: material for which the equations
were developed, relationship of buckling loads to allowable loads, validity of equations
related to slenderness ratio ranges, and column support conditions. Ten examples show
applications of the theory to practical analysis of column behavior. Column design will be
studied in Section 10.6.

1.2
Stability of
Equilibrium of a given system is stable, unstable, or neutral, and it is desirable to have
criteria for deciding which of these three classifications describes a given position of
Equilibrium
equilibrium. Figure 8.1(a) depicts the three classifications and provides a visual means of
recalling the criteria. For stable equilibrium, imagine a small sphere at rest at the lowest
point of a concave cylindrical container. If the small sphere is displaced slightly from this
position of equilibrium and released, it will oscillate about the low point under the action
of gravity. This oscillation will be damped out by frictional forces and atmospheric
resistance until the sphere comes to rest in the original equilibrium position at the lowest
point of the container. The behavior of the sphere characterizes stable equilibrium. If a
system in equilibrium is displaced slightly from a position of equilibrium by applying
small disturbing forces and upon removal of these disturbing forces the system returns to
the same position of equilibriu':l1, the system is said to be in a state of stable equilibrium.

384
 "-J
9
»? //J

Stable Unstable Neutral

equilibrium equilibrium equilibrium
(a)

U U U

V
•
U = constant
Relative maximum dU =0
dO
Relative minimum dU =0
dO
2
d=U 0
dU = 0 -
dO d 2 U <0 d0 2
d2 U d0 2
d0 2 >0
0 0 0
Minimum potential Maximum potential Constant potential
energy energy energy
stable equilibrium unstable equilibrium neutral equilibrium
(b)

FIGURE S.1

For unstable equilibrium, imagine a small sphere at rest at the highest point of a
convex cylindrical body. If the small sphere is displaced slightly from this position of
equilibrium and released, it will not return to its original equilibrium position. The
behavior of the sphere characterizes unstable equilibrium. If a system in equilibrium is
displaced slightly from a position of equilibrium by applying small disturbing forces and
upon removal of these disturbing forces the system does not return to the same position
of equilibrium, the system is said to be in a state of unstable equilibrium.
For neutral eqUilibrium, imagine a small sphere at rest in a horizontal surface. If the
small sphere is displaced slightly from this position of equilibrium and released, it will
remain in equilibrium in the new position to which it was displaced. The behavior of the
sphere characterizes neutral equilibrium. If a system in equilibrium is displaced slightly
from a position of equilibrium by applying small disturbing forces and upon removal of
these disturbing forces the system remains in the new equilibrium position to which it was
moved, the system is said to be in a state of neutral equilibrium.
Stable equilibrium is associated with a minimum value of the potential energy func-
tion discussed in physics and introductory mechanics courses. Considering the potential
energy U to be a function of a single variable e, then the conditions for stable equilibrium
follow. For equilibrium

~ (8.1)
~
For a minimum value of the potential energy function, and therefore for stable equi-
librium,

Sec. 8.2 / Stability of Equilibrium 385

 (8.2)

For unstable equilibrium, in addition to Eq. 8.1, the potential energy function must be a
maximum, which means that

(8.3)

For neutral equilibrium, in addition to Eq. 8.1, the potential energy function must be a
constant, which means that

(8.4)

Vertical
frictionless
guides

a = un tretch ed spring
lengths

a a
(a)

e = 180· Coordinates of point W!>

Point 0 2kc 2
L -180' 0.5625
L' M - 55'.77 0.5625
0.0 0.5625
I---+-----t---~--_+...::....
e P
L'
+55°.77
180·
05625
0.5625

0 = 0'
(- 180·,-1) (180·, - I)
Land L' same position
(b)

8 = -180'
~>I 0=0° 2kc 2
Wb 0= 180'
Q /2k c 2 Q'
R
~ = I
S / 2 k c2 T S'
W X/" Y ............. Z IV'

~<I
2kc 2
(- 90°, 0)
/ -8. (c) 8.
:'\-.l-2kc\Ib- =cos8
(90° , 0)
2 8

FIGURE 8.2

386 Ch. 8 I Column Theory end AneIyaM

 It is necessary to examine higher-ordered derivatives if both the first and second
derivatives vanish. If all derivatives vanish, the system is in a state of neutral equilibrium
since the potential energy is then a constant. If the first nonzero derivative is of even order
and positive, the equilibrium is stable. In all other cases, unstable equilibrium results.
These criteria for stable, unstable, and neutral equilibrium are shown pictorially in
Fig. 8.l(b). Only single-degree-of-freedom systems are considered in this section.
Examples 8.1 and 8.2 apply these concepts of the stability of equilibrium to the
column model shown in Fig. 8.2. This system is referred to as a column model, since it is a
one-degree-of-freedom simplification of a column such as the one depicted in Fig. 8.8(c)
(p. 408). The real column fixed at its base and free at the top with a load applied at its top
shown in Fig. 8.8(c) has an infinite number of degrees of freedom, since a function is
required to describe its deflected shape. Since the rod AB of Fig. 8.2 is assumed to be
perfectly rigid, only one generalized coordinate (i.e., 8) is required to describe its position.
This simplification enables the investigator to focus on the concepts of stability of equi-
librium while studying the behavior of the column model. This procedure should be
viewed as an aid to understanding the concepts involved and not as a means of solving
real column problems, which will be studied in the remainder of this chapter.
EXAMPLE 8.1 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

The rigid rod AB shown in Fig. 8.2(a) is free to rotate about the frictionless pin at A and
is restrained by the two springs CD and EF, each with spring constant equal to k. Ends C
and F of the springs are constrained to move in vertical frictionless guides which do not
interfere with rotation of the rod. A weight W is supported at the top of the rigid rod. The
unstretched length of each spring is a and each spring remains· horizontal as the rod
moves from one position to another. Ignore the weight of the rigid rod AB in comparison
to W. (a) For the following numerical values, determine the positions of equilibrium of the
rod and state whether these positions are stable, unstable or neutral equilibrium posi-
tions: W = 150 N, b = 0.6 m, C = 0.4 m, and k = 500 N/m. (b) Provide a general dis-
cussion of the equilibrium of the rod AB for all possible numerical inputs for W = mg, b,
c, and k.

SOLUTION
(a) The potential energy of the system U is given by: U = U9 + Ue' Where the datum for
the gravitational potential energy U 9 has been chosen through the top of the rod B, when
8 = 0 and U e is the elastic potential strain energy stored in the two springs. Therefore,
U = - Wb(1 - cos 0) + 2(!k)(c sin Of. To determine the positions of equilibrium of the
system, differentiate U with respect to 8 and equate to zero.

~~ = - Wb sin 8 + 2kc 2 sin 8 cos 0

sin 8( - Wb + 2kc 2 cos 8) = 0

sin 8 = 0

Wb
- Wb + 2kc 2 cos 8 = 0 - - = cos 8
2kc 2

Sec. 8.2 ! Stability of Equilibrium 387

 Substitution of the given numerical values, W = 150 N, b = 0.6 m, C = 004 m, and
k = 500 N/m yields
o e = 150(0.6) = 0 25
c s 2(500)(004f .56

Ie = 55 .77, - 55 .771
0 0

There are five positions of equilibrium, given by 0 ± 55.77 ± 180 The e = -180
0
,
0
,
0
•
0

position repeats the e = + 180 position, and both need not be considered.
0

In order to determine whether these positions are stable, unstable, or neutral, the
second derivative of U with respect to e will be examined.
d2 U
de 2 = - Wb cos e + 2kc 2 ( -sin 2 e + cos 2 e)
Replace sin 2 e by 1 - cos 2 e and simplify to yield
d2 U
de 2 = 4kc 2 cos 2 e- Wb cos e- 2kc 2

Substitute numerical values from above for k, c, b, and W:

d2 U
de 2 = 320 cos 2 e- 90 cos e- 160

Next, we tabulate the results of investigating the sign of the second derivative for each of
the equilibrium positions. Recall that a positive second derivative corresponds to a
minimum potential energy and stable equilibrium, while a negative second derivative
corresponds to a maximum potential energy and unstable equilibrium. A graphical
summary of results is shown in Fig. 8.2(b).

Equilibrium Sign of Second Point in Equilibrium

Angle () Derivative Figure 8.2(b) Is

-180.00 + L Stable
-55.77 M Unstable
0.00 + N Stable
+55.77 P Unstable
+ 180.00 + L Stable

(b) Refer to Fig. 8.2(c) in order to understand the general discussion of equilibrium of the
given system. The dimensionless quantity Wb/2kc 2 must be greater than zero because
each quantity, W, b, and so on, must be positive on physical grounds. A given physical
system may be classified according to whether Wb/2kc 2 is less than, equal to, greater than
unity. Equating the first derivative of the potential energy U with respect to the angle e to
zero yields the following general solutions for equilibrium positions: e = 00 [the positive
vertical axis of Fig. 8.2(c)], e = ± 1800 (the vertical marked lines shown in the figure),
e = arccos (Wb/2kc 2 ) [associate with the portion of the cosine function shown in
Fig. 8.2(c)].
The quantity Wb/2kc 2 = constant denotes a line parallel to the e axis, which charac-
terizes a given physical system. Equilibrium positions are associated with intersection of

388 Ch. 8 / Column Theory and Analyses

 the horizontal lines Wb/2kc 2 = constant with e = 0°, e = ± 180°, and the cosine function
from -90° to +90°. The tabulation below summarizes all possible equilibrium positions
of the system. Stability of equilibrium was established in each case by considering
Wb/2kc 2 to be less than, equal to, or greater than unity substituted into the second
derivative d2 U/de 2 in the following form:

d 2 U = 2kc 2 (2 cos 2
de 2
e _ 2kc
Wb cos e -
2
1)

Higher derivatives were investigated to establish point T as corresponding to unstable

equilibrium.

Sign of
Equilibrium Wb Second Point in Equilibrium
Angle () 2kc 2 Derivative Figure 8.2(c) Is
-180° <1 + W Stable
_90° < -(}1 < 0° <1 X Unstable
0° <1 + Y Stable
0° < (}1 < 90° <1 Z Unstable
+ 180° <1 + W' Stable
-180° =1 + S Stable
0° =1 0 T Unstable
+ 180° =1 + S' Stable
-180° > 1 + Q Stable
0° > 1 R Unstable
+180° > 1 + Q' Stable

e = + 180° and e = -180° refer to identical positions of the system for each value of
Wb/2kc 2 •

EXAMPLE 8.2 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Refer to Example 8.1 and discuss the e = 0° equilibrium positions associated with points
R, T, and Y of Fig. 8.2(c). Then derive and discuss the small-displacement-theory solution
for the system.

SOLUTION. A convenient way to consider variations of the dimensionless quantity

Wb/2kc 2 is to imagine all quantities except W to be held constant. Large values of W,
corresponding to a heavy weight attached to the rigid rod of Fig. 8.2(a), are associated
with the large values of the quantity Wb/2kc 2 • Imagine the system in equilibrium in the
e = 0° or the upright position, and let W take on a relatively large value associated with
point R on the vertical axis of Fig. 8.2(c). Point R corresponds to an unstable equilibrium
position. Physically, W is so large that the springs are unable to pull the rod back to the
vertical position if it is slightly displaced from this position. Next, imagine the system in
e
equilibrium in the = 0° or upright position and let W take on a relatively small value
associated with point Yon the vertical axis of Fig. 8.2(c).

Sec. 8.2 ! Stability of Equilibrium 389

 Point Y corresponds to a stable equilibrium position. Physically, W is so small that
the springs are able to puIl the rod back to the vertical position if it is slightly displaced
from this position. FinaIly, if W takes on a precise value such that Wbl2kc 2 equals unity,
point T on the vertical axis of Fig. 8.2(c) is associated with unstable equilibrium of the
system. Decreasing W values are associated with points R, T, and Y, in that order, from
unstable to stable equilibrium positions.
Small-displacement theory applied to the system of Fig. 8.2(a) refers to restricting 0
to small values. It will be shown that this theory leads to the same results as those
discussed above for the 0 = 0° equilibrium position except for point T. In Example 8.1, 0
was not restricted to small values and all possible equilibrium positions were revealed in
its solution, shown pictorially in Fig. 8.2(c). Small-displacement-theory solutions are of
great interest in the study of the elastic behavior in this chapter because large displace-
ments are quite often associated with inelastic behavior.
From the solution of Example 8.1, the potential energy U of the system is given by
U = - Wb(l - cos 0) + 2(tk)(c sin 0)2. Use the following approximate replacements for
the cosine and sine functions in U which are satisfactory for small angles 0:
02
cos 0 ~ 1 --
2
sinO~O

This yields U for small-displacement theory:

To determine the positions of equilibrium of the system, differentiate U with respect to 0

and equate to zero.
dU
dO = - WbO + 2kc 2 0
Equating dU IdO to zero,

and equating each factor to zero, we obtain

- Wb + 2kc 2 = 0

Wb -11
I 2kc 2 -

These values duplicate those obtained from the large-deflection-theory solution to

Example 8.1, which is represented graphically in Fig. 8.2(c). That is, 0 = 0° refers to the
vertical axis, which contains points R, T, and Y, while Wbl2kc 2 = 1 refers specifically to
point T.

390 Ch. 8 / Column Theory and AnalysM

 In order to investigate the stability of equilibrium, write out the second derivative of
the potential energy U with respect to the angle ().
d2 U
d()2 = - Wb + 2kc 2
Factor 2kc 2 on the right-hand side of the preceding equation:
2
d U
d()2 = 2kc
2(-Wb)
2kc + 1
2

Since 2kc 2 > 0 on physical grounds, the sign of the second derivative depends upon the
term in parentheses. Consider point R of Fig. 8.2(c), for which Wb/2kc 2 > 1. If
Wb/2kc 2 > 1, then d2U/d()2 < 0, which is associated with a maximum value of U and
unstable equilibrium. Consider point Y of Fig. 8.2(c) for which Wb/2kc 2 < 1. If
Wb/2kc 2 < 1, then d2U/d()2 > 0, which is associated with a minimum value of U and
stable equilibrium. Consider point T of Fig. 8.2(c), for which Wb/2kc 2 = 1. If
Wb/2kc 2 = 1, then d2 U/d()2 = O. Note also that all higher-ordered derivatives of U with
respect to () are identically zero. Point T is associated with a neutral equilibrium position.
Statements made previously about points R, T, and Y of Fig. 8.2(c) are fully confirmed by
the small-displacement-theory solution except for point T. A change in the function for U
from large to small displacements has shifted point T from unstable to neutral equi-
librium. The associated precise value of W is referred to as the critical load. In other
words, T corresponds to transition from unstable to stable equilibrium as W decreases.

PROBLEMS __________________________________________________________

8.1 Refer to Example 8.1 and Fig. 8.2 and verify each
of the equilibrium positions for Wb/2kc 2 equal to
0.5625 by writing the moment equilibrium equation
with respect to the pin at A. Carefully construct free-
body diagrams for each position of equilibrium.
energy as a function of (), and make a dimensionless
plot of WL/K versus () for the equilibrium positions.
Determine the equilibrium position corresponding to
the particular values: W = mg = 250 lb, L = 1.00 ft,
and K = 55.0 lb-ft/rad (0 :::;; () < n).

8.2 Refer to Example 8.2 and verify the small displace-

ment theory solutions by drawing free-body diagrams w
and writing the moment equilibrium equations with
respect to the pin at A.
(0":11 <11")
8.3 The rigid rod AB shown in Fig. P8.3 has a length
L and is attached to a torsional spring at its lower end
A and supports a weight W = mg at its upper end B.
Ignore the weight of the rod in comparison to the
weight W, which is supported by the rod. Determine the
positions of equilibrium of the rod and state whether
these positions are stable, unstable, or neutral equi-
librium positions. Solve by expressing the potential FIGURE PB.3

Sac. 8.2 / Stability of Equilibrium 391

8.4 The column model shown in Fig. P8.4 may be
described as follows. A weight W applies the load to the

T
A
model consisting of two rigid rods AB and Be. These
rods are free to rotate at A and C but are connected
together by a torsional spring at B. The moment resist-
ance of this spring is given by K(}, where K is the tor- L
"2
sional spring constant and () is the angle between the
two rods. Express the critical value of W, corresponding
to neutral equilibrium of the model, in terms of K and
L, where L/2 is the length of each of the rods.
(HINT: As () approaches zero, the system is in neutral

1
equilibrium.)

c
I~ \ (a)
Y-
(b)
L \
\ M=KO FIGURE PS.5

~
\
\
\ 8.6 Initial and displaced positions of a given system

B/~
are shown in Fig. 8.6(a) and (b), respectively. Write the
potential energy U as a function of (), where () need not
L
be considered small. When () = 0 0 the spring is
/
2" unstretched. Differentiate U with respect to () equate to

L
/
/ zero and answer the following questions.
/
/ (a) Is the system in equilibrium for () = O ? O

(b) Is it possible for the spring to hold the system in

equilibrium at () = 90°?
t
FIGURE PS.4
(c) Let () = 30°, W = 100 lb, L = 1.00 ft, and b = 0.50
f1. What value of k is consistent with equilibrium in this
position?

8.5 The column model shown in Fig. P8.5(a) may be

described as follows. A weight W applies the load to the
model consisting of two rigid rods AB and Be. These
rods are free to rotate at A, B, and C, which leads to a
stretching of the spring as shown in Fig. P8.5(b). Write
the potential energy· U as a function of the angle (),
which is to be considered small. Determine W as a
function of k and L corresponding to equilibrium of this
system. If k = 400 lb/ft and L = 10 ft, what is the criti- r---- b- - \

cal load W? (The spring is unstretched when the rods (a) (b)

are vertical). FIGURE PS.6

392 Ch. 8 I Column Theory and Anal~

1.3
Ideal Column Leonard Euler (1707-1783), a Swiss mathematician, more than two hundred years ago,
Theory-The laid the foundations for the study of column behavior. His name appears frequently in the
Euler Critical literature of mathematics, science, and engineering, primarily because he holds the all-time
Load record for mathematical productivity. Euler wrote over 80 volumes of mathematics, many
of enduring interest and usefulness.
Ideal column theory is based upon the following assumptions, which are related to
the fundamental case shown in Fig. 8.3(a):
1. Loads are applied at the ends of the column and without eccentricity. That is, the line
of action of the applied forces coincides with the longitudinal axis of the prismatic
column that passes through the centroid of all cross sections of the member.
2. The member is perfectly straight before the loads are applied.
3. The pins (or hinges) at the ends are frictionless, which implies that no resistance to
rotation is encountered at the ends of the column. End A of the column is free to move
toward end B of the column as the load increases and the column compresses.
4. The column is fabricated of homogeneous and isotropic material.

~~ Pin Pe

I"
(0,0)

l Pin
/
(L,O)

t
Pe

p
~x
(a) (b)

p. 4Pe

x
(c)
4Pe

(d)

FIGURE 8.3

Sec.8.3/ Ideal Column Theory-The Euler Critical Load 393

 5. The column weight is ignored in the analysis.
6. The end pins are constructed such that the column is free to buckle about any axis of
the cross sections.
Since the column is assumed to be prismatic and fabricated of homogeneous
material, the flexural rigidity EIv is a constant. The moment of inertia Iv is the minimum
moment of inertia of the column cross section, and the column will buckle about the axis
of least resistance to bending. Displacements from the straight configuration to the bent
configuration wiII be directed perpendicular to the principal centroidal axis v or in the
direction of the u axis.
If it were possible to construct and load an ideal column as described above, it would
not buckle as depicted in Fig. 8.3(b) but would simply continue to shorten axially under
increasing loads applied at the ends A and B. To assure that the ideal column will buckle,
a very small lateral force, such as Q of Fig. 8.3(b), may be introduced and allowed to
approach zero in the limit. This lateral load is so small compared to the critical Euler
load P e' derived below, that it need not be considered in the analysis.
The load P is gradually built up from a zero initial value to a value denoted by Pe'
the Euler load. If the load applied to the column is less than P e and a small lateral force Q
is applied to the column, it will bend, as indicated in Fig. 8.3(b), but upon removal of Q
the column wiII return to the straight configuration, indicating stable equilibrium. If P is
further increased until P e is reached, then when Q is applied and removed, the column will
remain in the slightly bent configuration. In other words, Pe is the smallest axial load for
which the column will remain in the slightly bent configuration.
If the load is exactly P e' the column is in a state of indifferent or neutral equilibrium.
If straight, it remains straight, and if the small lateral disturbing force Q is thought of as
taking on a series of different values, the column wiII move from one bent configuration to
another through a series of positions, each of which corresponds to one of the Q values. In
other words, the column will remain in the position to which it is moved by Q, provided,
of course, that the deflections remain small. The word bifurcation has been used to
describe the fact that under a load P e' the ideal column wiII be in a state of neutral
equilibrium either in the straight or the bent configuration. The Euler load is the load
corresponding to a transition from stable to unstable equilibrium. For loads slightly less
than P e' the straight configuration is stable and loads slightly greater than P e are associ-
ated with unstable equilibrium of the column in the bent configuration.
A free-body diagram of a portion of the bent column is shown in Fig. 8.3(c). The
bending moment in the column is given by
(8.5)
In this case the bending moment is a function of the small lateral deflections of the
column, which contrasts with beam bending moments, studied in Chapters 1 and 6, which
are functions of the longitudinal coordinate x.
Equation 6.3 relates bending moments to curvature provided that the column deflec-
tions are small enough that the corresponding stress and strain are related by the constant
E, the modulus of elasticity of the material.

which is Eq. 6.6 repeated with subscripts u and v interchanged.

394 Ch. 8 / Column Theory and AnalyaM

 Substitution of Eq. 8.5 into Eq. 6.6 yields

(8.6)

Transpose - Pe u to the right side of Eq. 8.6 and divide by EI v' to obtain
d u
2
_+_eP u=O
(8.7)
dx 2 E1v
Let

(8.8)

and rewrite Eq. 8.7 as follows:

(8.9)

Equation 8.9 is an ordinary, second-order, linear, homogeneous differential equation with

constant coefficients. The general solution of this equation is given by

I u = A sin kx + B cos kx I (8.10)

The reader is urged to differentiate Eq. 8.10 twice and substitute u and its second deriv-
ative into Eq. 8.9 to check that the general solution does satisfy the differential equation,
regardless of the values of A and B.
The values of the constants A and B will be determined from the boundary condi-
tions. The boundary conditions are stated by observing that the end points of the column
do not deflect or do not leave the x axis during loading of the column. These boundary
conditions are
x =0, u=O (8.11)
x=L, u=o (8.12)
Substitution of condition 8.11 into Eq. 8.10 yields
o= A sin 0 + B cos 0
0=0 + B(l)
B=O
Substitution of condition 8.12 into Eq. 8.10 yields
o= A sin kL + 0 cos kL
A sin kL = 0
If A = 0, the column has not deflected (since B = 0), and this refers to the straight or
unbuckled configuration. For the deflected configuration A =1= 0, sin kL must equal zero.
This implies that
kL = nn (n=O, ±1, ±2, ... ) (8.13)

Sec.8.3/ Ideal Column Theory-The Euler Critical Load 395

 Squaring both sides of Eq. 8.13 gives
(8.14)
But
k2=~ (8.8)
E1v
n 2 n 2 El
Pe = L2 v (8.15)

The first nonzero value of n, which equals unity, yields the equation for the Euler column
load:
n 2 El
P = _ _v (8.16)
e 13

This equation reveals that the Euler critical load varies directly as the product of the
modulus of elasticity and the minimum moment of inertia and inversely as the length of
the column squared.
Returning to Eq. 8.10, we can write the solution to the governing differential equa-
tion as follows:

(8.17)

Since both boundary conditions have been utilized, the constant A remains indeterminate
in Eq. 8.17. The ideal column of Fig. 8.3(b) has a deflected shape which is half a sine wave,
but the amplitude A has not been expressed in terms of known quantities. This is a
limitation of the linear theory, which is based upon an approximation for the curvature
[Eq. 6.5 (p. 269)]. If the curvature is not approximated, it is possible to determine the
amplitude of the deflected shape, but this is of less interest than Eq. 8.16 for the critical
load.
If n = 2 is chosen, Eq. 8.15 provides the second-mode solution depicted in Fig. 8.3(d),
for which the critical load is four times P e and lateral ~onstraints are required at the
midpoint of the column in order for it to buckle in this full sine wave. Since the critical
load for the second and higher modes is larger than the critical load for the first mode,
only the first mode is of practical interest unless the lateral constraints are applied in
order to have the column buckle in these higher modes.
To write Eq. 8.16 in terms of a critical stress, divide the equation throughout by the
column cross-sectional area, A:
(8.18)

Let (Jcr = PelA, the critical stress, and note that Iv/A = r;, where rv is the radius of
gyration of the cross-sectional area with respect to the v principal axis. Equation 8.18 then
takes the form

(8.19)

396 Ch. 8 / Column Theory and Analyses

 Critical stress

(~) Slenderness ratio (~)

'v I 'v
FIGURE 8.4

where (L/rv) is known as the slenderness ratio for the column; Eq. 8.19 is sketched in
Fig. 8.4. The critical stress varies directly with the modulus of elasticity and inversely with
(L/r y, the slenderness ratio squared. Since E is a material property, a different curve is
required for each different material of which columns may be fabricated. As long as (Jer
does not exceed the proportional limit stress of the material, Eq. 8.19 is valid as indicated
in Fig. 8.4. The critical stress falls off rapidly in value as the slenderness ratio increases,
since an inverse-square relationship holds. The ~ritical stress concept may be deceptive to
beginners unless they understand that elastic buckling is reversible; that is, if the Euler
load (or critical stress) is removed from the column, it will return to its undeformed or
straight shape. In other words, the column material has not been harmed or destoryed. Of
course, if the deflections become too large, the material will be permanently deformed.
Very small increases in the load above the critical value will result in large increases in the
deflection as revealed by large-deflection-theory analysis.

EXAMPLE 8.3 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

An axially loaded aluminum column is 5.00 m long and has the cross section shown in
Fig. 8.5. It is pin-connected at the ends. Use an E = 71 GPa and a unit weight of
27,150 N/m 3. Determine (a) the critical Euler load for this column, (b) the critical stress
for this column, and (c) the ratio of the Euler load to the weight of the column. (The
slenderness ratio is such that the Euler equation applies in this case.)

SOLUTION
(a) The principal axes are u and v and Iv < Iy. The column will buckle about the v axis
and deflect in the u direction.
I = 1(0.40)(0.20)3 _ 1(0.32)(0.12)3 = 220587 x 0-5 4
v 12 12 . 1 m

A = 0.40(0.20) - 0.32(0.12) = 0.0416 m 2

22.0587 x 10- 5 = 00728 m
0.0416 .

The slenderness ratio is 5/0.0728 = 68.7.

Sec. 8.3 / Ideal Column Theory-The Euler Critical Load 397

 p
u

T~4
04m~"
In Constant

rO.2m,
Cross section

p
Straight column
Bent column
(3)

FIGURE 8.5 (b)

The Euler critical load is given by Eq. 8.16 :

Pe=T
n EI 2

(b) The critical stress

Pe 6.183 X 10 6
O'er =A = 0.0416

= 1148.6 x 10 N/m21
6

= 1148.6 MPa 1

(c) Column weight equals the volume multiplied by the weight per unit volume.
W = 0.0416 x 5 x 27,150

= 15650 N 1

The ratio of P e to W is

398 Ch. 8 / Column Theory and Analy...

 Pe 6.183 X 106
_
W - 5650

= 1 1094 1

or the weight W is less than 0.1 percent of P e •

At an Ll rv ratio of 68.7, the Euler equation applies for this aluminium column and
the weight of the column is very small compared to the applied critical loading. Of course,
the design load for this column would be considerably less than the critical load because
this latter load implies elastic buckling of the column. A buckled column would be
undesirable as a member of a structure because of the large resulting lateral deflections. A
slight increase in the load above Pe could result in a very large deflection and probable
inelastic deformation of the column.

EXAMPLE 8.4 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
u
An axially loaded, wide-flanged steel column whose cross section is shown in Fig. 8.6 is
pin-ended and has the following geometric and material properties: length = 40.0 ft,
A = 59.39 in. 2 , Iu = 2538.8 in.4, Iv = 979.7 in.4, weight = 202 lblft, E = 30 X 10 3 ksi, and
(ly = 33.0 ksi. (Assume that the yield stress for steel approximates the proportional limit
stress.) Determine (a) the critical Euler column load, (b) the critical stress for this column,
c
(c) the shortest length of this column for which the Euler equation applies, and (d) the
ratio of the critical Euler load to the weight of the column.

SOLUTION
(a) Equation 8.16: FIGURE 8.6

n 2(30 x 103 )(979.7)

(40 x 12)2

= \1259 k I
(b)

= 121.2 ksi 1

(c) Equate (lcr to (ly = 33 ksi to find the smallest length for which the Euler equation
applies. The minimum radius of gyration yields the maximum slenderness ratio.

- JlA - J979.7
rv -
v - - 406·
59.39 - . tn.

From Eq. 8.19 :

Sec. 8.3 I Ideal Column Theory-The Euler Critical Load 399

 Solving for L yields

30 X 103
L = n(4.06) ) 33

= \384.6 in. or 32.1 ft

The Euler equation would not apply for columns shorter than 32.1 ft with all other
quantities given for this example.
(d) W = 202lb/ft x 40 ft = 8080 lb or 8.08 k.
Pe 1259
-=--
W 8.08

= \155.8 \

or the weight of the column is only 0.64 percent of P e' the critical applied load. The
weight of this steel column is small compared to the applied critical loading. Again, the
design load for this column would be considerably less than the critical load because this
latter load implies elastic buckling of the column.

EXAMPLE 8.5 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

The cross section of an axially loaded steel column is shown in Fig. 8.7(a). Although this
shape would ordinarily not be chosen for a column, architectural requirements governed
the choice and an analysis is needed. The column is pin-connected at each end and is free
to buckle about its axis of minimum moment of inertia. This pin-connected column is
4.00 m long, E = 200 GPa, and the unit weight of steel is 77,090 Njm 3 • Use a yield stress
of 228 MPa to approximate the proportional limit stress. Determine (a) the principal
moments of inertia of the column cross section, (b) the critical Euler load for this column,
(c) the critical stress for this column, (d) the shortest length of this column for which the
Euler equation applies, and (e) the ratio of the critical Euler load to the weight of the
column. Ignore fillets and rounds in making calculations.

SOLUTION
(a) Subdivide the area into three rectangles, as shown in Fig. 8.7(a).
A = 0.10(0.02) + 0.08(0.02) + 0.08(0.02) = 0.0052 m 2
Ix = &0.10)(0.02)3 + 0.10(0.02)(0.0462)2
+ &0.02)(0.08)3 + 0.08(0.02)( - 0.0038)2
+ n<0.08)(0.02)3 + 0.08(0.02)( -0.0538)2
= 9.8964 X 10- 6 m 4

400 Ch. 8 I Column n.aory and AnaIysM

 fA = +(989.64 + 701.64) = 845.64
r--- - 0.10 m- --..j Pm }..-- - -- - I

y
(0.0338 , 0.0462)

~-r---X
(/. , 0)

Multiply all values shown

by 10- 8 to obtain 1114

144.0 = +(989.64 - 701.64)

R =.jr()-44-.0-0-,)2'+-(-62-7-.6-,-9)'2 = 643.99
(a) (b)

C4ij-_~ __

II

(e)
F I GURE 8 .7

f y = iz(0.02)(0.1 0)3+ (0.1O)(0.02)(O.0338f + iz(0.08)(0.02)3

+ (0.08)(0.02)( -0.0062)2 + /2(0.02)(0.08)3 + (0.08)(0.02)( -0.0362)2
= 7.0164 X 10- 6 m 4
p xy = (0.10)(0.02)(0.0338)(0.0462) + (0.08)(0.02)( - 0.0062)( - 0.0038)
+ (0.08)(0.02)( - 0.0362)( - 0.0538)
= 6.2769 X 10 - 6 m 4
Refer to the Mohr's circle shown in Fig. 8.7(b) and complete the calculations as
follows:
fu = fA +R
= (845.64 + 643.99) X 10- 8

= 11489.63 X 10- 8 m 4

Sec.8.3 / Ideal Column Theory-The Euler Critical Load 401

 Iv = IA - R
= (845.64 - 643.99) x 10 - 8

= 1 201.65 X 10- 8 m 4 I
This column will buckle about the v axis or the axis with respect to which the
moment of inertia is a minimum.

627.69
tan 28 = - - = 4.359
144.00
28 = 77.08°
8 = 38.54°

Figure 8.7(c) shows the principal axes for this cross section.
(b) From Eq. 8.16, determine Pe:

n 2 EI v
P = __
e 13
n 2 (200 x 109)(201.65 x 10 - 8)
(4 2 )10 3

= 1248.78 kN I
Pe 248.78 X 10 3
(c) (J =-=
cr A 52 X 10- 4 x 106

= 147.8 MPa 1

(d) Equate (Jcr to (Jy = 228 MPa, in order to find the smallest length for which the Euler
equation applies. The minimum radius of gyration yields the maximum slenderness ratio
which is asssociated with the smaller critical stress.

8
r = JI v = J201.65 x 10 = 0.0197 m
v A 52 X 10- 4

Solve Eq. 8.19 for L:

L = nrvJE
(J cr

= n(0.0197) J 200 X 109

228 x 106

= 1.83 m

402 Ch. 8 / Column Theory and Analyses

 The Euler equation would not apply for columns shorter than 1.83 m with all other
quantities given for this example.

(e) W = 52 X 10- 4 m 2 x 4.00 m x 77.09 kN/m 3

= 11.603 kN I
Pe _ 248.78
W - 1.603

=§J
or the weight of the column is 0.64 percent of Pe' the critical applied load. The weight of
this steel column is small compared to the applied critical loading. Again, the design load
for this column would be considerably less than the critical load because this latter load
corresponds to elastic buckling of the column.

PROBLEMS ____________________________________________________________

8.7 You have been asked to decide which of the two
shapes (lor box) of Fig. P8.7 would serve best as long
pin-ended columns for which the Euler critical load is
the basis for analysis to determine carrying capacity.
Let the constant thickness equal O.lb. The cross-
sectional areas of the column are equal. Be careful to
justify your answer analytically. If the same volume of
material as for the 1 or box shapes were used for a
column of solid circular cross section, how would its
f--b--J
Euler load compare to the Euler loads for the 1 and box
shapes?
8.8 You have been asked to decide which of the two
shapes (channel or cruciform) of Fig. P8.8 would serve
best as long pin-ended columns for which the Euler
critical load is the basis for analysis to determine carry-
ing capacity. Let the constant thickness equal O.lb. The
cross-sectional areas of the columns are equal. Be
careful to justify your answer analytically.
~b4 I- 2b
·1

T
f--b--J
T T

1 IO} 1
b

1
2b

Tb
~-----'

f---b--J 1
Constant thickness 0.1 h Constant thickness 0.1 b
FIGURE PS.7 FIGURE ps.s

Sec. 8.3 / Ideal Column Theory-The Euler Critical Load 403

8.9 In Fig. P8.9 an axially loaded aluminum column
cross section is shown. It is 10.00 m long and pin-
connected at the ends. Use E = 70 GPA and a unit
weight of 27.2 kN/m 3 . Determine:
(a) The Euler critical load for this column.
(b) The critical stress for this column.
(c) The ratio of the Euler load to the weight of the
column.
(The slenderness ratio is such that the Euler equation
applies in this case.)

t-I'- - - 0 . 4 0 m ·1

T
°1m
- f4--0.04 m constant thickness

=~==~== f-- Sft -1

1-°.1°+-°.2°-+°.1°1 FIGURE PS.11
FIGURE PS.9

8.12 An axially loaded aluminum column is 5.00 m

8.10 Refer to Fig. P8.l0 and show that for a column
30.0 ft long and for a steel yield stress of 40 ksi, the
Euler equation does not apply. What is the shortest
length for application to the Euler equation? Use
E = 29 X 106 psi and assume that the proportional
limit stress is approximately equal to the yield stress.
[ 1
long and has the cross section shown in Fig. P8.12. It
has pin-connected ends, an E value of 71 GPa, and a
unit weight of 27,150 N/m 3 . Determine:
(a) The Euler critical load for this column.
(b) The critical stress.
(c) The ratio of the Euler load to the weight of this
column.
(The slenderness ratio is such that the Euler equation
applies in this case.)

I·
Fasteners
not
LShown ,J 0.20m---j

Square box section

4 angles 8 x 8 x 1. (See Appendix E.)
4 plates 24 x 1
FIGURE PS.10
FIGURE PS.12

8.11 Unknown force Q, acting on the structure shown
in Fig. P8.l1, is limited by one-half the Euler load
which pin-ended member Be will resist. This aluminum
member has an outside diameter of 3.00 in. and an
inside diameter of 2.60 in. and a modulus of elasticity of
10 x 106 psi. Determine the magnitude of force Q.
8.13 An axially loaded, wide-flanged steel column
W36 x 280 (see Appendix E) has a length of 40.0 ft. It
has material properties: E = 29 X 103 ksi and O'y = 33
ksi. (Assume that the yield stress for steel approximates
the proportional limit stress.) Determine :
(a) The critical Euler column load.

404 Ch. 8 / Column Th-v end Ana~

(b) The critical stress.
(c) The shortest length of this column for which the
Euler equation applies.
(d) The ratio of the critical Euler load to the weight of

TH=1
this column.

i
8.14 The cross section of an axially loaded steel n.
12 in.
column is shown in Fig. P8.14. The column is pin con-
nected at each end and is free to buckle about its axis of 1.-
minimum moment of inertia. This column is 4.00 m --0-1
r-
I in·-- H - in.
long, E = 200 GPa, and the unit weight of steel is
77.09 kN/m 3 . Use a yield stress of 228 MPa to approx-
16in '-1
ero section
imate the proportional limit stress. Determine:
(a) The principal moments of inertia of the column
cross section.
(b) The critical Euler load for this column. FIGURE PS.15
(c) The critical stress.
(d) The shortest length for which the Euler equation 8.16 Figure P8.16 shows the cross section of a welded
applies. steel column which was designed to meet special
(e) The ratio of the critical Euler load to the weight of framing conditions in a building addition. It is axially
the column. loaded and fabricated of welded steel and is 18 ft long.
If E = 29 X 106 psi, (J p == 32,000 psi, and the column
,.L - - 0.08 m----l.,i.- 0.02-m may be assumed pinned at both ends, find:
(a) The critical Euler column load.

T
,....---------.1 constant
Tthickness (b) The critical stress for this column.
(c) The shortest length of this column for which the
Euler equation applies.
(Neglect weld metal in your calculations.) The material

T.-------'
has a constant thickness of 1 in.

1--0.08 m---1
I 4 in.
FIGURE PS.14
Jo---_-'J --
3 in.

8.15 An axially loaded, welded steel column has the

cross section shown in Fig. P8.15. It is 30 ft long and r- Sin.
pin-connected at each end. E = 29 x 103 ksi and (J p = I in.
30 ksi. Steel weighs 0.284Ib/in. 3 . Determine: FIGURE PS.16
(a) The critical Euler column load.
(b) The critical stress for this column. 8.17 Construct a critical stress versus slenderness ratio
(c) The shortest length of this column for which the plot for a material for which E = 10 X 103 ksi and
Euler equation applies. (J p = 20 ksi. Assign slenderness ratio values and
(d) The ratio of the critical Euler load to the weight of compute the corresponding critical stresses. Clearly note
the column. the range of validity of the Euler equation for this
(Neglect weld metal in your calculations.) material.

Sec.8.3 / Ideal Column Theory-The Euler Critical Load 405

8.18 For each steel alloy, which has a different pro-
portional limit stress, there exists a slenderness ratio
below which the Euler equation is invalid. The only
material property in the Euler equation is the modulus
of elasticity and experiments have shown it has a value
of about 29 x 106 psi regardless of the alloying ele-
ments. Compute the minimum slenderness ratio for
validity of the Euler equation for three steel alloys with
yield stresses of 36, 46, and 50 ksi. (Assume that the
proportional limit stress is approximately equal to the
yield stress.)
If a steel column is long, there is no advantage in
choosing a high-strength alloy because the modulus of
elasticity is constant for various alloys. For a short- or
intermediate-length steel column there will be an advan-
tage in choosing an alloy with a higher yield stress.
Consider a maximum slenderness ratio of 200 for
long steel columns for building applications and state a
range of slenderness ratios for which the critical stress
will not depend on which of the three alloys above is
chosen.
8.19 A series of tests were performed on model-sized
columns in the small testing machine as shown in
Fig. PS.19. Each steel column has a modulus of elas-
ticity of 29 x 106 psi and is a solid circular cross section
with a diameter of 0.25 in. Data are stated in the form
FIGURE P8.1S
406
(length of pin-ended column in inches, critical load in
pounds): (10, 525), (15, 250), (20, 130), (25, 90), (30, 55),
(35, 50), and (40, 30).
(a) Prepare a neat plot of the experimental Euler loads
versus their slenderness ratios.
(b) On the same graph sheet show the theoretical Euler
curve for these columns.
(c) If the yield stress of the column steel is 30,000 psi,
show that the Euler equation is valid for these data.
8.20 An axially loaded column has the hat-shaped
cross section shown in Fig. PS.20. It is fabricated of
aluminum for which the maximum critical stress is 40
ksi and E = 10 X 106 psi. If b = 0.25 in., determine the
minimum length of this column for which Euler's equa-
tion will be valid. Both ends of the column are pinned.
T Constan t
Jr-
thickness b
I I
5b 'I- 6b 'I- 5b----1
FIGURE P8.20
8.21 A 18-ft-Iong steel column has the cross section
shown in Fig. P8.21. It is axially loaded and has a
modulus of elasticity of 30 x 106 psi. Determine the
Euler load, the slenderness ratio, and the critical stress
for this column. Both ends of the column are pinned.
0.5 in.--j r-
9 ·n.
4.5 in.
FIGURE P8.21
Ch. 8 / Column n-rv and Ana~
8.22 An axially loaded aluminum column is 7.50 m
long and has a square box shape which measures, on
the outside, 0.20 m x 0.20 m with a wall thickness of
0.016 m. It is pin-connected at the ends with
E = 71 GPa and a unit weight of 27.15 kN/m 3 . Deter-
mine:
(a) The critical Euler load for this column.
(b) The critical stress for this column.
(c) The ratio of this Euler load to the weight of the
column.
(The slenderness ratio is such that the Euler equation
applies in this case.)
8.23 The truss of Fig. P8.23 is fabricated of welded
steel pipe members connected to thin gusset plates at
their ends. A preliminary analysis is being made with
the assumption that all members are pin-connected at
their ends and loaded axially. A 22-ft-Iong steel com-
pression member has the following cross-sectional
properties A = 8.40 in. 2 and 1=40.5 in.4. Use
E = 29 x 106 psi and the yield stress of the steel is
36,000 psi.
(a) Determine the critical Euler load for this member of
the truss.
\ - - - - - - 6 @ 22 ft = 132 f t - - - - - - - 1
FIGURE PS.23
D
DD
(a)
D IO[J[JICII
(b)
All units have a constant thickness O.lb
FIGURE PS.25
Sec. 8.3 I Ideal Column Theory-The Euler Critical Load
(b) Justify the use of the Euler equation in this case.
(c) If the loads P applied to the truss are limited by
two-thirds of the Euler load for compression member
CD, determine the magnitude of each of these loads.
8.24 Two columns are the same except for the shape of
their cross sections. One has a hollow-circular cross
section with an outside diameter Do and an inside diam-
eter D i , and the other is to have a hollow square cross
section with the same thickness of 1{Do - DJ Both
columns are to have the same cross-sectional area and
are slender enough for the Euler equation to be valid.
What are the outside dimensions of the square one in
terms of Do and Di? Consider the case where Do = 12
in. and Di = 11 in., find the ratio of Euler critical loads
for hollow circular and hollow square columns of the
same wall thickness as described above.
8.25 A column is to be fabricated of four identical
square units which are to be fastened together to act as
a single column. Each unit measures b x b and has a
wall thickness of O.lb. Assuming that fastening costs are
the same regardless of how we arrange the square units
and that the overall dimensions do not present clear-
ance problems, choose the best arrangement from the
three shown in Fig. P8.25. Assume that Euler theory is
valid for all three arrangements and present calculations
to verify your choice. If the material for the best of these
arrangements was used to construct a column of solid
square cross section, how would its Euler load compare
to that for the best arrangement? Briefly comment on
your result.
(c)
407
1.1
Effect of End End conditions other than pinned or hinged ones described in assumption 3 of Section 8.3
Conditions on may be treated by rewriting Eq. 8.19 in terms of an effective length Le as follows:
Behavior of
Columns (8.20)

where appropriate Le values are shown in Fig. 8.8. A column with pins or hinges at both
ends is referred to as the fundamental case, which is shown in Fig. 8.8(a) with an effective
length Le equal to its actual length L.
If both ends of the column are fixed as shown in Fig. 8.8(b), end moment restraints
result in a sinusoidal deflected shape which has reversals of curvature (or inflection points)
at points A and B. Since the second derivative of the deflection with respect to the
lengthwise coordinate x will vanish at inflection points and the bending moments are
proportional to the second derivatives, the moments vanish at points A and B. Between
these two points the column will behave as though it were pinned, and since the length of

rh
r
/

1
L Le =!:..2

~
Pinned-pinned
Le=L / Fixed-fixed

t 'fJ
fundamental case
Le=tL

(a) (b)

I,
L

1 '/ i
l
IT
I

Le = 2L

~mu;<l
Image of
actual
column
,
T
I Free-fixed Pinned-fixed
I Le = 2L Le'; 0.7L
(c) (d)

FIGURE 8.8

408 Ch. 8 I Column Theory and AnaIyaa

 AB is one-half the actual length of the column, the effective length equals one-half the
actual length for this case. In terms ofloading, return to Eq. 8.16 for P e and substitute Le
for L as follows:
(8.21)

But Le = L/2 for the fixed-fixed case, which yields

P e = (L/2)2 = --r
n 2 EI v 4n 2 EI v
(8.22)

The column with perfectly fixed ends will buckle elastically at a load that is four times the
load required to buckle it if the ends were pinned. This increased resistance is provided by
the moment restraints at the ends of the column depicted in Fig. 8.8(b).
If one end of the column is free and the other end is fixed, as shown in Fig. 8.8(c), a
mirror image of the actual column must be constructed in order to reveal that the
effective length equals twice the actual length. Substitution of this effective length into
Eq. 8.21 yields a critical load :
(8.23)

The column with one end free and the other end fixed will buckle elastically at a load that
is one-fourth as large as the load required to buckle it if both ends were pinned. Even
though moment restraint is provided at the lower end of the column, the fact that the
upper end is free of any restraint greatly reduces the buckling load for this case, shown in
Fig. 8.8(c).
If one end of the column is pinned and the other end is fixed, as shown in Fig. 8.8(d),
an inflection point is located at a distance of approximately seven-tenths the actual length
from the upper end, which is pinned. The effective length is approximately seven-tenths
the actual length. Substitution of this effective length into Eq. 8.21 yields an approximate
critical load which is satisfactory for engineering purposes.

P e ~ 2.04 n2~Iv (8.24)

I;

Since moment restraint is provided at the lower end while the upper end is pinned, as
shown in Fig. 8.8(d), the critical load lies between the values obtained for the fundamental
case and the fixed-fixed case.
The reader should understand that these effective lengths are valid for both elastic
column behavior and inelastic column behavior. Effective lengths discussed here and
depicted in Fig. 8.8 may also be derived from first principles as indicated in the problems.

1.5
Eccentrically To investigate imperfect columns, the first two assumptions of ideal column theory will be
Loaded and relaxed and the consequences investigated. The problem of eccentrically loading a column
I nitially Curved and the problem of loading an initially curved column will be formulated and the results
discussed.
Columns
All assumptions of Section 8.3 except the first one apply to the column depicted in
Fig. 8.9(a), since this column is loaded by forces applied with equal eccentricities at each

Sec. 8.5 I Eccentrically Loaded and Initially Curved Columna 409

 p~ Ideal column
11

T
T
D
L
2"
1 M~

1
L

~e + 1/-1 e = 0.5

P
0
(0,0)
(a) (b) (e)

FIGURE 8.9

end. This eccentricity e is measured in the u direction. To write the governing differential
equation, refer to the free-body diagram shown in Fig. 8.9(b). From Eq. 6.6 with u and v
interchanged:

where
Mv = -P(e + u). (8.25)
Equation 8.25 into Eq. 6.6 yields
d2 u
EI v dx 2 + P(e + u) = 0 (8.26)

Divide by EI v and transpose the constant term:

d2 u P P
-+-u- --e (8.27)
dx 2 E1v - E1v

Let

p =.!..- (8.8)
E1v
d2 u
- + k 2 u= -k2 e (8.28)
dx 2
The boundary conditions are as follows:
x =0, u=O (8.29)
x=L, u=O (8.30)
Completing the solution of the differential equation (8.28) subject to the boundary condi-
tions of Eqs. 8.29 and 8.30 is left as a homework assignment (see Problem 8.31). This
solution is given by

410 Ch. 8 / Column Theory and Analyses

 . )
U = e ( cos kx + 1 - . cosk kL S10 kx - 1 (8.31)
S10 L

Arbitrarily multiply Eq. 8.8 by I3/n 2 as follows:

P
--=--=- (8.32)
n2 n2E1v Pe

Multiply Eq. 8.32 by n 2 and take the square root of both sides to obtain

kL = nJP (8.33)
Pe
Evaluate Eq. 8.31 at x = L/2 and denote the center deflection by " as shown in Fig.
8.9(a). The results is

(8.34)

A plot of Eq. 8.34 is shown in Fig. 8.9(c). First, consider ideal column behavior shown on
this plot. The vertical line DC and the horizontal line CD are to be associated with ideal
column behavior. As the force P applied to the ideal column is increased, there is no
deflection of the column until P = P e. At point C, the ideal column is in neutral equi-
librium and line CD indicates that the column is either straight (corresponding to point C)
or the column is bent with any small deflection (corresponding to any point of line CD).
Three eccentricities (e = 0.1, 0.2, and 0.5) were arbitrarily chosen to illustrate the effects of
nonconcentric loading of the column. Note that for eccentric loading the column begins
to bend from the beginning of load application rather than remaining straight, as indi-
cated by the fact that the three curves for various e values depart from the vertical line
DC (i.e., nonzero PIPe values, however small, are associated with nonzero" values). As the
eccentricity increases, the load corresponding to a given" decreases. All curves approach
the horizontal line CD as " becomes infinite, but the column will behave inelastically long
before this condition is reached.
All assumptions of Section 8.3 except the second one apply to the column depicted in
Fig. 8.10(a), since this column is initially bent. For convenience the bent shape is assumed
to be sinusoidal and expressed mathematically as follows:
. nx
Uo = Ao S10 L (8.35)

where Ao is the amplitude or midpoint deflection of the column.

To write the governing differential equation, refer to the free-body diagram shown in
Fig. 8.lO(b). From Eq. 6.6 with U and v interchanged:
d2 u
Mv = E1v dx 2

where
Mv = -P(u o + u) (8.36)

Sec. 8.5 I Eccentrically Loaded and Initially Curved Columna 411

 p
u

Initially
bent column

Deflected
Ideal column
shape of D
column

Ao = 0.2
Ao = 0.5

O~---------------------6
(0,0)
(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 8.10

Substitution of Eq. 8.36 into Eq. 6.6 yields

d2 u
E1v dx 2 + P(uo + u) = 0 (8.37)

Next, divide by E1 v and transpose the term containing U o :

d2 u P P
dx2 + E1 v u = - E1 Uo
(8.38)
v

Substitute P/E1 v = k 2 and Uo = Ao sin nx/L into Eq. 8.38, to yield

(8.39)

The boundary conditions are as follows:

x=o, u=o (8.40)
x=L, u=o (8.41)
Completing the solution of the differential equation 8.39 subject to the boundary condi-
tions of Eqs. 8.40 and 8.41 is left as a homework assignment (see Problem 8.32). This
solution is given by

Ao . nx
U= sm- (8.42)
1 - P/Pe L

It should be noted that Eq. 8.33 will prove useful in writing the solution in this form.
Evaluate Eq. 8.42 at x = L/2 and denote the center deflection by () as shown in
Fig. 8.10(a). The result is

(8.43)

412 Ch. 8 / Column Theory and Ana~

 A plot of Eq. 8.43 is shown in Fig. 8.10(c). Once again, ideal column behavior is associated
with lines DC and CD, and the discussion of concepts for Fig. 8.9(c) applies here as well.
Once more, the column begins to bend from the beginning of load application rather than
remaining straight, as indicated by the fact that the three curves for various initial ampli-
tudes (Ao = 0.1,0.2, and 0.5) depart from the vertical line DC (i.e., nonzero PIPe values,
however small, are associated with nonzero (j values). As the value of Ao increases, the
load corresponding to a given (j decreases. All curves approach the horizontal line CD as
(j become infinite, but the column will behave inelastically long before this condition is
reached. Obviously, an infinite displacement is not possible.
All columns that are parts of machines or members of structures are imperfect and
the discussion above shows that the load-deflection behavior of these imperfect columns
depends upon the nature and magnitude of these imperfections. Imperfect columns do not
remain straight until the Euler load is reached but begin to bend as soon as load is
applied to them. Results shown in Figs. 8.9(c) and 8.1O(c) are only valid as long as the
column stresses are equal to or less than the proportional limit stress.

PROBLEMS ____________________________________________________________

8.26 Consider an initially curved column which is 8.29 Repeat Problem 8.28 for the case of a column
fixed at both ends and loaded axially. Assume that the fixed at one end and free at the other end.
initial bent shape is given by
8.30 Repeat Problem 8.28 for the case of a column
Uo = ~o (1 _ cos 2~X) pinned at one end and fixed at the other end.

8.31 Refer to Fig. 8.9 (p. 410) and complete the solu-
where Ao is the amplitude or midpoint deflection of the
tion of the differential equation for an eccentrically
column of length L. Write the governing differential
loaded column. See Eq. 8.31 (p. 411).
equation, state the boundary conditions, and solve this
differential equation subject to these conditions.
8.32 Refer to Fig. 8.10 (p. 412) and complete the solu-
tion of the differential equation for an initially curved
8.27 A pin-ended column is initially curved and
column. See Eq. 8.42 (p. 412).
loaded axially. The initial bent shape is assumed to be
parabolic as given by 8.33 Refer to Fig. 8.9(c) (p. 410) and compute and plot

2'L)2
4Ao (
Uo = Ao - 13 x -
where Ao is the amplitUde or midpoint deflection of the
column of length L. Write the governing differential
equation, state the boundary conditions, and solve" this
differential equation subject to these conditions.
8.28 Derive the equation for the critical Euler load for
a column fixed at both ends which will enable you to
verify the effective length for this case. Formulate and
solve the appropriate differential equation subject to the
boundary conditions for this case. Carefully show the
free-body diagram required for formulation of the differ-
ential equation.
the function PIPe versus (j for e = 0.25. Assign PIPe
values arbitrarily in the range 0.0 to 1.0 and compute
corresponding (j values for plotting. Discuss the results.
8.34 Refer to Fig. 8.10(c) (p. 412) and compute and
plot the function PIPe versus (j for Ao = 0.45. Assign
PIPe values arbitrarily in the range 0.0 to 1.0 and
compute corresponding (j values for plotting. Discuss
the results.
8.35 An eccentrically loaded column is subjected to a
loading equal to 0.5 of the Euler critical loading with an
eccentricity of 0.2 in. What is the deflection of the
column? You are to assume that the column behaves
elasticall y.

Sec. 8.5 / Eccentrically Loaded and Initially Curved Columns 413

8.36 A column is initially bent in a sinusoidal shape

~~l ~-f2-------'~ ~
with an amplitude Ao = 0.002 m. It is then subjected to
an axial loading equal to 0.8 of the Euler critical
loading. What is the deflection of the column? You are -1r--,
to assume elastic behavior of the column.

8.37 Formulate the following problem by deriving the
governing differential equation and stating the bound-
ary conditions: A pin-ended column of length L is ini-
tially bent in a sinusoidal shape of amplitude Ao and
simultaneously loaded with an eccentric load of
eccentricity e.
8.38 A pin-ended compression member has a variable
moment of inertia as shown in Fig. P8.38. It has a con-
stant modulus of elasticity and is subjected to axial
forces that will buckle it elastically.
(a) Write the basic differential equations and state the
four required boundary conditions.
If--:- - - L = a + b - - - - l : 1
FIGURE P8.38
(b) Apply the boundary conditions to your general sol-
utions of the differential equations'in order to derive the
transcendental equation which contains the Euler criti-
cal load as the unknown, provided that we know E, II ,
12 , a, and b. If numerical values of these constants are
given, how would you solve for the critical load ?
(c) Observe that a + b may be replaced by L and con-
sider the special cases of II = 12 = I. In this case the
transcendental equation is readily solved for the critical
load. Verify this critical load for this special case of
constant stiffness of the compression member.

B.1i
Empirical
If a series of pin-ended columns of varying slenderness ratio Le/rv are tested and critical
stresses are computed for each column, a set of experimental values, as shown in the
Equations for
upper part of Fig. 8.11, are obtained. All tested columns are assumed to have been
Column
fabricated of the same material and care taken to eliminate eccentricity of the axial
Allowable Loads
loading and to eliminate end restraint for pinned ends. These experimental values could
be fitted with curves of known functional form, but the ordinates would correspond to
failure of the columns. Of greater interest are the curves corresponding to failure values
divided by a factor of safety, which are shown in the lower part of Fig. 8.11. These smaller
p Ordinate is '''failure'' stress
A
• • • • •
• • Experimental values
•
•
•
Ordinate is "failure" •
stress divided by a •
factor or safety
•
•
• •
• •
•• •
to data with
a factor of
safety

Short and intermediate

I----length columns - - - - + - - Long columns

FIGURE 8.11

414 Ch. 8 / Column Theory and Analyses

 ordinates are known as the allowable or working stresses and form the basis of column
analysis and design. At this stage the factor of safety may be viewed as a positive number
by which the failure stress is divided to obtain the allowable stress. More detailed dis-
cussion of the factor of safety is given in Chapter 10. The term failure as employed here
has different meanings, which depend upon the slenderness ratios of the columns. For
long columns,failure refers to the fact that a small increase in the load above the critical
Euler load will result in a large increase in the lateral displacements of the column. If the
Euler load is removed, the material of which the column is fabricated is unharmed and
the column will return to its original unbent shape. Thus for long columns the termfailure
refers to large lateral elastic displacements associated with buckling of the columns. For
very short columns failure refers to crushing or compressive yielding of the material of
which the column is fabricated, and this phenomenon is irreversible. Axial displacements
of a permanent nature characterize the failure of short columns. Columns of intermediate
length fail by inelastic buckling, which is also irreversible. In this case both axial and
lateral displacements will be permanent, and upon removal of the load the column will
remain in the bent shape.
A very large number of empirical column equations have been devised and presented
by various investigators since the time of Euler. Examples will be studied to illustrate the
use of several sets of empirical column equations for analysis of column allowable loads.
Design of columns will be covered in Section 10.6.
Certain fundamental considerations should be borne in mind by those who use
empirical column equations:
1. Empirical column equations vary with the material from which the columns are fabri-
cated. Equations suitable for timber columns are useless for high-strength-steel
columns.
2. Many empirical column equations have a factor of safety incorporated into them,
which means that the computed PIA stresses are allowable stresses which refer to safe
loadings without danger of failure. However, some empirical equations do not incorpo-
rate a factor of safety, which means that the computed PIA stresses are to be associated
with failure of the columns. In this case the engineer is responsible for incorporation of
a factor of safety that will either be prescribed or be left to personal judgment. Ordi-
narily, the engineer's choice of a factor of safety would have to be approved by a
governmental body or other authority.
3. Practically all empirical column equations are valid for restricted values of slenderness
ratios Lelrv. Outside the prescribed Lelrv range of values, the equations are not valid.
Problems may be avoided by associating a range of slenderness ratios with each
equation and carefully comparing the slenderness ratio of the column being analyzed
with the prescribed slenderness ratio range.
4. Column end conditions discussed in Section 8.4 determine column effective lengths L e ,
and these lengths differ from the geometric length of the column except in the case
where both ends of the columns are pinned. Care must be taken to estimate the nature
of the end conditions conservatively when analyzing a column with empirical equa-
tions.
The American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) employs an empirical equation
and Euler's equation with a factor of safety for design of axially loaded main members.*

'" American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc., Manual of Steel Construction, Eighth Edition. AISC, Chicago,
1980.

Sec. 8.6 / Empirical Equations for Column Allowable Loads 415

 Using notation of this text these equations for short- and intermediate-length columns are

~= ~
A N
[1 - (LelrYJ
2C2c uy
where the variable factor of safety N is given by
5 3 Lelrv (LelrY
N--+--- ---
- 3 8 Cc - 8C~

.f. = 1.. [ I - (LelrY ] 344 8

AISC structural steel columns-main members
A N 2(107)2 '
, _ 5 3(Lelrv) _ (Lelr)' E = 200,000 MPa
N -"3 + 8(107) 8(107)3 Yield stress 344.8 MPa
Cc = 107
107 N is a variable factor of safety.
';;'
""
:5
"-.1...;
~ Euler with factor of safety
~" 100 p 12,,2 E
:0" A - 23(Lelry
'0~"
~

o 50 100 Cc ISO 200

Le
Slenderness ratio -
rv
(a)

J!.. =J...
A N
[1- (Lelry ] 50
2(107)2 AISC structural steel columns-main members
N =..i + L(Lelrv) _ (Lelr)' E= 29.0 X 103 ksi
Yield stress 50 ksi
30 3 8 107 8(107)3
Cc = 107
107 N is a variable factor of safety.

~ 20

"
:0 Euler with factor of safety
'"o~ p _--.!liL
A- 23(Lelry
~ 10 L
rve ;;. 107

o 50 100 Cc ISO 200

Slenderness ratio Le

(b)

FIGURE 8.12

416 Ch. 8 / Column Theory and Analyses

 with

For long columns, the Euler equation with a factor of safety of 11 = 1.92 is given by
p 1277: 2 £
A 23(Le/rY
The slenderness ratio, Lelrv' of compression members shall not exceed 200.
The factor of safety N varies from a value of i = 1.67 for Lelr v= 0 to a value of
11 = 1.92 for Lelrv = C c ' This 15% increase in the factor of safety is introduced to
account for the fact that long columns are more sensitive to unavoidable eccentricity of
loading than are shorter columns. These AISC equations are shown graphically in Fig.
8.12.

EXAMPLE 8.6 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

A welded steel column is fixed at both ends and is 4.00 m long. It has the cross section
shown in Fig. 8.13 and is fabricated from structural steel with a yield stress of 344.8 MPa,
for which the appropriate column allowable stress information is provided in Fig. 8.12. (a)
Determine the safe load that may be applied to this column. The column is a main
member for which £ = 200 GPa. (b) If the length of the column is changed to 10.8 m and
all other information is unchanged, determine the safe load for this longer column.

SOLUTION
(a) Calculate the principal moments of inertia with respect to the u-v set of axes through
the centroid C of the welded steel column shown in Fig. 8.12. Ignore the weld metal in all
calculations.
Iu = i2(0.015)(0.16)3 + 2[i2(0.16)(0.02)3 + (0.16)(0.02)(0.09)2]
=1 57.173 x 10 - 6 m41 0. 16 III

0.02 III

I v = i2(0.16)(0.01 W + 2(/2)(0.02)(0.16)3

=113.698 X 10 - 6 m41
column will buckle about the v axis. 1/ 0.20 III
('

A = 0.16(0.015) + 2(0.16)(0.02) = 88 x 10 - 4 m 2

l J13.698
rv = J A =
v x 10 -
88 10-4 X
6
= 0.0395 m
0.015 III

0.02
tL = t(4) =
III
Since both ends of the column are fixed, Le = 2 m. 0. 16 m - - ---i
Le 2
-;::; = 0.0395 = 50.6 FIGURE 8.13

Sec. 8.6 I Empirical Equations for Column Allowable Loads 417

 Refer to Fig. 8.12(a) and note that 50.6 < 107, which means that the following equations
are applicable for finding the allowable or safe stress:

N _ ~ ~ Le/rv (Le/rY
- 3 +8 107 - 8(107)3

5 3 50.6 (50.6)3
= :3 +"8 107 - 8(107)3 = 1.83
P 1 [ (Le/rYJ
A = N 1 - 2(107f (344.8)

1 [ (50.6)2 ]
= 1.83 1 - 2(107)2 (344.8) = 167.3 MPa

Since A = 88 X 10- 4 m 2, the safe load is given by

P = 88 X 10- 4 167·~0~ 10
6
= 11472 kN 1

(b) Le = tL = t(10.8) = 5.4 m

Le 5.4
-;: = 0.0395 = 136.7
Since Cc < 136.7 < 200, the Euler equation with a factor of safety of H = 1.92 is
applicable with E = 200 MPa and A = 88.0 X 10- 4 m 2.
P 12n 2E 12n2(200 x 10 9 )
A 23(Le/rY = 23(136.7)2106 = 55.11 MPa

P = 55.11 X 106 88 ~0~0-4 = /485 kN /

which is the safe load for this longer column. Care was taken to use equations for the
proper material, and slenderness ratios were computed so as to select the appropriate
equations. The fixed-end conditions were associated with effective lengths equal to one-
half the geometric lengths. Appropriate safety factors are incorporated in these AISC
equations.

EXAMPLE 8.7 _____________________________________________

Empirical equations for Douglas fir columns are shown in Fig. 8.14. Use this information
to determine the safe axial loading that may be applied to the following Douglas fir
columns, which are assumed to be pinned at each end. (E = 1.70 x 106 psi). (a) A 6.00-ft-
long column of rectangular cross section 5.50 x 9.50 in. (b) A 25.0-ft-long column of
square cross section 9.50 x 9.50 in.

SOLUTION
(a) Compute the slenderness ratio of the column in order to decide which equation is
appropriate for the analysis. The radius of gyration rv is given by

418 Ch. 8 / Column Theory and Ana~

 f. = 1400
A
Douglas fir{E = I.7 X 106 psi)
Pinned ends
Rectangular or square
Safety factor included
p 1T2E L
A -"--"''-;-L- (66.3';;,.';; 173.2)
(psi) 2.727(,/

L
66.3 173.2 r;;-
1+1·----t·I-·
Short and
- - - - L o n g cOlumns-----l·1

intermediate
FIGURE 8.14

rv = Ii = Jt-~:3 = Ju
where d is the least dimension of the rectangular column. In this case d = 5.50 in.
5.50 .
rv = .Jl2 = 1.588 m.

The slenderness ratio is given by

L 6.00 x 12
;: = 1.588 = 45.3

From Fig. 8.14, PIA = 1400 psi provided that Llrv < 66.3. Since 45.3 < 66.3, this column
is short or intermediate in length and the allowable load may be obtained as follows:
P .
A = 1400 pSI

A = 5.50 x 9.50 = 52.25 in. 2

The allowable load for this Douglas fir column is

I P = 52.25 x 1400 = 73,150 lb

(b) Again, compute the slenderness ratio.
d 9.50 .
r =--=--=2.74m.
v Jl2 Jl2
!:. = 25.0 x 12 = 109.5
rv 2.74

Sec. 8.6 / Empirical Equations for Column Allowable Loads 419

 Since 66.3 < 109.5 < 173.2, this column is a long column and the Euler equation with a
factor of safety of 2.727 will be used from Fig. 8.14.
P n2E
A 2. 727(L/ry
n 2 (1.70 x 106 ) •
= 2.727(109.W = 513.1 PSI

A = 9.50 x 9.50 = 90.25 in. 2

The allowable load for this Douglas fir column is

I P = 90.25 x 513.1 = 46,307 lb I

The reader should refer to Fig. 8.14 and the solution above and note that the
allowable stresses for short and intermediate columns are given by ordinates to a horizon-
tal straight line and that the allowable stresses for long columns are given by ordinates to
the Euler equation with a factor of safety. In summary, the following fundamental con-
siderations were carefully made:
1. Material: Douglas fir.
2. Factors of safety are incorporated in the equations.
3. L/r ranges:
(a) Short and intermediate: < 66.3.
(b) Long: 66.3 to 173.2.
4. End conditions: pinned ends (commonly assumed for timber columns with flat ends).
Further reductions of the loads may be necessary for grading and moisture variation.
Such factors are beyond the scope of this analysis.

EXAMPLE 8.8 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Column allowable stresses versus Le/rv are shown graphically in Fig. 8.15 for an alumin-
um alloy. A 30-ft-long pipe column is fabricated of this alloy and has end connections
such that Le = 0.75L. Determine the allowable axial load for this column. Cross-sectional
properties are: outside diameter = 6.625 in., wall thickness = 0.432 in.

SOLUTION. Calculate the inside diameter of the pipe:

Di = Do - 2t = 6.625 - 2(0.432) = 5.761 in.
The area is given by

A = ~ (D; - D~) = ~ [(6.625)2 - (5.761)2]

= 8.405 in. 2

420 Ch. 8 I Column 11Ieory and Analy'"

 p
A
(ksi)
(15,22)

20 ~
"1\ Aluminum alloy:

\
15 Safety factor included.
Read values from plot.

"
to

5
r--....
~ r--

40 80 120 160

FIGURES.15

The moments of inertia are equal for all diametral axes:

Iv = :4 (D! - Dt) = ~ [(6.625)4 - (5.761)4]

= 40.491 in.4

The radius of gyration is given by

rv
=
'-ifi:A = )40.491
8.405
= 2 195 .
. 10.

The effective length Le = 0.75L = 0.75(30 x 12) = 270 in. Compute the slenderness ratio
Le/rv = 270/2.195 = 123. Refer to Fig. 8.15 and read an approximate ordinate of
P/A = 2.7 ksi. Since this Le/rv is large, it is feasible to compute a value for P/A from the
Euler equation using E = 10,600 ksi and a factor of safety of 2.50.
P 1[2E 1[2(10,600) .
A::; 2.5(Le/rY = 2.5(123)2 = 2.766 ks}
Computing the allowable column loads for this pipe column:
P1 = 8.405(2.7) = 22.69 k (based on reading ordinate from Fig. 8.15)
P 2 = 8.405(2.766) = 23.25 k (based on calculation of P/A)
23.25 - 22.69
percent error = 23.25 x 100 = 2.41 percent

A slight underestimate by reading the curve value would be acceptable for most engi-
neering applications. The allowable load on the pipe column:

Sec. 8.6 / Empirical Equatione for Column Allowable Loade 421

EXAMPLE 8.9 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

A cast iron column is 10.0 ft long and has a hollow circular cross section with an outside
diameter of 5.00 in. and an inside diameter of 4.50 in. A straight-line equation that
contains a factor of safety is suitable for the analysis of this cast iron column.
P L
A= 12,000 - 60 -;: (psi)

(provided that 35 ~ L/r ~ 100). Determine the allowable load P that may be applied
safely to this column.

SOLUTION. The radius of gyration is given by

r = JZ = Jlt/64(D! - Dt) = !
A It/4(D; - Df) 4
= 1.68 in.

The slenderness ratio is

~ = 10 x 12 = 71.43
r 1.68
This ratio lies between the defined limits of validity:
35 < 71.43 < 100
P L
A= 12,000 - 60 -;:

A= ~ (52 - 4.5 2) = 3.73 in. 2

P = 3.73[12,000 - 60(71.43)]

= 128,770 lb I

EXAMPLE 8.10 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

The allowable load P on a longleaf yellow pine column is to be determined from the
following equation, which contains a factor of safety:

Provided that L/d < 21, where d is the least dimension of a rectangular cross section.
The column is 12 ft long and has dressed cross-sectional dimensions 9.5 x 11.5 in.

422 Ch. 8 / Column Theory and Ana~

 SOLUTION. The least cross-sectional dimension d equals 9.5 in. and
!::. = 12 x 12 = 15.16
d 9.5
The area
A = 9.5 x 12.5 = 118.75 in. 2
Since Li d = 15.16 < 21, the equation is applicable and yields a value for P:
P = 118.75 x 1450[1 - 1.62 x 10- 6 (15.16)4]

= 1 157,450 lb I

PROBLEMS ____________________________________________________________

8.39 In Fig. P8.39 rod AB acts as a column. It is
pinned at A and connected to a piston which moves in a
cylinder at B. The piston fits the cylinder with very close
tolerances and the cylinder is much stiffer than the rod,
which enables us to idealize end B as fixed. If the fluid
pressure p reaches a value of 1750 psi, determine
whether or not the steel rod has been designed satisfac-
torily. Use the information for steel with a yield stress of
50 ksi shown in Fig. 8.l2(b) (p. 416).
fastened with high-strength bolts. These bolts are
assumed to fill the holes in which they are placed and
hence the gross cross section shown is used in the calcu-
lations for this compression member. This steel has a
yield stress of 50 ksi and the appropriate equations of
the American Institute of Steel Construction are shown
in Fig. 8.l2(b) (p. 416). Determine the safe load which
this pin-ended column will support. What is the numeri-
cal value for the factor of safety?

!,,;,
Cylinder

~il ~:,"
I in.
~
d~

, ~',
-...
t
D 8.41 A 30-ft-Iong steel column has the cross section
shown in Fig. P8.41. This steel has a yield stress of
50 ksi and the appropriate equations of the American
I· I~ 32 in.
Institute of Steel Construction are shown in Fig. 8.l2(b)
FIGURE PS.39
(p. 416). Determine the safe load that this pin-ended
column will support. The plates and channels are fas-
8.40 A 24 ft-Iong steel column has the cross section
tened with high-strength bolts. These bolts are assumed
shown in Fig. P8.40. The W section and the angles are
to fill the holes in which they are placed and hence the
gross cross section is used in the calculations for this
compression member.

f--IO in.--J
WI4 X 74 r
4 L! 4X4xl 2-C15 X 50 {Appendix E)
4 3
(See Appendix E.) 2 plates 16 X 4

FIGURE PS.40 FIGURE PS.41

Sec. 8.6 / Empirical Equations for Column Allowable Loa(s 423

8.42 A 35-ft-Iong steel column is IlXed at both ends
and has the cross section shown in Fig. P8.42. Use the
AISC equations of Fig. 8.l2(b) (p. 416) for steel with a
yield stress of 50 ksi, to find the safe load this column
will support. Determine the ratio of this safe load to the

JE
weight of this column.

Wshape
Weight 730 Ib/ft
u I. = 14300 in.4
Iv = 4720 in.4
A = 215 in. 2

FIGURE P8.4~

FIGURE P8.44

8.43 In Fig. P8.43 the cross section of a I8-ft strut is

shown. It is pinned at both ends and fabricated of SO-ksi The column is 30.0-ft-Iong and may be assumed pinned
steel. Use the AISC equations of Fig. 8.12(b) (p. 416) to at both ends.
determine the safe load for this column. What is the
factor of safety for this column? If the same volume of
8.45 Figure PS.4S shows the cross section of a wooden
material were used in a column of solid square cross
column which is fabricated of two 4 in. x S in. pieces
section, what safe load would it support? Form the
and two 4 in. x 12 in. pieces. (Nominal-sized 4 x S
ratio of this load to the load that the structural tee will
support and briefly comment on your result. pieces have dressed dimensions of 3t x 7t and nominal
4 x 12 pieces measure 3t x Hi.) Equations for safe
load determination are
p
A= 1500 psi (~: ~ 66.9)
p
~: :s; 170)
1tlE
Structural tee
Weight 73.5 Ib/ft
-=
A N(L./ru)
l psi (66.9 <
rv = 2.95 in.
ru = 3.08 in. where E = 1.7 X 106 psi and N = 2.5. These equations
A = 21.6in. 2 apply to the wood chosen for this column. Determine
FIGURE P8.43 the safe load for a I8-ft-Iong column with pinned ends
and ~is given cross section.

8.44 A box-shaped wooden column is fabricated of four

4 in. x 12 in. pieces as shown in Fig. P8.44. (Nominal-
sized 4 x 12 pieces have dressed dimensions of 3t
x lIt.) Equations based on experiments are to be used
to determine the allowable load on this column. A
factor of safety of 3 is already incorporated in these
equations for the specified wood which follow:

~= 1600 psi (~: ~ 60.8)

p 5.92 X 106
-= psi
A FIGURE P8.4S

424 CII. 8 / Column ThMrJ and Ana.,..

8.46 A consultant has been asked to appraise a pro-
posed design for an automobile lift similar to those
widely used in garages. For the lift shown in Fig. P8.46
the maximum vehicle weight is to be 6000 lb and this
weight is to be mUltiplied by a factor of 4 to allow for
safety and for the fact that the weight is often applied
eccentrically with respect to the center support. This
supporting steel column has an outside diameter of
3.50 in. and an inside diameter of 3.00 in. Assume that
8.48 A column cross section, referred to as a double-
angle strut, is shown in Fig. P8.48. This steel column is
8.00-ft-Iong and is pinned at both ends. Determine the
critical slenderness ratio for this column and find the
safe load for it using the column equations of Fig.
8.12(b) (p. 416). Determine the ratio of this safe load to
the weight of the column.
II

the column is fixed at its base and free at the top and Double-angle strut
that the Euler equation is valid. Use E = 29 X 106 psi. 2 L's 3.5 X 3.5 X 0.5
Weighl 22.2 Ib/fl
If you were the consultant, would you approve this Yield stress SO ksi
design? Justify your answer with calculations. II = 6.50 in.2
To = 1.06 i n.
318 in. Tv = 1.63 in.

FIGURE PS.4S

8.49 A steel pipe column cross section is shown in

Fig. P8.49. This column is welded to very stiff members
at its ends and thus may be considered to have fixed
ends. It is 28.0 ft long and fabricated of steel with a
36-ksi yield stress. Determine the safe axial load for this
pipe column and compare its weight to the safe load.
, The appropriate equation for the allowable stress (psi)
FIGURE PS.46
for this column is

-P = 20,170 - 0.634 (L)2 .-!!.

O
A rv
8.47 Rectangular structural steel tubing is to be used
for a column that is 18.0 ft long and fixed at both ends. ExIra- strong Slccl pipe
Weight 65.42 Iblfl
Properties of the tubing cross section are shown in Yield lress 36 ksi
Fig. P8.47, and the appropriate column curves and Nomina l diamclcr 12 in.
Walllhickne s 0.5 00 in.
equations are shown in Fig. 8.l2(b) (p. 416). Determine A ; 19.2 il1. 2
the effective length of the column and its associated I = 362.0 in."

slenderness ratio. What is the safe load that may be
applied to this column? What percentage of the safe
load is the weight of this column?
v have been asked to assess the safety of using
1 Rectangular structural tubing
Yield stress 50 ksi
Weight 27.68Ib/ft
6 in. X 4 in. nominal size
/I 1- in. wall thickness
c lu = 33.4 in.4
Iv = 17.6 in4
A = 8 .14 in. 2
FIGURE PS.47
FIGURE PS.49
8.50 A 6-in. concrete slab is to be poured and you
4 in. x 4 in. timber shoring as indicated in Fig. P8.50.
These temporary supports are to be placed 6 ft on
centers in each direction so that each one must support
a 6 ft x 6 ft part of the slab as well as forming which
weighs 15% of the slab weight. Assume that the con-
crete is poured such that a force four times the dead
weight will be delivered to each shore. Douglas fir
columns pinned at each end will safely resist column
action as follows:

Sec. 8.6 / Empirical Equations for Column Allowable Loads 425

 8.52 A welded steel column is 4.75 m long and has the
cross-sectional shape depicted in Fig. P8.52. It is fabri-
cated of structural steel with a yield stress of
344.8 MPa. The appropriate column equations are
shown in Fig. 8.12(a) (p. 416). Determine the safe load
that this pin-ended column will support. Neglect weld

T
metal in evaluating the section area properties.

n
028 m
I

1
Timber shoring o.lomn
I~L- __________ ~~I

f--- -O.36 m- - --I

Con tant thickness 0.03 m

Welded steel column cross section

FIGURE PS.52

8.53 A small machine element must act as a strut that

p L
- = 1400 psi - ~ 66.3
A rv
Use the Euler equation for long columns with
E = 1.70 X 106 psi and a factor of safety of 2.727 for
(66.3 ~ L/rv ~ 173.2). Would 4 in. x 4 in. actual dimen-
sions be satisfactory for these shores? If not, what size
would you recommend? Assume that reinforced con-
crete weighs 150 Ib/ft3.
is axially loaded and pinned at both ends. Its cruciform
cross section is shown in Fig. P8.53 and it has a length
of 0040 m. It is fabricated of steel, for which the appro-
priate equations are shown in Fig. 8.12(a) (p. 416).
Determine the safe load that this strut will support.
O.OIOm
0.005 m

8.51 A welded steel column is 7.50 m long and has the
box shape shown in Fig. P8.51. It is fabricated of struc-
tural steel with a yield stress of 344.8 MPa. The appro-
priate column equations are shown in Fig. 8.12(a)
(p. 416). Determine the safe load that this welded pin-
ended column will support. Neglect weld metal in evalu-
ating the section area properties.
I in Fig. P8.54. Determine the back-to-back distance d
0.30 m 0.24 m 0.30 m
lo.olom
.L
O.OIOm 0.005mo.010m
Cruciform section for machine clement
FIGURE PS.53
8.54 A bridge member carries axial compressive forces
and is built up of two channels laced together as shown
such that the moment of inertia of the column section
will be equal for both the u and v axes through the

I centroid. Neglect the lacing in making these calcu-

lations. This bridge compression member is 45.0 ft long
and is fabricated of structural steel for which the appro-

r
0.28m - -
priate column equations are
Constant thickness 0.02 m

~ = 15,000 - ~ (~ (~ ~ 140)
Welded steel column cross section

FIGURE PS.51
psi

426 Ch. 8 / Column Theory and AnalyaM


f
Deck highway truss
C u
r-----:- -----l
d
Top chord cross section
--oj
Single channel properties
CIS X SO (American Standard)
IS-in. depth
501b{ft
FIGURE P8.54
Find the design loads P applied to the truss assuming
that they are limited by the safe axial loads which each
of the two top chord members nearest the center of this
deck highway truss will resist.
8.55 A cast iron column is 12.0-ft-Iong and has a
hollow circular cross section with an outside diameter
of 5.00 in. and an inside diameter of 4.50 in. Use the
following equation, which has an appropriate factor of
safety, to determine the allowable load P that may be
safely applied to this column.
P L
- = 12000 - 60 - psi
A' r Provide numerical justification for your answers.
ADDITIONAL CHAPTER PROBLEMS
8.58 (Sec. 8.3) Solve Problem 8.7 (p. 403) for the fol-
lowing cross sections of thickness 0.2b: a rectangular
box section measuring 3.5b x 2.5b and a square box
section measuring 3b x 3b. Regard these dimensions as
outside dimensions.
8.59 (Sec. 8.3) Refer to Problem 8.8 (p. 403) and re-
place the cruciform cross section by a square box section
measuring b x b with a thickness of O.lb. Regard these
dimensions as centerline dimensions. Solve as directed.
8.60 (Sec. 8.3) Solve Problem 8.9 (p. 404) after chang-
ing the constant thickness to 0.05 m.
8.61 (Sec. 8.3) Refer to Problem 8.11 (p. 404) and solve
it for Q applied horizontally to the right. Also, let mem-
Sec. 8.7 / Computer Applications
8.56 Use the equation provided below to determine
the safe load P which may be applied to a longleaf
yellow pine column. This column is 13.0 ft long and is
of rectangular cross section 7.5 x 9.5 in.
~ = 1450[1 - 1O-6(~rJ
1.62 x psi
lu =
404 in.4
l' = lI.Oin 4
A = 14.7 m. 2
This equation has a factor of safety incorporated in it
and Ljd is restricted to values less than or equal to 21,
where d is the least dimension of a rectangular cross
I-- Ii = 0.799 in.
section.
8.57 Cast iron columns of two different cross sections
are to be compared by using the equation
P L
- = 12,000 - 60 - psi
A r
provided that (35 :::; Ljr :::; 100). This straight-line equa-
tion based on test results has a factor of safety incorpo-
rated in it. One cross section is hollow circular with an
outside diameter of 5.00 in. and an inside diameter of
4.50 in. The other cross section is hollow square with
outside dimensions 5.00 x 5.00 in. and a wall thickness
such that its area is to be the same as the area of the
hollow circular shape. Both columns are to have a
length of 10.0 ft. Assuming that manufacturing and
erection costs are the same, which cross section is to be
preferred on the basis of safe load-carrying capacity?
ber Be have an outside diameter of 2.50 in. and an in-
side diameter of 2.00 in.
8.62 (Sec. 8.3) Change the length of the column from
5.00 m to 6.50 m and solve Problem 8.12 (p. 404).
8.63 (Sec. 8.3) Change the column cross section from
a W36 x 280 to a W33 x 241 (see Appendix E) and
solve Problem 8.13 (p. 404).
8.64 (Sec. 8.3) Change the length of t.'J.e column from
4.00 m to 5.00 m and solve Problem 8.14 (p. 405).
8.65 (Sec. 8.3) Change the length of the column from
30.0 ft to 35.0 ft and solve Problem 8.15 (p. 405).
427
8.66 (Sec. 8.3) Change the length of the column from
18.0 ft to 20.0 ft and solve Problem 8.16 (p. 405).
8.67 (Sec. 8.3) Solve Problem 8.17 (p. 405) for a steel
alloy for which E = 29 X 106 psi and U'p = 45 ksi.
8.68 (Sec. 8.3) Refer to Problem 8.20 (p. 406) and let
b = 0.375 in. and solve as directed.
8.69 (Sec. 8.3) Change the length of the column from
18.0 ft to 21.0 ft and solve Problem 8.21 (p. 406).
8.71 (Sec. 8.5) Solve Problem 8.35 (p. 413) for a load-
ing of 0.6 of the Euler critical loading and an eccentric-
ity of 0.15 in.
8.72 (Sec. 8.5) Solve Problem 8.36 (p. 414) for Ao =
0.005 m and an axial loading equal to 0.5 of the Euler
critical loading. Express your answer in inches.
8.73 (Sec. 8.6) Solve Problem 8.39 (p. 423) for a fluid
pressure p = 1000 psi.
8.74 (Sec. 8.6) Solve Problem 8.39 (p. 423) for a cyl-
inder diameter D = 3.25 in.

8.70 (Sec. 8.3) Refer to Problem 8.23 (p. 407) and solve
it after changing the compression member lengths from
22.0 ft to 25.0 ft. This means that the truss span be-
comes 6 x 25 = 150 ft. Retain the truss height at 25.0
ft.
8.75 (Sec. 8.6) Refer to Problem 8.40 (p. 423) and solve
it for a steel yield stress of 36 ksi. Make use of the equa-
tions at the top of pages 416 and 417 rather than refer-
ring to Fig. 8. 12(b), which is for a yield stress of 50 ksi.
Use E = 29.0 X 103 ksi.

1.7*_ _
Computer The following Examples illustrate the use of the FORTRAN language in the development
Applications of computer solutions. Refer to the detailed discussion given on pages 53 and 54.

EXAMPLE C8.1 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Write a FORTRAN program for columns to determine the Euler load, the critical stress,
the minimum length for which Euler theory is valid, the ratio of the Euler load to the
weight of the column, and the percentage the column weight is of the Euler load.

881 08
1
PRWGRAM EWLER(lNPWT,OUTPUT)
REAL IV,L,K,LMIN
00120 PRINT 2
00130 2 FORMAT (IX,"~ULER COLUMN LOADS")
00140 bREAD *,lV,A,L,UNITw,E,SIGy,K
00150 IF IIY.LT.O.)STOP
OOlbO PRINl 5
00170 5 FORMAT IIX,"INPUT IN ORDER")
8U180
0190
PRINT 10
10 FORMATIIX,"MIN.MDMENT OF INEkTIA,AREA,LENGTH")
i~~fi~ C~~UMSRb~ftDS
OOZOO WRIlE*,IV,A,L
00Z10 PRINT 11 MIN. MOMENT OF INERTIA,AREA,LENGTH
00220 11 FORMAT I1X,"UNIT WEIGHT,E,YIELD STRESS,K") 979.7 59.39 4110.
00230 WRITE *,UNIT~,E,SlGY,K UNIT WEIGHT,E,YIELD STRESS,K
00240 PI-3.14159Z7 Ib.83 30000000. 33000. 1.
OOZ~O LE-KH OUTPUT IN ORDER
002bO PE-PI**Z*E*IV/LE**Z EULER LOAD,CRITICAL STRESS
00270 SIGC-PEIA 1259017.150707 21199.1438071b
00280 IF ISIGC.GT.Sl~Y)GO TO 25 MIN.L-EULER-VALID,PE/wCOL,PERCENI
00Z90 wCOL-UNITw*L 384.71881b3735 155.d49815b451 .b41b433b40b87
00300 RATIO-PE/wCOL
00310 PCT-IOO./RAND
003Z0 LMIN-PI*SQRTIE+IV/IA*SIGY))/K
00330 PRINT 15
00340 15 FORMAT (lX,"OUTPUT IN ORDER") FIGURE CS.1
00350 PRINT 1b
003bO Ib FORMAT (!X,"eULER LOAD,CRITICAL STRESS")
00370 WRITE*,PE,SIGC
00380 PRINT 17
00390 17 FORMAT I1X,"MIN.L-EULER-VALID,PE/wCOL,PERCENT")
00400 WRITE .,LMIN,RATIO,PCT
00410 GO TO b
00420 25 PRINT 28
00430 28 FORMAT (lX,"CuLUMN TOO SHORT-EULER INVALID")
00440 STOP
00450 ENO

428 Ch. 8 / Column Theory and Analv-

 SOLUTION. The source PROGRAM EULER and sample I/O are given for Fig. C8.l.
Note that a negative value read for IV will stop the calculations. The factor K = 1 for
pinned ends, K = 0.5 for fixed ends, and so on, as discussed in Section 8.4. Note that the
message" COLUMN TOO SHORT-EULER INVALID" will be printed if the theory is
inapplicable. Consistent lb-in. units are used for the sample I/O.

EXAMPLE CS.2

Write a FORTRAN program for column analysis using the AISC (American Institute of
Steel Construction) equations. Read geometric and material properties and determine the
slenderness ratio, the safety factor, the slenderness ratio (CC) above which the Euler
equation is valid, the allowable stress, and the allowable force that may be safely applied
to the column.

881£8 ~~~rRk~L!f~;~l~~UT,OUTPUT)
00120 PRINT 2
00130 Z FORMATIIX,"AISC COLUMN ANALYSIS")
00140 6 READ *.I~,L.K,A,E,FY
00145 IFIIV.LT.O.)STOP
00150 PRINT 3
00160 3 FORMATI1X,"INPUT IN OROER NAMEO")
00170 PRINT 4
00180 4 FORMATIIX,"HOMENT OF INERTIA,LENGTH,END FIXITY")
00185 WRITE *,IV,L,K
00190 PRINT 5
OOZOO 5 FORMAT 11X,"AREA,MODULUS OF ELASTICITY YIELD STRESS")
00Z10 WRITE *,A,E,FY
00220 PI-3.1415927
00Z30 CC-SQRT 12.*PI** Z*E/FYI
00240 KLOR-K*lISQRTlIV/A)
00250 FS-(5./3.)+13.*KLOR/18.*CC))-IKLOR**3/18.*CC**3))
00260 FA1-ll.-KLOR.*2/IZ*CC.*Z))*FY/FS
00270 FAZ-12.*PI**Z*E/123.*KLOR**Z)
00280 IFIKLOR.LT.CC )FA-FAl
00Z90 IFIKLOR.GE.CC)FA-FAZ
00300 PA-FAU
00310 PRINT 7
00340 7 FORHATI1X,"OUTPUT IN ORDER"I
00350 PRINT 8
00360 8 FORHAT IIX,"SLENDERNESS,SAFETY FACTOR,CC")
00365 wRITE*.KLOR,FS.CC
00370 PRINT 9
00380 9 FORHAT 11X,"ALLOWABLE STRESS,ALLOWABLE FORCE")
00390 WRITE *,FA,PA
00400 GO TO 6
00410 END

t~~5TC~hUB~Dt~AhX~~~
~OHENT OF INERTIA, LENGTH. END FIXITY
21.6 lZ0. 1.
AREA,MODULUS OF ELASTICITY YIELD STRESS
8.Z3 Z9000000. 50000.
OliTPUT IN ORDER
SLENDERNESS. SAFETY FACTOR,CC
74.07203700903 1.884797646506 106.9987917B53
ALLOWABLE STRESS, ALLOWABLE FORCE
20171.42880648 Ib6010;8590773

FIGURE CS.2

SOLUTION. The source PROGRAM AISC and sample I/O are given in Fig. C8.2.
Note that a negative value read for IV will stop the calculations. Consistent lb-in. units
are used for the sample I/O.

Sec. 8.7 / Computer Applications 429

COMPUTER PROBLEMS _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

CS.l Refer to Example C8.1 and modify PROGRAM
EULER to determine column capacities for hollow, rec-
tangular cross sections (or" box shapes") as shown in
Fig. CP8.1. Instead of reading IV and A, you are to
develop equations for these quantities in terms of B, H,
and T. Use READ*, B, H, T, and calculate IV and A
within the program. Provide outputs of the same quan-
tities as in EULER and provide for multiple runs of
your program. Use the following numerical values to
check your program (consistent units are N-m).
Input: B = 0.2 m, H = 0.4 m, T = 0.04 m, L = 5.00 m,
UNITW = 27150N/m 3 , E = 71 GPa, SIGY = 160 MPa,
K = 1.0.
Output: IV = 22.0587 x 10- 5 m4, A = 0.0416 m2,
PE = 6.183 MN, SIGC = 148.6 MPa, RATIO = 1094,
PCT = 0.0914.
T 'f
CS.3 Refer to Example C8.2 and modify PROGRAM
AISC to determine the safe loading that may be applied
to I-shaped cross sections as shown in Fig. CP8.3
Instead of reading IV and A, you are to develop equa-
tions for these quantities in terms of B, TF, DW, and
TW. Use READ*, B, TF, DW, TW, and calculate IV
and A within the program. Provide outputs of the same
quantities as in AISC and provide for multiple runs of
your programs. Use the following values to check your
program (consistent units are N-m).
Input: B = 0.16 m, TF = 0.020 m, DW = 0.16 m,
TW = 0.015 m, L = 4.00 m, K = 0.5, E = 200 GPa,
FY = 344.8 MPa.
Output: KLOR = 50.69, FS = 1.83, CC = 107,
FA = 167.3 MPa, PA = 1471 kN.
.1 ~
f + - - I ·- B

I
I
_+-+_T = constant
(H;;'B)

DW

1
--~+--TW

'-------'

rB--j
FIGURE CPS.1

CS.2 Write a FORTRAN program to determine the

L
Jf
safe loading which may be applied to Douglas fir FIGURE CPS.3
columns pinned at both ends and of rectangular cross
section. Use the following equations
CS.4 Write a FORTRAN program to determine the
~= 1400 psi safe loading that may be applied to cast iron columns of
A
hollow circular cross section. Use the following equa-
Euler equation with a factor of safety of 2.727 for tions.
(66.3 ~ LIRV ~ 173.2). Your program is to compute the
slenderness ratio and select the correct equation. Use P
A =
2
1 ,000 pSI
.
the following numerical values to check your program.
Input: B = 9.50 in., D = 5.50 in., L = 72.0 in., and P L
E = 1.70 X 106 psi. A= 12,000 - 60 R
Output: Slenderness ratio = 45.3, PIA = 1400 psi,
P = 73,150 lb. Your program is to compute the slenderness ratio and
Input: B = 9.50 in., D = 9.50 in., L = 300 in., select the correct equation. Use the following numerical
E = 1.70 X 106 psi. values to check your program.
Output: Slenderness ratio = 109.5, PIA = 513.1 psi, Input: DO = 5.00 in., DI = 4.50 in., L = 120 in.
P = 46,307 lb. Output: Slenderness ratio = 71.43, P = 28,770 lb.

430 Ch. 8 / Column Theory and AnalyaM

eS.5 Refer to Example CS.l and modify PROGRAM cross sections as shown in Fig. CPS.5. Instead of
EULER to determine column capacities for cruciform reading IV and A, you are to develop equations for
these quantities in terms of Band T. Use READ*, B, T,

T
and calculate IV and A within the program. Write out
the same quantities as in EULER and provide for
multiple runs of your program. Use the following

1
B
numerical values to check your program.
Input: B = 12 in., T = 1.00 in., L = 360 in.,
UNITW = 1021b/in., E = 29 X 106 psi,
-B-1
f---I·
SIGY = 40,000 psi, K = 1.
Output: PE = 320,046 lb, SIGC = 13915 psi,
FIGURE CPS.S LMIN = 212.3 in., RATIO = 136.35, PCT = 0.733.

Sec. 8.7 ! Computer Applications 431

 CHAPTER Sialicaill IllielePlDi.le
.1.bIPS

1.1 The problems encountered in all the preceding chapters dealt with members subjected to
Introduction force systems known as statically determinate force systems. The reason for this name is
the fact that in all of these problems, the force system (including applied as well as known
and unknown reactive forces, torques, and moments) could be fully ascertained by
satisfying the applicable equations of equilibrium. In most practical situations, however,
members are subjected to force systems that cannot be completely defined by satisfying
only the conditions of equilibrium. For these members the equations of equilibrium lead
to systems of equations in which the number of unknown quantities exceeds the number
of equations. Thus the system of equations is not solvable unless supplemented, according
to the principle of consistent deformations, by additional equations that are based upon
member deformations. Such members are said to be subjected to statically indeterminate
force systems.
The analysis of statically indeterminate members is discussed in this chapter. Three
classes of statically indeterminate members are distinguished depending upon the type of
load to which members are subjected. Section 9.3 deals with statically indeterminate
members under axial loads, Section 9.4 with statically indeterminate members under
torsional loads, and Sections 9.5 to 9.8 with statically indeterminate members under
flexural loads. Also, the effects of uniform temperature changes on the behavior of struc-
tural and machine members is dealt with in Section 9.2 as well as in certain examples and
problems.

1.2 Engineering materials, when not restrained, experience a change in dimensions if sub-
Effects of jected to a change in temperature. The change in length per unit length per degree change
Temperature in temperature is referred to as the coefficient of thermal expansion and is denoted by the
Changes symbol IX. The coefficient of thermal expansion is a unique property for a given material
and representative values of this property are given in Appendix C for a few materials.
For most engineering materials IX is a positive constant quantity, although over wide
ranges in temperature IX may depend on temperature (as do all mechanical properties).
Also, there are a few important engineering materials, such as graphite, for which IX is
negative, indicating a tendency to contract with increased temperature. Laboratory tests
can be performed to show that for isotropic materials, changes in temperature affect only
the normal strains; shear strains are not produced in such materials under temperature
changes.
Consider, for example, the case of the prismatic bar AB of length L shown in

432
 A B

L
(a)
·1

-1 6T
~
BI
(b)

FIGURE 9.1

Fig. 9.1(a). This bar is fixed at its left end A only. Therefore, it is free to change its length if
subjected to a change in temperature. Thus, if the bar is subjected to a temperature
change L\ T, it would experience a change in length b T given by

Ib T = a.(L\ T)L I (9.1)

For example, if L\ T is a temperature drop, b T would represent a decrease in length as

shown in Fig. 9.1(b).
If the prismatic bar, however, were restrained so that the change in length bT could
not occur in part or in whole, forces would be induced in it giving rise to a system of
stresses known as thermal stress. Thus, if the prismatic bar AB were fixed at both ends to
unyielding supports as shown in Fig. 9.2(a), it would not experience a change in length b T
when subjected to a change in temperature L\ T. Thus, if L\ T is a temperature drop, bar
AB would have a tendency to shrink in length but is unable to do so because of the two
unyielding supports at A and B which, in effect, apply a restraining tensile force that
creates a system of tensile thermal stresses in rod AB.
Determination of the restraining tensile force F is most conveniently determined by
assuming that one of the two supports, say support B, is removed as shown in Fig. 9.2(b)

A B

'A+---------------L--------------~

(a)

(b)

FIGURE 9.2

Sac. 9.2 / Effects of Temperature Changes 433

 to allow the member to undergo free contraction by the amount 1J T = a:(L\ T)L. This free
contraction is eliminated by the application of the restraining tensile force F which needs
to be adjusted in magnitude so as to produce an elongation 1JF = FLjAE, equal in magni-
tude to the contraction 1J T . Thus

or
FL
- - a:(L\T)L = 0
AE
from which

I F = a:(L\ T)AE I (9.2)

This restraining force F leads to a system of normal thermal stresses which, if assumed
uniformly distributed, may be obtained by the use of Eq. 3.1. Thus

Fn
0' = - = a:(L\T)E (9.3)
A

Obviously, similar effects may be developed in an unrestrained member if it were

subjected to a nonuniform temperature distribution. However, the treatment of nonuni-
form temperature distributions is beyond the scope of this book.
The use of Eqs. 9.1 to 9.3 in the solution of statically indeterminate problems is
illustrated in some of the examples to follow.

1.3
Statically
The procedure used in the solution of statically indeterminate problems containing axially
loaded members is best illustrated by examining an actual problem. Thus consider the
Indeterminate frame shown in Fig. 9.3(a). The horizontal member is assumed to be rigid and is sup-
Members Under ported by three rods as shown. The two outside rods have the same cross-sectional area
Axial Loads AB and are made of brass for which the modulus of elasticity is EB. The center rod has a
cross-sectional area As and is made of steel for which the modulus of elasticity is Es.
Assume that the frame is subjected to the vertical load P and that the rigid member
remains horizontal after the load is applied. It is required to determine the normal stresses
induced in the brass and steel rods and the vertical movement of the rigid member.
A free-body diagram of the rigid member is shown in Fig. 9.3(b). Note that this
free-body diagram contains the three unknown forces FBI' F B2, and F s. Since only two
equations of equilibrium are available, the given frame is statically indeterminate. Viewed
differently, the frame is said to contain one more constraint than is required for equi-
librium. For example, the steel rod may be removed without affecting the equilibrium of
the frame. The steel bar, therefore, is said to be redundant or unnecessary for the equi-
librium of the system.
Application of the two available equations of equilibrium to the forces shown in
Fig. 9.3(b) leads to the following relations:
o L Mo =0

434 Ch. 9 / Statically Indeterminate Members

 /.
. -,

. - '---

I Rigid I
~a-r--a---j
(a l

(b)

FIGURE 9.3

Therefore,
(a)

which indicates that the forces in the two brass rods are identical.
i LFv = 0
(b)

Substituting Eq. (a) into Eq. (b) yields

2FB + Fs - P= 0 (c)

Since FB = uBA B and Fs = usAs. Eq. (c) may be written in terms of the required stresses
as follows:
(d)

Equation (d) contains the two unknown quantities U B and Us and is, by itself, insufficient
for a unique determination of their values. Thus a second equation containing the Same
two unknown quantities needs to be developed to complete the solution of the problem.
This second equation is derived by applying the principle of consistent deformations. For
this particular frame, the principle of consistent deformation requires that the deforma-
tions of the three rods are compatible with the geometric requirements of the problem.
Since the rigid member is to remain horizontal, the extension of the brass rods, (iB' must
be exactly the same as the extension of the steel rod, (is. This physical condition is
expressed mathematically by the relation

Sec. 9.3 I Statically Indetenninate Members Under Axial Loads 435

 (e)
According to Eq. 2.17a, c5 B = BBL and c5s = BsL, where BB and Bs are the normal (axial)
strains in the brass and steel rods, respectively. Thus, by Eq. (e), BB L = Bs L, and therefore
(f)
The assumption is now made that the materials (both brass and steel) obey Hooke's law
and, by Eq. 2.27, BB = uBIEB and Bs = uslEs. Thus Eq. (f) may also be expressed in terms
of the desired stresses as follows:

UB = Us
(g)
EB Es
Therefore, the solution of the given statically indeterminate problem has been reduced to
the solution of the two simultaneous equations (d) and (g), which leads to the normal
stresses U B and Us. Since Hooke's law was used in the solution, the resulting values of
stress should be carefully compared to the proportional limit of the materials to ensure
that those limits have not been exceeded. Should the proportional limit of the material be
exceeded, the solution is obviously not valid. Under such conditions another type of
solution based upon inelastic analysis is required. Such a solution is beyond the scope of
this chapter. However, certain procedures based upon inelastic behavior are discussed in
Chapter 11. Once the stress values are determined, the vertical movement of the rigid
member is found by computing the deformation of the brass rod, c5 B , or the deformation
of the steel rod, c5 s . Thus

(h)

EXAMPLE 9.1 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

The following data apply to the frame shown in Fig. 9.3(a): P = 13,750 lb, a = 3 in.,
L = 5 ft, As = 1.000 in. 2 , AB = 0.375 in. 2 , Es = 30 X 106 psi, and EB = 15 X 106 psi.
Determine the normal stresses induced in the steel and brass rods and the movement of
the rigid member.

SOLUTION. Substitution of the given data into Eqs. (d) and (g) developed earlier leads
to the following two simultaneous equations:
0.75uB + Us - 13,750 = 0
2.00uB - Us = 0

A simultaneous solution of these two equations yields

Us = 10,000 psi

UB = 5000 psi

The steel and brass used in this frame would have to have proportional limits at least
equal to 10,000 psi and 5000 psi, respectively, if the solution is to be valid.

436 Ch. 9 I Statically Indellanninata Members

 The vertical movement of the rigid member is found from Eq. (h). Thus
10,000
(jB = (js = 30 X 10 6 X 60

= I 0.02 in. I

EXAMPLE 9.2 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

The rigid bar ABD shown in Fig. 9.4(a) is hinged at A and supported by the aluminium
rod Be and the concrete support DE. The system is subjected to the 500-kN force. The
cross-sectional areas of the aluminium rod and concrete support are AA = 7 X 10- 4 m 2
and Ac = 70 X 10- 4 m 2 , respectively. The modulii of elasticity for aluminium and con-
crete are EA = 70 X 109 N/m2 and Ec = 30 X 109 N/m2, respectively. Compute the
normal stresses developed in the aluminum and concrete. Assume linearly elastic
behavior.

~ I .,
Rigid

~--------- 3m ------~~-

(a) E

A- - - - x D

(b) 500 k

~---------------- 5m --------------~

( e) D

FIGURE 9.4

Sec. 9.3 I StAitIceIly Indeterminate Member8 Under AxIIII Loede 437

 SOLUTION. The free-body diagram of the rigid member ABD is shown in Fig.9.4(b),
in which F A is the force in the aluminum rod and Fe is the force in the concrete support.
The horizontal and vertical components of the reaction at hinge A are designated by Ax
and Av, respectively. Clearly, this force system is statically indeterminate, since there are
four unknown forces and only three available equations of equilibrium. In other words,
the structure shown in Fig. 9.4(a) has one redundant member. This redundant member,
for example BC, could be eliminated and still have a structure capable of sustaining the
applied force. Application of the conditions of equilibrium to the force system in
Fig. 9.4(b) yields
-+LFx=O
Ax = 0 (a)
i L Fv=O
Av + Fe + FA - 500 = 0 (b)
o LMA=O
3F A + 5Fe - 2000 = 0 (c)
Thus the conditions of equilibrium reduce to two equations [Le., Eqs. (b) and (c)] with the
three unknown FA' Fe, and Av. Another equation, containing two of the three unknowns,
is needed to complete the solution. This equation is obtained from the priniciple of
consistent deformations. In this case this principle implies that the extension, bA' of the
aluminum rod BC must be compatible with the contraction, be, of the concrete support
DE. Since the member ABD is rigid, this compatibility condition is expressed, geometri-
cally, by the line diagram shown in Fig. 9.4(c). Thus from similar triangles.
be bA
-=-
5 3
and
(d)
Since the materials are assumed to behave in a linearly elastic manner, Hooke's law
applies and

and
_ (ae) _ FeLe _ 1 x 1O- 6 Fe m
be - Ee Le - AeEe - 210

Therefore, Eq. (d) may be expressed in terms of the two unknown quantities FA and Fe.
Thus
2 X 1O- 6 FA ! x 1O- 6 Fe
=
49 210
and
Fe = 14.29FA (e)
Equations (c) and (e) may now be solved simultaneously to obtain the values of FA and
Fe. Thus FA = 26.86 kN and Fe = 383.88 kN. The vertical component of the force in the

438 Ch. 9 / StatIcally lnclet8nnlnate Members

 hinge at A, if needed, can be computed from Eq. (b). The normal stresses (J A and (Jc in the
aluminum rod and concrete support, respectively, are determined as follows:
FA 26.86 X 10 3
(J ---
A - AA - 7 X 10- 4

= 138.4 MPa 1

Fe 383.88 X 103
(Jc = Ac = 70 X 10- 4

= 154.8 MPa

EXAMPLE 9.3 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

A vertical steel member is fixed between the two unyielding supports A and B, as shown
in Fig. 9.5(a). When the temperature is 70°F, there is no stress in the steel member.
Determine the axial stresses developed in segments AC and CB of the member when a
load P = 50 k is applied as shown and the temperature is increased to 100°F. Assume
linear elastic behavior and that the distance between A and B (i.e., L = a + b) remains
unchanged. The following data apply: the modulus of elasticity for steel,
E = 30 X 106 psi, a = 2 ft, b = 3 ft, the cross-sectional area of the steel member
A = 6 in. 2 , and the coefficient of thermal expansion for steel, a = 6.5 X 10- 6 in./in./
OF.

OI.(tl.T-)L

1
/
A A

a=2ft a=2ft

f~
c C £ L = 5ft L=5ft

b=3ft
I b =3 ft

I
B
x
B B

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 9.5

Sec. 9.3 I Statically Indeterminate Members Under Axial Loads 439

 SOLUTION. The solution of this problem is accomplished most conveniently by con-
sidering it in two stages. Stage 1 would consider the effect of the load P only and stage 2
the effects of the temperature change (thermal effects) only. Once these two effects are
analyzed separately, they can be superimposed using the principle of superposition, which
is valid since linear elastic behavior is assumed.

STAGE 1: A free-body diagram of the steel member when only the load P is acting is
shown in Fig. 9.S(b), where the reactive forces FA and FB at supports A and B, respec-
tively, represent those due only to the applied force P. Thus there are two unknown
quantities and only one available equation of equilibrium. Therefore,
i L Fv = 0
FA + FB - SO = 0 (a)
A second relationship among the forces is obtained from the principle of consistent
deformations. Since the length L is to remain unchanged, the lengthening of segment AC,
fJ AC' must be numerically equal to the shortening of segment BC, fJ BC . Thus
(b)

in which fJ AC = (F A)(a)/AE and fJ BC = (F B)(b)!AE. Substitution of these quantities into

Eq. (b) yields
(F A)(a) = (F B)(b) (c)
where a = 2 ft and b = 3 ft. Therefore,
(d)
A simultaneous solution of Eqs. (a) and (d) leads to FA = 30 k and F B = 20 k. Thus the
axial stresses induced by the force P in segments AC and BC are
FA 30
(f AC = - = - =
A 6
SkSI. = Sooo pSI. (T)

(fBC = FB = 20 = 333 ksi = 3330 psi (C)

A 6 .

STAGE 2: When the temperature of the steel member AB in Fig. 9.5 is increased by the
amount 11 T = 100 - 70 = 30°F, it would have the tendency to increase in length by
1X(1l T)L. Obviously, since the length of the member L remains unchanged, this tendency to
increase in length cannot materialize and a compressive restraining force due to thermal
effects is induced in the supports at A and B. Determination of this compressive
restraining force is most conveniently accomplished by assuming that one of the two
supports, say support A, is removed as in Fig. 9.S(c) to allow the member to undergo free
expansion by the amount 1X(IlT)L = 6.S x 10- 6 (30)60 = 11.7 x 10- 3 in. This free expan-
sion would have to be eliminated by the application of the compressive force F as shown
in Fig. 9.5(c). The compressive force would need to be of sufficient magnitude to produce
a contraction in the steel member equal to 11.7 x 10- 3 in. The decrease in length
resulting from the compressive force F in the steel member is FL/ AE = 3.33 x 10- 7 Fin.
Therefore,
3.33 x 1O- 7 F = 11.7 x 10- 3

440 Ch. 9 / StatIcally Indatarmlnarte Members

 and
F = 35,135 lb
Thus the compressive axial stress (J, produced by thermal effects throughout the steel
member, becomes
F 35,135 .
(J = - = - - = 5856 PSI (C)
A 6

SUPERPOSITION OF STAGES I AND 2: The resultant stresses in segments AB and BC of the

steel member are obtained by superposing the stresses due to the applied load P and to
the change in temperature. Therefore, the resultant stress in segment AB is
(J~B = 5000 - 5856 = - 856 psi

= 1 856 psi (C)

and the resultant stress in segment BC is
(J~c = -3330 - 5856 = -9186 psi

= 1 9186 psi (C)

PROBLEMS ____________________________________________________________

In all the following problems, assume that the materials psi and Ec = 4 X 106 psi when the column is carrying
obey Hooke's law. an axial compressive force of 500 k.

9.1 A reinforced concrete column has five reinforcing
rods, each with a diameter of Ii in. The cross-sectional
area of the column is shown in Fig. P9.1 and the length
of the column is 12 ft. Compute the axial stresses in the
steel rods and in the concrete material if Es = 30 X 10 6
9.2 An aluminum cylinder is filled with concrete as
shown in Fig. P9.2. The assembly is then subjected to
the compressive load P = 1000 kN. Compute the axial
stress induced in the aluminum cylinder and in the con-
crete material as well as the shortening of the assembly.
Assume that E A = 70 G Pa and Ec = 30 G Pa.

f- 0. 17 m ---l
0.20 m

FIGURE P9.1 FIGURE P9.2

Sec. 9.3 I Statically Indetanninate Members Under Axial Loada 441

9.3 A composite compression member consisting of a IP= 200 kN
concentric steel bar S and an aluminum tube A is
loaded as shown in Fig. P9.3. Determine the axial
stresses in the steel bar and in the aluminum tube if
/ Rigid
t
A /
1e
Es = 30 X 106 psi, EA = 10 X 106 psi, As = AA = 0.3
in. 2 •

0.5 m
S A S

8 in.
I
/ V V L
L
/
/

Cross section through assembly diameter

Rigid base
V
FIGURE P9.5
FIGURE P9.3

9.6 The rigid horizontal member is supported by the

9.4 The frame shown in Fig. P9.4 consists of two mag-
nesium outside bars marked M and a center aluminum
bar marked A. If the aluminum bar is 0 .0012 in. shorter
than the two magnesium bars, determine the load P so
that the axial stresses induced in the three bars are iden-
tical. Each bar has a cross-sectional area of 3 in. 2 •
Assume that EA = 10 X 106 psi and EM = 6.5 X 106 psi.
Compute also the shortening of the magnesium bars.
aluminum rod A and brass rod B, as shown in
Fig. P9.6 . When the ISO-kip load is applied, the rigid
member remains horizontal and the axial stress induced
in the brass rod is (TB = 18 ksi. If the moduli of elasticity
for aluminum and brass are, respectively, EA = 10 X 10 3
ksi and EB = 15 X 10 3 ksi, determine the necessary
cross-sectional areas of the two rods.
•

18 in .
M A M 10 in.

1- 0 -+- 0

FIGURE P9.4

9.5 The system shown in Fig. P9.5 consists of two steel
outside posts and an aluminum central post, each with
a rectangular cross section 0.05 m x 0.07 m. Before the
load P = 200 kN is applied, the two steel posts
are shorter than the aluminum post by some unknown
magnitude e. Let Es = 200 GPa and EA = 70 GPa and
determine the quantity e so that the stress in the steel
posts is exactly twice that in the aluminum post.
150 k
FIGURE P9.6
9.7 The assembly shown in Fig. P9.7 consists of an
aluminum block 0.08 m long placed on top of a steel
block that is 0.10 m long. The assembly is subjected to a
load P which deforms it by 2 x 10 - 4 m. If both blocks
have the same cross-sectional area A = 6 X 10 - 4 m 2 ,

442 Ch. 9 / Static:ally Indetenninate Membef'S

determine the value of the load P. Assume that Es = 9.9 The rigid horizontal member is supported by the
210 GN/m 2 and EA = 70 GN/m2. two rods A and B as shown in Fig. P9.9. The 7S-kN
p
load is so placed that the rigid member remains hori-
zontal. Assume the following data: AA = 4 X 10- 4 m 2,

I
l
Rigid
I
AB = 3 X 10- 4 m 2, EA = 100 X 10 9 N/m2, and EB =
120 X 10 9 N/ m2. Determine:
(a) The angle e for equilibrium.
(b) The position of the 7S-kN force on the horizontal
Aluminum 0.08 m
rigid member.
(c) The axial stress developed in rods A and B.
(d) The vertical movement of the rigid member.

Steel 0.10 m

~1 FIGURE P9.7

9.8 A compression block is made up of two materials

as shown in Fig. P9.8. The magnesium portion mea-
sures 0.04 m x 0.12 m in cross section while the
wooden portion measures 0.10 m x 0.12 m in cross
section. If EM = SO X 10 9 N/m2 and Ew = 10 X 109
N/ m2, and if the 300-kN load is so placed that the rigid
platen remains horizontal, determine:
(a) The position of the 300-kN load.
(b) The compressive axial stresses in the magnesIUm
and in the wood.
(c) The shortening of the compression block.
75 k '
0. 20 m
FIGURE P9.9
9.10 The assembly shown in Fig. P9.10 consists of an
outer cylinder of material A, a central solid core of
material B, and filling the concentric space between A
and B is material C. A compressive load P is applied
through the rigid plate deforming the entire assembly
p

I Rigid
J

0. 20 m

O.IOm 0.04m

FIGURE P9.S FIGURE P9.10

Sec. 9.3 / Statically Indeterminate Members Under Axial Loads 443

uniformly by an amount (j = 0.002 in. Determine the
load P and the axial stresses in the various components
of the assembly. Assume that EA = 15 X 106 psi, EB =
10 X 10 6 psi, and Ec = 5 X 10 6 psi.
9.11 The entire assembly shown in Fig. P9.11 is made
of aluminum for which E = 10 X 106 psi. If the load
P = 70 k, determine the axial stresses and deformations
9.14 The rigid beam shown in Fig. P9.14 is hinged at
A and supported at Band C by a steel and an alumin-
um rod, respectively. The following data apply : Es = 30
X 106 psi, As = 0.20 in. 2 , EA = 10 X 106 psi, AA = 1.00
in. 2 • Determine the load P to produce an axial stress of
30 ksi in the steel rod. Also determine the stress in the
aluminum rod and the deformation of both rods.
/

in both parts of the assembly.

/

I
A

2- in._
diameter
- 6 on.
P p
"2 "2
B

FIGURE P9.14

4- in.
dia meter
C
FIGURE P9.11
9.12 Refer to the assembly shown in Fig. P9.ll and
assume segment AB to be steel for which Es = 30 X 106
psi and segment BC to be aluminum for which EA = 10
X 10 6 psi. If the load P = 80 k, find the axial stresses
10 in.
9.15 The system shown in Fig. P9.15 consists of a rigid
beam hinged at A and supported at B by means of a
flexible cable made of material X. A load of 350 kN is
/ applied as shown. Before the load is applied, a gap of
1.5 x 10 - 4 m exists between the rigid beam and the
support at C, which is made of material Y. If Ex = 200
GPa, Ax = 1.5 X 10 - 4 m 2 , Ey = 50 GPa, and Ay =
50 X 10 - 4 m 2 , determine the axial stresses and defor-
mations in materials X and Y.
/

and deformations in both parts of the assembly.

9.13 The system shown in Fig. P9.13 consists of a rigid 2, 5 m X

beam hinged at A and supported by a steel flexible
cable at B (Es = 200 GPa and As = 0.7 X 10- 4 m 2 ) and
~r-A_ _ _ _---L_ _B-,--_ _ _ _ _--,C 1.5 X 10-' m
a concrete support at qEc = 30 GPa, Ac = 50 X 10- 4
m 2 ). A load of 100 kN is applied as shown. Determine
• RJgid
,
the axial stresses induced in the steel cable and concrete
1m
support. 350 k
/

2,5 m - --1'- 1.5 m 2,Om

Steel cable
2, 5 m FIGURE P9.1S

9.16 The system shown in Fig. P9.16 consists of two

c B A
identical aluminum rods, each having a diameter of
Rigid •
1.0 in., and a single-threaded steel bolt with a diameter
of 2.5 in. and a pitch (i.e., the advance of the bolt per
complete turn of the nut) of 0.10 in. After the nut at the
- 1 - -- -4,0 m - -- I top of the bolt is turned to a snug fit, it is wrench
FIGURE P9.13 tightened one complete turn. If Es = 30 X 106 psi,

444 Ch. 9 / Statically Indeterminate Members

EA = 10 X 106 psi, determine the axial (normal) stresses GPa, IXT = 10 X 10- 6 m/mt C, EA = 70 GPa, and IXA =
induced in the aluminum rods and in the steel bolt. 24 X 10 - 6 m/mt c.
Assume the containing frame to be rigid.

16 in.

1
12 in.

FIGURE P9.17

9.18 Determine the axial stresses in Problem 9.11 if in

FIGURE P9.16
9.17 The system shown in Fig. P9.17 consists of a
0.02S-m-diameter titanium rod attached rigidily to a
O.OSO-m-diameter aluminum rod at its top and to a rigid
frame at its bottom. When the temperature is SO°C, the
clearance between the head of the aluminum rod and
the rigid frame is 2 x 10 - 4 m. Determine the axial
stresses induced in the titanium and in the aluminum
rods when the temperature drops to 10°C. Let ET = 110
addition to the 70-k load, there is a temperature drop
d T = 60°F. Assume the coefficient of thermal expan-
sion for aluminum, IX = 12.5 X 10- 6 in./inp F.
9.19 Determine the axial stresses in Problem 9.12 if in
addition to the 80-k load, there is a temperature
increase d T = 120°F. Assume the coefficients of
thermal expansions for steel and aluminum to be,
respectively, IXs = 6.S X 10 - 6 in./inp F and IXA =
12.5 X 10 - 6 in./in.;oF.

1.1
Statically
The procedure used in the solution of problems dealing with statically indeterminate
members under torsional loads is essentially the same as that used for statically indetermi-
Indeterminate nate axially loaded members. As was done in Section 9.3, the conditions of equilibrium
Members Under have to be supplemented by the principle of consistent deformations. In the case of
Torsional Loads torsionally loaded members, the principal of consistent deformations relates to the distor-
tions (angles of twist) of these members. Only torsional members with circular cross
sections will be considered.
Consider, for example, the case of the two-material shaft shown in Fig. 9.6, which is a
fixed at its left end and subjected to the torque T at its right end. The hollow shaft is
made of material X and the concentric solid shaft of material Y. Both shafts are fastened
to a rigid plate at the right end and the entire assembly may be assumed to act as one
single unit. The maximum shear stress developed in both materials are to be determined.
The applied torque T is resisted partially by each of the two shafts. Thus consider the
free-body diagram of that portion of the composite shaft to the right of section a-a, as

Sec. 9.4 I Statically 1~lnate Members Undet" Torsional Loads 445

 ,
v
+
I a T
I
I T
x
~ ___ x
I
y -
I

Tx

I / 1
Q
L
I
(a) (b) (e)

FIGURE 9.6

shown in the three-dimensional view of Fig. 9.6(c). The resisting torque in hollow shaft X
is Tx and that in solid shaft ' Y is Ty . The only available and applicable equation of
equilibrium relates to the sum of the torques about the x axis. Thus
L T,,=O
Tx + Ty - T = 0 (a)
Equation (a) contains the two unknowns Tx and Ty and, obviously, their determination
requires the development of a second relation containing these same two unknowns. This
second relation is developed by observing that the total distortion (i.e., the total angle of
twist e) of the solid shaft is the same as that of the hollow shaft. In other words, over the
entire length L of the assembly, the angle of twist ex of hollow shaft X is identical with
the angle of twist ey of solid shaft Y as shown schematically in Fig. 9.6(b). Thus
(b)
Equation (b) may be expressed in terms of the torques Tx and Ty using Eq. 4.22.
Therefore,

(c)

The use of Eq. 4.22 requires that Hooke's law be obeyed by both materials. Since the
length L for shafts X and Y is the same, Eq. (c) may be written in the form
JxG x
Tx = JyG y Ty (d)

A simultaneous solution of Eqs. (a) and (d) leads to the values of the two torques Tx and
Ty from which the maximum shear stresses in both shafts are determined by the use of
Eq.4.19.
EXAMPLE 9.4 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Refer to the composite shaft of Fig. 9.6 and let r 1 = 0.10 m, r 2 = 0.20 m, r3 = 0.30 m, and
L = 8 m. The applied torque T = 670 kN-m and the materials are such that Gx = 50
GN/ m 2 and G y = 100 GN/m2. Determine (a) the maximum shear stresses in both shafts,
and (b) the total angle of twist of the entire assembly.

446 Ch. 9 / Statically Indeterminate Members

 SOLUTION
(a) Substitution of the given data into Eqs. (a) and (d) leads to the following two simulta-
neous equations in Tx and Ty:
Tx + Ty - 670 = 0
Tx = 32.5Ty
A simultaneous solution of these two equations yields
Tx = 650 kN-m and Ty = 20 kN-m
Therefore,
Tp 650 x 103 (0.30)
'tx = J = (n/32)(O.60 4 _ 0.404 )

= 119.1 MPa 1

Tp 20 x 103(0.10)
't ------..:......~
y - J - (n/32)(O.204)

= 112.7 MPa 1

(b) Ox = Oy = (TL)
JG x
650 x 103 x 8
=~-:-:-----:-::--~-----;:-
(n/32)(O.60 4 - 0.404 )(50 x 109 )

= I 0.0102 rad I
EXAMPLE 9.5 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

The system shown in Fig. 9.7(a) consists of a steel shaft 3 in. in diameter fixed at both
ends D and F and fastened rigidly to the rigid vertical member BC, which in turn is
attached to the two aluminum rods at Band C as shown. The length 1 of the aluminum
rods is 20 in. and their cross-sectional area A is 1 in. 2 . Other needed dimensions are
shown in Fig. 9.7(a). Assume the coefficient of thermal expansion for aluminum,
IX = 12.5 X 10- 6 in./in.;oF, the modulus of elasticity for aluminum E = 10 X 10 6 psi, the
modulus of rigidity for steel G = 12 X 106 psi, and that the two materials behave in a
linearly elastic manner. If the temperature of the two aluminum rods is dropped by the
amount AT = 400°F, determine the magnitude of torque developed in both segments of
the steel shaft.

SOLUTION. When the temperature of the aluminum rods drops through AT, each of
the two rods will have a tendency to shorten by an amount bT = IX(AT)l. However,
because of the restraining force F induced in each aluminum rod through the rigid
member BC, each of the two aluminum rods will shorten only through the amount

Sec. 9.4 I Statically Indelarminata Membe... Under Torsional Loads 447

 () = {)T - ()F = a(a T)l - Fl/ AE. A free-body diagram of the rigid member BC is shown in
Fig. 9.7(b). As a result of the deformation () of the aluminum rods, the rigid member BC
rotates through the angle (J, which is also the angle of twist of the two portions of the steel
shaft at section E. The geometric relation between (J and () is shown in Fig. 9.7(c). For
small deformations,

() 1[
(J=-=-
c c
a(aT)I--
AE
FlJ
1 [ 20F ]
= 20 12.5 x 10- 6 (400)(20) - 1 x 10 X 106

=(5 x 10- 3 )-(10-7)F (a)

As mentioned earlier, the angles of twist of the two portions of the steel shaft at section E
are identical, to satisfy the law of consistent deformations. Thus
(JED = (JEF

aC~)ED - bC~)EF
Since J and G for segments ED and EF of the steel shaft are identical, this relation
reduces to

= 1.5TEF (b)
Also, since (JED = (JEF = (J, the following relations may be established:

(c)
and

b(I...)
JG EF
= (J

1.89 x 10-7TEF = 5(10- 3 ) - (10-7)F (d)

Referring now to the free-body diagram shown in Fig. 9.7(b) and summing torques about
the axis of the steel shaft (i.e., about the x axis), we obtain
L T,,=O
TED + TEF - 2Fc = 0

TED + TEF - 40F = 0 (e)

Substituting Eq. (b) into Eq. (e) yields

TEF = 16F (f)

448 Ch.9 / Statically IndeWrmlnat8 Members

 A simultaneous solution of Eqs. (d) and (f) leads to the following value for the torque in
portion EF:

I TEF = 25,600 lb-in. I

Finally, Eq. (b) yields
I TED = 38,400 lb-in. I

x
b .. 18 '
'fl.

(a)

B
F
5=o.(AT)/- Al i
8

/ I
I
c I
I
6/
.~
0 I
I
,- -
N
\I
'" x I
I
,/
I
/
I
.E /
0
N I
II
'" e e

(b) (e)

FIGURE 9.7

Sec. 9.4 I Statically Indetenninate Members UnderToraional Loads 449

PROBLEMS
In all the following problems, assume that the materials
behave in a linearly elastic manner.
9.20 The solid shaft shown in Fig. P9.20 is fixed at
both ends A and C and is subjected to the forces
F = 3S,000 Ib creating a torque at location B. The
material of the shaft is steel (G = 12 x 106 psi) and its
diameter is 4 in. Determine, where the shaft is most
highly stressed, the principal stresses and the absolute
maximum shearing stress. Determine also the maximum
angle of twist induced in the shaft.
F = 35.000Ib
30 in.
FIGURE P9.20
9.21 The shaft shown in Fig. P9.21 is fixed at its two.
ends A and B. A concentrated torque T is applied at
pulley C. The following data are provided: a = 1.S m,
b = 2.0 m, D = O.OS m, G = 30 GN/m2, and the angle
of twist at section C, Be = 0.04 rad. Determine the mag-
nitude of the applied torque T.
G~t(S-------.-------r§J
I a----~------b------~
FIGURE P9.21
9.22 The two-diameter shaft shown in Fig. P9.22 con-
sists of a 0.08-m-diameter segment AB and a 0 0. 5-m-
diameter segment BC rigidly fixed at its twc ends A and
C. The material is aluminum for which G = 30 GN/m2.
Let L J = 2.5 m and L2 = 1.5 m. Assume that the torque
T = 8 kN-m and determine:
450
(a) The absolute maximum shearing stress developed in
the system.
(b) The maximum angle of twist.
1 - - - - - L1 - - -- I...,
...
' - - - L2 - I
- - +'i
FIGURE P9.22
9.23 The composite shaft shown in Fig. P9.22 consists
of a 4-in. solid aluminum shaft AB (G = 4 x 106 psi)
securely fastened to a 2.S-in. solid steel shaft BC
(G = 12 x 106 psi) so that the entire assembly acts as
one single unit. A torque T = 15 k-ft is applied as
shown. Assume that L J = 3 ft and L2 = 5 ft. Deter-
mine :
(a) The torques developed in the steel and aluminum
shafts.
(b) The rotation of the section at B with respect to the
sections at A and at C.
(c) The absolute maximum shearing stress in the alu-
min urn shaft.
9.24 A sectional view of a steel shaft is shown in
Fig. P9.24. The shaft is fixed at its two ends A and B
and subjected to a torque T at section C. Determine the
absolute maximum shearing stress to which the shaft is
subjected. The following data apply: T = 175 k-in . ,
L = 2 .5 ft, D J = 2 in. , D2 = 3.5 in., and G = 12 X 106
psi.
FIGURE P9.24
9.25· Refer to the shaft in Fig. P9.24. Segment AC is
titanium (G = 45 GPa) and segment CB is aluminum
(G = 30 GPa). Determine the absolute maximum shear-
ing stress in the shaft and the angle of twist at section C.
Ch. 9 I Statically Indelermlnete Members
The following data apply: T = 15 kN-m, Dl = 0.10 m,
D2 = 0.15 m, and L = 1.00 m.
9.26 Refer to the shaft shown in Fig. P9.21. The fol-
lowing data apply: a = 2.0 ft, b = 3.0 ft, D = 3 in.,
G = 6 X 106 psi, and the absolute maximum shearing
stress in segment AC, ITmaxlAc = 20 ksi. Determine the
magnitude of the applied torque T.
9.27 Refer to the shaft shown in Fig. P9.21. The fol-
lowing data apply: T = 1.5 kN-m, a = 1.0 m,
b = 2.5 m, G = 45 GPa, and the angle of twist at
section C, ()c = 0.015 rad. Determine the diameter of the
shaft.
9.28 The following data apply to the shaft shown in
Fig. P9.28: Dl = 1.5D 2 = 3D 3 , Ll = 2L2 = 5 ft, GAB =
4 X 106 psi, GBC = 12 X 106 psi, and the absolute
maximum shear stress in segment AB, I t max lAB = 15 ksi.
Determine the diameters D l , D 2 , and D 3 •
FIGURE P9.28
9.29 A composite shaft of length L consists of an alu-
minum (G = 4 x 106 psi) core surrounded by a magne-
sium (G = 2.5 x 106 psi) shell with an outside diameter
of 8 in. If the outside diameter of the aluminum core, d,
is exactly equal to the inside diameter of the magnesium
shell, determine the value of d so that the torque in the
Sec. 9.4 / St.atk:lllly Indetermlnata Members Under ToraIonIIl LoedII
aluminum core is three times that in the magnesium
shell. Find the principal stresses and the absolute
maximum shear stresses on the outside of each part of
the composite shaft if the applied torque is 20 k-ft.
9.30 A sectional view of a composite shaft made up of
hollow shafts X and Z and solid shaft Y is shown in
Fig. P9.30. Member C is assumed thin and rigid and the
entire assembly is fixed at its two ends A and B. The
following data apply Ll = 0.50 m, L2 = 1.00 m, d l =
0.08 m, d 2 = 0.10 m, d 3 = 0.12 m, d4 = 0.12 m, d s =
0.14 m, G x = 50 GPa, Gy = 20 GPa, Gz = 80 GPa, and
T = 5 kN-m. Determine:
(a) The principal stresses and the absolute maximum
shearing stresses on the outside of the three shafts.
(b) The angle of twist at C.
T
FIGURE P9.30
9.31 Refer to the composite shaft in Fig. P9.30. The
angle of twist at section C, ()c = 0.0075 rad. Determine
the applied torque T if all other data are the same as
given in Problem 9.30.
9.32 The 4-in.-diameter aluminum shaft shown in
Fig. P9.32 is fixed at its two ends A and B and is sub-
jected to the two torques Tl and T2 as shown. Assume
that G = 6 X 106 psi, Ll = 1.5 ft, L2 = 3.0 ft, L3 = 4 ft,
Tl = 12 k-ft, and T2 = 18 k-ft. Determine the absolute
maximum shearing stress in the shaft.
FIGURE P9.32
451
9.33 Refer to the shaft shown in Fig. P9.32. The diam-
eter of the entire shaft is 0.15 m. Let Tl = 20.0 kN-m,
7; = 15.0 kN-m, Ll = 1.0 m, L2 = 0.75 m, L3 = 1.50 m,
G AC = 25 GPa, GCD = 40 GPa, and GDB = 70 GPa.
Determine the principal stresses and the absolute
maximum shear stress on the outside of each of the
three segments of the shaft.
nesium (or: = 14.5 X 10- 6 in./in.tF) rods whose cross-
sectional area is 0.4 in. 2 • Other needed information is
shown in Pig. P9. 34. If the temperature of the magne-
sium rods is dropped by the amount ilT = 350oP,
determine the absolute maximum shearing stress in the
brass shaft and the rotation of the rigid horizontal
member. Assume that EM = 6.5 X 106 psi.

9.34 The 4-in.-diameter brass (G = 5.5 X 106 psi) shaft 9.35 Refer to the assembly shown in Fig. 9.7(a) of
shown in Fig. P9.34 is fixed at end A and fastened Example 9.5. Segment DE is a 5-in.-diameter aluminum
securely to a rigid horizontal member at end B. The two (G = 4 x 106 psi) shaft and segment EF is a 3-in.-
ends of the rigid member are attached to identical mag- diameter steel (G = 12 x 106 psi) shaft. The two identi-
cal rods attached to the ends of rigid member Be are
aluminum (E = 10 x 106 psi, or: = 12.5 X 10- 6 in./in.;aF)
and their cross-sectional area A is 0.50 in. 2 • The follow-
ing data are provided: a = 20 in., b = 15 in., c = 25 in.,
ET
"
";;
1:j 24
.
and 1 = 25 in. Determine the temperature drop that
would produce a rotation of 0.003 rad in the rigid
member Be.
In.
OIl

'"
~

Rigid 9.36 Refer to Problem 9.20 and determine the prin-

beam
cipal strains and the absolute maximum shear strain
~24 in.-.......- 2 4 in. where the shaft is most highly stressed. Let Il = 0.25.

9.37 Refer to Problem 9.30 and determine the prin-

cipal strains and the absolute maximum shear strain on
FIGURE pg.34 the outside surface of shaft X, let Il = 0.25.

1.1i Statically indeterminate members under flexural loads are analyzed using the same basic
Statically procedure discussed in Sections 9.3 and 9.4. The applicable equations of equilibrium need
Indeterminate to be supplemented by additional relations satisfying the principle of consistent deforma-
Members Under tions. When using the method of two successive integrations, the moment equation for the
Flexural Loads- flexural member (i.e., the differential equation of the elastic curve for the beam) is written
Two Successive in terms of unknown force!) and/or moments. Thus, in addition to the two constants of
Integrations integration, the slope and deflection equations would contain one or more unknown
quantities that are evaluated from the boundary conditions of the problem. The following
examples ilIustrate the use of the method of two successive integrations in the solution of
staticaIIy indeterminate beams.

EXAMPLE 9.6

Consider the beam shown in Fig. 9.8(a). The beam is simply supported at its left end A
and fixed at its right end B. It carries a load that varies in intensity from zero at support
A to w at support B according to the relation Wx = (x/L)w: Determine the unknown forces
and moments at the two supports.

452 Ch. 9 / Stalic:ally IncIetermi..... Mambars

 SOLUTION. The free-body diagram of the beam shown in Fig. 9.8(b) indicates that
there are four unknown reactive components, A v , B x , B v , and M B' Since there are only
three applicable equilibrium equations, the beam is statically indeterminate. These three
equations of equilibrium are applied as follows:
--> L Fx = 0 yields

(a)

i L F v = 0 yields
(b)
o L M B = 0 yields
(c)
Equations (b) and (c) represent two simultaneous algebraic equations with the three
unknown A v , B v , and M B ' One more equation is needed to complete the solution. This
equation is obtained from knowledge of the deformation characteristics and support
conditions of the beam (i.e., by applying the principle of consistent deformations).

tv
I
I
I
I IV

A
~~~~~~~B~'l
I
- - -----+-
x

L
(a)

I
lYx =(-)w
x
tu
I lY
I

B9
I
I _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ __________ _ _ _ _ __ _ ~ x
T M8

~--------------- L ----------------~
(b) Bv

FIGURE 9.8

Sec. 9.5 / Statically Indemrminate Mambers Under Flexural Load_Two Succassive Integratlon8 453
 Using the method of two successive integrations and the free-body diagram shown in
Fig. 9.8(c), the differential equation for the elastic curve of the beam is written as follows:

EIu v" = M U = A v x - ~
6~L x
3

After two successive integrations, the following two equations are obtained:
Av 2 1 W 4
EI v' = -
U 2
x - - - x
24L
+ C1 (d)

(e)

where C 1 and C 2 are constants of integration. These two constants, along with A v , are
unknown quantitites that can be determined from the existing boundary conditions.
These boundary conditions are
1. x = 0, v = O.
2. x = L, v = O.
3. x = L, v' = O.
Substitution of these three conditions into Eqs. (d) and (e) yields the following values:
wL3
C 1 =-120'

and

Substituting this value for Av into Eqs. (b) and (c) leads to the values of Bv and MB as

BE
follows:

E]] B =WL
v
-
10
and M =-
B 15

EXAMPLE 9.7 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

The beam shown in Fig. 9.9(a) is fixed at both ends and carries a load that varies in
intensity from zero at support A tq W at support B according to the relations Wx =
(X/L)2W. Determine the reactive forces and moments at the two supports.

SOLUTION. The free-body diagram of the beam is shown in Fig. 9.9(b), and it shows
that there are a total of four unknown reactive components, A v , B v , M A' and M B'
Reactive components in the x direction are zero, since there are no applied forces in this
direction. Only two equilibrium equations are applicable as follows:
o LMB=O
(a)

454 Ch.9 I s-lc:ally In~_ Members

 (b)
Equations (a) and (b) are two simultaneous algebraic equations contammg the four
unknowns A v , B v , M A' and M B ' Therefore, two additional relations are needed among
the unknowns in order to complete the solution. These two additional relations are
obtained, as in Example 9.6, by considering the boundary conditions and the principle of
consistent deformations. Thus we can write the differential equation for the elastic curve
of the beam as follows :

E1uv" = Mu = Av x - MA - /2; X4

Performing two successive integrations, we obtain the following two equations :

(c)

Av 3 MA 2 1 W 6
El v = - x - -
u 6 x - - - x
2 360 L2 + C 1 x + C2 (d)

in which C 1 and C 2 are constants of integration. Equations (c) and (d) contain four
unknowns, and therefore four boundary conditions are needed for their determination.

tv
I I
'_1_x
IV
I
A B

, L
(a)

tv
I

C:
IV

)x Me
L
Av B.
(b)

c:
tv W. = (£)2 IV
I V.

J)MO_ x
(c)

FIGURE 9.9

Sec. 9.5 / Statically Indeterminate Members Under Flexural Load_Two SuccessIve Integrations 455
 These boundary conditions are
1. x = 0, v = O.
2. x = 0, v' = O.
3. x = L, v = O.
4. x = L, v' = O.
These boundary conditions, when substituted ino Eqs. (c) and (d), lead to four simulta-
neous equations in C1 , C2 • A v , and M A.' Their solution yields the following values:

Using the values just determined for M A. and Av in Eqs. (a) and (b) leads to the values of
M Band Bv as follows:

~~
~and~

EXAMPLE 9.8 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _- _ _ _ _ _ __

The steel beam shown in Fig. 9.10(a) is simply supported at end B by the aluminum rod
BC whose length is I and whose cross-sectional area is A. The beam is fixed at end D and
carries a uniform load of intensity w. Assume the coefficient of thermal expansion for
aluminium to be 0(, the modulus of elasticity for aluminum to be EA. and that for steel to
be Es , and the moment of inertia for the beam to be Iu' Before the load is applied, rod BC
is unstressed. If, in addition to the load on the steel beam, the temperature of the alumin-
um rod is dropped by the amount AT, determine the force induced in rod BC and the
reaction components at support D.

SOLUTION. The free-body diagram of the steel beam BD is shown in Fig 9.10(b),
which also shows the free-body diagram of the aluminum rod Be. Since there are no
applied forces in the x direction, reactive forces in this direction do not exist and the
free-body diagram of beam BD has three unknown reaction components F, Dv , and MD'
Note that the unknown F is also the force acting on rod BC.
Only two equations of equiljbrium are applicable as follows:
o LMD=O
(a)

F + Dv - wL = 0 (b)
Equations (a) and (b) contain the three unknown quantities F, M D , and Dv' Thus the
solution of these two equations requires that an additional relation among these unknown
quantities be established. This additional relation is obtained by considering the bound-
ary conditions alld applying the principle of consistent deformations.

456 Ch.' / 8t.adcIII1y IndetennInIrI:e Members

 ~-,--~-T--~~--~~ .~

D
L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ -% - ;-

I
F

e
F

Dr
w

I
'--------!LJ:-
I
L
tu (b)
10.,
I
I

~&~ )(

(e)

FIGURE 9.10

As the temperature drops through AT, the aluminum rod tends to shorten by the
amount (jT = a(A T)l. However, the force F, which represents the restraining effect of the
attached beam, reduces this shortening tendency by the amount (jF = Flj AE A . Thus, if we
assume that (jT < (jF' the net deflection of the beam at B is downward and equal to
Fl
(jF - (jT = - - a(AT)1
AEA
The free-body diagram of a small segment of the beam at the left end is shown in
Fig. 9.10(c), from which the differential equation for the elastic curve is written as follows:
wx 2
Es I u v" = M u = Fx - - 2

Two successive integrations yield the following two equations:

Fx 2 wx 3
Es1u v' = 2 -""""6 + C 1 (c)

(d)

Sec. 9.5 / Statically Indeterminate Members Under Flexural Load_Two Succeaaive Integrations 457
 The three unknown quantities F, C l ' and C 2 are determined from the boundary condi-
tions, which, in this case, are
1. x = 0, v = a(ilT)I- Fl/ AE A .
2. x = L, v = O.
3. x = L, v' = O.
Substitution of these boundary conditions into Eqs. (c) and (d) leads to the following
value for F:

(e)

If this value for F is now used in Eqs. (a) and (b), we obtain the unknown quantities Dv
and M D as follows:

(f)

(g)

Note that the quantity il T represents a temperature drop and should be treated as a
positive quantity in all of the relations above.

PROBLEMS ______________________________________________________________

Assume linear elastic behavior in all of the following
problems.
9.38 The beam shown in Fig. P9.38 is simply sup-
ported at end A and fixed at end B. It carries a uniform
load of intensity w. Find the reaction components at A
and B. Express answers in terms of wand L.
a gap equal to (j between the beam and the support at
A. Determine the reaction components at the two sup-
ports and compare them to those found in Problem
9.38.
9.40 The aluminum beam shown in Fig. P9.40 is
simply supported by a magnesium compression block at
B and fixed at C. It carries a load that varies from zero

I~---------------L--------------~I
~B j~'
w
,
I
....L

1 f t f III
f t f C
- - .<

FIGURE P9.38

9.39 Refer to the beam shown in Fig. P9.38. Before the

uniform load is applied, it was discovered that there was FIGURE P9.40

458 Ch. 9 I Statically Indeterminate Members

at B to w at C according to the relation Wx = (x j L)w.
The following data are provided : L = 18 ft, E A = 10
X 106 psi, Iu = 250 in.4, w = 6000 lblft, I = 1 ft, EM
= 6 X 106 psi, and the cross sectional area for the mag-
nesium compression block A = 10 in. 2 • Determine the
axial stress in the magnesium member and the reaction
components at the fixed support.
applied at the free end of the overhang AB as shown.
Determine the value of M A if:
(a) The slope at B is zero.
(b) The slope at B is -0.015wiJ jE1u .
(c) The slope at B is +0.015wL3 j El u .
Express your answers in terms of wand L.

9.41 Refer to the beam shown in Fig. P9.40 and IV

described in Problem 9.40. Before the load is applied,

there is a gap of 1.0 in. between the support and the
beam at B. Determine the axial stress in the magnesium
member and the reaction components at the fixed L ----r-------- 2L ------~
support. FIGURE P9.43

9.42 The beam shown in Fig. P9.42 is fixed at both

ends and carries a load that varies linearly according to 9.44 Refer to the beam shown in Fig. P9.43 which is
the relation Wx = w - (x j L)w. Determine the reaction simply supported at B and fixed at C. Determine, in
components at both ends. Express answers in terms of w terms of w, M A' and L, the reaction components at B
and L. and C.

x
9.45 The beam shown in Fig. P9.45 is simply sup-
ported at B and fixed at C. It carries a load that varies
/ in intensity from zero at B to w at C according to the
relation

w
x
= (~)2W
2L
A downward load 2P is applied at the free end of the
overhang AB. Determine in terms of w, P, and L the
reaction components at Band C.
L

A B
-x
~----~~----------------------~

u
~L---+-/----------2L----------~
FIGURE P9.45

FIGURE P9.42
9.43 The beam shown in Fig. P9.43 is simply sup-
ported at B and fixed at C. It carries a uniform load
over the span between Band C. A moment M A is
9.46 Refer to the beam shown in Fig. P9.4S. Deter-
mine, in terms of wand L, the magnitude of the load
P if
(a) The slope at B is zero.
(b) The slope at B is 0.05wL 3 IEIu '

Sec. 9.& / Statically Indeterminate Membe... Under Flexu.... ~Two au-Ive Integnrtlona 459
9.47 The beam shown in Fig. P9.47 is fixed at A and
simply supported at B. It carries a load that varies from
zero at A to 1.5w at C. Determine:
(a) The reaction components at A and B in terms of w
and L.
(b) The slope at B.
x
u-- ijj,mm
A L = 15 ft and w = 2 k/ft and determine the principal
FIGURE P9.47
9.48 The aluminum (E = 10 x 10 6 psi) beam shown in
Fig. P9.48 is supported at B by the steel (E = 30 x 10 6
psi) rod BD of length I = 15 ft and cross sectional area
A = 0.5 in. 2 and is fixed at C. It carries a uniform load
/ I = 2 ft, L = 15 ft, w = 5 k jft, IX = 13 X 10- 6 in.jin.;oF,
D A = 0.35 in. 2 , EA = 10 X 10 6 psi, Es = 30 X 10 6 psi,
Al~ _______L ______-+_______ L _______c~
FIGURE P9.48
460
of intensity w = 800 lb/ft over the entire length. If
L = 12 ft and the moment of inertia for the aluminum
beam is Iu = 600 in.4, determine:
(a) The axial stress in the steel rod.
(b) The deformation of the beam at B.
(c) The reaction components at C.
9.49 The beam shown in Fig. P9.49 has a
0.15 m x 0.25 m rectangular cross section and the loads
are applied in a plane that contains the v principal axis
of inertia. Let w = 5 kNjm and L = 5 m and determine
the principal stresses and the absolute maximum shear
stress midway between supports Band C at the top of
the section.
~~
W
M~WL2G I I I I I I I
~~
*'
2L
3
FIGURE P9.49
9.50 The beam shown in Fig. P9.49 has a W24 x 62
section (see Appendix E) and the loads are applied in a
plane that contains the v principal axis of inertia. Let
stresses and the absolute maximum shear stress at
support C at the top of the W section. Ignore effects of
stress concentration (see Chapter 12).
9.51
(a) Derive Eqs. (e), (f), and (g) in Example 9.8 (p. 458).
(b) The following data are provided in Example 9.8:
temperature drop L1T = 250°F, Iu = 500 in.4. Determine
the axial stress and the deformation of the beam at
point B.
9.52 Refer to the system shown in Fig. P9.40 and
assume that when the load is applied, the temperature
of the magnesium block increases by L1 T = 300°F. If the
coefficient of thermal expansion for magnesium is
IX = 15 x 10 - 6 in.jin.;oF, determine the axial stress in
the magnesium block and the components of the reac-
tion at support C. All other conditions given in
Problem 9.40 remain unchanged.
Ch. 9 I Statically Indetanninata Members
9.53 Repeat Problem 9.48, if in addition to the load w,
the temperature of the steel rod drops by 300°F.
Assume the coefficient of thermal expansion for steel to
be ex = 6.5 x 10- 6 in.jin.oF.
9.54 Refer to Problem 9.49 and determine the prin-
cipal strains and the absolute maximum shear strain
midway between supports Band C at the top of the
section. Let E = 200 G Pa and Jl. = 0.25.
9.55 Refer to Problem 9.50 and determine the prin-
cipal strains and the absolute maximum shear strain at
support C at the top of the W section. Let E = 30 X 10 6
psi and Jl. = 0.30.

1.1
Statically
The concept of superposition has already been introduced and used in previous chapters.
In finding the deflections and rotations produced by several loads acting on flexurally
Indeterminate loaded members, one determines the deflections and rotations due to each load acting
Members Under separately and determines the resultant deflections and rotations by superposing (i.e.,
Flexural Loads- combining algebraically) these separate effects. The basic concept underlying the method
Superposition of superposition requires the decomposition of the given statically indeterminate beam
into two or more statically determinate ones for which solutions may be easily deter-
mined, or which have already been obtained and are available in tabulations similar to
the one shown in Table 6.1. In a given statically indeterminate situation, the method of
superposition would be used to fulfill the principle of consistent deformations. This pro-
cedure would lead to one or more relations among the unknown quantities that would be
used to supplement the applicable equations of equilibrium. The use of the method of
superposition is illustrated by the following examples.
EXAMPLE 9.9 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Repeat Example 9.6 using the method of superposition.

SOLUTION. The beam of Example 9.6 is repeated, for convenience, in Fig. 9.11(a). The
effect of the simple support at A is to provide a vertical reactive force Av that keeps the
beam from deflecting downward at that location. If this redundant support were removed
momentarily, the remaining structure would be a statically determinate cantilever fixed at
its right end B and subjected to the load Wx = (xjL)w as shown in Fig. 9. l1(b). This
cantilever beam would deflect downward at its free end through the amount Vi as shown
in Fig. 9.11(b). Obviously, the deflection Vi does not occur because of the redundant
support at A, which develops the reactive force Av. Thus this reactive force, acting at the
end of the cantilever beam, would have to produce an upward deflection v2 as shown in
Fig. 9.11(c). Of necessity, this upward deflection V 2 would have to be equal in magnitude
to the downward deflection Vi in order for the resultant deflection at point A to be zero.
In other words, the algebraic sum of Vi and V 2 must be zero. Therefore,
(a)
The whole process of analyzing this problem may be summed up by stating that the
statically indeterminate beam shown in Fig. 9.11(a) is equivalent to the superposition
(algebraic sum) of the two statically determinate beams shown in Fig. 9.11(b) and (c).
From the information contained in Table 6.1, one may determinate the values of Vi
and V2 as follows:

Sec. 9.6 / Statk:ally Indeterminala Members Under Flexural Load-SUperpoaition 461

 ~-~-x
f=i?cJ.
L
(a)

'~
" {} Wx=<Z)W .-
, II'
I ,
I
I --'-
=====--==-
X

I
J- F---
I',
L
(b)

I'l l
I"
t--_
- - __
c{}
I -_
x

L
(e)

FIGURE 9.11

(b)

and

(c)

Substitution of Eqs. (b) and (c) into Eq. (a) yields the value for Av. Thus

~
~
which is the same as that obtained by using the method of two successive integrations in
Example 9.6. The determination of the reaction components Bv and M B is identical to
what was done in Example 9.6.

EXAMPLE 9.10

Solve Example 9.8 by superposition.

SOLUTION. For convenience, the beam of Example 9.8 is repeated in Fig. 9.12(a). As
in the case of Example 9.9, this beam may be decomposed into two statically determinate
cantilever beams as shown in Fig. 9.l2(b) and (c). The condition that needs to be satisfied
is that the algebraic sum of the deflection, VI and V 2 , be equal to the deflection V at the
end of the beam shown in Fig. 9.l2(a). Therefore,
(a)

462 Ch.9 / Statically Indetenninate Members

 where, from Table 6.1,
WL4
V1 = --- (b)
8Es1u
FE
V2 =-- (c)
3Es1u
The deflection v is also the deflection of rod Be and, as explained in the solution of
Example 9.8, it is given by

v= -[~
AEA
- r:x(AT)Z] (d)

where the negative sign is due to the fact that the deflection is downward. Substitution of
Eqs. (b), (c), and (d) into Eq. (a) leads to the value of the force F as follows:

This is obviously identical to the value found by the method of two successive integra-
tions used in Example 9.8. The determination of the reaction components D v and M D at
the fixed support D is accomplished in exactly the same manner as was done in the
solution of Example 9.8

(a)

I
I
\' 1 I ----
k:: -- -L
(b)

F
c{?
--- ---
1---_
"2
"
1
r----------- L ----------~~
(e)

FIGURE 9.12

Sec. 9.6 I Statically Indeterminate Members Under Flexural Load_Superposition 463

EXAMPLE 9.11

Beam AC is simply supported at its two ends and at midspan, point B, as shown in
Fig. 9.13(a). Before the load P is applied, there is a gap 1J between the beam and the
midspan support at B. After the load P is applied, however, contact is made between
support B and the beam so that support B carries part of the load. Determine the amount
of the load carried by each of the three supports A, B, and C.

SOLUTION. As explained in the previous two examples, the given statically indetermi-
nate beam may be considered as the superposition of the two statically determinate
beams shown in Fig. 9.13(b) and (c). The load P produces a downward deflection Vl at the
midspan of the beam shown in Fig. 9.13(b). The unknown reaction Bv sustained by
support B produces an upward deflection V 2 at the midspan of the beam shown in
Fig. 9.13(c). The magnitude of the deflection V 2 is less than that of Vl by the amount 1J. In
other words, the algebraic sum of V l and V 2 must be equal to the negative of 1J. Thus
Vl + V2 = -1J (a)
The deflections Vl and V2 are obtained from Table 6.1 as follows:

u
t

,
P L

AiL
I 3L

,,=f4~n
£t--~ L T -
2-- 8

~
(a)

u
~
~ ¥- .
A~- ________ f~ __ -----~--
1'*
L
1"
(b)

c{F
u

-- --- -;;2---
B
---- C---x
L L
2" 8"
2
(e)

u
3L
T
x
L
2"
(d)

FIGURE 9.13

464 Ch. 9 I Statically Indelermi.- M _ _rs

 llPr
(b)
Vi = - 768E1u

Br (c)
V2 = + 48 E1 u
V

Substitution of Eqs. (b) and (c) into Eq. (a) yields the value of Bv as follows:

B = llP _ 48E1u c5
v 16 JJ

Considering now the free-body diagram of the entire beam as shown in Fig. 9.13(d), we
can determine the reaction components Ax, A v , and C v by application of the three
available equations of equilibrium. Thus
-+ L Fx = 0, yields

\) L Me = 0, yields
3P
32

i L Fv = 0, yields

Note that the gap c5 influences the value of all the vertical reactions. Note also that the
equations that have been obtained are valid for any value of c5, including the case when
°
c5 = (i.e., when there is no gap between the beam and the center support).

PROBLEMS ______________________________________________________________

Assume linear elastic behavior in all the following 9.60 Solve Problem 9.43 (p. 459) by the method of
problems. superposition.

9.56 Solve Problem 9.38 (p. 458) by the method of 9.61 Solve Problem 9.44 (p. 459) by the method of
superposition. superposition.

9.57 Solve Problem 9.39 (p. 458) by the method of 9.62 Solve Problem 9.48 (p. 460) by the method of
superposition. superposition.

9.58 Solve Problem 9.40 (p.458) by the method of 9.63 Solve Problem 9.49 (p.460) by the method of
superposition. superposition.

9.59 Solve Problem 9.42 (p. 459) by the method of 9.64 Solve Problem 9.52 (p. 460) by the method of
superposition. superposition.

Sac. 9.6 I Statically Indeterminate Members Under Flexural Load-s&lperpoaltion 465

9.65 Repeat Example 9.7 (p. 454) using the method of in terms of w, I, L, E, I u' P, and A, the force in the steel
superposition. rod, and the reaction components at the fixed
support B.
9.66 Refer to the system shown in Fig. P9.66. Beam
AB is fixed at end A and supported at end B at the cll --- - - ---t-\:
P.-~--~~------------~
midpoint of cross beam CD, which is simply supported.
Both beams are steel for which E = 30 X 106 psi and
have the same moment of inertia Iu = 900 in. 4 . Use the
method of superposition to determine the force acting
on beam CD and the reaction components at support A.
Also find the maximum deflection of beam CD. Let
P = 80 k, L) = 24 ft, and L z = 21 ft. L

FIGURE P9.68

9.69 Consider the system shown in Fig. P9.69. Before

FIGURE P9.66
the load P is applied, there is a gap lJ between the ends
of the two beams. Assume that both beams have identi-
9.67 The system shown in Fig. P9.67 consists of beam
cal values of E and I u' Use the method of superposition
AB carrying two concentrated loads as shown. It is
to determine in terms of P, L, E, I u' and lJ, the reaction
simply supported at its two ends A and B and at
components at A, B,and C.
midspan E by means of a second simply supported
p
beam CD. Use the method of superposition to deter-

,~ t" ~+4'
mine the reactions at A, B, C, and D. Express your
answers in terms of the load P.

-L---+---I'
p p

L
'2 ~ -I 11----· - L _I

FIGURE P9.69

9.70 Refer to the system shown in Fig. P9.70. Assume

the hinge at B to be frictionless and that both beams
have W14 x 82 sections (see Appendix E). Determine
the reaction components at A, B, and C if W = 3 k /ft,
FIGURE PS.67 L = 10ft, and E = 30 X 10 6 psi.

9.68 The steel beam shown in Fig. P9.68 is fixed at B

and supported by a steel rod at C. The modulus of
elasticity for steel is E, the moment of inertia for the
beam is I u' and the cross-sectional areas for the steel
rod is A . Use the method of superposition to determine FIGURE P9.70

466 Ch.9 / Statically 1 ' - - " " _ MemIMws

1.7
Statically
In solving a statically indeterminate flexural problem, the applicable equations of equi-
librium may be supplemented by satisfying the principle of consistent deformations
Indeterminate through the use of the area-moment method. This procedure requires the development of
Members Under geometric relations, in terms of tangential deviations and/or slope changes, that are
Flexural Loads- consistent with the boundary conditions of the problem. Therefore, it is essential that an
Area Moment approximate but neat representation be made of the elastic curve of the beam so that the
necessary geometric relations may be developed. The determination of tangential devi-
ations and slope changes is facilitated if the M/E1u diagrams are constructed by cantilever
parts. The use of these various concepts is illustrated in the following examples.

EXAMPLE 9.12 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Solve Example 9.6 using the area moment method.

SOLUTION. For convenience, the beam of Example 9.6 is repeated In Fig. 9. 14(a),

FIGURE 9.14

Sec. 9.7 / Statically Indeterminate Members UndeI" Flexural load_Area MorMnt 467
 which also shows an approximation for the elastic curve of the beam. The free-body
diagram for the beam is shown in Fig. 9. 14(b). Using point B as the fixed end of the
cantilevers, we construct the moment diagram by cantilever parts and then divide by the
product El u, as shown in Fig. 9.14(c) and (d). The nature of the support at B is such that
a tangent drawn to the elastic curve at this point passes through point A. Therefore, by
the second theorem of the area-moment method, we conclude that the tangential devi-
ation of point A with respect to point B is equal to zero. Thus
(a)
Determination of the tangential deviation tAB from the information in Fig. 9.14(c) and (d)
yields
! Av L(L)(~ L) -! wE (L)(~ L) = 0 (b)
2 E1u 3 4 6E1u 5
Av leads to
Solution of Eq. (b) for the value of

~ (c)
~
Determination of the reaction components Bv and MB from the equilibrium conditions is
accomplished in the same manner as was done in Example 9.6.

EXAMPLE 9.13 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Solve Example 9.11 by the area-moment method.

SOLUTION. The beam of Example 9.11 is redrawn, for convenience, in Fig. 9.15(a),
which also shows an approximate elastic curve. The free-body diagram for the beam is
shown in Fig. 9.15(b). Using point A as the fixed end of the cantilevers, we construct the
M/E1u diagram by cantilever parts as shown in Fig. 9.15(c) to (e). A tangent to the elastic
curve is drawn at C as shown in Fig. 9.15(a), which also shows the tangential deviations
tAC and t BC ' The geometric relations shown in Fig. 9. 15(a) lead to the conclusion that

(a)
The tangential deviations tAC and t BC are determined from the M/E1u diagrams in
Fig. 9.15(c) to (e) as follows:

tAC ="2
1 CvL (L) 1 3PL (3L)(L)
E1u (L) "3 -"2 4E1u 4
1 BvL (L)(L)
4" +"2 2E1u 2" "6
C IJ B IJ 9PIJ
(b)
= 6~lu + 48vElu - 128Elu

tBC = ~ ~;~ (~)(~) - ~ :e~u (~)(~)

(e)

468 Ch. 9 / StatIcIIIly lndetl8rrnlnata Members

 v
t
I

j; ,

I -- - -
f
y
~r~
______ (a)

~ _________ 3L __________-+___
4

~ ______~L ______~
2 D. Co
(b)

I
c"L
E1u ~
I 2EI.
~~------~~----------~

~---------------L --------------~
Co
(c)

,~_________ 3L __________~
4

T
3PL ' (- )
PL

4E1u
(d)
~

~I ~
2£1. ,YitBO (e)

FIGURE 9.15

Substitution of Eqs. (b) and (c) into Eq. (a) yields

768Elub
16Cv + 8Bv - P = L3 (d)

Equation (d) contains the two unknown quantities Cv and Bv' A second equation contain-
ing the same two unknowns can be obtained by summing moments about point A. Thus,
referring to the free-body diagram of Fig. 9.l5(b), we can write

Sec.9.7/ Statically lndel8rminete Mambera Under Flexural Loed_Area Moment 469

 o LM B = 0 yields
L 3L
Cv L+Bv --P-=O
2 4 (e)

A simultaneous solution of Eqs. (d) and (e) yields

B = llP _ 48EIIl b
v 16 1!
and

Application of two additional equilibrium equations lead to the values of Ax and Av as

follows:
...... L F x = 0 yields

i L F v = 0 yields
24EIIl b 3P
Av = 1! 32

EXAMPLE 9.14 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

The beam shown in Fig. 9.16(a) is fixed at both ends A and B and carries a concentrated
load P as shown. Determine the reaction components at A and B using the area-moment
method.

SOLUTION. An approximation for the elastic curve of the beam is shown in

Fig. 9.16(a). Because of the type of supports, a tangent drawn to the elastic curve at point
A passes through point B. Therefore,

tBA =0 (a)
Also, since the slope of the elastic curve at both supports is zero, we conclude that
(JAB = 0 (b)
Since there are no forces applied in the x direction, the free-body diagram as shown
in Fig. 9.16(b) indicates only four reaction components, A v , B v , M A , and M B • Using
point B as the fixed end of the cantilevers, we construct the MjEIIl diagram for the beam
by cantilever parts as shown in Fig. 9.16(c) to (e), These MjEIIl diagrams are used to
satisfy the requirements of Eqs. (a) and (b) as follows:

tBA = -
PLIl (L)(L)
'12 3EI "3 "9 + '12 AvL (L)
EIIl (L) "3 -
MA
EIIl (L)
(L)
"2 = 0

470 Ch. 9 / Statically lnd8llannlnata Membara

 2L P L
~--------- :l --------r---- 3 --~~
B
---4PX

Elastic curve
~------------- L --------------~
(a)
V
t~________________~Jp
' _ __ ~_-----1:;~-X
(!--
MA
~A-
u ------------- L --------------~~
(b)

~
P 3 "

~------------- L --------------~
(e)

T
I II L

~~ ________________________ "
~~ -L
£1.

~------------- L --------------~
A. (d)

M;I----I- - (-- ) ---------1~ i

~------------ L ------------~·I
(e)

FIGURE 9.16

Therefore,

A v L _ M _ PL =0 (c)
3 A 81

Also,

Sec. 9.7 / Statically Indeterminate Members Under Flexural Load_Area Moment 471
 Therefore,
Av L _ M _ PL =0 (d)
2 A 18
A simultaneous solution of Eqs. (c) and (d) yields

I A. ~ ~~ I
and

IM A
~ 2PL
27 I

The remaining two unknowns, Bv and M B' can now be determined by using the condi-
tions of equilibrium. Thus
i L Fv = 0 yields

I Bv 27 I
~ 20P
o LM B = 0 yields

I ~
MB 4PL
27 I

PROBLEMS __________________________________________________________

Assume linear elastic behavior in all the following 9.76 Solve Problem 9.44 (p. 459) by the area-moment
problems. method.

9.71 Solve Problem 9.38 (p. 458) by the area-moment 9.77 Solve Problem 9.48 (p. 460) by the area-moment
method. method.

9.72 Solve Problem 9.39 (p. 458) by the area-moment 9.78 Solve Problem 9.49 (p. 460) by the area-moment
method. method.

9.73 Solve Problem 9.40 (p. 458) by the area-moment 9.79 Solve Example 9.8 (p. 456) by the area-moment
method. method.

9.74 Solve Problem 9.42 (p. 459) by the area-moment 9.80 Solve Problem 9.66 (p. 466) by the area-moment
method. method.

9.75 Solve Problem 9.43 (p. 459) by the area-moment 9.81 . Solve Problem 9.67 (p. 466) by the area-moment
method. method.

472 CII.9 / S1atIc:aIIy IndeIarmi...... _ _ _

 /
9.82 Solve Problem 9.68 (p. 466) by the area-moment A
method.

9.83 Solve Problem 9.69 (p. 466) by the area-moment

method.
T
L

9.84 Solve Problem 9.70 (p. 466) by the area-moment

method.

9.85 Determine the reaction components at supports

IV
A and B for the beam shown in Fig. P9.85. Use the
area-moment method.
p L

l ~p
FIGURE P9.87

9.88 The system shown in Fig. P9.88 consists of two

FIGURE P9.85
identical cantilever beams with a rigid roller between
them at point B. The two beams have W16 x 89 sec-
9.86 The steel beam shown in Fig. P9.86 is fixed at B
tions (see Appendix E), W = 4 k/ft, L = 15 ft, and
and restrained by two steel rods of length 1 which are
E = 30 X 106 psi. Determine, by using the area-moment
connected to the ends of rigid arms securely fastened to
method, the reaction components at supports A and C,
the beam at midspan. Assume the cross-sectional area
and the deflection of the two beams at point B.
of the steel rods to be A, the modulus of elasticity fO.r
steel to be E, and the moment of inertia for the beam to

l'I
w

I I I I
'~
be I", and determine the force induced in the rods and

~
the reaction components at support B. Use the area-
moment method. L L

~-- / ----j
FIGURE P9.88
IV

b
9.89 The beam of Fig. P9.89 is supported by two rigid
B rollers at Band C and by a flexible cable at D. The
beam and the cable have the same m0dulus of elasticity
Rigid arms <---~ E. The moment of inertia of the beam about the

p
T
1
L ----+~--- 2L -----1
f -- - - 2

FIGURE P9.86 B D
A~====~~========~~========~
9.87 Determine the reaction components at supports
A and B for the beam shown in Fig. P9.87. Use the
~L-------+----I.SL---+--I-LSL~
area-moment method. FIGURE P9.89

Sec.9.7 / Statically Incletllrminate Members Under Flexural Load_Area Moment 473

bending axis is I u and the cross-sectional area of the 1+--------,8ft--------I
cable is A. Determine by the area-moment method, the
1+------6 ft---------o-j
reactions at Band C and the force in the cable at D. Let
L = 2 m, P = 20 kN, E = 70 GPa, Iu = 200 X 10- 6 m4,
and A = 40 X 10- 4 m 2 •

9.90 A W12 X 170 beam shown in Fig. P9.90 is sup-

ported at end A by a simple support and is welded to an
8-in. standard pipe at end B. The pipe is fixed to a rigid
wall at C. A pure bending moment (Mu)A = 120 k-ft is
applied to the beam at A as shown by the double- A
headed vector. Determine the principal stresses and the
absolute maximum shear stress at point D on the
outside surface of the pipe. Let E = 30 X 106 psi, 12ft
Il = 0.25 and ignore the weights of both members. Refer
to Appendix E for properties of beam and pipe.

9.91 Refer to Problem 9.90 and determine: (a) the ver-
tical deflection of the system at point B, where the beam
is connected to the pipe. (b) the principal stresses and
the absolute maximum shear stress at point E on top of
the beam.
FIGURE P9.90
9.92 Refer to Problem 9.90 and determine the prin-
cipal strains and the absolute maximum shear strain at
point D on the outside surface of the pipe.

1.1*_- Castigliano's second theorem as expressed in Eq. 6.30 may be used to satisfy the principle
Statically of consistent deformations and therefore to supplement the equations of equilibrium as
Indeterminate they apply to a given statically indeterminate beam. This procedure requires the determi-
Members Under nation of the strain energy in the beam in terms of one or more unknown reaction
Flexural Loads- components. According to Eq. 6.30, the strain energy is then differentiated partially with
Castigliano' s respect to one or more of the unknown reaction components and the resulting expressions
Second Theorem equated to known deflections or rotations as dictated by the boundary conditions of the
problem. This procedure leads to simultaneous equations that may be used to determine
some of the unknown reaction components. Note that the coordinate system must be
chosen such that the number of equations resulting from the application of Castigliano's
second theorem is the same as the number of redundants in the problem. The remaining
unknown reaction components may then be determined from the applicable equations of
equilibrium. The use of Castigliano's second theorem is illustrated by the following exam-
ples.
EXAMPLE 9.15 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Solve Example 9.6 using Castiglia no's second theorem.

SOLUTION. Refer to the beam of Example 9.6 (p.452) shown in Fig. 9.8(a) and the
accompanying free-body diagrams shown in Fig. 9.8(b) and (c). Since the support at A is
such that the deflection of the beam at this point is zero, it follows that Castigliano's
second theorem expressed in Eq. 6.30 leads to

474 Ch. 9 / Statically Indatarminate Members

 au =0 (a)
aAv
The strain energy U for the beam is given by Eq. 6.33 as follows:

U = (L M: dx (b)
Jo 2Elu
in which the product Elu is assumed to be a constant. Therefore,

au = _1_ (L M aMu dx (c)

aAv Elu Jo u aAv
From the free-body diagram of Fig. 9.6(c),
1W
M = A X _--x 3 (d)
u v 6L

Therefore,

aM"
--=x (e)
aAv
Substitution of Eqs. (d) and (e) into Eq. (c) leads to the following expression:

au 1 (AJ! 1
aAv = Elu -3- - 30 WL
4) (f)

Using Castigliano's second theorem as expressed in Eq. (a), we conclude that

which, of course, is identical to the value obtained by the three previous methods. The
determination of the reaction components Bv and M B is accomplished by the application
of the conditions of equilibrium as was done in Example 9.6.

EXAMPLE 9.16 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Repeat Example 9.8 by the use of Castigliano's second theorem.

SOLUTION. Refer to the beam of Example 9.8 (p. 456) shown in Fig. 9.1O(a) and the
free-body diagrams shown in Fig. 9.1O(b) and (c). At its end B, the beam deflects through
the amount v, which is also the deflection of rod Be. The determination of v was thor-
oughly explained in the solution of Example 9.8 and was found to be given by the
expression

v= -[~
AEA
- (J((~T)lJ (a)

Therefore, Castigliano's second theorem as given by Eq. 6.30 yields

Sec. 9.8 / Statically Indatenninata Members Under Flexural I..oad&-Caatigliano'. Second Theorem 475
 au Fl
-=v=rJ.(AT)I-- (b)
of AEA
Since the strain energy for the beam is given by

(c)

in which Es1u is a constant, it follows that

au = _1_ (L M (OMu) dx (d)

of Es1u Jo u of
From the free-body diagram of Fig. 9.10(c),
wx 2
M =Fx-- (e)
u 2
Thus
oMu (f)
of
-=X

Using the values given by Eqs. (e) and (f) in Eq. (d), we obtain the following expression:
au
of =
(1 FE
Es1u -3- -
WL4)
8 (g)

Substituting Eq. (g) into Eq. (b), we obtain the relation needed to determine the value of
F. Thus

which is identical to the value found previously by other methods. The reactive com-
ponents Dv and MD are determined in exactly the same manner as was done previously by
the application of the conditions of equilibrium.

EXAMPLE 9.17 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Solve Example 9.14 by Castigliano's second theorem.

SOLUTION. Refer to the beam of Example 9.14 (p. 471) shown in Fig. 9.16(a) and the
free-body diagram shown in Fig. 9.16(b). Because of the nature of the support at A, the
slope and the deflection at this point are both equal to zero. Therefore, Castigliano's
second theorem may be written for these conditions as follows:
au
-=vA=O (a)
oAv
au
--=(}A=O (b)
OMA
The strain energy U is given by the equation

476 Ch.9 / Statically Indemnni_ Members

 U= f M2
_u-dx
2Elu
(c)

in which Elu is a constant. Therefore,

OU= -
- 1 [12L{3 M (OM)
__u dx+ lL M (OM)]
__u dx (d)
oAv Elu 0 u oAv 2L{3 u oAv

~=
OMA
_1
Elu
[r
Jo
2L
{3 M
u
(OMu) dx
OMA
+ r L

J2L{3
M (OM u) dX]
u OMA
(e)

The moment Mu in the equations above requires definition for sections to the left, and to
the right, of the load P as follows:
Mu = Av x - MA o ~ x ~ iL (f)

Mu = Avx - MA - P(x -iL) iL ~ x ~ L (g)

Therefore,
oMu oMu
--=X and -=-1 (h)
oAv OMA
oMu oMu
--=x and -=-1 (i)
oA .. OMA
Substitution of Eqs. (f) to (i) into Eqs. (d) and (e) leads to the following relations:

OU 1 (Av IJ MA I3 4PIJ)
oAv = Elu -3- - - 2 - - 81 (j)

oU = _1_ (_ A v I3 + MAL + PL2 ) (k)

OMA Elu 2 18
Substitution of Eqs. (j) and (k) into Eqs. (a) and (b), respectively, leads to two simulta-
neous equations in Av and M A as follows:
54AvL - 81M A - 8PL = 0 (I)

-9AvL + 18M A + PL = 0 (m)

A simultaneous solution of Eqs. (1) and (m) yields the following values:

~
~
and

IM A ~ 272PL I
The reaction components Bv and M B are determined by the conditions of equilibrium in
exactly the same manner as was done in Example 9.14.

Sec. 9.8 I Statically Indeterminate Members Under Flexural Load_Castigliano's Second Theorem 477
PROBLEMS ____________________________________________________________
Assume linear elastic behavior in all the following
problems.
9.93 Solve Problem 9.38 (p. 458) by Castigliano's
second theorem.
9.94 Solve Problem 9.39 (p. 458) by Castigliano's
second theorem.
9.95 Solve Problem 9.40 (p. 458) by Castigliano's
second theorem.
9.96 Solve Problem 9.42 (p. 459) by Castigliano's
second theorem.
9.97 Solve Problem 9.43 (p. 459) by Castigliano's
second theorem.
9.98 Solve Problem 9.48 (p. 460) by Castigliano's
second theorem.
ADDITIONAL CHAPTER PROBLEMS
9.105 (Sec. 9.3) Solve Problem 9.10 (p. 443) after mak-
ing the following changes:
deformation from 0.002 in. to 0.003 in.,
modulus of elasticity EA from 15 X 106 psi to 20 X
106 psi,
modulus of elasticity EB from 10 X 106 psi to 15 X
106 psi, and
modulus of elasticity Ec from 5 X 106 psi to 8 X 106
psi.
All other information remains unchanged.
9.106 (Sec. 9.3) Solve Problem 9.17 (p. 445) after mak-
ing the following changes:
titaninium rod dianleter from 0.025 m to 0.020 m,
aluminum rod diameter from 0.050 m to 0.035 m,
upper temperature from 50°C to 40°C, and
lower temperature from 10°C to 15°C.
All other information remains unchanged.
478
9.99 Solve Problem 9.66 (p. 466) by Castigliano's
second theorem.
9.100 Solve Problem 9.68 (p. 466) by Castigliano's
second theorem.
9.101 Solve Problem 9.85 (p. 473) by Castigliano's
second theorem.
9.102 Solve Problem 9.86 (p. 473) by Castigliano's
second theorem.
9.103 Solve Problem 9.87 (p. 473) by Castigliano's
second theorem.
9.104 Solve Problem 9.88 (p. 473) by Castigliano's
second theorem.
9.107 (Sec. 9.4) Refer to the shaft shown in Fig. P9.22
(p. 450). Segment AB is aluminum (EA = 70 GPa) with
a diameter of 0.12 m, and segment BC is titaninium (ET
= 110 GPa) with a diameter of 0.08 m. Let LI = 0.75
m and L2 = 0.5 m. Determine the torque T if the angle
of twist at B,OB = 0.05 rad. Let f.L = 0.25.
9.108 (Sec. 9.4) Refer to Fig. P9.32 (p. 451). The max-
imum shearing stress in segment AC is known to be
(Tmax)AC = 25 ksi. The entire shaft has the same diameter
and is made of the same material. If LI = 2.0 ft, L2 =
2.5 ft, and L3 = 3.0 ft, determine the magnitudes of the
torques TI and T2 •
9.109 (Sec. 9.5) A steel cantilevered beam of length L
is supported at the free end by a vertical steel rod of
length I and cross sectional area A. The beam carries a
uniform load of intensity w. Assume EI = const. and
using the method of two successive integrations deter-
mine:
(a) the axial stress in the rod, and
(b) the reaction components at the fixed end.
Ch. 9 / Statically Indetannlnata Members
9.110 (Sec. 9.5) Solve Problem 9.45 (p.459) after mak- the beam sections from W14 x 82 to W16 x 50,
ing the following change: the intensity of the load w from 3 k/ft to 4 k/ft, and
the length L from 10 ft to 12 ft.
intensity of the distributed load Wx from (x/2Liw to
(X/2L)3W All other information remains unchanged.
All other information remains unchanged. 9.113 (Sec. 9.7) Solve Problem 9.88 (p. 473) by area
moment after making the following changes:
9.111 (Sec. 9.6) Solve Problem 9.109 by the method of
superposition. the beam sections from W16 x 89 to W14 x 120,
the length L from 15 ft to 12 ft, and
9.112 (Sec. 9.6) Solve Problem 9.70 (p. 466) after mak- the intensity of the load w from 4 k/ft to 5 k/ft.
ing the following changes: All other information remains unchanged.

1.1*_-
Computer The following Examples illustrate the use of the FORTRAN language in the development
Applications of computer solutions. Refer to the detailed discussion given on pages 53 and 54.

EXAMPLE C9.1 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Refer to the system shown in Fig. 9.10 and the solution developed in Example 9.S (p. 456).
Write a computer program to find the values of the quantities F, D v , and MD for given
values of w, E A , A, L, E s , I u , IX, AT, and d. Compute the values of F, Dv , and MD for
the following two cases: (i) w = 300 lb/in., EA = 10 X 106 psi, A = 1.5 in. 2 , L = 144 in.,
Es = 30 X 106 psi, Iu = 1000 in.4, IX = 13.0 X 10- 6 in./in.;oF, AT = 200°F, d = 72 in.;
and (ii) w = 30 X 103 N/m, EA = 70 GPa, A = 6 X .10- 4 m 2 , L = 5 m, Es = 200 GPa,
Iu = SOO X 10- 6 m4, IX = 23.0 X 10- 6 m/moC, AT = 100°C, d = 2 m.

SOLUTION. For convenience, the beam of Fig. 9.10(a) and its free-body diagram are
repeated in Fig. C9.1(a) and (b). Note the change from the symbol 1 to the symbol d. The
solution developed in Example 9.S yielded the following values for F, D v , and M D :
F _ 3AEA (WL4 + SEslulX(AT)d)
- S AEAr + 3IuEsd

Dv = wL _ 3AEA (WL4 + ~EslulX(AT)d)

S AEA.t + 3IuEsd
M _ 3LAE A (WL4 + SEslulX(AT)d) _ wE
D - S AEAr + 3IuEsd 2
Let
3AEA
Xl =-S-

X 2 = wL4 + SEslulX(AT)d
X3 = AEAr + 3IuEsd
Therefore,

Sec. 9.9 / Computer Applications 479

 Dv = wL - F
wI!
MD=FL-T

The required computer program is shown in Fig. C9.1(c) together with the outputs
corresponding to the two given cases. Note the need to have a consistent set of input
values that are dimensionally homogeneous regardless of the system of units used.

- - -.... x

(a)

F
w

I
I·
~ ~ ~ J J J J

L
J
(b) Du

w .!..:L ~_L_ .!!L ~ ex b.T d F ..!!.£... .!!.p...

300. 10vOOvOU. 1.5 144. 30000000. 1000 • • 0000!3 200. 72. 19081.09608554 24118.30131440 -302035.3t9282
3UoOu. 7.0+10 .uOOo 5. Z.E+1l .0008 .000023 100. 2. b2487.od115942 87512.31684058 -02501.5942029

(c)

FIGURE e9.1

480 Ch. 9 / Statically Indeterminate Members

EXAMPLE C9.2 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Consider the system shown in Fig. C9.2(a). The beam is made of material X and the
compression block at B of material Y. The moment of inertia of the beam about the
bending axis is Iu and the cross-sectional area of the compression block is A. Develop a
computer program to determine the reaction components at supports Band C for any
homogeneous set of values of w, L, A, Ex, Ey, Iu, and d. Compute the magnitude of these
reaction components for the case when (i) w = 166.67 lb/in., L = 144 in., A = 20 in.2,
Ex = 10 X 106 psi, Ey = 6 X 106 psi, Iu = 70 in.4, and d = 12 in.; and (ii) w = 40 X 103
N/m, L = 4 m, A = 150 X 10- 4 m 2, Ex = 200 GPa, Ey = 70 GPa, Iu = 500 X 10- 6 m 4,
and d = 0.5 m.

SOLUTION. Use the method of two successive integrations as follows:

wx 3
Ex1u v" = Mu = Bv x - 6L

X3 WX5
Ex1u v = Bv 6'" - 120L + C1 x + C2
The following boundary conditions apply:

1. x = 0, v = deflection of compression block = _ Bv d

AEy
Therefore,

2. x = L, v' = 0, and

(a)

3. x = L, v = 0, and
wI! BvL2 Ex1uBvd
C 1 = 120 - -6- + ALEy (b)

Solve Eqs. (a) and (b) simultaneously to obtain

WL4AEy
B = (c)
v 10(3Ex Iu d + L3 AEy)
Apply the conditions of equilibrium to the free-body diagram of Fig. C9.2(b). Thus
i L Fv = 0
Bv + Cv - twL = 0
1 WL4AEy
C = - wL - ------=--::--- (d)
v 2 10(3Ex 1ud + I! AEy)

Sec. 9.9 / Computer Applications 481

 ~ WL(~) - Bv L - Me = 0

1 2 wVAEy
Me =- wI; - - - - - - - = - - : , , - - - (e)
6 10(3Ex1ud + rAEy)
For convenience in writing the computer program to solve Eqs. (c) to (e), let
Xl = WL4AEy
X2 = 3Ex1ud + rAEy
Thus
Xl
B =--
v lOX 2

C v = !wL - Bv
Me = iwL2 - BvL
The required computer program is shown in Fig. C9.2(c) together with the outputs
corresponding to the two given cases. As in previous solutions, the need to have a
dimensionally homogeneous set of input values cannot be overemphasized.

L
(a)

T
IV

c )~f-
B~==================~
L
C.
(b)

108
88 11 PROGRAM EXAMC92 (INPUT,OUTPUTI
REAL l. ru, MC
001Z0 5 REAO*,~,l,A.EX,EY.ru,O
00130 IF(w.EQ.O) STOP
00140 XI-W*L**4*A*EY
00150 XZ-3*EX*rU*O+(L**3)*A*EY
OOlbO BV-Xl/(lO.*XZI
00170 CV-(lIZ.I*w*l-BV
00180 MC-(l/b.I*W*l**Z-BV*l
00190 wRITE*.W,l,A,EX,Ey,IU.O,BV.CV,MC
OOZOO GO TO 5
00210 END

W _L_ ~.!L. .EL ~ ...!l-...!!..L ~ ~

!S8~8? ~:4:0Ig'2!~~~~09?~+~8°?888~ ?g'15~b4;j~~~gly~1~2b~5?~g~t2~g~B~~B89~~8~~22~;233Z4
(c)

FIGURE C9.2

482 Ch. 9 I Statically hxletenni_ Members

COMPUTER PROBLEMS
C9.1 Refer to the system shown in Fig. 9.13 and the
solution developed in Example 9.11.
(a) Develop a computer program to determine the
values of the reaction components B v , A v , and C v for
any homogeneous set of values of P, E, I u' L, and fJ.
(b) Check this program for the case when
(i) P = 20 X 10 3 lb, E = 30 X 106 psi, Iu = 300 in.4,
L = 180 in., and fJ = 0.10 in.
(ii) P = 50 X 10 3 N, E = 70 GPa, Iu = 500 X 10- 6 m4,
L = 5 m, and fJ = 3.0 x 10 - 3 m.
PARTIAL ANSWERS: (i) Bv = 6342.6 lb, Av = 1828.7 lb,
C v = 11,828.7 lb.
C9.2 Rework Example C9.2 if it is assumed that when
the load w is applied, the temperature of the compres-
sion block changes by AT. The coefficient of thermal
expansion is ~. Check your program for the case when
(i) w = 166.67 lb/in., L = 144 in., A = 20 in. 2 , Ex =
10 X 106 psi, Ey = 6 X 106 psi, Iu = 70 in.4, d = 12 in.,
AT = + 300°F, and ~ = 15.0 X 10- 6 in.jin.;oF.
(ii) w = 40 X 10 3 N/m, L = 4 m, A = 150 X 10- 4 m 2 ,
Ex = 200 GPa, Ey = 70 GPa, Iu = 500 X 10- 6 m4,
d = 0.5 m, AT = +75°C, ~ = 23.0 X 10- 6 m/m;oC.
PARTIAL ANSWERS: Bv = 2438 lb, C v = 9562 lb, Me =
22,500 lb-ft.
C9.3 Consider the system shown in Fig. CP9.3.
Develop a computer program to find the magnitude of
the reaction components at A and B for any homoge-
T p
~ ~A __- L__ ~ ~ ~~~L- ~ ~ ~~
__
FIGURE CP9.4
Sec. 9.9 I Computer Applications
neous set of values of w, L, and P. Compute the magni-
tudes of these reaction components for the case when
(i) w = 200 lb/in., L = 240 in., and P = 10,000 lb.
(ii) w = 25 kN/m, L = 5 m, and P = 20 kN.
PARTIAL ANSWERS: (i) Av = 40,362 lb, Bv = 17,638 lb,
M B = 507,500 lb-in.
p
~I·--------~--------~--------~--------~·I
FIGURE CP9.3
C9.4 Ignore stress concentration effects at the fixed
end (see Chapter 12) of the beam shown in Fig. CP9.4
and write a computer program to obtain the maximum
flexural stress at point A for any set of values of w, P, L,
and S, where S is known as the section modulus for the
beam (see Appendix E). Check this computer program
for the case when
(i) w = 500 lb/in., P = 5000 lb, L = 120 in., and the
beam has a W10 x 17 section.
(ii) w = 700 lb/in., P = 15,000 lb, L = 180 in., and the
beam has a W12 x 19 section.
PARTIAL ANSWER: (i) O'max = 5556 psi (T).
__ __ __ ____
483
CHAPTER Iliriduclilill
CllDpl.1I Illill
10.1 _ _ The first nine chapters in this text dealt exclusively with the development and use of the
Introduction tools required to analyze members subjected to axial and transverse forces, to torques,
and to bending moments as well as to combinations of these effects. In all instances,
methods were developed to compute the stresses and deformations resulting from a given
set of loading conditions.
One major objective of the analytical methods of the preceding nine chapters is to
enable the engineer to produce structural and machine systems that are capable of per-
forming given functions without failure. This objective forms the basis for the design
process in which the student is required to integrate knowledge from the preceding
chapters to arrive at a practical solution to a given problem. Chapter 10 deals with an
introductory treatment of the concepts of design as they relate to individual component
parts. Section 10.2 discusses briefly some of the definitions and fundamentals of the design
process; Section 10.3 concentrates on the design of axially loaded members. Section 10.4
on the design of torsional members. Section 10.5 on the design of flexural members, and
Section 10.6 on the design of columns.

10.2 _ _ Design differs from analysis in three major ways:

Basic Concepts
of Design 1. Design solutions are not unique. Many different solutions would be acceptable from a
strength standpoint but other factors, such as those discussed under (3), are important
in choosing a final design.
2. Design often requires trial and error or iterative methods to obtain solutions. An
informal approach is taken in this text, but methods such as the Newton-Raphson,
linear interpolation, and so on, could readily be applied for solving the resulting
equations.
3. Final design involves a consideration of numerous factors other than strength and
deformation characteristics. Availability of materials and shapes, fabrication or manu-
facturing costs, erection or assembly procedures, and so on, would be examples of such
factors.
The ultimate objective of a design process is to select suitable material and to choose
proper dimensions for the components of a structure or machine so that they perform
their functions without failure when subjected to the design loads. As pointed out above,

484
 however, a complete and thorough design process includes not only analytical consider-
ations dealing with stress and deformation levels as well as material properties, but also
such considerations as economic, weight, and fabrication factors. Selection of materials
involves a knowledge of metallurgy, which most engineering students study in courses
dealing with materials science. Although the examples of this chapter will deal with
components fabricated of preselected materials, it should be understood that these are
only preliminary selections and may have to be modified, particularly when
environmental factors such as high or low temperatures, exposure to corrosive atmo-
spheric conditions, and so on, are encountered.
The limited definition provided in Section 7.6 for the term failure will be broadened
in this chapter to include the several types that may occur in a given member, structure,
or machine.
In general, failure of a member, a structure, or a machine may be defined as any
action that prevents it from fulfilling the functions for which it was designed. Several types
of failure are discussed briefly in the following paragraphs.
1. Failure by excessive elastic action. Excessive elastic deformations sometimes lead
to undesirable effects resulting in failure. For example, large elastic deflections in the
components of a high-rise building may lead to plaster cracks, glass breakage, and exces-
sive movement that result in undesirable psychological effects. Also, as discussed in
Chapter 8, columns may buckle (fail) by purely elastic action that may lead to the
complete collapse of the structure of which these columns are members.
2. Failure by inelastic (plastic) action. Most designs today are based upon the
premise that members behave elastically. This obviously means that the member stresses
are kept well within the elastic limit of the material. If, for any reason, the service
conditions cause the member stresses to exceed the elastic limit, inelastic (plastic) action of
the members ensues and the resulting permanent deformations are usually sufficiently
large to prevent the structure or machine from properly performing its intended function.
This type of failure is referred to as failure by yielding.
Yielding in a given material may occur at ordinary temperatures if the loads are
sufficiently high to cause the stresses to exceed the yield point or yield stress of the
material. However, yielding can also occur at stresses well below the yield point or yield
stress if the material is subjected to these stresses at elevated temperatures for sufficiently
long periods of time. Such yielding and the resulting permanent deformations are referred
to by the name creep. Thus under certain combinations of temperature and time, a given
member, structure, or machine may fail by yielding through the phenomenon of creep.
3. Failure by fracture. Under certain conditions, failure may be caused by fracture of
one or more members of a structure or machine. Fracture may occur suddenly or pro-
gressively. For example, a brittle material such as cast iron, if subjected to sufficiently high
loads at ordinary temperatures, will fracture abruptly without exhibiting appreciable
plastic deformations [see Fig. 3.14(b)]. Also, a normally ductile material such as steel, if
subjected to very low temperatures, may behave in a brittle manner and fail by sudden
fracture if impact loads are applied. Progressive fracture, on the other hand, is caused by
the repeated application of loads. For example, members of a bridge are repeatedly
stressed every time traffic passes over it. This repeated application of loads results in the
initiation and propagation of cracks that ultimately lead to failure by fracture. This
progressive type of failure is known as fatigue, a topic that is discussed in more detail in
Section 12.4.
Thus a major task faced by the designer would be to anticipate the type of failure

Sac.10.Z / aaaic Concepts of Design 485

 that may occur under certain conditions and produce a design that would avoid that type
of failure. However, it is not always possible to anticipate the type of failure that may
occur in a given situation because all the necessary conditions relating to agiven'design
may not be accurately known. Therefore, the designer may have to estimate some of the
pertinent parameters, which include such factors as service loads, service temperatures,
and material properties on the basis of past experience and sound judgement. Consider,
for example, the way properties of materials are obtained in the laboratory. As discussed
in Section 3.4, small samples (specimens) are prepared from a given material, and it is
assumed that the average properties obtained from the few tests that are performed are a
true representation of the behavior of that material. Furthermore, the properties obtained
from a small sample are not necessarily the same as would be obtained from a full-size
member of the same material. And testing of full-size members is economically unfeasible.
Thus the designer is faced with a situation that is shrouded with many uncertainties.
Because of these uncertainties, the designer tries to ensure that the system (member,
structure, or machine) being designed is subjected to stresses well below the failure
stresses. Thus, if failure is judged to be by inelastic action, the failure stress would be the
yield point or yield stress of the material. Therefore, for the system to be safe from failure
by inelastic action, the design stresses (stresses to which the system is subjected during
service) should be considerably less than the yield point or yield strength of the material
at the design temperatures involved. The design is then said to contain a margin of safety,
which accounts for the many uncertainties and which, of course, provides the designer
with a feeling of security.
The term allowable stress is used to signify the design stress, the largest stress that a
given material can safely sustain in service. Values of allowable stresses for various
materials have been arrived at through vast experience and sound engineering judgment.
These values are normally specified in city ordinances and other building, machine, and
structural codes.
As implied earlier, the allowable stress is appreciably less than the failure-causing
stress in a given material. This failure-causing stress is a unique property for a given
material and is either the yield point, (Jy (yield strengt~ (Js), or the ultimate strength, (Ju,
depending upon the type of failure expected. The ratio of the failure-causing stress to the
allowable stress provides a measure of the margin of safety in a given design and is given
the namefactor of safety and denoted in this text by the symbol N. Thus

failure-causing stress
N = -------'''---- (10.1)
allowable stress

For example, if the failure-causing stress is the yield point or yield strength for the
material, the factor of safety is designated as Ny and if the failure-causing stress is the
ultimate strength, the symbol would be N u'
Terms such as "allowable," "working," and "service," when used as adjectives with
terms such as "stress," "strain," "deformation," and "rotation" refer to permissible
values of these quantities associated with satisfactory behavior of structural or machine
components under the actual loadings to which they may be safely SUbjected during their
lifetimes. Use of this terminology implies that a factor of safety has already been incorpo-
rated in the stated value. For example, an allowable rotation for a shaft may be stated as
some part of a radian over a specified length, and this would imply that a factor of safety
has already been incorporated in the value and that the loadings to be used in the design

486 Ch.10 / Introduction to Component Design

 are those which might reasonably be expected to be applied to the shafttiuring its useful
service life.
It should be pointed out that other definitions of the factor of safety, based upon load
and energy, instead of stress are in use under certain conditions. However, the only
definition used for the factor of safety in this text is the one given by Eq. 10.1.

11.3 _ _ The design of axially loaded members, whether under tensile or compressive loads, is
Design of accomplished by the use of the relations that were developed in Sections 3.2 and 3.3
Axially Loaded between the applied loads and the resulting stresses and deformations. In the case of
Members members subjected to compressive loads, however, only short members are considered, to
avoid the possibility of column action. Long compression members that are subject to
column action are designed according to the procedures developed in Section 10.6.
As stated in Section 10.2, a complete design of any member requires consideration of
many factors, which include material selection as well as proper dimensions of the
member. In the introductory treatment developed in this section, the material is preselect-
ed and the design process is limited to the analytical steps that lead to the dimensions
necessary to ensure with some degree of confidence that- the member does not fail when
subjected to the design loads. The application of these concepts to the design of axially
loaded members is illustrated in the following examples.
EXAMPLE 10.1 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

A tension member is to be designed such that it can resist a load of 75 kN with a factor of
safety Ny = 1.5 based upon failure by yielding. The member is to be 4 m long and its
deformation is not to exceed a maximum allowable value of 0.0075 m. For weight
reasons, the member is to be made of an aluminum alloy for which the yield strength is
300 MPa. Determine the safe cross-sectional dimensions for the member if it is to have (a)
a solid circular cross section, and (b) a solid square cross section. Assume that
E = 70 GPa.

SOLUTION. By Eq. 3.1,

where u is the allowable stress, which in this case is uJN y = 300/1.5 = 200 MPa and
Fn = 75 kN. Therefore,
F 75,000
A = -.!! = = 3.75 X 10- 4 m 2
u 200 x 106
Thus, on the basis of strength alone, the cross-sectional area should be at least
3.75 x 10- 4 m 2 • Whether or not this area is adequate depends upon the deformation
characteristics of the tension member. This deformation consideration is investigated as
follows.
u FnL
~=eL=-L=-
E AE

Sec. 10.3 / Desig" of Axially Loaded Membe,s 487

 Thus
_ 75,000(4) . _ 4
b - (3.75 x 10-4)(70 x 109) - 0.011 3 m

Since b > 0.0075 m, a redesign is necessary on the basis of the deformation requirements.
Thus
A - Fn L _ 75,000(4) _ 7 x -4 2
- bE - 0.0075(70 x 109) - 5. 1 1 0 m

(a) The diameter D of a solid circular cross section needed would be given by

D = 2)~ = 2 )5.71 : 10- 4

= 1 2.70 x 10 - 2 m I

(b) The dimension b of the side of a solid square cross section needed would be given by
b= JA = J5.71 x 10 4

= 1 2.39 x 10 - 2 m I

Availability and other practical considerations may dictate some increase in these dimen-
sions.

EXAMPLE 10.2 _ _ _- - - - - - - - -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

An axially loaded member is to carry the loads shown in Fig. 10.1. The entire member is
to be made of a magnesium alloy (E = 45 GPa) for which the yield strength is 250 MPa.
The deformation of the entire member is to be limited to an allowable value of 0.001 m.
Determine the required cross-sectional areas of parts AB and BC using a factor of safety
N y = 3 based upon failure by yielding.

SOLUTION. In this simple case shown in Fig. 10.1, inspection shows that the force in
AB is 100 kN(C) and the force in BC is 300 kN(T). The allowable stress based upon a
factor of safety of 3 would be 250/ 3 = 83.3 MPa. Therefore, by Eq. 3.1, the cross-sectional
areas of the two parts may be determined as follows:

1--- -2m

FIGURE 10.1

488 Ch.10 I Introduction to Component De.ign

 A = 100,000 = 12 X 10- 4 2
AB 83.3 X 106 m
and
300,000 -4 2
ABC = 83.3 X 106 = 36 x 10 m

These values need to be checked to ensure that the allowable deformation has not been
exceeded. Thus
£5 _ " F. L _ _ 100,000(1) 300,000(2)
lolal - ~ AE - 12 x 10- 4 (45 x 109 ) + 36 x 10- 4 (45 x 109 )
= 18.5 X 10- 4 m
Since £5lolal > 0.001 m, a redesign is needed.
Examination of the deformation equation reveals that the total deformation may be
decreased from its value of 18.5 x 10- 4 m in one of two ways:
1. Increase the negative term. This can only be accomplished by decreasing the cross-
sectional area of part AB. This approach, however, would lead to a stress value in part
AB which would exceed the allowable, and therefore it is impractical.
2. Decrease the positive term by increasing the cross-sectional area of member Be. This
is the practical approach to the redesign problem, because any increase in the cross-
sectional area of part Be would result in a stress value lower than the allowable and
would allow a reduction in the total deformation of the member. Thus, since the total
deformation is to be limited to 0.001 m,

0.001 =_ 100,000(1) 9 + 300,000(2) 9 = 10- 5 (~ _ _1_)

AAB x 45 x 10 ABC x 45 x 10 4.5 ABC AAB

In order to maintain the stress in part AB within the allowable value, the cross-sectional
area of this member is maintained at 12 x 10- 4 m 2 • The cross-sectional area of part Be
is, however, adjusted in order to decrease the positive deflection so that the total deflec-
tion does not exceed 0.001 m. Thus

0.001 = 10-
5(~- 1 4)
4.5 ABC 12 x 10-
Solution of this relation shows that the proper value for ABC is 46.75 X 10- 4 m 2 •
Therefore, to meet both stress and deformation limitations, the member shown in
Fig. 10.1 would have to have the following minimum cross-sectional dimensions:

I AAB = 12 X 10- 4 m 2

and

l ABC = 46.75 X 10- 4 m 2 I

Note that the stress in part Be of the member would be only 64.17 MPa, considerably
less than the allowable value of 83.3 MPa. Thus the factor of safety in part Be is
250/64.17 == 4, which is larger than that for part AB, where the factor of safety is 3.

Sec. 10.3 / Design of Axially Loaded Members 489

EXAMPLE 10.3 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Member EC of the plane truss shown in Fig. 1O.2(a) is to be made of structural steel with
a standard S section (see Appendix E). (a) Select a suitable size for this member assuming
that its deformation is not a critical design consideration. Use an allowable normal stress
of 100 MPa. (b) Assume the connection at D to be a pin joint in which the pin is in
double shear. Design the pin if it is to be structural steel with a shear allowable of
60 MPa.

SOLUTION
(a) Before member EC can be properly designed the force acting on it needs to be
determined. This is accomplished by a force analysis of the truss. Generally, the force
analysis on a truss is performed with the assumption that the various members of the
truss are two-force members joined together at their ends by frictionless pins, even though
the joints may actually be bolted or welded.
Consider the free-body diagram of the entire truss as shown in Fig. lO.2(b). The
external reactions are determined as follows:
o LMA=O
Dy(8) - 100(4) - 60(6) - 80(4 cos 30) =0
Dy = 129.6 kNi

JOOkN
(3)

.:Nr----'
a y
Member
DC

F~
/
Details of joint D
129.6 kN 129.6 kN

(c) (d)

FIGURE 10.2

490 Ch.10 I Introduction to Component Design

 so + Ax = 0
Ax=-SO=SOkN+-

Ay + 129.6 - 100 - 60 = 0
Ay = 30.4 kNj
The internal axial force acting on member Ee may be determined by considering the
equilibrium of the free-body diagram of that section of the truss to the right of plane a-a,
as shown in Fig. 10.2(c). Thus
j L Fy = 0
129.6 - 60 - FEC cos 30 = 0
F EC = SO.4 kN(T)
DESIGN OF MEMBER Ee: By Eq. 3.1,

= Fn = SO.4 X 103 = S 04 X 10-4 2

A (1 100 X 106' m
Since structural steel sections have not yet been standardized in SI units, this value of A
will be transformed into inch units in order to be able to use the data in Appendix E.
Therefore,
A = S.04 X 10- 4 m 2 = 1.25 in. 2
Examination of Appendix E reveals that the smallest standard S section satisfying the
cross-sectional area requirement is the S3 x 5.7, whose area is 1.67 in.2 = 10.77 x 10- 4
m 2 • Thus member Ee is 4 m long, as shown in Fig. 1O.2(a), and would have to have a
standard S section whose designation is

E3
(b) The maximum force in the pin at D may be determined by considering the equi-
librium of the free-body diagram of joint D shown in Fig. 10.2(d). Thus
+ j L Fy = 0
129.6 + FCD sin 60 = 0
F CD = -149.6 kN = 149.6 kN (C)

-FED - FCD cos 60 = 0

FED = 74.S kN(T)
Therefore, the maximum force acting on pin D is F CD = 149.6 kN. Since the pin at D is in
double shear, the shear stress in it, is found from the relation
FCD
L --
D - 2AD

Sec. 10.3 / De.ign of Axially Loaded Members 491

 where AD is the cross-sectional area of the pin at D. Thus
A = FeD = 149.6 x lO3 = 1247
D 2r D 2 x 60 X lO6
Since A = nD 2 /4, it follows that
D = 2 J~ = 2
= I 0.0398 m
PROBLEMS ____________________________________________________________
10.1 A short compression concrete
(E = 20 GPa) is to have a hollow circular cross section
such that its inside diameter is one-third of the outside
diameter and its length is to be 1.5 m. The member is to
carry a compressive load of 250 kN and its shortening
should not exceed an allowable value of 0.0015 m.
Neglect any possibility of column action and determine
the diameters of the hollow cross section. Assume that
the concrete has an ultimate strength of 25 MPa and
use a factor of safety N u = 3 based on failure by frac-
ture.
10.2 A tension member is to be fabricated from an
aluminum alloy (E = lO x lO6 psi) for which the yield
strength is 50 ksi and the ultimate strength is 70 ksi.
The member is to carry a load of 50 kips and is to be
designed using a factor of safety of Nu = 2.5 based upon
failure by fracture and an allowable deformation of
0.25 in. Determine:
(a) The minimum cross-sectional area and the
maximum length dictated by the requirements of the
problem.
(b) The factor of safety based on failure by yielding.
10.3 An S shape member with a length of 25 ft is to
carry a tension load of 400 kips and have an allowable
deformation of 0.25 in. If the material has a yield
strength of 36,000 psi and an ultimate strength of 70,000
psi, determine the proper specification for the S section
if the member is to be designed using a factor of safety
492
X lO - 6 m2
.
J 12.47 : lO - 4
member Ny = 1.7 based on yielding. What would be the factor of
safety based upon fracture? Use E = 30 X lO6 psi.
10.4 A two-part member having square cross sections
is to resist the loads shown in Fig. PlO.4. The entire
member is to be made of a material for which the yield
strength is 200 MPa and the ultimate strength is
275 MPa. Determine the needed cross-sectional areas of
the two parts so that the member will safely carry the
applied loads with a factor of safety N = 2 based on:
(a) Failure by yielding.
(b) Failure by fracture.
Assume that the deformations of the member are not
significant design considerations.
I
~
~
7S kN
FIGURE P10.4
10.5 An axially loaded member is to resist the action
of the loads shown in Fig. PlO.5. The entire member is
to be made of structural steel (E = 30 x 106 psi) for
which the yield strength is 36,000 psi. The deformation
of the entire member is limited to an allowable value of
0.15 in. Find the necessary cross-sectional areas of parts
AB and Be using a factor of safety Ny = 2 based on
failure by yielding. If W14 sections are to be used for
the member, select proper W14 sizes from Appendix E
to meet the needs of the problem.
Ch . 10 / Introduction to Component Design
 /.
A 10.8 An axially loaded member is to resist the action
of the loads shown in Fig. P10.8. Material S is a steel
(E = 200 GPa) for which the yield strength is 200 MPa
10 ft
and material M is a magnesium alloy (E = 40 G Pal for
which the yield strength is 150 MPa. The deformation
of the entire member is to be within an allowable value
of 0.003 m. Determine the cross-sectional areas of the
two parts using a factor of safety Ny = 2.5 based on
failure by yielding. If hollow circular cross sections in
c which the outside diameter is twice the inside diameter
are to be used for both parts of the member, determine
the proper values of these diameters.
120 k
175 kN
FIGURE P10.5

10.6 An axially loaded member is to carry the loads s

shown in Fig. P10.6. The entire member is to be made
175 kN
of an aluminum alloy (E = 10.5 x 106 psi) for which the 4111 ~
I
1m
yield strength is 20,000 psi and the ultimate strength is FIGURE P10.8
30,000 psi. The deformation of the entire member is to
be restricted to an allowable value of 0.10 in. Construct
the force diagram for the member. Determine the 10.9 The mechanism shown in Fig. P10.9 is used to
required cross-sectional areas of the two parts of this develop a pull at slider A equal to 10 k when a horizon-
member using a factor of safety Ny = 2.0 based on tal force P is applied at D. The angle () may vary from 0
failure by yielding. What would be the factor of safety to 45°. Design rod AB which is to have a solid circular
based upon failure by fracture? cross section. Use a factor of safety Ny = 2.0 based on
100 k failure by yielding. The material is steel with a yield
strength of 50 ksi.
D
p--=....-{\

}--- - 12 ft - - --{

FIGURE P10.6

10.7 An axially loaded member is to resist the loads

shown in Fig. P10.7. The material is structural steel for
which <1y = 36 ksi and E = 29 X 106 psi. Assume a
factor of safety Ny = 2.0 and an allowable deformation 4 in'----\oi-----8 in.~
of 0.2 in. and select a single standard pipe from Appen- A
10 k

dix E for this application.

I--(,fl - 81"1-1 6n-1 FIGURE P10.9
25k 50 k

10.10 Refer to the mechanism shown in Fig. P10.9 and

described in Problem 10.9. Design the pin at B, which is
50 k in double shear. The pin is to be fabricated of structural
FIGURE P10.7 steel that has an allowable shear stress of 36 ksi.

Sec. 10.3 / Design of Axially Loaded Members 493

10.11 Consider the bridge truss shown in Fig. PlO.11. 25 k 40 k 40 k
Select a suitable channel section (see Appendix E) for 6ft 5ft-....-
member FE. Assume the material to be structural steel
for which the allowable normal stress is 150 MPa. A~.~====~====~~====~
Assume deformations to be insignificant design
problems.

150kN ---:~~====~

15 ft

~4m-+-4m---l.I_' 4m~
450 kN
FIGURE P10.11
10.12 Consider the bridge truss shown in Fig. PlO.l1.
Design the pin at D assuming it to be in double shear.
The material is structural steel for which the yield
strength in shear is 145 MPa. Use a factor of safety
Ny = 2.0 based on failure by yielding. Details of joint D
are the same as shown in Fig. 10.2(d).
10.13 Consider the truss shown in Fig. PI0.13. Select a
suitable channel section (see Appendix E) for member
AB. Assume the material to be structural steel for which
E
FIGURE P10.13
the yield strength is 36 ksi. Use a factor of safety Ny =
1. 7 based on failure by yielding.
10.14 Consider the truss shown in Fig. Pl0.13. Two
channels (see Appendix E) are to be used back to back
for member DE. Select a suitable channel assuming the
material to be structural steel for which the allowable
normal stress is 20 ksi. Assume that deformations are
not significant design considerations.

11.1 _ _ Shafts are designed to resist applied torques. The first step in design is to construct a
Design of
diagram showing the variation of applied torques along the member length as discussed
Torsional
in Sections 1.4 and 1.5. Next, a working stress and an allowable angle of twist per unit
Members
length are selected by the designer or are specified in a code. Critical torque values
together with the allowable stress and allowable angle of twist are substituted into
Eqs.4.19, 4.22, and 4.23 in order to design solid or hollow circular cylindrical shafts.
Design procedure is best learned by studying the following examples.

EXAMPLE 10.4 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Refer to Fig. 1.8 (p. 15) and design a solid steel shaft of constant diameter to resist these
applied torques. Use a shearing yield stress of 16,000 psi with a factor of safety of Ny = 2
and an allowable rotation of 2.00 x 10- 4 rad/in. Comment on the design if steel were to
be replaced by (a) a relatively brittle material, or (b) a thin-walled tube. Use G = 10 X 106
psi.

494 Ch.10 / Introduction to Component Design

 SOLUTION. The critical design torque is 20 k-in., selected from the T versus x diagram
of Fig. 1.8. Equation 4.19 is applicable: choose p = D/2 to maximize the shearing stress.
For a solid shaft J = (n/32)D 4 and 'p is the allowable shearing stress. Substitute these
values to obtain
T = 2L = 16,000 = 20,000(D/2)
p Ny 2 (n/32)D 4
Solve for the diameter, D:

D = 2.34 in.

Use Eq. 4.22 to check the rotation of this shaft:

() = TL
JG
() 20,000 _4 .
L (n/32)(2.34)4(10 x 106) = 6.79 x 10 rad/tn.

Since this value exceeds the allowable rotation of 2.00 x 10- 4 rad/in., the shaft must be
redesigned usin~ Eq. 4.22 as follows:
() T
---
L JG
-4 20,000
2.00 x 10 = (nD4/32X10 x 106)

ID = 3.18 in. I
The shaft must be at least 3.18 in. in diameter to meet the stated stress and rotation
design criteria. Other factors, such as the availability of material stock of this diameter
and machining capabilities, would need to be considered before deciding upon a final
diameter.
To understand fully the following comments, the reader should review Section 4.4
thoroughly. Although applied torques give rise to shearing stresses, the Mohr's circle
construction reveals that tensile and compressive principal stresses are always associated
with torsion. These principal stresses are each equal in magnitude to the shearing stress
computed from the torsion formula, Eq. 4.19 with p = r. For pure torsion: O'l = T, 0'2 = 0,
and 0'3 = -,.
COMMENTS:
(a) If a given shaft were fabricated of a brittle material, the tensile normal stress 0' 1 would
be critical, since such a shaft is likely to fail in tension by brittle fracture due to the
stresses.
(b) If a thin-walled tube were to be used as a shaft, the compressive normal stress 0'3 may
be critical, since such a shaft may fail due to local buckling associated with high compres-
sive stresses.

Sac. 10.4 I Dasign of Torsional Mambars 495

EXAMPLE 10.5 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Design a hollow circular steel shaft to resist a maximum torque of 100 k-ft. Use a
shearing yield stress of 30,000 psi with a factor of safety of Ny = 2 and an allowable
rotation of 5.00 x 10- 4 rad/in. Select the inside diameter equal to 0.6 of the outside
diameter. This diametral ratio will assure that local buckling is not critical in this case
and that shearing stress or rotation per unit length will govern the design. Use
G = 10 x 106 psi.

SOLUTION. The design torque is 100 k-ft = 1,200,000 lb-in. Equation 4.23 becomes

Equation 4.19 is applicable with J 1 from Eq. 4.23 replacing J:

-2 = 30,000 = 1,200,000(Do/2)
Ny 2 0.08545D!
Solve for the outside diameter, Do:
Do = 7.76 in.
Di = 0.6Do = 4.66 in.
Use Eq. 4.22 to check the rotation of this shaft:
e T
L JG

1,200,000 -4 .
0.08545(7.76)4(10 X 106) = 3.87 x 10 rad/m.

Since this value is less than the allowable of 5.00 x 10- 4 rad/in., the diameters determined
above are acceptable. Hollow circular shaft diameters are

I Do = 7.76 in. I and I Di = 4.66 in. I

Practical considerations may dictate a small increase in the outside diameter or a
decrease in the inside diameter. If the torsional loading is known to be distributed, it may
be economically feasible to design a tapered shaft rather than one of constant diameter.
Tapered shafts would probably not be economically feasible unless a relatively large
quantity is required.

EXAMPLE 10.6 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Design a solid circular cylindrical shaft to transmit 1600 kW at 500 rev/min. The endur-
ance limit (refer to Section 12.4) of the material is 210 MPa and a factor of safety of
N e = 3 is to be used with respect to fatigue failure. An allowable static rotation of 5.00° is
specified for this 4.00-m-long shaft. Use G = 17.5 GPa.

496 Ch.10 / Introduction to Component Design

 SOLUTION. The applied torque T in terms of the power P and the angular velocity of
the shaft, OJ:
P
T=-
OJ

Substitute values to obtain

1000 W 1 N-m/sec
1600 kW x 1 kW x 1W
T = -------------
rev 1 min 2n rad
SOO-x--x--
min 60 sec 1 rev
= 30,560 N-m

Equation 4.19 is applicable: 'p = Tp/J:

'Te 210 X 106 (30,S60)D /2
3 (1T/32)D 4
D = 0.130S m

Use Eq. 4.22 to check the rotation angle of this shaft:

() = TL = 30,560(4) = 0.OSS4 or 3.17 0

JG (n/32)(0.130S)4(77.S x 109 )

Since 3.17° < S.OO°, the shaft has satisfactory rotation characteristics. Choose:

ID= 0.130S m I
Practical considerations may dictate a slight increase in this shaft diameter.

EXAMPLE 10.7 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Design a solid shaft of rectangular cross section to resist a torque of lS00 N-m. The
shearing yield stress of the material is 300 MPa. Use a factor of safety of Ny = 2 with
respect to first yield in shear. An allowable rotation of 10.00° is specified for this 2-m
shaft. Use G = 77.S GPa. Choose a length/width ratio of 2.00 for this rectangular cross
section.

SOLUTION. Appropriate equations are given in Fig. 4.12 (p. 180) for shafts of rec-
tangular cross section. Note that a and b are the half-length and half-width, respectively.
a
- = 2 or a = 2b
b

,= T(3a + 1.8b)

Sec. 10.4 / Design of Torsional Members 497

 Substitute as follows:
.2.. _ 300 X 10 6 _ 1500[3(2b) + 1.8b]
Ny - 2 - 8(2b)2b 2
Solving for b gives
b = 0.0134 m
a = 2b = 0.0268 m
Use the following equations to check the rotation:

K == ab 3 [16 - 3.36 £ (1 -
3 a
~)J
12a 4

6
= 2bb 3 [13 - 3.36 :b ( 1 - 12~2:)4)]
=7.324b4 = 7.324(0.0134)4 = 23.61 X 10- 8 m 4
TL 1500(2)
e == KG = (23.61 x 10 8)77.5 X 109 = 0.164 rad or 9.40°

Since the rotation of 9.40° is less than the allowable value of 10.00°, the rectangular cross
section is given by
length = 2a = 2(0.0268)

=10.0536 m 1

width = 2b = 2(0.()134)

I
== 0.0268 m I
Practical considerations may dictate small increases in these cross-sectional dimensions. A
circular or hollow circular shaft could be designed with less material than the rectangular
one to meet the stated requirements. A rectangular shaft would only be chosen if other
conditions dictated this choice.

PROBLEMS __________________________________________________________

Refer to Section 12.2 for a discussion of stress concentra-
tions.
10.1S Two weights W = 12,000 lb deliver a torque to
a hollow circular shaft as shown in Fig. PIO.IS. The
inside radius is to equal 0.6 of the outside radius and
the shaft is 4 ft long. The allowable shearing stress is
12,000 psi and the angle of twist per unit length is not to
exceed 6.00 x 10- 4 rad/in. Ignore stress concentrations
and assume that the inextensible cables are firmly
attached to the shaft. Assume that the pulley is friction-
less. Determine the shaft radii. Use G = lOx 106 psi.

498 Ch.10 / Introduction to Component De.lgn


FIGURE P10.15
10.16 Two weights W = 40,000 N deliver a torque to
a hollow circular shaft as shown in Fig. PlO.15. The
inside radius is to equal 0.8 of the outside radius and
the shaft is l.5 m long. The allowable shearing stress is
75 MPa and the total angle of twist is not to exceed
0.04 rad. Ignore stress concentrations and assume that
the inextensible cables are firmly attached to the shaft.
Assume that the pulley is frictionless. Determine the
shaft radii. Use G = 72 GPa.
10.17 Design a hollow circular cylindrical shaft to
transmit 2000 kW at 600 rpm. Use a ratio of inside to
outside diameter of 0.7. The endurance limit of the
material is 220 MPa and a factor of safety of N e = 3 is
to be used with respect to fatigue failure. An allowable
static rotation of 6.50° is specified for this 6.00-m-long
shaft. Use G = 77.5 GPa.
10.18 The largest diesel engine currently manufactured
in the United States develops 10,100 kW at 450 rpm. If
this power is delivered by the main output shaft termed
the crankshaft, with an allowable shearing stress of
25 ksi, what diameter is required for a solid circular cross
section?
10.19 Design a solid cylindrical shaft of circular cross
section to resist an applied torque of 100,000 lb-in. The
Sec. 10.4 / Design of Torsional Members
allowable shearing stress is 10,000 psi and the angle of
twist per unit length is not to exceed 5.00 x 10 - 4
rad/in. Use G = 10 X 10 6 psi.
10.20 Design a solid cylindrical shaft of circular cross
section to resist an applied torque of 12,000 N-m. The
allowable shearing stress is 70 MPa, and the angle of
twist per unit length is not to exceed 2.00 x 10- 2
rad/m. Use G = 72 G Pa.
10.21 A cylindrical shaft is to be designed with a
hollow circular cross section such that the inside diam-
eter is 0.80 of the outside diameter. If the allowable
shearing stress is 12,000 psi and the shaft is to carry a
torque of 120,000 lb-in., determine the cross-sectional
dimensions of the shaft. Assume that the angle of twist
of this shaft is satisfactory.
10.22 A shaft of hollow circular cross section is cylin-
drical and is required to transmit a torque of 18,000
N-m. Choose the inside diameter to be 0.75 of the
outside diameter. If the allowable shearing stress is
80 MPa and the angle of twist per unit length is not to
exceed l.80 x 10 - 2 rad/m, determine the cross-sectional
dimensions of this shaft. Use G = 74 GPa.
10.23 Refer to Fig. PlO.23 and draw the torque versus
x diagram for this stepped shaft. The shaft is solid and
is to be fabricated of a material with a shearing yield
stress of 160 MPa. Use a factor of safety of Ny = 2 with
respect to yield in shear and determine the diameters
D 1 , D 2 , and D 3 . Assume that the shafts have minimal
stress concentrations and satisfactory rotation charac-
teristics.
9
3000 -m
: - x
/+_...L.-_
12,000 N-m
I m - t - -- 2m
FIGURE P10.23
499
10.24 Refer to Fig. PIO.24 and draw the torque versus
x diagram for this stepped shaft. The shaft is solid and
is to be fabricated of a material with a shearing yield
stress of 18,000 psi. Use a factor of safety of Ny = 2 with
respect to yield in shear and determine the diameters
D i , D 2 , and D 3 • Assume that the shafts have minimal
stress concentrations and satisfactory rotation charac-
teristics.
k-ft
10.27 A solid circular cylindrical shaft is required to
transmit 35 hp at 350 rpm. The shaft is to be fabricated
of a material with a shearing endurance limit of 27,000
psi with a factor of safety of N e = 3 with respect to
fatigue failure. Determine the diameter of this shaft to
transmit power as given. Assume that the shaft has
minimal stress concentrations which are allowed for in
the factor of safety. Static rotation characteristics are
satisfactory. Refer to Section 12.4 for a discussion of

~
3
endurance limit.
,
, ~ x

I+- --l-- 10.28 Design a solid shaft of rectangular cross section

to resist an applied torque of 25,000 lb-in. Choose the

- I - -- - Sfl - ---f<- - -5 ft -l
FIGURE P10.24
10.25 The design torque for a shaft is 6300 lb.-in. This
shaft is to be fabricated of a material with a shearing
endurance limit of 30,000 psi with a factor of safety of
N e = 3 with respect to fatigue failure. Determine the
diameter of this shaft to transmit power as given.
Assume that the shaft has minimal stress concentrations
which are allowed for in the factor of safety. Static rota-
tion characteristics are satisfactory. Refer to Section
12.4 for a discussion of endurance limit.
10.26 Design a solid circular cylindrical shaft to trans-
mit 1000 kW at 400 rpm. The shaft is to be fabricated of
a material with a shearing endurance limit of 220 MPa
with a factor of safety of N e = 3 with respect to fatigue
failure. Determine the diameter of this shaft to transmit
power as given. Assume that the shaft has minimal
stress concentrations which are allowed for in the factor
of safety. Static rotation characteristics are satisfactory.
Refer to Section 12.4 for a discussion of endurance limit.
length of the rectangle to be twice the width. The allow-
able shearing stress is 10,000 psi and the angle of twist
per unit length is not to exceed 4.00 x 10- 4 rad/in. Use
G = 10 X 10 6 psi and refer to Fig. 4.12 (p. 180) for
appropriate equations.
10.29 Design a solid shaft of rectangular cross section
to resist an applied torque of 4000 N-m. Choose the
length of the rectangle to be twice the width. The allow-
able shearing stress is 70 MPa and the angle of twist is
not to exceed 1.80 x 10- 2 rad/ m. Use G = 75 GPa and
refer to Fig. 4.12 (p. 180) for appropriate equations.
10.30 Refer to Computer Problem C4.5 (p. 197) for
appropriate equations to design a thin-walled tube of
rectangular cross section. The cross-sectional length/
width ratio is 2.00 and the wall thickness is 0.40 in. It is
subjected to end torques of 50,000 Ib-in. Use
G = 12 x 10 6 psi. The shaft has a length of 8.00 ft. The
allowable shearing stress is 6000 psi and the angle of
twist over the total length is not to exceed 0.05 rad.
Choose a length and width for the cross section of this
tube to meet the stated requirements.

11.5 _ _ The design of flexural members is based upon the analytical procedures that were devel-
Design of oped in Chapter 5 for stresses and in Chapter 6 for deformations. Thus the reader is urged
Flexural to review these analytical procedures prior to embarking on the design of members
Members sUbjected to flexural or bending loads.
As in previous sections of this chapter, flexural members are designed to safely carry
loads without exceeding certain stress and deformation limits. Generally, the procedure
consists of first designing the member to satisfy the allowable stress requirement. Then the

500 Ch.10 / Introduction to Component Design

 deformation (deflection) is checked to see if it is within the allowable limits. If not, a
redesign becomes necessary to ensure that both stress and deformation requirements are
satisfied.
Except for beams that are very short in comparison with their cross-sectional dimen-
sions, the shear stresses that are developed are usually relatively small in comparison to
normal stresses. Thus, in general, the design process, in addition to satisfying the deforma-
tion requirement, is limited to satisfying the normal stress requirement. However, there
are some cases of long beams where the shearing stress needs to be evaluated. These cases
include beams that are fabricated by fastening two or more sections together, or timber
beams, to make sure that the fastening between the various sections of the beam or the
bonding between the timber grains, respectively, is sufficiently strong to carry the applied
loads.
The various concepts mentioned above are illustrated in the following examples.
EXAMPLE 10.8 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

A structural steel (E = 30 x 106 psi) cantilever beam of rectangular cross section is to

carry the loads as shown in Fig. 10.3(a). The yield strength in tension or compression for

p = 20k

IV = 0.5 kI f! ,

T c+ u x

1 I. = 20 ft
l-b--1 (a)
I
I
I
I
(k)t
]
I x
V. (-)

20
3.0
I (b )

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~--x
Mu (k-ft)

500
FIGURE 10.3

Sec. 10.6 I De.19n of Flexurel Member. 501

 the material is given as 50,000 psi and the allowable deflection for the beam is to be
1.25 in. The span of the beam is 20 ft. Determine a suitable size if the width b of the
rectangular cross section is one-half of its height h. Use a factor of safety Ny = 2.5 based
upon failure by yielding and assume that the shearing stresses in the beam are not
significant design factors.

SOLUTION. It is good design procedure, as a first step in the solution, to construct

both the shear and moment diagrams for the beam under consideration. These diagrams
are constructed for the beam of Fig. 10.3(a) in Fig. 10.3(b) and (c). Thus, in this case, it is
obvious that the maximum flexural stress occurs at the fixed end of the beam. If we ignore
effects of stress concentration, which are discussed in Section 12.2, the flexural stress at
the fixed end of the beam is given by Eq. 5.1Oa, ax = Muv/1u' in which Mu = 500 k-ft and
in which ax is the allowable stress, which in this case is a)N y = 50,000/2.5 = 20,000 psi. If
both v and I u are expressed in terms of the height of the section h, we are able to relate the
known quantities to the unknown section height h. Thus

500 X10 3 x 12(h/2) 72 x 106

20,000 = Tz(h/2)(h) 3 = h3

from which
h = 15.3 in.
and
15.3 .
b=T=7.7m.

Therefore, on the basis of stress alone, the rectangular cross section should be at least
7.7 x 15.3 in. in order that the beam is able to carry the applied loads safely. However,
the maximum deflection of the beam needs to be examined to ensure that the allowable
deflection of 1.25 in. is not exceeded.
Equations for the deflection of beams may be obtained from tabulations similar to
the one given in Table 6.1 (p. 291). If such tabulations are not available or if they do not
provide the answers to the specific beam under consideration, a deflection solution
becomes necessary using one of the several methods discussed in Chapter 6. In this
particular case the deflection equation may be obtained from Table 6.1 by superposing
cases 4 and 5. Thus the deflection Vat the free end of the cantilever is

v= -(~~u + :e~J
where the minus sign signifies that the deflection is downward. Note that the second term
in this equation was obtained from case 5 by setting a = L in the equation for maximum
deflection. Thus
(500/12)(20 X 12)4 (20,000)(20 X 12)3 ]
[
V = - 8(30 x 106 ) x Tz(7.7)(15.3)3 + 3(30 X 10 6 ) x Tz(7.7)(15.W

= -1.587 in.

502 Ch. 10 / Introduction to Component Design

 Since I v I > 1.25 in., a redesign becomes necessary on the basis of the deflection require-
ments. Therefore, using the deflection equation above with v = - 1.25 in., and expressing
Iu in terms of h, we obtain

.
24I: (WL
125=-
h4E
-+-
8 3
P)
and

h4 = 19.2I: (WL + !:..)

E 8 3
= 19.2(20·x 12)3 [(500/12)(20 x 12) 20,000J
30 x 106 8 + 3
= 70,041.6
from which

h = 16.3 in.

and therefore

I b == 8.2 in.
Availability and other practical considerations may dictate some increase in these dimen-
sions.

EXAMPLE 10.9 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

A timber (E = 1.5 x 106 psi) beam of rectangular cross section is to serve as a simply
supported beam as shown in Fig. 1O.4(a). The allowable normal stress for the timber is
given as 2000 psi and the allowable shearing stress as 150 psi. Assume the grain of the
wood to run parallel to the axis of the beam and that the allowable deflection at midspan
is 1.00 in. Determine a suitable size if the width b of the rectangular cross section is
one-third of its height h.

SOLUTION. The reactive forces at supports A and B are determined and the shear and
moment diagrams constructed as shown in Fig. 10.4(b) and (c). It is evident that the
maximum flexural stress occurs at a section 5 ft from the left support, where Mu = 9166.5
lb-ft, while the maximum shearing stress (neglecting stress concentration effects) occurs at
the left support, where v" = 2083.3lb. Thus, by Eq. 5.10a, the maximum flexural stress is

000 = 9166.5 x 12(h/2) = 1,979,964

2 i2{h/3)(h) 3 h3

Sec. 10.5 / De.ign of Flexural Member. 503

 v
v P = 2000 Ib

Th

1
RA = 2083.3 Ib R8 = 1416.71b

I
1
(a)

2083.3

V,(Ib) (+)

~------~-------------------r------ X

I (b) 14 16.7
I I I
I I I

M""b-f" ~
166.5 I

~
x
(e)

FIGURE 10.4

from which
h = 9.97 in. == 10.0 in.
and
b = 9.97 ..:... 33 .
3 - . m.

By Eq. 5.12a, the maximum shearing stress is

r = v" = 2083.3(3.3X5X2.5) = 947 si

vx blu Q 3.3(2)(3.3X1O)3 . P
Therefore, the shearing stress allowable of 150 psi is satisfied.
The deflection of the beam under consideration may be obtained by superposing
cases 1 and 2 in Table 6.1. Thus, from case 1, due to the uniform load, the deflection at
midspan is
5wL4
v= - -.- - -
384Elu
From case 2, due to the concentrated load, the deflection at midspan is

504 Ch.10 I Introduction to Component Deaign

 23PIJ
v = - 1296EIu

Therefore, the total deflection at midspan would be

JJ (5WL 23P)
v = - EIu 384 + 1296
= _ (15 X 12)3 [5(100/12)(15 x 12) 23(2000)J
1.5 x 106(n)(3.3)(1O)3 384 + 1296
= -0.778 in.

where the negative sign indicates that the deflection is downward. Since this deflection is
within the allowable of 1.00 in., the design is proper and the rectangular cross section
should be such that

Ib = 3.3 in. I
and

Ih = 10.0 in. I
Of course, practical considerations may dictate that these sizes be increased somewhat.

EXAMPLE 10.10

The structural steel (E = 200 GPa) beam shown in Fig. lO.5(a) is to have an S section. If
the structural steel has a yield strength in tension and compression of 250 MPa and if the
beam is to have an allowable deflection of 0.03 m at the right end, determine a suitable S
section. Use a factor of safety Ny = 2 and assume that the shearing stresses are not
significant design factors.

SOLUTION. The reactive forces at supports A and B are computed and are shown in
Fig. 10.5(a). The shear diagram is shown in Fig. 10.5(b) and the composite moment
diagram in Fig. lO.5(c). For convenience in the computations of deflections, the moment
diagram is also shown by cantilever parts in Fig. 10.5(d) using a section at C as the fixed
end of the cantilevers.
Thus the maximum moment occurs at support B and has a value of 60 kN-m.
Therefore, by Eq. 5.10a, the maximum flexural stress is

(f =M"v
--=Mu
- =M"
-
JC Iu Ijv S"
where the quantity Su = I jv is known as the section modulus for the section and (f" is the
allowable stress, which in this case is (fiNy = 250/2 = 125 MPa. Thus

125 x 106 = 60,000

S"

Sec. 10.1 / De.lan of Flexural Member. 505

 JE At.
t P = 20 kl

L-,
= 10 k 1m

!
IV

11

6111 3m
RA = 20 kN (a)

(+)
x

(b)

20

Mil (kN-Ill) x

60

I 180

;1/" (kN-m) x

Mu(k _m)~ _ __ _ _ _ _ _..... ~o-- __(+_)--,--I_O_. x

Cd)

FIGURE 10.5

S = 60,000 = 4.8 X 10- 4 m 3

u 125 X 106
Since structural steel sections have not yet been standardized in SI units, this value of
Su will be transformed into inch units in order to be able to use the data in Appendix E.
Therefore,
Su = 4.8 X 10- 4 m 3 = 29.3 in. 3
Examination of Appendix E reveals that a standard section with a designation of
SlO x 35 has a section modulus Su = 29.4 in. 3 and therefore is more than adequate to
carry the loads as given.
The deflection at the right end of the beam could be obtained by superposing several
simpler beam cases, but in this solution it was decided to obtain this deflection by use of

506 Ch. 10 / Introduction to Component Design

 the area-moment method. In terms of tangential deviations, the deflection Vc at the right
end of the beam would be

where tCA and tBA may be obtained from the moment diagram shown in Fig. 1O.5(d). Thus
E1utCA = [810(3) + 270(1) - 360(4.5) - 270(2) - 540(1)] x 10 3 =0
E1utBA = [360(2) - 360(1.5)] x 10 3 = 180 X 10 3 N_m 3
The value of Iu may be read from Appendix E to be 147 in.4. If this value is transformed
into SI units, it becomes 61.181 x 10- 6 m4. Therefore,
1
Vc = 200 x 109(61.181 x 10-6) [0 -1(180) x 10 3 ] = -0.022 m

where the negative sign signifies that the deflection of the beam at point C is downward.
Since the value found for the deflection is well within the allowable value of 0.030 m, the
S10 x 35 section is suitable for the application.

EXAMPLE 10.11

The aluminum beam shown in Fig. 1O.6(a) is to be fabricated by fastening two rectangular
sections as shown in Fig. 1O.6(b) and (c). The threaded fasteners are to be aluminum for

3m ----r-------- 6m ----------~
(b)
RA = 48,750 N Rn = 26,250 N
(a) I
I
~ I
~ ~=-----~;-----------~~------.----x

26,250
(d)

+ /I
E
EI E 0
Z X
'" '"0
-'"
M

:;;;.~
0
22,500
FIGURE 10.6 (e)

Sec. 10.5 I Design of Flexural Members 507

 which the yield strength in shear is 105 MPa and are to have a diameter of 0.015 m.
Determine the appropriate spacing d for a single row of fasteners as shown in Fig. 1O.6(b)
using a factor of safety Ny = 1.5 so that the beam can carry the loads safely. Assume the
flexural stresses and beam deflection are not significant design considerations.

SOLUTION. The reactive forces at supports A and B are first computed and are shown
in Fig. 1O.6(a). Even though only the shear diagram is needed in this solution, both the
shear and moment diagrams are shown in Fig. 1O.6(d) and (e), respectively. It is obvious
that the maximum value of the shear force v., occurs an infinitesimal distance to the right
of support A and has a value of 33,750 N.
The centroid of the T section is computed and its principal centroidal axes of inertia
are located as shown in Fig. 10.6(c). The moment of inertia Iu with respect to the u
principal axis of inertia is found to be 10.186 x 10- 5 m4. Therefore, the horizontal shear
flow at the junction between the two rectangular sections making up the T is given by
Eq. 5.12d. Thus

33,750
10.186 x 10-5 (0.05 x 0.20 x 0.0536) = 0.1776 MN/m

Therefore, the horizontal shear force F x that has to be transmitted from the top rectangle
to the bottom rectangle by each one of the fasteners may be determined by multiplying
the shear flow by the longitudinal spacing d. Thus
Fx = 0.1776 x 10 6 d N
The allowable shear stress in the fasteners is given as a/Ny = 105/1.5 = 70 MPa.
Therefore, the allowable shear force FA per fastener is obtained by mUltiplying the allow-
able shear stress by the cross-sectional area of the fastener. Thus

FA = 70 X 106 X ~ (0.015)2 = 1.237 X 104 N

If FA is equated to F x' the required value of the fastener spacing d is obtained. Thus
0.1776 x 106 d = 1.237 X 104
and

I d = 0.0697 m I
In practice d may be varied along the span to accommodate variation in the shear
ordinates.

EXAMPLE 10.12*_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

I A steel Jjeam (E = 30 x 106 psi) is to be simply supported over a span of 10 ft and is to

carry a ~niform load of intensity 400 lb/ft over its entire length, acting vertically down-

508 Ch. 10 / Introduction to Component De.ign

 11
= 400 Ib/ fl

1
IV

I II I I
x

I L = 10 ft
(a)

(b )

1.78 in. y

.S

L5 X 5 X t
( e)
/I

A
L6 X 6 X t

(d )

L6 X 6 X t
(e )
FIGURE 10.7

ward as shown in Fig. 1O.7(a). Certain design requirements dictate that the cross-sectional
area of the beam be an equal-legged angle with the load acting perpendicularly to one of
its sides, as shown in Fig. 1O.7(b). The material has a yield strength in tension or compres-
sion of 36,000 psi. Select a suitable equal-legged angle section using a factor of safety
Ny = 2 and an allowable deflection in the beam equal to 0.20 in. Assume that shear
stresses and localized buckling problems are not significant design considerations and
that the loads are so placed that they produce no twisting action of the beam.

Sec. 1 0.5 I De.ign of Flexural Member. 509

 SOLUTION. Since the plane of the load is not parallel to one of the two principal
centroidal axes of inertia, the beam is loaded unsymmetrically and the solution requires a
trial-and-error procedure as described below.
The maximum moment in the beam occurs at midspan and has a value equal to 5000
lb-ft = 60,000 lb-in. This moment may be decomposed into its two components, Mu and
Mv as shown in Fig. 1O.7(b), in which Mu = Mv = 42,420 lb-in.
FIRST TRY: Angle L5 x 5 x i. This angle is shown in Fig. 1O.7(c) approximately to scale.
From Appendix E the following values are obtained:
Ix = Iy = 15.7 in.4
x = y = 1.52 in.
rv = 0.97 in. A = 6.94 in. 2
Therefore,
Iv = r;A = 6.5 in.4
Also, since Ix + Iy = Iu + Iv, it follows that
Iu = 2(15.7) - 6.5 = 24.9 in. 4
The neutral axis for bending is located by using Eq. 5.14. Thus

P= tan - 1 G: tan 4> )

= tan - 1(24.9
6.5 x 1) = 75.37°

The neutral axis is shown in Fig. 10.7(c) and indicates that point A in the section is in the
tension zone and is the most highly stressed point because it is the farthest away from the
neutral axes. The flexural stress at this point, therefore, needs to be determined from
Eq. 5.15. Thus

in which vA = 3.0 in. and U A = 2.69 in., as determined from the geometry of the cross
section in Fig. 10.7(c). Thus

= 42,420 (3 00) 42,420 (2.69)

CT A 24.9 . + 6.5

= 5110.8 + 17,555.4 = 22,666.2 psi

This value is larger than the allowable stress, which is given as CT.INy = 36,000/2 = 18,000
psi. Therefore, this section has to be rejected on the basis of the allowable stress.
SECOND TRY: Angle L6 x 6 x i. This angle is shown in Fig. 10.7(d) approximately to
scale. As in the first try, the following values are obtained:
Ix= Iy = 28.2 in.4
x = y = 1.78 in.
rv = 1.17 in. A = 8.44 in. 2

510 Ch.10 I Introduction to Component Oe.lgn

 Iv = (1.17)2(8.44) = 11.6
Iu = 2(28.2) - 11.6 = 4.48 in.4

f3 = tan- 1(44.8
- x 1) = 75.48°
11.6
The neutral axis for bending is shown in Fig. 10.7(d) and again indicates that point A
is the most highly stressed. Again, the geometry of the section is used to find vA and U A to
be 3.72 in. and 2.26 in., respectively. Thus
42,420 42,420
(1 A = 44.8 (3.72) + 1'T6 (2.26)
= 3522.4 + 8264.6 = 11,787.0 psi
This value is well within the allowable stress of 18,000 psi. Another try, however, is made
to ensure that the section is not overdesigned on the basis of flexural stress. Once that is
done, the deflection of the beam needs to be examined.
THIRD TRY: Angle L6 x 6 x t. This angle is shown in Fig. 10.7(e) approximately to
scale. The following values are obtained:
Ix = Iy = 19.9 in. 4
x= y= 1.68 in.
rv = 1.18 in. A = 5.75 in. 2
Iv = (1.18)2(5.75) = 8.0 in. 4
Iu = 2(19.9) - 8.0 = 31.8 in.4

f3 = tan- 1(31.8
- x 1) = 75.88°
8.0
The neutral axis for bending is shown in Fig. 10.7(e). Point A is again the one that is
most highly stressed and the distances VA and UA are found to be 3.89 in. and 2.22 in.,
respectively. Thus
= 42,420 (3 89) 42,420 (2 22)
(1 A 31.8 . + 8.0 .

= 5189.1 + 11,771.6 = 16,960.7 psi

This value is obviously less than the allowable stress of 18,000 psi. Therefore, the L6 x 6
x t section is acceptable from the standpoint of allowable normal stress. The deflection
of the beam, using this cross section, needs to be examined.
Case 1 in Table 6.1 reveals that the midspan (maximum) deflection () for a simply
supported beam of length L subjected to a uniform load of intensity w is equal to
5wL4 /384EI. Therefore, the components of deflection at midspan in the u and V directions
are
() = 5L4 WV = 5(10 X 12)4 0.707(400/12) 2.12
v 384E Iu 384 x 30 x 106 Iu Iu

= 2.12 = 0.067 in.

31.8

Sec. 10.5 I Design of Flexursl Member. 511

 and
<5 _ 5L4 WU _ 5(10 X 12)4 0.707(400/12) 2.12
u 384E Iv 384 x 30 x 106 Iv Iv
2.12 .
= 8.0 = 0.265 tn.

The resultant midspan deflection is, therefore,

<5 = J <5; + <5; = 0.27 in.
This value of deflection is excessive in terms of the allowable of 0.20 in. and, consequently,
the L6 x 6 x ! angle is rejected. This conclusion prompts a further examination of the
L6 x 6 x l angle section that was attempted during the second try. Recall that the
flexural stress was found to be 11,787.0 psi, well within the allowable limit. However, the
deflection still remains to be examined to ensure that it is within the allowable value.
Thus
2.12 2.12 .
<5 v =-=-=0047tn
Iu 44.8 . .

<5 u = ---c
2.12 2.12 .
= 11.6 = 0.183 tn.

and
<5 = J<5; + <5; = 0.19 in.
This value is less than the allowable deflection of 0.20 in. and therefore the equal-legged
angle that is appropriate for the application is the

L6x6xl

PROBLEMS __________________________________________________________

10.31 A timber (E = 1.5 x 106 psi) beam of rectangu-
lar cross section is to serve as a cantilever beam with a
span of 15 ft. It is to carry a uniform load of intensity
60 lb/ft over the entire length and two concentrated
forces of 1200 lb each, one acting at the free end and the
other at midspan. The allowable normal stress for the
timber is 1600 psi and the allowable shearing stress is
120 psi. Assume the grain of the wood to run parallel
to the axis of the beam and that the allowable deflec-
tion is 1.5 in. Determine a suitable size if the width
b of the rectangular cross section is one-half of its
height h.
10.32 A simply supported beam is to have a span of
5 m and a rectangular cross section whose base b is ~ of
its height h. The material is to be structural steel
(E = 200 GPa) and the beam is to support a uniform
load of intensity 7 kN/m over the entire length and a
concentrated load at midspan of 20 kN. The material
has a yield strength of 250 MPa and the beam is to
have an allowable deformation of 0.01 m. Determine
suitable values of band h using a factor of safety Ny =
2.0 based upon failure by yielding. Assume that the
shearing stresses are not significant design consider-
ations.

512 Ch.10 / Introduction to Component De.lgn

10.33 An aluminum al10y (E = 10 x 106 psi) cantilever 5001b/ ft
beam having a circular cross section and a span of 18 ft
is to carry a load that varies linearly from zero at the
free end to a maximum value of 1.5 k/ft at the fixed end.
The yield strength for the material in tension and com-
pression is given as 50,000 psi and the al10wable deflec- 1---- - IOfl 5 n
tion for the beam is to be 3.0 in. Determine a suitable
(a) (b)
diameter for the beam using a factor of safety Ny = 1.5
FIGURE P10.36
based upon failure by yielding. Assume that the shear-
ing stresses are not significant design factors.
two standard equal-legged angles (see Appendix E)
together to form a T section as shown in Fig. P1O.36(b).
10.34 A timber (E = 10 GPa) beam is simply sup- The structural steel has a yield strength in tension and
ported and subjected to the loads shown in compression of 50 ksi. If the beam is to have an allow-
Fig. P1O.34(a). The beam is to be constructed by gluing able deflection of 0.75 in. at its right end (at point C),
two rectangular pieces to form a T section, as shown in select a suitable equal-legged angle for the application.
Fig. PI0.34(b). The al10wable normal stress for timber is Use a factor of safety Ny = 2 based on failure by yield-
16 MPa and the allowable shearing stress for the glue is ing and assume that the shearing stresses are not signifi-
0.6 MPa. Determine a suitable value for the dimension t cant design considerations.
if the allowable deflection in the beam is 0.04 m.

jI I I!
6 kN 6 kN

10.37 The timber (E = 1.5 x 10 6 psi) beam shown in

1,5 kN/ m ~

7J1TI
Fig. PI0.37(a) is to have a cross section as shown in

Xl
Fig. P1O.37(b). This cross section is to be fabricated by
~I
I nailing three rectangular timber members together by
2.0 m 4,0 rn 2.0 01 using steel spikes for which the yield strength in shear is
(a) (b) 18,000 psi. The diameter of each spike is i in. and they
are arranged in the fashion shown in Fig. PI0.37(c).
FIGURE P10.34
Determine the appropriate spacing d so that the beam
can carry the loads safely. Use a factor of safety Ny =
10.35 The structural steel (E = 30 x 106 psi) beam 2.0 and assume that flexural stresses and beam deflec-
shown in Fig. P1O.35 is to have an S section (see Appen- tions are not significant design considerations.
dix E). The structural steel has a yield strength in
tension and compression of 36 ksi. If the beam is to 4k 4k
have an allowable deflection of 1.0 in., determine a suit-
able S section. Use a factor of safety Ny = 1.7 based on 1 1
failure by yielding and assume that the shearing stresses
are not significant design factors. 12 fl
(al
1,5 \(· fl 3 in, 3 in.
+5 in , -

.
18 ft n n l. U d • I
• II
,I
I
I •
I •

~~.l l il '
• I I •
FIGURE P10.35 • I I

(b) (e)
10.36 The structural steel (E = 30 x 106 psi) beam
shown in Fig. P1O.36(a) is to be constructed by welding FIGURE P10.37

Sec. 10.5 / De.ign of Flexural Member. 513

10.38 A structural steel (E = 200 GPa) cantilever
300/
u load
beam 6 m long is to carry a uniform load of intensity
7 kN/m over the entire span. The beam is to be fabri-
cated by fastening three rectangular sections together to
form an I section as shown in Fig. P1O.38(a) and (b).
T
The steel fasteners are 0.015 m in diameter and are " c+ 11

arranged in a single row (both top and bottom) as

shown in Fig. P1O.38(b). Determine the appropriate
spacing d for the fasteners if the material has a yield
strength in shear of 150 MPa and if a factor of safety
N y = 2.5 is to be used. Assume that flexural stresses and
beam deflections are not significant design consider-
ations.
0.06 0.06 0.06 I
All dimen ion,
ill me ter,
0. 18
b ~ !1.
2
FIGURE P10.39
*10.40 A simply supported beam with a span of 21 ft
is to carry two concentrated loads, 5 k each, acting at
the third points along the span. The material is to be
structural steel (E = 30 x 106 psi) and an S section (see
Appendix E) is to be used for the application. Design
requirements are such that both loads have to be
applied at 30° clockwise from the weak axis of the S
section. The allowable stress for the material is 30 ksi
and the allowable deflection for the beam is 1.50 in.
Select a suitable S section for this application. Assume
that shear stresses are not significant design consider-
ations.

10.41 A part of the roof of an industrial building is

(a)
shown in the plan and elevation views of Fig. PI0.41.
I The roof is to be supported by W beams (see Appendix
• I-L E) which are parallel and spaced at a distance of 8 ft
· :'
I d
from each other. These beams may be assumed to be
• I simply supported over a span of 20 f1. The roofing
material weighs 30 Ib/ft 2, and during the winter months,
the roof may carry snow that weighs 20Ib/ftl . Select a
(b)
W6 section for this application. The material is structur-

T
FIGURE P10.38
II II i
I
I
I
I
iI I
I
I
)
*10.39 An aluminum alloy cantilever beam 4 m long I I I I I I

-
I
1 I
1 I
1

1
is to carry a uniform load of intensity 5 kN/m over the I

r
L I I
r
PI.n
entire length. The cross section for the beam is to be a vie.w
I I I I I
I I I I I 1
rectangle whose width b is one-half of its height hand I I 1 I I
I I I I I
the load is inclined at 30° to the v principal centroidal I I I I
axis of the cross section as shown in Fig. PI0.39. The I
I 1 1 1 f
material has a yield strength in tension and compres-
sion equal to 240 MPa and the beam is to have an
1- 8 f t - - i -- 8 ft---j
allowable deflection of 0.04 m. Use a factor of safety
Elention
Ny = 1.5 and determine a suitable size for the rectangu- view
lar section. Assume that shearing stresses are not signifi-
cant design factors. Let E = 70 G Pa. FIGURE P10.41

514 Ch.10 / Introduction to Component De.ign

al steel for which the yield strength in tension or com- ~------sm------~·+I'-------5m ------~·1
pression is 36 ksi. Use a factor of safety of 1. 7 and

T
~///4"////////////////ff~
assume that deflections and shear stresses are not sig-

~
+
nificant design considerations.

10.42 A floor in an office building is to be framed as ~

~
shown in the plan view of Fig. P10.42 consisting of one

~~
f~
main beam (known as a girder) and six cross beams that
sit on top of this girder. The concrete floor is to be
0.10 m thick, weighing 2276 N/m2, and it is to support
an additional service load (live load) estimated to be

fI
3000 N/m2. Design the cross beams if they are to be W8
sections (see Appendix E) made of structural steel for
which the allowable normal stress is 150 MPa. Assume ~
simple supports at both ends and that deflections and %
shear stresses are not significant design considerations. ~
~
10.43 Refer to the floor system shown in Fig. P10.42 ~ ~
and described in Problem 10.42. Design the main beam FIGURE P10.42
(the girder) if it is to have a W14 section (see Appendix
E) made of structural steel for which the allowable both ends and that deflections and shear stresses are not
normal stress is 210 MPa. Assume simple supports at significant design considerations.

10.1i _ _ A knowledge of the concepts developed in Chapter 8 is required for the design of columns
Design of or struts. Students are urged to review the examples and their own solutions to the
Columns problems in Chapter 8. Section 8.6 should be studied again in detail prior to continuing
with a study of this section in which four examples develop design approaches for
columns. Except in special cases, the design of columns involves iterative procedures as
shown in these examples.

EXAMPLE 10.13

A Douglas fir timber column is to be designed to carry an axial force of 11,000 lb using
the information of Fig. 8.14 (p. 419). The column is 16 ft long and has a rectangular cross
section. Column ends may be assumed pinned and the factor of safety is included in the
recommended equations. Use E = 1.1 X 106 psi.

SOLUTION. For a rectangular cross section (h x b) it is possible to express the slender-

ness ratio in terms of the least dimension (h) of the cross section.

lv Jl2bh3 h
r =
v
J -A= --=--
bh jU (where h < b)

L 16 x 12 665
h/jU - h

Sec. 10.6 ! Design of Columns 515

 From Fig. 8.14, assuming that 66.3 :s: Llrv:S: 173.2,
P n2 E
A 2.727(665Ih)2
Substitute values:
_11_,000
_ _ n 2 (1.1 x 106 )
bh 2.727(665Ih)2
bh 3 = 1222
Assign b = 7.5 in., then h = 5.46 in.
Dressed dimensions of a 6 x 8 are 5.5 x 7.5, which would provide
bh 3 = 7.5(5.5)3 = 1248 in.4
This size is satisfactory, since 1248 > 1222, but the actual slenderness ratio must be
checked:

~ = 665 = 665 = 121

rv h 5.5
Since 66.3 < 121 < 173.2, the assumption is valid and the equation has been correctly
applied. The factor of safety is N = 2.727 with respect to long column elastic buckling.
This may appear to be a relatively large factor of safety, but timber is not homogeneous
and isotropic as assumed in Euler column theory. Furthermore, moisture content and
timber grade influence the load-carrying capacity of such a column. These considerations
lead to the conclusion that a relatively high factor of safety is reasonable.

EXAMPLE 10.14 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

An aluminum alloy push rod is a component of a machine. This rod is 15 in. long and
solid circular in cross section. Refer to Fig. 8.15 for allowable stress values. The rod is
required to carry a force of 2000 lb under operating conditions. Design the rod, assuming
that both ends are fixed.

SOLUTION. In order to obtain the effective length of this column, refer to Fig. 8.8(b).
Le = -!-L = 1(15) = 7.50 in.
Express the radius of gyration rv in terms of the rod diameter, D:
nD 4 /64 D
nD2/4 ="4
The slenderness ratio becomes
Le _ 7.50 _ 30
rv - DI4 - D
Assume that D = 0.5 in., Lelrv = 30/0.5 = 60. Read PIA = 11.5 ksi from Fig. 8.15 for
Lelrv = 60, or

516 Ch.10 / Introduction to Component De.ign

 P 2.0 . 2
A=-=-=0.174m.
11.5 11.5

1t~2 = 0.174 and D = 0.47 in.

The calculated value of 0.47 is nearly equal to the assumed value of 0.50 in. Choose

I D = 0.50 in. I
In general, several iterative steps would be required for convergence, but the calcu-
lations would proceed as shown above.

EXAMPLE 10.15 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _- - - - - - - - -_ __

A large number of struts are to be fabricated of the material for which column design
information is given by the following equation:
Le 6283.2
-=--;:======::;====;:
JPIA 47 + 4.163 x 1O- (PIA)12
The cross section is to be a hollow square such that the inside dimension is to equal 0.8 of
the outside dimension. Each strut is to support an axial compressive force of 40 k and has
a length of 12 ft with pinned ends. This function contains a factor of safety of N = 2.50. A
plot of this function was made and values were read from it.

SOLUTION. Assume that PIA = 10 ksi or A = PlIO. Then

A = ~ = 4.00 in. 2
Let b be the outside dimension of the square cross section; then 0.8b is the inside
dimension and A = b 2 - (0.8b)2 = 0.36b 2.
Iv = n[b4 - (0.8b)4] = 0.0492b 4

(I., 0.0492b4
rv = VA = 0.36b2 = 0.370b

Equate the area A to 4.00 in. 2 and solve for b: 0.36b 2 = 4.00, b = 3.33 in. The radius of
gyration, rv = 0.370b = 0.370(3.33) = 1.23 in. The slenderness ratio, Llrv = (12 x 12)/
1.23 = 117. A corresponding value of PIA is 3.1 ksi. Since the assumed PIA of 10 ksi does
not equal the value of 3.1 ksi, another iteration is required.
For a second iteration, average these two values and assume:

!:..A = !2 (10 + 3.l) = 6.55 ksi

P 40 . 2
A = 6.55 = 6.55 = 6.11 m.

Sec. , 0.8 / D.algn of Columna 517

 A = 0.36b 2 = 6.11, b = 4.12 in.
rv = 0.370b = 0.370(4.12) = 1.52 in.
L 144
-=-=94.7
rv 1.52

A corresponding value of PIA is 4.50 ksi. Since the assumed value of 6.55 ksi does not
equal the value of 4.50 ksi, another iteration is required.
For a third iteration, average these two values and assume:

~ = ~ (6.55 + 4.50) = 5.53 ksi

P 40 . 2
A = 5.53 = 5.53 = 7.23 lfl. , b = 4.48 in.

rv = 0.370b = 0.370(4.48) = 1.66 in.

L 144
;:: = 1.66 = 86.7, PIA = 5.25 ksi

~ = ~ (5.53 + 5.25) = 5.39 ksi

P 40 . 2
A = 5.39 = 5.39 = 7.42 lfl. , b = 4.54 in.

rv = 0.370b = 0.370(4.54) = 1.68 in.

L 144
- = - = 85.7
rv 1.68
A ~orresponding value of PIA is 5.38 ksi. This value of 5.38 ksi is approximately equal to
the assumed value of 5.39 ksi. Choose b = 4.54 in. for an outside dimension of the hollow
square and 0.8(4.54) = 3.63 in. for an inside dimension. This provides a wall thickness of
0.455 in. It would be advisable to check for possible local buckling of the walls of this
member before approving the final design. Since a large number of these struts are to be
ordered, it may be feasible to fabricate special hollow square cross sections of the specified
dimensions. Otherwise, the nearest standard available section would be selected from data
provided by manufacturers.

PROBLEMS __________________________________________________________

10.44 A Douglas fir column is 20 ft long and is to to be chosen. Assume that the difference between
support an allowable load of 60,000 lb. The column nominal and dressed dimensions is 0.5 in. (e.g., an 8.00-
ends are pinned and the data of Fig. 8.14 (p. 419) are to in. dimension is 7.50 in., dressed). Use a modulus of
be used to design this column. A square cross section is elasticity of 1.2 x 106 psi.

518 Ch. 10 / Introduction to Component De.lgn

10.45 A cast iron column of hollow circular cross
section is to be designed using the following allowable
stress equation:
P 12,000 - 60 -L(.
- =
A
provIded that 35 -L)
r
120 ~
r
~
The column is to carry an axial load of 25,000 lb with a
length of 12.0 ft. Use an inside diameter equal to 0.8 of
the outside diameter. PIA is expressed in psi.
10.46 Solve Problem 10.45 using a solid circular cross
section and compare this solution with the solution for
a hollow circular cross section with an inside diameter
equal to 0.8 of the outside diameter. Compare weights
of the two columns using a unit weight of 450 Ib/ft3 for
cast iron. For a slenderness ratio greater than 120, use
Euler's equation for pinned ends with E = 15 X 106 psi
and a factor of safety of 1.85.
10.47 An aluminum compression rod is to be designed
using the information provided in Fig. 8.15 (p. 421). The
rod is of square cross section and is to carry a force of
3000 lb during operation of the machine of which it is a
component. This member is 20 in. long and is fixed at
one end and pinned at the other end.
10.48 Redesign the compression rod of Problem 10.47
using a hollow circular cross section with the inside
diameter equal to 0.75 of the outside diameter.
10.49 A machine component is required to carry a
force of 15,000 N. It is 0.80 m long and may be assumed
to be pinned at both ends. Euler's equation is valid for
designing this component with a factor of safety of 3.
The modulus of elasticity of the material is 200 GPa.
Determine the dimensions of a rectangular cross section
of this machine component if the width is to be twice
the thickness.
10.50 A large number of steel compression members
are to be fabricated for which the Euler equation is
valid. The cross section is to be a hollow square such
that the inside dimension is equal to 0.75 of the outside
dimension. Each member is to support 20,000 lb and
Sec. 10.6 / D•• lgn of Column.
has a length of 24 ft with both ends fixed. Use a factor
of safety of N = 2.50.
10.51 Solve Problem 10.50 if the load is increased to
40,000 lb.
10.52 Solve Problem 10.50 if one end of each compres-
sion member is fixed and the other end is hinged. Effec-
tive length information is given in Fig. 8.8 (p. 408).
10.53 Choose a structural steel pipe section to carry
an allowable load of 300 kN. This column is assumed to
be pinned at both ends and is 2.50 m long. Appropriate
design equations are shown in Fig. 8.12(a) (p. 416).
10.54 You are to design an S-shape column using the
AISC equations of Section 8.6 of steel with a yield stress
of 36 ksi. This column has a length of 8.00 ft and is
assumed to be pinned at both ends. It is required to
support an allowable load of 203 kips. Select the S
shape from those given in Appendix E.
10.55 Select a W14 shape of steel from those given in
Appendix E for a column that is to support an allowable
load of 1100 k. The column is to be fabricated of steel
with a yield stress of 50 ksL Assume that both ends of
the column are fixed and that it is 14 ft long. At mid-
height the column is laterally braced to prevent buckling
about the weak axis (Le., the y axis). Use the AISC
equations of Section 8.6
10.56 A tank is supported by four angle columns as
shown in Fig. PIO.56. The tank and supporting struc-
ture weighs 30,000 lb. It has safely held oil (sp. gr. = 0.9)
to a depth of h = 25 ft. A proposal has been made to
extend the tank such that h could reach values of 35 ft
and you have been engaged as a consultant to appraise
this proposal. Assume that each angle acts independent-
ly of the others and is fixed at the top and fixed at the
bottom. Angle information is given in Appendix E and
note that the weakest axis is labeled Z-Z, Use AISC
equations of Section 8.6. The yield stress ofthe angles is
50 ksi. Your appraisal must include calculations leading
to a rational decision. Assume that the tank extension
will weigh 10,000 lb. The tank is prevented from mov-
ing laterally.
519
 \7

! Tan k

1
Supporting
~
~

<.>
.5
00
structure .:::

T
I I i1 ....
'"
I I ..<::
<.>
.5
II
~

I I Four SII pports 00

~
<.>
I I .::: .5
10 ft I I 4b6X6X~ ....
N 00
.:::
I I Connection details
I I not shown
I
I I
/.

,-

T
I

Braced tim ber post

Unbraced timber post
(b)
(0)

1
15 ft Heron Road Bridge-false work columns
FIGURE P10.57

I, ,I
\

'--- 20 ft 8 in.

2t5ft 8§
ft----~,I
T
1-01.----15

FIGURE P10.56

------;.~-- --;~-- --~-::.-----

T
1
10.57 This problem is based on the Heron road disas- 25 ft
ter of August 11, 1969, in which 8 construction workers

I
died and 57 were injured. It was the worst construction
-----~~-- -~~-- --~-----
accident in Ottawa, Canada's, history. Falsework is any
temporary structure erected in order to erect a per- A D
manent structure. Main compression members of the
falsework are shown in Fig. PI0.57.
Each of these timber posts was supjected to an I' 19 fI 4 in. 'I' 20 ft 8 in. 'I' 20 ft 8 in. '1 19 fI 4 in. 'I
applied maximum load of 27,000 lb. A major cause of
the disaster was the failure to brace these posts, and (a) Plan view of first floor

they buckled as indicated in Fig. PIO.57(a). If they had

been braced at the quarter points, as shown in IS-in.-deep beam
Fig. PI0.57(b), it is highly probable that the disaster \ First floor" ,-Concrete slab

would not have occurred.

You are to prove convincingly that bracing would
have averted this disaster by using the following infor-
T
10 ft Pipe
column
mation. Assume that the dressed dimensions of each ~
timber post are 6 in. x 6 in. and the modulus of elas- Basement

ticity is 1.6 x 106 psi. The Euler equation for pinned ( b) Section showing three pipe columns

ends applies in each case. FIGURE P10.58

520 Ch.10 / Introduction to Component D•• lgn

10.58 This problem is based on the collapse of a con-
crete floor in a new one-story church fellowship hall in
Ainsworth, Nebraska, which occurred in 1981. Two
hundred people, tables, chairs, and food plunged to the
basement below. Sixteen people were hospitalized. Engi-
neers need to be constantly aware that lives may be lost
and property destroyed if their engineering work is not
correct.
Plan and section views of the first floor are shown
in Fig. P10.58. Design loads are as follows: dead load of
85 psf and a live load of 100 psf. For simplicity, assume
that the loaded area ABCD will be supported by the
center column and that all three columns are to be the
same size. Use steel with a yield stress of 36 ksi and the
AISC equations of Section 8.6. Assume pin-ended
ADDITIONAL CHAPTER PROBLEMS
10.59 (Sec. 10.3) An axially loaded member is to resist
the loads shown in Fig. P10.7 (p. 493). The material is
structural steel for which O"y = 50 ksi and E = 29 X 106
psi. Assume a factor of safety Ny = 2.5 and an allowable
deformation of 0.15 in. and determine a single angle
section from Appendix E for this application.
10.60 (Sec. 10.3) Consider the bridge truss shown in
Fig. P10.11 (p. 494). Select a suitable standard pipe for
member AF (see Appendix E). Assume the material to
be structural steel for which the allowable normal stress
is 250 MPa. Assume deformations to be insignificant de-
sign considerations.
10.61 (Sec. 10.4) Let W = 15,000 Ib and solve Problem
10.15 (p. 498).
10.62 (Sec. 10.4) Refer to Problem 10.16 (p. 499) and
solve it for W = 65,000 N.
10.63 (Sec. 10.4) Solve Problem 10.19 (p. 499) for an
allowable shearing stress of 15,000 psi and an allowable
angle of twist per unit of length of 6.00 x 10-4 rad/in.
10.64 (Sec. 10.4) Let the ratio of the inside diameter to
the outside diameter be 0.65 and design the shaft of
Problem 10.21 (p. 499).
10.65 (Sec. 10.4) Solve Problem 10.25 (p. 500) for a
design torque of 20,000 Ib-in.
Sac. 10.7 / Computer Applications
columns of 10 ft length and that the beam and column
weights have been included in the specified dead load.
(a) Demonstrate that 3-in.-nominal diameter standard
weight steel pipe of Appendix E is unsafe for this appli-
cation by showing that the ratio of the total applied
loading to the resisting column force exceeds unity. In
fact, this ratio is also larger than the factor of safety.
(b) Determine the appropriate nominal diameter stan-
dard weight steel pipe that will safely resist the total
applied loading. (Unfortunately, the structure that col-
lapsed had 3-in.-nominal-diameter standard weight steel
pipe columns.)
(c) By considering the beam above the columns, discuss
a more elaborate mathematical model for this structure.
Calculations are not required for this part ofthe solution.
10.66 (Sec. 10.5) The structural steel (E = 30 x 106
psi) beam shown in Fig. P10.35 (p. 513) is to have a
W14 section (see Appendix E). The structural steel has
,a yield strength in tension and compression of 50 ksi. If
the beam is to have an allowable deflection of 0.75 in.,
select a suitable W14 section. Use a factor of safety Ny
= 2 and assume that the shearing stresses are not sig-
nificant design factors.
10.67 (Sec. 10.5) Solve Problem 10.36 (p. 513) after
making the following changes:
the yield strength from 50 ksi to 36 ksi,
the allowable deflection at C from 0.75 in. to 1.00
in., and
the factor of safety Ny from 2 to 2.5.
All other information remains unchanged.
10.68 (Sec. 10.6) Solve Problem 10.44 (p. 518) for an
allowable load of 110,000 lb.
10.69 (Sec. 10.6) Replace the rectangular cross section
by a hollow square one such that the wall thickness is
0.2 of the outside dimension of the square and solve
Problem 10.49 (p. 519).
10.70 (Sec. 10.6) Refer to Problem 10.56 (p. 519) and
solve for the maximum safe depth h to which the tank
can be filled with oil.
521
11.7*_ _
Computer The following Examples illustrate the use of the FORTRAN language in the development
Applications of computer solutions. Refer to the detailed discussion given on pages 53 and 54.

EXAMPLE CIO.l _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Write a FORTRAN program for design of solid, circular, cylindrical shafts. Read the
design torque loading, the shearing yield stress, the safety factor, the allowable rotation
per unit length, and the shearing modulus of elasticity. Calculate design diameters based
on stress and rotation and write out the critical design diameter.

80110
0100 PRuGRAM SHAFDESIINPUT,OUTPUT)
~EAL NY
00130 PRINT 2
00140 2 FORMATIlX,"SHAFT DESIGN - SECTION 10.4")
00150 b REAL*,OESTORQ,TAUY,NY,ALROT,G
OOlbO IFITAUY.LT.O.)STOP
00170 PRINT 3
00180 3 FORMAT IIX,"INPUT IN OROER NAMED")
00190 PRINT 4
00200 4 FORMAl IlX,"DESIGN TORQUE,SHEAR YI~LD STRESS") SHAFT DESIGN - SECTION 10.4
OOZlu w~ITE *,DESTORQ,TAUY INPUT IN ORDER NAMED
00220 PRINT 5 DE)IGN TORQUE,SHEAR YIELD STRESS
00230 5 FORMAT 11X,"FACTOR OF SAFETY, ALLOWABLE ROTATION AND G"I ZOOoO. 11>000.
00240 WRITE *,NY.ALROT,G FACTOR OF SAFETY, ALLOWABLE ROTATION AND G
00250 ALTAU-TAUY/NY 2 •• 0002 10000000.
OOlbo PI o3.l4l59l7 THt DESIGN DIAMETER
00270 Ol-IDESTORQ*lb./IPI*ALTAUII**11./3.1 3.! 7bd7425208l
00280D2-132.*OESTORQ/IPI*ALROT*GII**0.25
00290 IFID1.GT.D2IDoDl
00300 IFID2.GE.D1IDoD2
00310 PRINT 8
00320 8 FORMAT IlX,"THE DESIGN DIAMETER"I
00330 wRITE *.0
OOHO GO TO I>
00350 END
FIGURE C10.1

SOLUTION. The source PROGRAM SHAFDES and sample I/O are given in
Fig. CIO.I. Note that a negative value read for the shearing yield stress will stop the
calculations. Consistent lb-in. units are used for the sample I/O.

COMPUTER PROBLEMS

CIO.l Revise PROGRAM SHAFDES of Example
CtO.l to design hollow circular shafts. The ratio of the
inside diameter to the outside diameter will be part of
the input. Use the following numerical values to check
your program:
Input: DESTORQ = 1,200,000 lb-in., TAUY =
30,000 psi, NY = 2, ALROT = 5.00 x 10- 4 rad/in.,
G = 10 x 106 psi, and DI/DO = 0.6.
Output: DO = 7.76 in., DI = 4.66 in.
CIO.2 Write a FORTRAN program to design solid
shafts of rectangular cross section. The length-to-width
ratio (2A/2B) will be part of the input. Use the following
numerical values to check your program.
Input: DESTORQ = 1500 N-m, TAUY = 300 MPa,
NY = 2, ALROT = 0.08727 rad/m, G = 77.56 GPa,
A/B = 2.0.
Output: Length = 2A = 0.0536 m, width = 2B =
0.0268 m.

522 Ch.10 / Introduction to Compon.nt D•• lgn

 CHAPTER Alallsis aid DesillllP
Ilelaslic lehalilP
11.1*_ _ Increased understanding of the behavior of materials and structural and machine com-
Introduction ponents has led to a change in design emphasis from stress levels to load capacity. In
Chapter 10 computed stresses associated with service or working loads were compared to
allowable stresses. These allowable stresses were determined by applying a factor of safety
to some "failure" stress. Traditional designs of the past as well as much current engi-
neering practice has made use of these concepts. However, recent trends have refocused
the attention of design engineers on the load-carrying capacity of components and overall
structures. Service or working loads are mUltiplied by load factors greater than unity, and
materials and sizes of components are selected to "fail" under the action of these factored
loads. The term failure is defined in this chapter to mean that the component after being
subjected to a maximum load continues to deflect under practically constant load. This
concept restricts the discussion to ductile metals under static loading at ordinary tem-
peratures. Once the calculations are completed, the component should safely withstand
the service or working loads, which are much smaller than the ultimate or factored loads.
This chapter provides an introduction to analysis and design for inelastic behavior,
which has come to be referred to as plastic analysis and design or limit analysis and design.
Torsional, and bending components are analyzed and designed on the basis of the load-
carrying capacity. In each case the reader should consider the designs as preliminary,
since a number of other factors, not discussed in this introductory chapter, must be
considered in arriving at final component design.

11.2*_ _ Figure 11.1(a) depicts the cross section of a hollow circular shaft fabricated of a ductile
Inelastic material subjected to a torque 1'y associated with first shearing yield at the outermost
Behavior of fiber. This yield torque, from Eq. 4.18, is given by
Torsional
Members T = ry{1t/2)(r: - rf)
(11.1)
Y ro
The fully plastic condition is depicted in Fig. 11.1(b). The shearing stress/shearing
strain curve is assumed to have the shape of Fig. 4.17 (p. 189). Consider an annular
differential area on which the stress 'Ly is a constant and write the equation for the
differential force acting on this area:
dF = 'Ly 21tp dp (11.2)

523
 - Ty

(3) First yield condition (b) Fully plastic condition

FIGURE 11.1

Multiplication of this differential force by the moment arm yields an expression for the
differp.ntial torque:
dTp = 2n!y p2 dp (11.3)

Integration of both sides of this differential equation gives the equation for Tp.

(11.4)

Equations 11.1 and 11.4, when specialized for a solid circular shaft by letting r i = 0
and ro = r, give the following equations:
n! r3
T=-Y- (11.5)
Y 2

(11.6)

EXAMPLE 11.1

A solid circular shaft is fabricated of a material with a shearing yield stress of 500 MPa
and has a radius of 0.10 m. Determine the first yield torque and the fully plastic torque
for this shaft and the ratio of these torques. Is this ratio a function of material and
geometric properties of the shaft? An idealized shearing stress/shearing strain curve is
assumed to have the shape of Fig. 4.17 (p. 189).

SOLUTION. Equations 11.5 and 11.6 are the appropriate equations to usein this case.

T = n!y r3 = n(500 x 106 )(0.1?

y 2 2

= 1785.4 kN-m

524 Ch.11 / Analysis and Design for Inelastic Behavior

 _ 2n't"yr 3 _ 2n(500 x 106XO.l)3
7;,- 3 - 3

= /1047 kN-m

Form the ratio of Tp to T,:

~ _ 2n't"yr 3 _2__ ~
- 3-
T, 3 n't"yr 3

=~
This ratio is independent of material and geometric properties, since both 't"y and r cancel
from the preceding equation. Of course, this analysis applies only to a solid circular shaft.

EXAMPLE 11.2 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _- - - - - _ - -

A hollow circular shaft fabricated of a material with a shearing yield stress of 500 MPa
has an outside radius ro = 0.10 m and an inside radius r i = 0.06 m. Determine the first
yield torque and the fully plastic torque for this shaft and the ratio of these torques.
Construct a plot of this ratio of torques (T"IT,..) versus the ratio of the inner to the outer
radii (rjro).

SOLUTION. Equations 11.1 and 11.4 are the appropriate equations to use in this case.
r = 't",(n/2Xr! - rt) = 500 x 106 (n/2)[(0.10)4 - (0.06)4]
y ro 0.10

= / 683.6 kN-m I
7;, = ~ (r! - rl) = 2n(5003 x 106 ) [(0.10)3 - (0.06)3]

=/ 821.0 kN-m I
Form the ratio of Tp to T,:
~ _ 2n't" y ( 3 3) r0
- ro - ri 4 4
T, 3 't",(n/2Xro - ri)
4 1 - (rjrY
= 3 1 - (rjro)4

A plot of this equation is shown in Fig. 11.2. In this example rjro = 6/10 .= 0.6 and
T"IT, = 1.20. Note that when rjro = 0 the torque ratio is 4/3, which checks the result for a
solid circular shaft. As rjro- 1, the torque ratio approaches unity, but this result must
not be accepted uncritically because as the ratio of the radii approaches unity, the wall

Sec. 11.2 / Inela.tlc aehavlor of Tor.ional Member. 525

 Tp
Ty
1.5 Hollow circular shaft
(0,1.33)r--_ _ _ __

1.0 (t,1)

0.5 .!L = I corresponds to zero thickness

'0 not physically admissible

FIGURE 11.2

thickness of the shaft approaches zero and local buckling of the tube wall will govern
rather than the stress conditions analyzed here. Note that the torque ratio is independent
of material properties, since 't y cancels from the equation, but the ratio does depend upon
the geometric ratio of the radii.

11.3 _ _ Assumptions of the simple theory of inelastic behavior of bending members may be stated
Inelastic as follows:
Behavior of
Bending Members 1. An idealized elastoplastic stress-strain curve for the material is shown in Fig. 11.3.
Members fabricated of such an ideal material would, upon being loaded, have internal
normal stresses defined as follows:
rI = EB (0 =:;; B =:;; By) (11.7)
rI = rIy (B ~ By) (11.8)
It is important to note that regardless of the value of the unit strain B, when it
exceeds By, the stress equals the yield stress, rIy • Observe that Be> BB > BA , but the

Oy
A B c

Equation of line OA: 0= Ee

o~--~~----~----~------------~e
FIGURE 11.3

526 Ch.11 / Analyalaand De.18n for Inela.tlc Behavior

 corresponding stress for each of these strains is (J y . In other words, there are an infinite
number of strains corresponding to the yield stress of the material. This is a convenient
simplification of the behavior of ductile metals, which ignores the effect of strain
hardening.
2. Tensile and compressive properties of the material are assumed to be identical.
3. The effects of axial force and shear force are neglected in comparison to the effects of
bending moments. Many structures (e.g., single-story rigid frames) are proportioned
such that this assumption is valid.
4. Joints are assumed capable of transferring fully plastic moments from member to
member. Proper design of connections will ensure that this assumption is satisfied.
Figure 11.4 depicts the stress distribution under increasing bending moments for a
member subjected to pure bending. The moment associated with first yield is given by the
flexure formula (refer to Eq. 5.10)
I.
M = (J - (11.9)
Y Y v
As the applied moment increases, the stress distribution corresponding to M l ' where
My < Ml < M p ' is as shown in Fig. II.4(b). Finally, the distribution corresponding to the

Oy

c )
(3) First yield cond ition

c )
(b) I'artially plastic condition

c )
"y
(c) Fully plastic condition
FIGURE 11.4

Sec. 11.3 I Inela.tlc Behavior of Bending Member. 527

 Vertical axis
Oy ofsymmelry

~C
A

Al
C. is centroid of A.
C1 is centroid of A 1

FIGURE 11.5

fully plastic moment M p is shown in Fig. 11.4(c). At this stage the entire cross section has
yielded and stresses over the entire cross section are at the yield value. This same distribu-
tion is shown in Fig. 11.5, together with the resultant forces and the cross section of the
member. Application of the equations of equilibrium to a segment of the member gives
the following equations:
--> L Fx = 0
-liyAI + liyA2 = 0 (11.10)
Al = A2 (11.11)

Equation 11.11 reveals that the plastic neutral axis (PNA) of Fig. 11.5 is located by
dividing the total area into two equal parts. In general, the PNA need not pass through
the centroid of the entire cross section, which is true of the elastic neutral axis. This means
that, in general, there will be a shifting of the neutral axis as the applied moments are
increased.
Sum the moments with respect to the plastic neutral axis as follows:
::) L M pNA = 0
(11.12)

(11.13)

The shape factor f, which is a cross-sectional property, is defined as the ratio of M p to

My" Equations 11.13 and 11.9 provide the appropriate equation:

f = ~ = Ad'i + A 2 Y2 (11.14)
My Ijv

EXAMPLE 11.3 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

The cross section of a beam is depicted in Fig. 11.6. The yield stress of the material of
which the beam is fabricated is 400 MPa. Determine (a) the location of the elastic neutral
axis, (b) the location of the plastic neutral axis, (c) the first yield moment, (d) the fully
plastic moment, arid (e) the shape factor for the cross section.

528 Ch . 11 I Analysis and Dasign for Inalastic Behavior

 - 0. 15111 -

0.03 III PA'

+- _L........._ _- - , . -_ _ --l A
A 0.03 III

0. 15 III

0.03 III

FIGURE 11.6

SOLUTION
(a) The elastic neutral axis passes through the centroid of the entire cross section, and this
axis is oriented perpendicular to the plane of the applied forces. Choosing a reference axis
along the top of the cross section and measuring y values positively downward, we find
that the necessary equation is
_ 0.15(0.03)(0.015) + 0.03(0.15)(0.105)
y = 0.15(0.03) + 0.03(0.15)

=1 0 .06 m 1
which locates the elastic neutral axis as a horizontal line 0.06 m below the top of the cross
section.
(b) Equation 11.11 is applicable for locating the plastic neutral axis of this T section:
Al = A2
Since 0.15(0.03) = 0.03(0.15), the plastic neutral axis is located 0.03 m below the top of the
cross section, or at the junction of the flange and the web. Clearly, the neutral axis shifts
upward as the loading increases from elastic to fully plastic levels.
(c) The first yield moment requires computation of the moment of inertia of the total
cross-sectional area with respect to the elastic neutral axis.
INA = i2(0.15)(0.03)3 + 0.15(0.03)(0.06 - 0.015)2
+ i2(0.03)(0.15)3 + 0.03(0.15)(0.105 - 0.06)2
= 27.0 X 10- 6 m 4
Equation 11.9 with v = 0.18 - 0.06 = 0.12 m will provide the first yield moment:
400 x 106 (27 x 10- 6 )
M=----'----~
y 0.12

=1 90.0 kN-m I

(d) Equation 11.13 will provide the fully plastic moment and the reader is urged to review

Sec. 11.3 I Inelastic Behavior of Bending Members 529

 the solution in terms of an internal resisting couple consisting of equal and opposite
compressive and tensile forces.
Mp = O"y(AI}l1 + A2 h)
= 400 x 106 [0.15(0.03)(0.015) + 0.03(0.15)(0.075)]

= 1162 kN-m I
(e) The shape factor / equals the ratio of the fully plastic to the first yield moment :

M 162
/ =::.:..J? =-= 1.80
My 90

This factor is a function of the geometry of the cross section and is independent of the
material yield stress. In other words, if this flexural member were fabricated of another
ductile material with a different yield stress, the shape factor would still be 1.80, since it
depends only upon the geometry of the member.

EXAMPLE 11.4 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

D
Refer to Fig. 11.7 for a square hollow cross section of constant thickness for a flexural
member. The member is fabricated of a ductile material with a yield stress O"y. Show that
the shape factor / may be expressed as a function of the ratio of b to a as follows:

/ = (~) 1 - (b/a)3
2 1 - (b/a)4

SOLUTION. Equation 11.14 is appropriate if the areas are interpreted as the net areas,
since the cross section is a hollow one. Sq lIare hollow cross section
of constant thi ckness
/ = ~ = AI}l1 + A 2 }12 FIGURE 11.7
My I/v
~ = 12(2a)4 - 12(2b)4 = (~) a4 - b4
v a 3 a
The numerator of the / equation may be expressed as follows:
2a(a)a - 2b(b)(b) = 2a 3 - 2b 3 = 2(a 3 - b3 )
Substitution to obtain/yields

(~) 1 - (b/a)3
2 1 - (b/a)4

530 Ch.11 / Analysis and Design for Inelastic Behavior

 PROBLEMS ____________________________________________________________
11.1 A solid circular shaft fabricated of a material with
a shearing yield stress of 600 MPa has a radius of
0.05 m. Determine the first yield torque and the fully
plastic torque for this shaft and the ratio of these
torques. Explain why this ratio is independent of the
material and geometric properties of the shaft. Of
course, the ratio only applies to a solid circular shaft.
11.2 A solid circular shaft fabricated of a material with
a shearing yield stress of 50 ksi has a radius of 3 in.
Determine the first yield torque and the fully plastic
torque for this shaft and the ratio of these torques.
Explain why this ratio is independent of the material
and geometric properties of the shaft.
11.3 A beam of hollow circular cross section is bent
about a diameter. Show that its shape factor f in
bending is given by
16 f33+ f32 + f3
f = 3n f33 + f32 + f3 + 1
where f3 = Do/Di' the ratio of the outside diameter to
the inside diameter.
11.4 A beam of hollow rectangular cross section is
bent about its neutral axis. Show that its shape factor f
is given by
3 [1 - (b/a)(d/c)2]
f = 2: [1 - (b/a)(d/c)3]
where 2a is the outside width, 2c is the outside depth, 2b
is the inside width, and 2d is the inside depth.
11.5 Show that the shape factor for a beam of rec-
tangular cross section is 1.50. Construct stress distribu-
tion diagrams, and determine resultant forces and
couples in order to compute f Then refer to Problem
11.4 and specialize the result for a hollow rectangular
cross section in order to verify that f = 1.50 for the
special case of a rectangular cross section.
11.6 Refer to the equation for f given in Problem 11.3
and determine f for the special case where f3 becomes
infinite (i.e., Di approaches zero or the section is solid-
circular).
Sec. 11.3 / Inelastic Behavior of Bending Members
11.7 Refer to the equation for f given in Problem 11.3
and determine f for the special case where f3 approaches
unity. What is the physical meaning of this solution,
and does it have any limitation?
11.8 Refer to Example 11.3 (p. 528), increase the flange
width to 0.20 m, and solve the same problem again.
11.9 Refer to Example 11.4 (p. 530), and prepare a
scaled plot of f versus b/a. Comment on any special
case(s).
11.10 A square, hollow cross section for which
b = 2 in. and a = 8 in. is to be used as a beam cross
section. Determine f for this cross section by applying
fundamental concepts, and check your answer by refer-
ence to the equation presented in Example 11.4 (p. 530).
11.11 Refer to Fig. Pl1.11 and determine the shape
factor f for this I -beam cross section. Consider bending
about horizontal elastic and plastic neutral axes.
TI
I- b
'I
~
v
r
1
II
b
O.lb constant thickness
r J
I- b
'1
FIGURE P11.11
11.12 Refer to Fig. PiLl 1, and determine the shape
factor f for bending about vertical elastic and plastic
neutral axes.
11.13 A solid cylindrical shaft is partially plastic as
shown in Fig. Pl1.13. Determine the torque Tl associ-
ated with this partial yielding of the shaft.
(HINT: Start with a differential force acting on an
531
annular differential area and break the integration into
two parts. Integrate from 0 to r/2 and from r/2 to r.
Show that Tl lies between T,. and 1'" for this shaft of
radius r.)

FIGURE P11.16

11.17 Refer to Fig. P 11.17 and find the shape factor f

for this cross section for bending about horizontal
elastic and plastic neutral axes.

1+1·---66b-----i.!
FIGURE P11.13

t
11.14 Refer to Example 11.2 (p. 525) and determine
the ratio of the inside radius to the outside radius if the
ratio of the fully plastic torque to the first yield torque

I
is 1.25 for a hollow circular shaft.

11.15 Refer to the cross section of Fig. P1Ll5 and find

the shape factor f for bending about horizontal elastic
and plastic neutral axes. rb+b+2b+~b~

-2b---l·1
1+-----1.
FIGURE P11.17

T 11.18 The box shape of Fig. P1LlS is bent about hori-

+
zontal elastic and plastic neutral axes. Determine the
shape factor ffor bending about these axes.

1+1·----7h---~·1

1
f-b-----+f-·I-·b---1
FIGURE P11.15

11.16 Refer to the cross section of Fig. P11.16 and

determine the shape factor f for bending about horizon-
tal elastic and plastic neutral axes.
D
FIGURE P11.18

532 Ch. 11 / Analysis and Dasign for Inalastic Behevlor

11.1*_ _ If a unit length of beam fabricated of a ductile material is subjected to increasing bending
The Plastic moments and a plot constructed of the variation of the bending moment versus the
Hinge Concept curvature per unit length (4J), the actual variation is as shown in Fig. 11.8. In the simpli-
fied theory the idealized curve, consisting of two straight lines, is used to represent what is
termed plastic hinge behavior. The terminology is used to denote the fact that once M p is
reached at the section, further rotation takes place at the section without any increase in
bending moment. This behavior is best understood by reflecting on the behavior of a
frictionless real hinge that rotates freely with zero resistance to applied bending moments
as shown in Fig. 11.8. In other words, once a beam has yielded over a full cross section,
the beam curvature (or rotation) per unit length increases freely under a constant moment
equal to the fully plastic moment.
M
Idealized Plastic hinge

~----~----------------------~---~
Curvature per unit length

FIGURE 11.8

11.5*_ _ A simply supported beam loaded by a uniform load as shown in Fig. 11.9(a) will resist
Pseudo- increasing loads until a plastic hinge forms at the center under the action of the fully
Mechanism plastic load, wp. A larger force cannot be applied to the beam and it will continue to
Formation and deflect under a constant load. Since free rotation may occur at the ends of this beam and
Moment a plastic hinge has formed at the center, the beam behaves much as does a mechanism,
Redistribution and since the plastic hinge at the center is not a real hinge constructed in the beam, the
for Beams beam is referred to as a pseudo-mechanism. The simply sUpported beam is statically
determinate and a single plastic hinge is sufficient to form a pseudo-mechanism.
Statically indeterminate beams require the formation of more than one plastic hinge
if they are to behave as pseudo-mechanisms. These plastic hinges do not form simulta-
neously but forin first at sections where the moments have their largest absolute values,
and subsequently at other sections, where the moments ate relatively large in magnitude.
For example, the fixed-end beam shown in Fig. l1.9(b) is loaded with a uniform load WI
and plastic hinges have formed at the fixed ends A and B, where the bending moments
have their largest magnitudes. If the force per unit length WI is increased to the fully
plastic value W P' a final plastic hinge forms at the center C and the beam begins to act as
a pseudo-mechanism, as depicted in Fig. 11.9(c). An idealized sketch of the pseudo-
mechanism is shown in Fig. 11.9(d).

Sec. ".5 I Pseudo-Mechanism !=ormetion end Moment Redistribution for Beams 533
 t i
Wp

I I l:> I cI I I
L L
2" 2
(a) Simply supported bc~m plastic hinge at cen ter

I I Ic I ! ) n,
L- - -

(b) 'ixed-endcd beam - plastic hinges at ends

I I) I I
"~ c. ! C I ~
c ) IJ
A

(c) Fixed-e nded beam pl(1 lie hi nge at ends and centa

(d) Fixcd-endcd beam pseudo- mechanism

ote : DcOcction not shown in P3rts (al. (ti), and (e),

FIGURE 11.9

Although yielded zones of material, referred to as plastic hinges, extend over finite
lengths of beams as shown in Fig. 11.9(a) to (c), it is assumed in simple plastic theory, as
discussed here, that the plastic hinges form at points as shown in Fig. 11.9(d). As the
fixed-end beam changes from the condition shown in Fig. 11.9(b) to the condition shown
in Fig. 11.9(c), the applied force per unit length increases from Wi to wp' This increasing
force per unit length can no longer be resisted at the ends because plastic hinges have
already formed at the ends and further increase in moment resistance beyond M p is not
possible for this idealized elasto-plastic material. Moment resistance to increases in load
beyond Wi is provided by the beam at sections other than those at the ends, until the final
plastic hinge is formed at the center. This progressive increase in moment resistance after
the end plastic hinges have formed is referred to as redistribution of the moments in the
beam. Examples 11.5 to 11.8 will further clarify the plastic hinge and moment redistri-
bution concepts.

534 Ch.11 / Analysis and Design for Inelastic Behavior

 EXAMPLE 11.5 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

A beam fixed at both ends is subjected to a concentrated load P at its center, as shown in
Fig. 11.l0(a). For L = 6 m, My = 160 kN-m, and f = 1.20, determine the center force P
corresponding to first yield and the fully plastic load P p corresponding to formation of a
pseudo-mechanism.

SOLUTION. Refer to the elastic moment diagram for this loading, which is shown in
Fig. I1.1O(b). In this case the moment resistances at both ends and the center are equal,
which means that first yielding will occur on the top and bottom of the beam at both ends
and the center. The load P y' corresponding to first yielding, is calculated as follows:

M = PyL
y 8
or
8M y 8(160)
P =-=--
y L 6

= 1213 kN I

A B c
L L
"2 2
(a)

A c
P"
,
8

I~ ~ L
-:; 1:.
2
'P
T
tel

f--- - - L
2
(d)

FIGURE 11.10

Sec. 11 .5 / Pseudo-Mechenism Formation and Moment Redistribution for Beams 535

 Plastic hinges form simultaneously at both ends and the center, for which the pseudo-
mechanism is shown in Fig. 11.10(c). Since the load P p is applied at the center, the end
shears are each equal to P p/2. To determine P p' consider the free-body diagram of the left
half of the beam shown in Fig. 11.10(d). The couple M p at the end is associated with
tension on top of the beam, while the couple M p at the center is associated with tension
on the bottom of the beam. The pseudo-mechanism is in equilibrium just as the load
reaches the fully plastic value P p'
o L MB = 0
Pp L
M p +Mp - -2- =
2 0

8M p
P =-
p L
where
Mp = fMy = 1.20(160) = 192 kN-m

P = 8(192)
p 6

=\256 kN I
In this particular case, the ratio of P p to P y equals J, as it would for the statically
determinate simply supported beam with a center load. Since the resisting moments at the
ends and center are equal for the elastic solution, and all three plastic hinges form
simultaneously for this example, there is no redistribution of moments. This is not true in
general, and the following example will illustrate the advantage of redistribution of
moments in indeterminate structures. A qualitative load-deflection plot is shown in
Fig. 11.11.
Load P Three plastic hinges

--
form simultaneously
-------
....I-I
".... : Experimental curve
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I

Deflection
at center
Elastic Partially plastic
Qualitative load-deflection plot

FIGURE 11.11

536 Ch.11 / Analysis and Design for Inelastic Behavior

EXAMPLE 11.6 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

A two-span continuous beam subjected to proportional loading is shown in Fig. 11.12(a).

Determine the value for P for formation of (a) mechanism ABC, and (b) mechanism CDE.
Use M p = 250 kN-m. (c) Which pseudo-mechanism is critical? State the load required to
form this pseudo-mechanism.

SOLUTION
(a) Fig. 11.12(b) depicts pseudo-mechanism ABC and appropriate free-body diagrams for
determination of the force required for collapse of this span.
i L Fy = 0: for ABC :

12P 1'>
XX 3m
B

3m
7»7i
C

SOl
D

_I 5m
Jk
(.)

(t"

(01

FIGURE 11.12

Sec. 11.5 / Pseudo- Mechanism Formation and Moment Redistribution for Beams 537
 o L MB = 0: for AB:
- VA(3) + Mp = 0
M
VA=~
o L MB = 0: for Be:
- Mp - Mp + VCL(3) = 0
2Mp
VCL = 3

Substitute for VA and VCL into the vertical-forces summation equation:

M 2M
=.2. + ==.I!. = 2P
3 3

p=~=250
2 2

= 1125 kN \ (for ABC)

(b) Figure 11.12(c) depicts pseudo-mechanism CDE and appropriate free-body diagrams
for determination of the force required for collapse of this span.
r L Fy = 0: for CDE:
o LMD=O: for DE:
- Mp + VJ5) = 0
M
VE=~

o LMD=O: for CD:

+Mp + Mp - VCR(5) = 0
2Mp
VCR = 5

Substitute for VA and VCR into the vertical-forces summation equation:

~Mp+tMp=P
P = ~Mp = ~250)

= \150 kN \ (for CDE)

Since 125 < 150, mechanism ABC will form first under a total load of 2P = 250 kN and
the right span will be subjected to P = 125 kN, which is well below the load of 150 kN
required to form mechanism CDE.
The fact that the loading in the left span 2P is twice the loading in the right span P is
referred to as proportional loading, and is an assumption commonly made for simple
plastic theory.

538 Ch.11 / Analyala and Daalgn for Inalaatlc Bahavior

EXAMPLE 11.7 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Refer to Fig. 11.9 (p. 534), let M p = 600 k-in.,J = 1.15, and L = 30 ft, and determine the
following: (a) uniform load associated with first yield of the simply supported beam; (b)
uniform load associated with collapse of the simply supported beam; (c) ratio of the
answer to part (b) to the answer to part (a); (d) uniform load associated with first yield of
the fixed-end beam; (e) uniform load associated with collapse of the fixed-end beam; and
(f) ratio of the answer to part (e) to the answer to part (d), and explain why this ratio is
different from the answer to part (c).

SOLUTION
(a) For a uniformly loaded simply supported beam, the maximum moment is w!3/8.
w!3
-8= M y

M 600 1
M
Y
=:.:.:.J!.
f = -1.15 X -
12
= 43 .48 k-ft
_ 8M y _ 8(43.48)
w - L2 - 302

= I 0.386 klft, first yield

(b) Collapse occurs when a plastic hinge forms at the center. This means that the beam
will continue to deflect under constant load.
w!3
-=M
8 p

8M 8 1
w=::..:.:.=..J!.=--x6oox-
!3 (30)2 12

= I 0.444 klft, collapse I

(c) Since the beam is determinate, this ratio equals the shape factor,j.

0.444
0.386 = 1.15 = f

(d) Elastic analysis of a fixed-end beam yields the following critical moment magnitudes
for the ends and center of the beam:
End moment magnitude: w!3112
Center moment magnitude: w!3124
The first yield occurs at the ends of the beam:

Sec. 11.5 / Pseudo- Mechanism Formation and Moment Redistribution for Beems 539
 wI3
-12
= My =4348
•

12(43.48)
W=
(30)2

= I 0.580 k/ft, first yield

(e) Plastic hinges form first at both ends and then at the center. Refer to Fig. 11.9(c) and
(d) Free-body diagrams will be described later and the reader is urged to sketch them as
he or she follows the discussion, since a figure has not been provided. L Fy = 0 (free-body
diagram of the entire beam). There are equal shears at each end, by symmetry:
wL
VL = VR=T

o L Me = 0 (free-body diagram of segment AC of the beam)

Mp + Mp - VL(~) + ~ ~ = W 0

Substitute for VL and solve for w, to obtain

w = 16Mp = 16(600/12)
I3 (30)2

= I 0.889 k/ft, collapse

(f) Since the beam is indeterminate, there is a redistribution of moments after the end
hinges form, which means that additional moment resistance is possible until the third
hinge forms at the center.
0.889
0.580 = 1.53 =1= f

This ratio is considerably larger than f = 1.15, which reflects the redistribution of
moments possible in an indeterminate structure. Of course, this ratio differs for different
structures and loadings.

EXAMPLE 11.8 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

A span of a continuous beam is shown in Fig. 11.13. The negative moment resistance at
the left support A and the positive moment resistance at the interior plastic hinge B have
equal magnitudes of M p' The negative moment resistance at the right support D has a
magnitude of C z Mp where (0::;; C z ::;; 1). Correct directions are shown for the curved
arrows representing bending moments in the figure. Regard Mp and L as known and C z
as a parameter. (a) Determine the distance x, which locates the interior plastic hinge B, as
a function of the span L and the parameter Cz. Plot x/Las a function of the parameter
Cz . (b) Plot wI3 / M p versus the parameter Cz . (c) Determine x and w for the following
given numerical values: Mp = 600 kN-m, L = 10 m, and C z = 0.5.

540 Ch.11 / Analysis and Design for Inelastic Behavior

 w

M,<P']~bM'
~
r--x--j
(a) Given beam span (b) Left free body diagram (c) Right free body diagram

~
L
(1.0,16.00)
(a, 0.586)

(a, 11.66)
- - - - -.. (1.0, 0.500)

~--------------~-----C2
a ~5 1.0
(d) x locates interior (e) w is the ultimate
plastic hinge uniform loading
FIGURE 11.13

SOLUTION
(a) Refer to the left free-body diagram of Fig. 11.13(b) and write the equilibrium equa-
tion: 0 L MB = 0 .

Solve for
2Mp WX
VAR = x +2

Refer to the right free-body diagram of Fig. 11.13(c) and write the equilibrium equation:
o LMB=O

Solve for
Mil + C 2 ) w(L - x)
VDL = L~x + 2

If we consider vertical equilibrium of span ABD, then

i L Fy = 0
VAR + VDL - wL = 0
Substitute for VAR and VDL from above and solve for w to obtain
w = 2M p 2L + C 2 x - x
L x(L - x)

Sac. 11.5 / Pseudo-Mechanisln Formation and Moment Redistribution for Beams 541
 For each value of x in the interval from zero to L, the uniform load w will have a
different value. A mechanism will form first under the smallest of this infinite set of w
values.
The value of x that corresponds to a minimum value of w locates the interior hinge
B, correctly. To determine this value of x, we differentiate w with respect to x and equate
to zero.
dw
-=0
dx
dw = 2Mp [X(L - x)(C 2 - 1) - (2L + C2 x - x)(L ~ 2X)] =0
dx L x 2(L - X)2

The denominator of this equation is only zero for x = 0 and x = L, but B is an interior
hinge and we must restrict x to the interval (0 < x < L). Since the denominator is not
zero for admissible x values, the numerator is equated to zero and simplified to the
following quadratic:
(C 2 - l)x 2 + 4Lx - 213 = 0
Roots of this equation are given by
-4L ± }1613 + 813(C 2 - 1)
x = 2(C 2 - 1)

Divide this equation by L and choose the positive sign with the radical to assure that
(0 < x < L)

x -4 + }16 + 8(C 2 - 1)
L 2(C 2 - 1)

This function is plotted in Fig. 11.13(d). If C2 = 1, then x = 0.5L because the span has
symmetric resistance to bending.
(b) Theplotofw13/Mp versus C2 is shown in Fig. 11.13(e).
(c) Substitute C 2 = 0.5 and L = 10 m into the equation for x/L:

~= -4+)16+8(0.5-1)=0536
10 2(0.5 - 1) .

I x = 5.36 m I
Hinge B forms at this distance from support A. Substitute Mp = 600 kN-m, L = 10 m,
C2 = 0.5, and x = 5.36 m into the equation for w:
2(600) 2(10) + 0.5(5.36) - 5.36
W=--
10 5.36(10 - 5.36)

I w = 83.57 kN/m I
This is the ultimate load associated with mechanism ABD, which forms in this span.

542 Ch. 11 / Analysis and Dasign for Inalastic Bahavlor

PROBLEMS

11.19 The fixed-end beam shown in Fig. Pl1.19 will (f) The ratio of the answer to part (e) to the answer to
form a pseudo-mechanism when plastic hinges form at part (d). Explain why this ratio is different from the
A, B, and C. Determine the fully plastic load P p for answer to part (c).
M p = 800 k-in. [HINT: Refer to Example 11.7 (p. 539).]

11.24 Refer to Example 11.6 (p. 537) and solve the

A
same problem using a yield moment My = 800 k-in. and
a shape factor! = 1.18.
20 rt

FIGURE P11.19
11.25 Refer to the beam depicted in Fig. P11.25.
Determine the proportionality constant K2 such that
11.20 A two-span continuous beam is loaded with
pseudo-mechanisms ABC and CDE form simulta-
proportional loads as shown in Fig. Pl1.20. Determine
neously. Use Mp = 400 kN-m.
the proportionality constant K 1 such that psuedo-

If.
mechanisms ABC and CDE form simultaneously. Use
1
I,
M p = 900 k-in. K1P.

l /~ 1 K1 Pv
B C

7fk
D
il
ji
15 ft
B

15 ft
C

ibk
7.5 ft
D

it1
7.5 ft
3m 3m

FIGURE P11.25
4m 4m

30 ft
FIGURE P11.20
11.21 Refer to Problem 11.19 and position the load
12 ft from the right end C and keep the span at 30 ft.
Determine the fully plastic load P p for M p = 800 k-in.
11.22 Refer to Problem 11.20 and assign KIa value of
1.50. Determine which pseudo-mechanism (ABC or
CD E) forms first and the corresponding value of P p •
11.23 Refer to Fig. 11.9 (p. 534); let M p = 500 kN-m,
! = 1.20, and L = 10 m, and determine the following:
(a) The uniform load associated with the first yield of
the simply supported beam.
(b) The uniform load associated with collapse of the
simply supported beam.
(c) The ratio of the answer to part (b) to the answer to
part (a).
(d) The uniform load associated with the first yield of
the fixed-end beam.
(e) The uniform load associated with collapse of the
fixed-end beam.
15ft
11.26 Refer to the beam depicted in Fig. P1l.25 and
assign K2 a value of 1.25. For Mp = 400 kN-m, deter-
mine which pseudo-mechanism (ABC or CDE) forms
first and the corresponding critical value of Pp '
11.27 For the fixed-end beam shown in Fig. Pl1.27,
let My = 750 kN-m, ! = 1.10, and determine Pp
required for the formation of pseudo-mechanism ABCD.
1p, Ip,
~, B c
DI
3m-
I 3m
FIGURE P11.27
11.28 Refer to Fig. Pl1.27 and imagine the fixed end
D replaced by a roller support that permits free rota-
tion. Let My = 900 kN-m,! = 1.20, and determine P p
for collapse after plastic hinges have formed at sections
A, B, and C.

Sec. 11.5 I Pseudo-Mechanism Formation and Moment Redistribution for Beams 543
11.29 Refer to Fig. P11.29 and note the proportional neously. Use My = 1000 k-in. and f = 1.40 for both
loading system applied to this three-span continuous positive and negative bending resistance.
beam. Determine the proportionality constants K3 and
K4 such that the three pseudo-mechanisms (ABC, CDE,
and EFG) form simultaneously. Use M p = 600 kN-m.
~A I I I
W

B
1 D
r WL
E~
r---L = 20 ft ,I, 20 ft ·1, 10 ft--J
FIGURE P11.32

11.33 A two-span continuous beam is loaded as shown

FIGURE P11.29 in Fig. PI 1.33. Determine the ratio of W 2 to W l for
simultaneous formation of pseudo-mechanisms ABC
11.30 Refer to the three-span continuous beam and CDE. Use My = 600 k-in. and f = 1.32 for both
positive and negative bending resistance. Note that

I
depicted in Fig. 11.29 and assign values to the pro-
portionality constants as follows: K3 = 2 and K4 = plastic hinge B will not form at the center of span ABC.

'11 \1 IE;,
1.25. For M p = 500 kN-m, determine which pseudo-
mechanism (ABC, CDE, or EFG) forms first and the W,

Ji
IV I

corresponding critical value of Pp' I I I

B

11.31 The three-span continuous beam shown in

Fig. P11.31 is fixed at A and D and is supported on
frictionless rollers at Band D. If the positive and nega- I' 20 ft .,.' 10ft~
tive moment resistances are each equal to 800 k-in., FiGURE P11.33
determine the fully plastic uniform load w associated
with the formation of plastic hinges at A, B, C, and D 11.34 A three-span continuous beam is loaded uni-
and at other points such that collapse mechanisms formly as shown in Fig. P11.34. Determine the ratio of
form . L2 to Ll such that pseudo-mechanisms ABC, CDE, and
EFG form simultaneously. Use My = 500 kN-m and

il
f = 1.28 for both positive and negative bending resist-
~A f it
IV

I I I ance. Note that plastic hinges Band F do not form at

the centers of their respective spans.

ft---l
I

I,
l
·1·
W

I I I I
;t'I, I
f---20ft 20 ft 20

11.32
FIGURE P11.31

Refer to Fig. P11.32 and determine K such that

AiI--LI
B

~·1· D

L2
F

LI--J
the pseudo-mechanisms ABC and CDE form simulta- FIGURE P11.34

11.1 _ _ This introduction to plastic design of shafts and beams provides for member selection
Design for based upon torque and moment resistance to factored static loadings. The reader should
Inelastic Behavior be aware that other requirements not considered here may govern the final design of such
of Torsional and members. For example, fatigue failure is often of paramount concern in designing
Bending Members members to resist torque, and erection conditions may require larger beam sections than
"in-place" analysis would indicate. Final design of machine and structural components

544 Ch. 11 / Analysis and Design for Inelastic aehavior

 requires consideration of many factors. Some factors are amenable to analytical methods,
and other factors are resolved by judgment based upon experience. The general design
philosophy, expressed in Section 11.1, which focuses on load-carrying capacity rather than
stress levels, will be followed in the design of shafts and beams.
EXAMPLE 11.9 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

A 30-ft-long beam is fixed at both ends and subjected to a uniform load of 5.0 k/ft. It is to
be fabricated of steel with a yield stress of 36 ksi. The uniform load is a service loading
which allows for both the dead load of the beam and a live load to be superimposed on it.
A load factor of 2.00 is to be used for the combined dead and live loading. Use plastic
design to select a cross section from those shown in Appendix F and determine the
permissible service live loading. Compare the service dead and live loads on a percentage
basis.

SOLUTION. The uniform load that the beam must support when the pseudo-
mechanism forms is obtained by mUltiplying the total service loading by the load factor.
In this case
Wu = 2.00 x 5 .0 = 10.0 k/ft

The loaded beam and the pseudo-mechanism are depicted in Fig. 11.14(a). Each
reaction equals half the total downward load or 150 k acting upward. To determine the

III. = 10 k/ft
.,,---.---.--.-~.---~--~--~~ ,

A c
, '!---------------30 ft -------------+_"
"

Mp ( ... A_:::::---.1..---l...---l...---L.----'L.-~!__-c...) Mp

R, = 150k

- - - 15 ft - - - ---o!t----- - - lSft - - - --o.l

(a)

10 X 15 = 150 k

7.5 ft 7.5 ft

(b)

FIGURE 11.14

Sec. 11.6 / Design for Inelastic Behavior of Torsional and Bending Members 545
 required plastic moment M p' write the equilibrium equation for moments with respect to
an axis through B as shown in Fig. 11.14(b).
o LMB=O
Mp + 150(7.5) + Mp - 150(15) = 0

I Mp = 562.5 k-ft I
Refer to Appendix F and select a steel beam W24 x 76, which provides an M p = 600 k-ft
for a yield stress of 36 ksi. Although a steel beam W14 x 109 provides an Mp = 576 k-ft
for a yield stress of 36 ksi, it weighs more per foot and is therefore not as economical as
the W24 x 76. If for architectural or other reasons a shallower beam than the W24 x 76
were required, the W14 x 109 could be selected.
The total service load is given as 5.0 k/ft, and the beam selected weighs 76
lb/ft = 0.076 k/ft. The service live load equals 5.000 - 0.076 = 4.924 k/ft. The service dead
load is a small percentage of the service live load: (0.076/4.924) x 100 = 1.54 percent. For
long-span structures such as arches or suspension bridges, the dead load may become a
major consideration for the design engineer. In practice, dead loads are practically always
estimated or known by the designer. In this example the dead load is a small percentage
of the live load, but this is not universally true.

EXAMPLE 11.10

Design a hollow circular shaft with an inside diameter equal to 0.8 of the outside diameter
to resist a service maximum torque of 500 k-in. applied at the center of a 30-ft-Iong shaft
which is torsionally fixed at both ends. Use a load factor of 1.8 and a tensile yield stress of
36 ksi. Assume that the shearing yield stress equals the tensile yield stress divided by Ji
Select a standard pipe cross section for this shaft.

SOLUTION. The ultimate torque is obtained by multiplying the service torque by the
load factor:
T.. = 500 x 1.8 = 900 k-in.
This ultimate torque will be shared equally at each end of the shaft, since it is applied at
the center and the end conditions are identical.

=.!!.L. = ~ = 20.8 ksi

J3 J3
'l'
Y

Equation 11.4 solved for r; - rr becomes

(r3 _ r~) = 3I;, = 3(900/2)

o , 2n'l'y 2n(20.8)
Required: (r; - rr) = 10.33 in. 3. But ri = 0.8ro:
r; - (0.8rO)3 = 10.33
ro = 2.76 in.
Do = 5.52 in. and Di = 4.42 in.

546 Ch. 11 / Analysis and Design for Inelastic Behavior

 From Appendix E, 5-in.-nominal-diameter double-extra-strong pipe with Do = 5.563 in.
and Di = 4.063 in. would provide

(ro3 _ roi) = (5.563)3 2- 3 (4.06W = 1314'

. m.
3

Since 13.14> 10.33, the pipe is satisfactory provided that it is fabricated of a material
with a tensile yield stress of 36 ksi or better. Of course, selection of larger-diameter or
stronger pipe for this application would be uneconomical.

PROBLEMS ____________________________________________________________

11.35 Refer to Example 11.9 (p. 545) and increase the
total service loading from 5.0 to 6.5 k/ft. Design the
beam for this increased loading and determine the per-
missible service live loading. Compare the service dead
and live loads on a percentage basis.
11.36 Refer to Example 11.9 (p. 545) and redesign the
beam using first yielding as a criterion (refer to Chapter
10). Use the' 36-ksi steel with a factor of safety of 2. The
total service loading is to remain at 5.0 k/ft. Compare
this design with the solution to Example 11.9.
(HINT: First yielding will occur at both ends at the top
and bottom of the beam under a moment of wI3/ 12.)
11.37 Refer to Example 11.9 (p. 545) and solve the
problem with the following changes:
(a) Change the span from 30 to 40 ft.
(b) Change the steel yield stress from 36 to 50 ksi.
11.40 Design a solid circular shaft to resist a service
maximum torque of 2500 N-m applied at the center of a
3-m-long shaft which is torsionally fixed at both ends.
Use a load factor of 2.0. The shaft is to be fabricated of
a material for which the shearing yield stress is
200 MPa.
11.41 A fixed-end beam subjected to two concentrated
forces is shown in Fig. P11.41. These forces are service
loadings which include a small allowance for the beam
dead load. Use a load factor of 2.0 and select a beam
from Appendix F. Carefully convert units when you
select the lightest beam from the table for a yield stress
of 50 ksi.
A

11.38 Refer to Example 11.10 (p. 546) and change the _nl

ratio of the inside to the outside diameter from 0.8 to
0.9 and select a pipe cross section for this hollow shaft
from Appendix E.
11.39 Design a hollow circular shaft with an inside
diameter equal to 0.85 of the outside diameter to resist a
service maximum torque of 2000 N-m applied at the
FIGURE P".4'
11.42 A fixed-end beam shown in Fig. P11.42 is sub-
jected to a service live load of 220 k, which includes a
small allowance for the beam dead load. Use a load
factor of 2.0 and select a beam fabricated of steel with a
yield stress of 50 ksi from Appendix F.

!
center of a 4-m-long shaft which is torsionally fixed at
220 k
both ends. Use a load factor of 1.7. The shaft is to be
fabricated of a material for which the shearing yield
stress is 300 MPa. If the pipe sections shown in Appen- i c~
dix E are fabricated of a material for which the shearing
15ft 5ft-
yield stress is 300 MPa, select a pipe section for this
shaft. FIGURE P11.42

Sec. 11.6 I Design for Inelastic Behavior of Torsional and Bending Members 547

11.43 A two-span continuous beam depicted in
Fig. PI 1.43 is to be fabricated of steel having a yield
stress of 36 ksi. It is to carry two symmetrically placed
service live loads of 40 k which have been increased by
a small percentage to account for the dead load of the
beam. Use a load factor of 2 and refer to Appendix F to
select an appropriate beam.
A~______O______~
,C,-.______D_____~
10 fl
FIGURE P11.43
11.44 A cantilever beam 10 ft long is to be designed to
support an end service load of 30 k. This service load
includes a small allowance for the beam weight. For a
steel with a yield stress of 36 ksi, select an appropriate
beam using each of the following methods :
(a) Elastic design (Appendix E) with a factor of safety of
2 with respect to first yield.
(b) Plastic design (Appendix F) using a load factor of 2.
Are the answers to (a) and (b) the same? The cantilever
is a determinate structure. For a highly redundant
structure, is the answer to_.(a) and (b) likely to be the
same?
11.45 A two-span continuous beam shown in
Fig. Pl1.45 is loaded with a uniform service load of 6
k/ft, which contains an allowance for the beam dead
load. The beam is to be fabricated of a material with a
yield stress of 36 ksi. Use a load factor of 1.8 and select
a beam from Appendix F.
6 kif!
1HI ~5f1 - - -----1
FIGURE P11.45
11.46 Refer to Fig. Pl1.46 and design a solid circular
shaft to resist the service torques shown. Use a load
factor of 2 and material with a shearing yield stress of
30 ksi.
548
0 )
)
J
40 k-in. 40 k-in.
!--5fl
I 5 fl ,i, 5 ft----1
FIGURE P11.46
11.47 Design a hollow circular shaft with an inside
diameter equal to 0.90 of the outside diameter to resist a
maximum service torque of 600 k-in. applied at the
center of a 20-ft-long shaft that is torsionally fixed at
both ends. Use a load factor of 2.2 and a tensile yield
stress of 50 ksi. Assume that the shearing ,.Yield stress
equals the tensile yield stress divided by ../3. Select an
extra strong pipe cross section from Appendix E for this
shaft.
11.48 Design a three-span continuous beam to resist
the service uniform loading of Fig. PIl.48. Assume that
the given loading includes a small allowance for the
beam weight. Use a load factor of 1.8 and select a beam
from Appendix F with a yield stress of 36 ksi. Note that
mechanisms ABC, CDE, and EFG need not form simul-
taneously.
w = 4.30 k/ ft
I I I B
1-----30 ft -----..f.1-'---25 ft I' 20 ft--1
FIGURE P11.48
11.49 Refer to the plan view shown in Fig. PI 1.49 and
design the typical girder G 1. Note that four beams Bl
deliver their reactions to the girder Gland these reac-
tions are the loadings applied to the girder. Each beam
Bl supports a uniform load over its length. This loading
is uniform and is applied to the beam over a width
equal to their spacings of 20 ft. Assume that the beams
are simply supported (i.e., only their webs are connected
to the girders) and assume that the girders are fuIly
fixed at their ends (i.e., flanges and webs are securely
connected to the column flanges). Use a span of 60 ft in
designing the girders. Steel with a yield stress of 50 ksi is
Ch.11 I Analysis and Design for Inelastic Behavior
to be used for the girders. The uniform service load
w = 80 psf includes an allowance for beam and girder
weights. A load factor of 1.6 is to be used. Select a
girder from Appendix F.
f----40 ft ---l
---T-----------L---
~ -::--ColulTIn
11.50 A prismatic beam is to be selected from those
given in Appendix F to resist the service loadings shown
in Fig. P 11.50. You are to use a load factor of 1.7 and a
yield stress of 36 ksi for the beam material. Assume that
the loadings include an allowance for the beam weight.
Note that mechanisms ABC and CDE need not form
simultaneously and that plastic hinge B will not be
located at midspan.

k 11 r
Bl Bl w ~ 6.00 kif!

I I B D
Ok

E~
Bl Bl

I· 25 ft
·1· 20 ft
-I- 2Oft----i

---1:---1- FIGURE P11.50

Typical interior bay of building

plan view

FIGURE P11.49

ADDITIONAL CHAPTER PROBLEMS

11.51 (Sec. 11.3) Refer to Problem 11.11 (p. 531) and
solve it after changing the constant thickness from O.lb
to 0.08b.
11.52 (Sec. 11.3) Refer to Problem 11.18 (p. 532) and
solve it after centering the cutout vertically. Retain the
overall dimensions (7 b x 7 b) and the cutout dimensions
(3b x 4b).
11.53 (Sec. 11.5) Solve Problem 11/19 (p. 543) for Mp
= 600 k-in.
(d) The uniform load associated with the first yield of
the beam with fixed ends.
(e) The uniform load associated with the collapse of the
beam with fixed ends.
(f) The ratio of the answer to part (e) to the answer to
part (d). Explain why this ratio is different from the an-
swer to part (c). [Hint: Refer to Example 11.7 (p. 539).]
11.56 (Sec. 11.5) Refer to Problem 11.25 (p. 543), re-
tain the given lengths, and show that K2 is independent
ofMp •

11.54 (Sec. 11.5) Solve Problem 11.20 (p. 543) for Mp

= 1200 k-in.
11.55 (Sec. 11.5) Refer to Fig. 11.9 (p. 534): let Mp =
6OOkN-m,J= 1.15, andL = 8.00 m and determine the
following:
(a) The uniform loaa associated with the first yield of
the simply supported beam.
(b) The uniform load associated with the collapse of the
simply supported beam.
(c) The ratio of the answer to part (b) to the answer to
part (a).
11.57 (Sec. 11.5) Refer to Problem 11.27 (p. 543) and
assign the following values: My = 600 kN-m and J =
1.15. Determine Pp •
11.58 (Sec. 11.5) Refer to Problem 11.29 (p. 544), re-
tain the given lengths, and show that K3 and K4 are in-
dependent of Mpo
11.59 (Sec. 11.5) Refer to Problem 11.30 (p. 544) and
solve it for the following assigned values: K3 = 1.60,
K4 = 1.30, and Mp = 400 kN-m.

Sec. 11.7 / Computer Applications 549

11.60 (Sec. 11.6) Refer to Example 11.9 (p. 545) and
increase the total service loading from 5.0 klft to 8.0
k/ft. Design the beam for this increased loading and de-
termine the permissible service live loading. Compare
the service dead and live loads on a percentage basis.
11.61 (Sec. 11.6) Design a hollow circular shaft with an
inside diameter 0.80 of the outside diameter to resist a
service maximum torque of 4000 N-m applied at the center
of a 5-m long shaft that is torsionally fixed at both ends.
Use a load factor of 2.0. The shaft is to be fabricated of
a material for which the shearing yield stress is 200 MPa.
If the pipe sections shown in Appendix E are fabricated
of a material for which the shearing yield stress is 200
MPa, select a pipe section for this shaft.

11.7*_ _
Computer The following Examples illustrate the use of the FORTRAN language in the development
Applications of computer solutions. Refer to the detailed discussion given on pages 53 and 54.
EXAMPLE Cll.l _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Write a FORTRAN program to determine the shape factor for beams of hollow circular
cross section. Determine values of the shape factor as the ratio of the outside to inside
diameter varies from 1 to 5 using an increment of 0.1. Let P(BET A) equal the ratio of the
outside to the inside diameter.

SOLUTION. The source PROGRAM SHAPE and the requested output are shown in
Fig. Cl1.1. It is interesting to observe that for P = 1,f = 4/n, which corresponds to the
thin-walled, hollow circular cross section. Of course, P = 1 implies a zero wall thickness,

88tf8 k~~ERAnMsHAPE (INPUT,OUTPUTI

OOlZO PRINT Z
00130 2 FORMAT (lX,"SHAPE FACTOR-HOLLOW CIRCULAP C~OSS SECTIOh"l
oogHO READ *.PI
150 8ETA-l.
00160 PRINT 8
00170 8 FORMAT (lX,"RATIO OUTSIDE TO INSIDE DIAMETER, SHAPE FACTOR"l
00180 6 NUM-(BETA**3+BETA**Z+BETAl*lb
00190 DEN-(NUMllb.+U*3*PI
00200 F -NUP1/DEN
00Z10 WRITE *,BETA,F
00Z20 BETA-8ETA+0.2
00230 IF(8ETA.GT.51 STOP
00240 GO TO b
00250 END

~~tf~ 60lJ~~EH9bL~nslb~C~~1=E~~~~~Hl~~T~~~TOR
1. 1.273239525926
1.2 1.381398~722~1
1.~ 1.~58b8131~7~1
1.6 1.51~2~16~8811
1.8 1.55~6563~8368
Z. 1.58~~758S4485
2.2 1.6068108~0081
2.4 1.623790331706
2.6 1.6368833~6236
2.8 1.647115290505
3. 1.655211383704
3.2 1.661691578094
3.4 1.666933739501
1:8 1:~~~~~glf+~~N
4. 1.677680316514
4.2 1.680138126486
4.4 1.682211633953
4.6 1.683972544733
4.8 1.685477212815
5. 1.686770312124

FIGURE C11.1

550 Ch.11 / Analysis and Design for Inelastic Behavior

 which is not possible. Even as fJ approaches unity the compression side of the beam
would buckle before the fully plastic moment could be reached. If we let the inside
diameter 01 approach zero, then BETA approaches infinity and the hollow circular cross
section approaches a solid circular one. As fJ ----. 00, f = 16/(3n) :::::: 1.6976. The output
reveals that for fJ = 5, f = 1.6868. This value for f is within about 0.6% of the value for
fJ ----. 00. In other words, if the value of fJ = 5, the beam behaves practically as though it
were solid circular. Of course, even for values smaller than fJ = 5, the beam behaves in a
similar fashion, as can be seen by studying the output. Since both fJ and f are dimension-
less quantities, it is not necessary to specify units.

COMPUTER PROBLEMS

Cll.1 Modify PROGRAM SHAPE of Example C11.1
to determine the shape factor for members of square
hollow cross sections. Let the ratio of the inside to the
outside width (or height) of the hollow square, denoted
by 2B/2A, range from zero to 1. Use an increment of 0.1
for this ratio, which is to vary from 0 to 0.9. Plot your
results. Show that as B/ A goes to zero, f = 1.5, which
corresponds to a solid square cross section. Also show
that as B/ A approaches unity in the limit, f approaches
a value of 9/8, which corresponds to a thin-walled,
hollow cross section. Direct substitution of B/ A equal to
unity into the equation for f gives an indeterminate
form of zero divided by zero, which cannot be handled
by the computer. Note that for B/A = 0.99 the value off
will closely approximate the exact value of 9/8.
Write a FORTRAN program to calculate shape
factors for this cross section with the dimensions b, d,
and t as inputs. Create data for at least five cross sec-
tions and use your program to calculate f for these sec-
tions. Use the following numerical values to check your
program.
Input: B = 12 in., D = 12 in., T = 1 in.
Output: F = 1.159.
t----7'b----.j
d

Cll.2 Refer to Fig. CP11.2 and show that the shape

factor f for an I cross section of constant thickness is
given by
f = [(d/2) + t](btd + btl + td l /4)
lltd 3 + ibt 3 + tbt(d + tf FIGURE CP11.2
Show that when d = 0, f = 1.5. Why should this be
true?

Sec. 11.7 / Computer Applications 551

CHAPTER A.IISis alii IISil1 lip
I_pact alii fatilll loadilllls
12.1*_ _ Statically or gradually applied loadings are considered exclusively in all other chapters of
Introduction this text. In this chapter, two loadings of vital interest in dynamic analysis and design are
considered : impact and fatigue loadings. For example, highway and railway bridges are
subjected to impact loading as vehicles cross them and allowances for such loadings are
made in their design. High-speed machines contain many moving parts that are subjected
to loading which varies cyclically with time. Repeated cyclical loading can lead materials
to fail at stress levels substantially lower than stresses associated with static loading,
provided that the number of cycles is relatively large and the range of stresses from
minimum to maximum is of sizable magnitude. Such failures begin at " stress raisers"
such as internal or surface flaws in the material or abrupt geometric changes. A small
(often microscopic) crack forms and propagates until a section of a given component is
too weak to resist further cycles of loading. The resulting failure is termed a fatigue failure
and the associated cyclically repeated loadings are termed fatigue loadings.
A unified theory based upon the law of conservation of energy is presented for
analysis of components subjected to axial, torsional, and bending impact loadings. These
impact loadings can be applied in any of a variety of ways, for example, by a raised
weight that is dropped through a vertical distance before contacting the component to be
analyzed. Potential energy of the raised weight is transformed into internal strain energy
stored in the stressed body if losses are neglected. In practice, a portion of this potential
energy is lost to noise and heat during the impact. Maximum stresses in the component
being analyzed for impact loading occur instantaneously and are not as severe as stresses
resulting from a loading that endures for a long period of time. Of course, impact stresses
of very high levels or those of lower level which are repeated a number of times can lead
to failure of the materials of which these components are fabricated. The failure of critical
machine or structural components frequently has led to overall machine or structural
failures.
Recent research on behavior of materials subjected to fatigue has centered on studies
of crack propagation and use of the electron microscope to study the nature of these
failures as cracks propagate through the stressed member. Empirical methods continue to
be widely employed for engineering design. These methods have centered around costly
and time-consuming test programs for each material, which result in S- N curves, where S
refers to a completely reversed cycle of stress and N refers to the number of cycles
associated with fatigue failure at a given stress level. Incomplete reversal of stresses, which
is the usual case in practice, may be analyzed as the sum of a static stress component and
a completely reversed cycle of stress. Three methods of analyzing incomplete reversal of
stresses advanced by Gerber, Goodman, and Soderberg are presented and extended to

552
 design by the use of appropriate static and fatigue factors of safety. Axial, torsional, and
bending loadings applied cyclically are considered in design examples.
The reader should be aware that this chapter provides an introduction to impact and
fatigue loadings, but the literature on these topics, particularly fatigue, is voluminous and
further study would be required before one could confidently design structures and
machines for these dynamic effects.

12.2 Stresses computed from the equations developed in previous chapters of this text are often
Stress referred to as nominal stresses. These equations do not account for the fact that stresses
Concentrations may reach much larger local values as a result of the following:
1. Loads or reactions delivered to a component over a relatively small area.
2. Internal or surface flaws in the material of which a component is fabricated.
3. Geometric changes in a component such as those discussed in the examples of this
section.
To account for the occurrence of these increases in stress due to static loadings, the
stress concentration factor k is defined as the ratio of the maximum stress associated with
a well-defined geometry to the nominal stress computed from equations such as 3,1, 4.19,
and 5.10a. In modified form to account for stress concentrations, these equations become

(Jmax = k AFnnet (12.1)

Tp
"max = k~
mm
(12.2)

(12.3)

where Anep J min , and I net are, respectively, the net area, mlOlmum polar moment of
inertia, and net rectangular moment of inertia for a given cross section, and k is the stress
concentration factor.
Stress concentration factors k are usually determined experimentally, although some
analytical work has been done, and modern computer approaches with finite elements is
usually most economical. Figure 12.1 shows stress concentration factors for axially loaded
members which were determined by the experimental method referred to as photoelasti-
city. Figure 12.2 shows stress concentration factors for torsional shearing stresses in a
stepped shaft of two different diameters determined by electrical analog experiments.
Figure 12.3 shows stress concentration factors for a notched flexural member in pure
bending determined by photoelasticity. Stress concentration data provided in these three
figures are only a small sampling of a plethora of similar information available in the
literature of this subject.
Examples 12.1 to 12.3 illustrate the use of stress concentration factors for axial,
torsional, and bending loadings. Stresses such as those computed in these examples are

Sec. 12.2 I Stress Concentrations 553

 3.4
3.2
3.0
2.8
Circular hole Fillets
2.6 (b) (c)

2.4 • Wahl and Beeumkes

Circular hole
2.2
k • •
2.0

1.8
1.6

1.4
•
1.2
1.0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 O.S 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
rid
FIGURE 12.1

4.2
3.2 r

-~
4.0

3.8
2.8
3.6
...
.s
u 3.4
Legend 6---A t1- =
r
8.0 __ t1- =
r
2.0
~ 2.4
'"
.S 3.2 ---- t1- =
r
7.S _ ! l = 1.0
r
E 2.0 3.0 t1-r = 4.0 D--{J!l = O.S
""u
0--0
r
"
0
u 2.8 1.6
::l
k 2.6
~ 1.6
-;;
2.4
'0"
.§
0
1.2 2.2
l- .7 .8 .9 .10
II r
2.0
"'" d
0.8 1.8

1.6

0.4 1.4

1.2

o I I I I I I I
1.0~~--~·--~--~~--~--~--~~--~1--~1_.~

o 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12

o .04 .08 .12 .16 .20 .24 .28 .32 .36 .40 .44 .48 .52
r
r radius of fillet d
d = diameter of small shaft
FIGURE 12.2 FIGURE 12.3

554 Ch.12 I Analysis and Design for Impact and Fatigue Loadings
 not significant for ductile materials loaded statically, since such materials are capable of
undergoing very large plastic strains prior to fracture while their stress levels remain
practically constant if strain hardening is neglected. Use of stress concentration factors for
static loading of components fabricated of ductile materials will usually be a very conser-
vative approach. Methods developed in Chapter 11 are more suitable for analysis and
design of components fabricated of ductile metals subjected to static loadings. Stresses
such as those computed in these examples are significant for brittle materials loaded
statically, since such materials fracture at relatively low strains and each stress increase is
accompanied by a corresponding increase in strain until fracture occurs.
Stress concentrations are always significant for fatigue loadings, as discussed in
Section 12.4. The examples and problems of Section 12.4 have static and fatigue stress
concentration factors (k s and k f ) stated as required. It should be noted that k f < ks and
that k f would usually be determined from fatigue loading experiments.

EXAMPLE 12.1

An axially loaded plate is shown in Fig. 12.4. It is 3.00 in. wide and has a thickness of
0.50 in. A l.OO-in. hole is drilled through the plate at its center. Use the stress concentra-
tion factor data of Fig. 12.1 to find the maximum tensile stresses along lines at the edges
of the hole. These lines extend throughout the thickness of the plate and are denoted by B
and C in Fig. 12.4.

SOLUTION. The stress concentration factor k is a function of the rid ratio, where r is
the radius of the hole and d is the net width of the plate. In this case d = D - 2r.
d = 3.00 - 2(0.50} = 2.00 in.
r 0.50
d = 2.00 = 0.25

Thickness t = tin.

O
B
lin. diameter hole
D =3in. r = t in. radius of hole

Total force = 10k Total force = 10 k

d = D - diameter B
d=3-\ =2in.
0max = 22.8 ksi

c
1--0./'

Uniform stress

FIGURE 12.4

Sec. 12.2 / Stress Concentrations 555

 Read the ordinate to the curve for a circular hole of Fig. 12.1 for ri d = 0.25:
k = 2.28
Fn
U max = k--
A nel
10 .
= 2.28 - - = 22.8 kSI (12.1)
2(0.50)
The variation of stress across the plate width is uniform on sections far enough from
the hole such that its effect is minimized. In this case sections 3 in. on either side of the
hole would have practically uniform stress distributions. It has been shown both experi-
mentally and analytically that the effects of stress concentrations disappear, for all practi-
cal purposes, at relatively small distances (i.e., distances approximately equal to the
largest cross-sectional member dimension) from the position of stress disturbance. This
concept is known in the literature as Saint- Venant 's principle. A section cut through the
hole would have a nonlinear variation of stress as shown for A-A of Fig. 12.4.

EXAMPLE 12.2

A stepped shaft is shown in Fig. 12.5. It is subjected to a constant torque of T = 1040

N-m. The diameter of the smaller shaft is d = 0.04 m and the diameter of the larger shaft
is 0.08 m. At the plane where the smaller and larger shafts are joined, a fillet of
r = 0.004 m is used around the complete circumference of the smaller shaft. Use the stress
concentration factor data of Fig. 12.2 to find the shearing stress around the circumference
of the smaller shaft.

SOLUTION. The stress concentration factor k is a function of two ratios (Di d and ri d)
as shown in Fig. 12.2. The diametral ratio Did = 0.08/0.04 = 2. The ratio of the fillet
radius to the diameter of the smaller shaft: ri d = 0.004/0.04 = 0.1. Read the ordinate to
the Di d = 2 curve of Fig. 12.2 for rid = 0.1, k = 1.45:
Tp
Tmax =k ~
mm

= 1 45 1040(0.02)
. (nI32)(0.04)4

1120 MPa 1 (12.2)

Fillet radius r = 0.004 111

FIGURE 12.5
J+
556 Ch. 12 / Analysis and Design for Impact and Fatigue Loadings
EXAMPLE 12.3

A notched flexural member is subjected to bending moments M = 120 k-in. as shown in

Fig. 12.6. The member has a depth D = 10 in. and a thickness t = 2 in. The notch has a
total depth h = 4 in. with a rounded bottom of r = 1 in. Use the stress concentration
factor data of Fig. 12.3 to find the flexural stress at the base of the notch along the line
extending over the full thickness of the member and denoted by A in Fig. 12.6.

SOLUTION. The stress concentration factor k is a function of two ratios, hl r and ri d, as

shown in Fig. 12.3.
The ratio of the notch depth h to the notch radius r is
h 4
- = - = 4.0
r 1

The ratio of the notch radius r to the net depth d is

r 1
-=-=0.167
d 6
Read the ordinate to the hl r = 4.0 curve of Fig. 12.3 for ri d = 0 .167, k = 2.06 :
Mu v
(5max = k -1- (12.3)
net

where v = dl 2 and I net = /2td 3 :

- 206 120(3)
(5max - . /2(2)(6)3

120.6 ksi I

A-J-
II = 4 in.

-j2r - I
D = IOin. d = D - II
r = 1 in. d = 6 i n.

M = 120 k- m

FIGURE 12.6

Sec. 12.2 / Stre•• Concentretlon. 557

12.3*_ _ A pendulum-type impact testing machine is shown in Fig. 12.7. Potential energy stored in
Axial, Torsional, a raised pendulum is converted to kinetic energy once the pendulum is released. The
and Bending amount of this kinetic energy required to fracture a small notched beam specimen is
I mpact Analyses measured. Specimens are placed at the low point of the pendulum swing and fracture
upon impact. Either cantilever or simply supported beam specimens with high tensile
stress concentrations at notches are used for -these tests. Direct use of these data for
impact design is not possible, but comparison of the relative impact resistance of various
materials is feasible.
A typical impact failure is illustrated in Fig. 12.8(a), which shows a bevel gear from
the transmission of a late-model automobile that was involved in an accident. One surface
of piece 4 is shown enlarged in Fig. 12.8(b). Note that the perimeter of the fracture region

Fibrous region

(b)

FIGURE 12.8
FIGURE 12.7 (a) Bevel gear from an automobile transmission that
Model SI-1 C3 impact testing machine by SATEC Systems with a capacity of fractured due to impact ; (b) impact fracture region of
125 ft-Ib or 300 ft-Ib. piece number 4 of bevel gear.

558 Ch.12 / Analysis and Design for Impact and Fatigue Loadings
 exhibits a fine-grained texture while the interior shows a fibrous texture, which is typical
of impact failure commonly observed in notched components.
The three impact situations depicted in Fig. 12.9 have much in common. First con-
sider assumptions and limitations placed upon the impact solutions to follow .
1. Assume that all the potential energy of the elevated weight W is transformed into
elastic strain energy as it falls through the height h, upon release from rest. Actually,
some of this energy will be transformed to heat and sound during the impact as W
strikes the body at the end of its vertical travel. Energy of each system is conserved,
and assuming that the potential energy is transformed into elastic strain energy is an
assumption on the safe side, since it will lead to higher stresses than an analysis that
allows for energy losses to heat and sound.
2. Calculated stresses must have magnitudes less than the proportional limit stresses of
the materials of which the impacted bodies are fabricated. Linear elastic behavior of
the stressed bodies is assumed in each case.
3. Assume that the dead load stresses associated with the weights of the impacted bodies
are negligible compared to the stresses associated with impact.
4. Neglect the work don~ by their own weights as the impacted bodies are deformed.
5. Rigid body elements of any system do not absorb energy because they are nonde-
formable.
6. Maximum stresses and deflections occur instantaneously in the impacted bodies, which
continue to oscillate until the vibrations associated with the impact are damped out.

II

A,E
II
J,G

b Beanng
· at ,;I ."
,_U_-, to preven t
L ___ ...J shaft bending
(a) xial impact i--- - - L - ---{
Tor ional impact
(b)

G fI

--- --
D

.......

L L
~---- 2 ---~---- 2 ---~

(el Bending impact

FIGURE 12.9

Sec. 12.3 I Axial. Torsional. and Bending Impact Analyses 559

 In Fig. 12.9(a), (b), and (c), the impacted bodies are the axially loaded rod BC, the
torsionally loaded shaft EF, and the transversely loaded beam GH, respectively. The shaft
EF is assumed to be supported such that the development of bending stresses is
prevented.
The fundamental equation for these impact analyses is a statement of the law of
conservation of energy, which states:
potential energy of W = internal elastic strain energy
stored in the stressed body at maximum deformation
Mathematically, this becomes
W(h + A) = U (12.4)
where
W = weight dropped from rest, which impacts the stressed body
h = height from which the weight is dropped
A = maximum deformation of the stressed body at the point where the impact takes
place
U = internal elastic strain energy stored in the stressed body at maximum deformation
This quantity U depends upon the nature of the loading. Equations are developed below
for axial, torsional, and transverse bendin~ loadings.
Consider an element of volume dV taken from the rod BC of Fig. 12.9(a) at the
instant when W has come to rest at the end of its downward travel and the rod has been
stretched its maximum amount A. At this instant the stress in the volume element dV has
been built up from zero to a maximum value fI, which means that the average stress
during the deformation of the rod is !fI. The differential strain energy dU stored in the
volume element dV is given by tm:, where e is the maximum strain of the rod associated
with the maximum stress fI and the maximum total elongation A.
dU 1
- = - fIe (12.5)
dV 2
A graphical interpretation of Eq. 12.5 is shown in Fig. 12.10, and students will find this a
convenient way to understand and recall the equations. To determine the quantity U,

1
integrate Eq. 12.5:

f dU =U=
vol
!fIe dV (12.6)

The integration extends throughout the volume of the rod and the integration is simpli-
fied by the fact that fI and e are constant throughout the volume. The maximum stress in
the rod is given by
F
fI=- (12.7)
A
where F is the maximum force in the rod when W has reached its lowest point during the
impact and A is the cross-sectional area of the rod.
The corresponding maximum strain e in the rod is given by
A
e=- (12.8)
L

560 Ch. 12 / Analyaia and Dealgn for Impact and Fatigue Loadinga
 (o-e) curve is straight li ne
0 = Ee

Elastic t rain energy stored

pcr unit volume equa ls area
under (0-£) curve = tOE
dU I
~ = 20E

FIGURE 12.10

where L is the length of the rod. Substitution of Eqs. 12.7 and 12.8 into Eq. 12.6 gives the
following equation for U:

U =! ~~ r dV = !2 ~A ~L AL = !2 Ff1
2 A L JVOI
(12.9)

Equation 12.9 substituted into Eq. 12.4 gives the basic equation for solving axial impact
problems:

I W(h + f1) = !-F f1 I (12.10)

The impact factor IF is defined as the ratio of the maximum force F exerted on the rod
during the impact to the static force W if it were applied without impact.

(12.11)

Since f1 is usually a small fraction of h, the impact factor may be quite large. In addition
to Eqs. 12.10 and 12.11, the relationship between F and f1 will be required for solving
axial impact problems:

~ (12.12)
~
To analyze torsional impact depicted in Fig. 12.9(b), consider an element of volume
dV taken from the shaft EF at the instant when W has come to rest at the end of its
downward travel and the shaft has rotated through its maximum angle e = f1/b, provided
that e is a smal\ angle. At this instant the shearing stress in the volume element dV has
been built up from zero to a maximum value r, which means that average shearing stress
during the rotation of the rod is !-r. The differential shearing strain energy dU stored in
the volume element dV is given by !-ry, where I' is the maximum shearing strain of the
shaft associated with the maximum deflection f1 measured at the point of impact.
dU 1
-=-ry (12.13)
dV 2

Sec. 12.3 / Axial. Tor.ional. and Bending Impact Analy.e. 561

 T

( T-'}') cu rve is straigh t li ne

T = G'Y

Ehlstic sl rai n energy stored

per unit volume equa ls a re a
und er (T-'Y) curve = 1- ry

FIGURE 12.11

A graphical interpretation of Eq. 12.13 is shown in Fig. 12.11. To determine the quantity
U, integrate Eq. 12.13:

f dU = U= r
JVOI
try dV (12.14)

It can be shown that, as for the axially loaded rod, U is given by

U = tF.1 (12.15)

Details of this development are not presented here. Refer to Problem 12.6, which deals
with this development.
In summary, Eqs. 12.10 and 12.11 are also valid for solving torsional impact pro-
blems when they are supplemented by

I T = Fb I (12.16)

.1 = 8b = TLb = Fb 2 L (12.17)
JG JG

Tp FbD
r=-=-- (12.18)
J 2J

Similarly, it can be shown that Eqs. 12.10 and 12.11 are also valid for solving
bending impact problems when they are supplemented by the following equations, which
apply to a simply supported beam impacted at its center, as shown in Fig. 12.9(c) :

IM~:L I (12.19)

FIJ
.1=-- (12.20)
48El u

562 Ch. 12 / Analysis and De.lgn for Impact and Fatigue Loading.
 Muv FLD/2
6=--=--- (12.21)
1u 41u

Equations for other loading posItIons and other beam supports will be presented as
required in the examples. Several problems require the development of the appropriate
equations.

EXAMPLE 12.4

Refer to Fig. 12.l2 and for W = 100 N, h = 0.1 m, determine the maximum stress in the
rods, the impact factor, and the maximum deflection of the rods. Assume that 75 percent
of the potential energy is effective in stressing the rods. Each rod has a length of 3.0 m
and has a cross-sectional area of 2 x 10 - 4 m 2 . Use E = 200 GPa for the rods.

SOLUTION. Modify Eq. 12.l0 to account for energy losses: 0.75W(h + d) = tFd.
From Eq. 12.12,
FL
d=-
AE

F(3.0) -s
2 x 10- 4 (200 X 109) = 7.5 x 10 F

With this latter relationship, express the energy equation in terms of F.

Substitute numerical values with an additional factor of t introduced on the left side
of Eq. 12.10 to account for the fact that two rods resist the impact loading:
1(0.75)100(0.1 + 7.5 x to-SF) = tF(7.5 x lO- S F)

F2 - 75F - lOs =0
Solve this quadratic for F:
F = 10,038 N (impact maximum force in each rod)
Since the force is axially applied, the maximum stress in each rod is

6 = -F =
A 2
10038
X 10- 4
= I
. 50.2 MP~ I

- r

It ~ 0.1/11

~~ ____ ____
~ -A~, ~

Rigid

FIGURE 12.12

Sec. 12.3 / Axial. Torsional. and Bsnding Impact Analysas 563

 From Eq. 12.11 with W = 50 for each rod the impact factor is
F 10038 ~
IF=W=50=~

From Eq. 12.12, the maximum deflection is

,1 = 7.5 x 1O- 8 F = 7.5 x 10- 8 (10038) = 17.53 x 10 - 4 m I

Note that h = 0.1 m is much larger than ,1 = 7.53 X 10- 4 m, which means that the linear
term 75F of the quadratic for F could have been neglected without serious error. An
impact factor of 200 means that the stress and deflection are 200 times the values for a
static application of W. However, these impact stresses and deflections occur only at an
instant of time which somewhat mitigates their effect on the materials as compared to
long-time loading effects. The temperature of the rods is assumed not to be low enough
that brittle fracture may occur.

EXAMPLE 12.5

A weight W = 120 Ib is dropped onto the rigid member AB as shown in Fig. 12.13.
Assuming that 80 percent of the potential energy of W is transformed into shearing strain
energy in shaft Be, determine the maximum shearing stress in the shaft, the impact factor,
and the maximum angle of rotation of the shaft. Note that the bearing at B prevents the
shaft from bending as a cantilever beam. Use G = 12 X 106 psi for the shaft.

SOLUTION. Equations 12.10, 12.11, and 12.16 to 12.18 will be employed in solving this
torsional impact problem. Modify Eq. 12.10 to account for energy losses:
0.80W(h + ,1) = !-F~

w~
I
I II = 0.8 in.
A 1

FIGURE 12.13

564 Ch. 12 I Analysis and Design for Impect and Fatigue Loadings
 From Eq. 12.17,

Substitute given numerical values into these equations:

0.80(120)(0.80 + .1) = tF.1
F(1O)2(36) 4 -6
.1 = n/32(4.5)4(12 x 106 ) = 7. 52 x 10 F

With this latter relationship, express the energy equation in terms o(F:
76.8 + 715.392 x 1O- 6 F = 3.726 x 1O- 6 F 2
F2 - 192F - 2.0612 x 10 7 = 0
F = 192 ± J( -192)2 - 4(1)( -2.0612 x 10 7 )
2
= 4637 lb (maximum force developed at impact point A)
The maximum torque applied to the shaft equals Fb:
T = Fb = 4637(10) = 46370 lb-in.
The maximum shearing stress in the shaft is given by Eq. 13.18:
Tp FbD 46,370(4.5) ~
" = T = 2J = 2n/32(4.5)4 = ~
The impact factor is, from Eq. 12.11,
F 4637 ~
IF=W= 120 =~

The maximum angle of rotation is given by

() = ~ = 7.452 x 1O- 6 F
b 10

~ 7.452 x :~- '(4637) ~ 1 3.46 x 10-' rad or 0.198' I

EXAMPLE 12.6

In Fig. 12.14 a 20-lb weight W is dropped through a distance of h = 2 in. before striking a
5-ft-Iong fixed-end beam. The steel beam has a depth of 2 in. and a width of 4 in., a
modulus of elasticity of 30 x 106 psi, and a yield stress of 33,000 psi. If 90 percent of the
potential energy of W is effective in stressing the beam, find the maximum stress in the
beam, the impact factor, and maximum deflection of the beam. Consider bending effects
to predominate when compared to shear effects. Comment on the validity of the solution.

SOLUTION. If the beam were simply supported, Eqs. 12.19 to 12.21 would be directly

Sec. 12.3 I Axial, Torsional, and Bending Impact Analyses 565

 IZ2J EZZ:I IV = ~o Ih

- ~ = 30in .
+ 4= 30 in.
FIGURE 12.14

applicable; but the beam is fixed at both ends, and these equations must be modified as
shown below.
Modify Eg. 12.10 to account for energy losses: 0.90W(h + ~) = iF~. For a fixed-
ended beam loaded at the center:
FU F(60)3
~ = -- = ------'-='----,----,:-
192£1 192(30 x 10 6 )(/2)(4)(2)3
= 1.406 x lO - s F
With this latter relationship, express the energy equation in terms of F:
0.90(20)(2 + 1.406 x lO- s F) = iF(1.406 x lO- s F)
36 + 2.531 x 1O - 4 F = 0.703 x 10- sF 2
F2 - 36.00F - 5.121 x 10 6 = 0

F = 36 ± J( -36.00)2 - 4(1)( -5.121 x 10 6 )

2
= 2281 lb (maximum force developed at impact point)
Bending moments in this fixed-end beam reach their largest magnitudes at the ends and
the center.
FL 2281 x 60
M =- = = 17 110 lb-in.
8 8 '
The maximum stress is given by the flexure formula:

Mv 17,110(1) ~
(J =- u = 1 3 = 6420 psi
Iv (12)(4)(2)
The impact factor is, from Eq. 12.11,

F 2281 ~
IF=W=20=~

The maximum deflection is given by

FU 2281(60)3
~ = - - = -------:-----,:-
192£1 192(30 x 10 6 )(/2)(4)(2)3

566 Ch. 12 / Analysis and Design for Impact and Fatigue Loadings
 = I0.0321 in. I
Since the maximum stress of 6420 psi is well below the yield stress of 33,000 psi, the
elastic solution presented here is valid. Of course, any stress concentrations have been
neglected in this solution. Furthermore, the maximum stresses and deflections occur at an
instant of time rather than during some time interval. The effect on the material is
mitigated somewhat due to the fact that these maxima occur instantaneously. If the
temperature of the beam were very low, a brittle fracture may occur even though the
material is ductile at ordinary temperatures.

PROBLEMS

12.1 A weight W = 40 lb is dropped from a height
h = 6 in. onto a fixed-end beam as shown in Fig. PI2.l.
Determine the maximum bending stress in the beam
and its maximum deflection at the point of impact if 85
percent of the potential energy is transformed into
elastic flexural strain energy of the beam. Use the fol-
lowing numerical values: L = 60 in., rectangular beam
depth = 4.0 in., beam width = 8.0 in., and E = 30 X 106
psi. Compare the impact values for the maximum
bending stress and deflection to corresponding static
values for gradual application of W.
12.3 An axially loaded truss member receives an
energy input of 10,800 lb-in. due to impact forces
delivered by vehicles crossing a highway bridge. This
25-ft-Iong steel member has a cross-sectional area of
20.0 in. 2 and the modulus of elasticity of the material is
29.0 x 106 psi. Determine the maximum force and unit
stress in this truss member due to this energy input
associated with impact.
12.4 Two weights W = 40 lb are dropped simulta-
neously onto a beam as shown in Fig. PI2.4. If the

cp maximum bending stress allowed in the beam is 20,000

T,I
psi, determine the height h from which the weights may
be dropped. The beam area moment of inertia I u = 305
h in.4, its depth is 12.0 in., and its modulus of elasticity is
I ! 29.0 x 106 psi. What is the maximum force developed

~ ~ between the weights and the beam? Neglect energy

r--;
losses during impact, air resistance, and work done by
.,. L
2 -I
the beam weight as it deflects during the impact.

~ ~
T
FIGURE P12.1
, I
I I
12.2 A weight W = 160 N is dropped from a height
,I h
,
I

!
v
h = 0.15 m onto a fixed-end beam as shown in
Fig. PI2.l. Determine the maximum bending stress in t ,I I
I
the beam and its maximum deflection at the point of I~S: I
impact if 85 percent of the potential energy is trans- 797
formed into elastic flexural strain energy of the beam.
Use the following numerical values: L = 2.0 m, rec-
r-a = 60 in. ·1· m
·1· a = 60 in.---I
tangular beam depth = 0.2 m, beam width = 0.3 m, and FIGURE P12.4
E = 210 GPa. Compare the impact values for the
maximum bending stress and deflection to correspond- 12.5 A shaft receives a pure torsional elastic energy
ing static values for gradual application of W. input of 200 Ib-in. due to impact loading. This 8-ft-long

Sec. 12.3 / Axial. Tor.ional. and Bending Impact Analy.e. 567

steel shaft is fixed at both ends and the impact loading
was applied at its center. The shaft cross section is
hollow with an outside radius of 2 in. and an inside
radius of 1.6 in. Determine the maximum torque and
angle of rotation of this shaft due to this impact
loading. Use G = 12.0 X 106 psi.
12.6 Evaluate the integral of Eq. 12.14 (p. 562) and
hence verify Eq. 12.15. In this case the shearing stress
and strain are functions of p, and the element of volume
should be taken as dV = p dp de dz, where z is mea-
sured along the length of the shaft and (p, e) are polar
coordinates in the cross section.
12.7 Solve Example 12.4 (p. 563) with W increased to
200 N and compare your answer with the answers for
Example 12.4.
12.8 Neglect energy losses and solve Example 12.5
(p. 564) again. Compare your answers with the answers
for Example 12.5.
12.9 Solve Example 12.6 by assuming that the
impacted beam is simply supported rather than fixed-
ended. Compare your answers with the answers for
Example 12.6. Comment on the validity of your solu-
tion.
12.10 Refer to Example 12.6 and use the given infor-
mation except for rotating the beam such that the 2-in.
side is placed horizontally. Compare your answers with
the answers for Example 12.6.
12.11 Refer to Fig. 12.9(a) (p. 559), neglect energy
losses, and derive general equations for maximum axial
stress, impact factor, and maximum deflection in terms
of the given quantities W, h, L, A, and E.
12.12 Refer to the solution for Problem 12.11 and let
h = O. Compare results for maximum stress and deflec-
tion for this suddenly applied loading with the results
for static loading.
12.13 Refer to Fig. 12.9(b) (p. 559), neglect energy
losses, and derive general equations for maximum
shearing stress, maximum rotation, and impact factor in
terms of the given quantities W, h, L, b, J, and G.
568
12.14 Refer to Fig. 12.9(c) (p. 559), neglect energy
losses, and derive general equations for maximum
bending stress, maximum deflection, and impact factor
in terms of the given quantities W, h, L, I, and E.
12.15 A body of weight W = 25 lb falls a height
h = 4.2 ft, as shown in Fig. P 12.15, and impacts the
rigid plate at the base of an 8-ft-long steel rod. What
must be the cross-sectional area of the rod to prevent
yielding of the material? The yield stress for the steel is
40 ksi and E = 30 X 10 6 psi. Neglect energy losses
during impact.
/
FIGURE P12.15
12.16 A body of weight W = 112 N falls a height
h = 1.30 m, as shown in Fig. P 12.15, and impacts the
rigid plate at the base of a 2.50-m-long steel rod. What
must be the cross-sectional area of the rod to prevent
yielding of the material? The yield stress for the steel is
276 MPa and E = 207 GPa.
12.17 A cantilever beam fabricated of aluminum alloy
is 4 ft long and is SUbjected to a weight W of 80 lb
which is dropped a height h = 4 in. before impacting
the end of the beam. If the beam has a width of 3 in.
and a depth of 9 in., determine the maximum bending
stress due to impact. The modulus of elasticity is
10.2 x 10 6 psi. Neglect energy losses during impact.
12.18 A cantilever beam fabricated of aluminum alloy
is 1 m long and is subjected to a weight W of 350 N,
which is dropped a height h = 0.10 m before impacting
the end of the beam. If the beam has a width of 0.08 m
and a depth of 0.24 m, determine the maximum bending
stress due to impact. The modulus of elasticity is 70.2
GPa. Neglect energy losses during impact.
12.19 A diving board with unyielding supports is
depicted in Fig. PI2.19. A diver weighing 650 N jumps
Ch. 12 / Analysis and Design for Impact and Fatigue Loedings
from a height h = 0.05 m onto the end of the board.
Determine the maximum bending stress in the diving
board and its maximum end deflection for the following
set of input values: a = 1.80 m, b = 1.00 m, C = 0.26 m,
d = 0.05 m, and E = 14.0 GPa. Compare the impact
values for maximum bending stress and the deflection
to corresponding static values for application of the
divers weight. Neglect energy losses during impact.
~
I h = 4 in. onto a simply supported beam a shown in
:I 1" Diving boa rd
I~------~~= ~~.~-----~
~
,
d
Rollcr - 7iB'i
~------- u --------+----- b ----~
FIGURE P12.19
12.20 A diving board with unyielding supports is
depicted in Fig. PI2.19. A diver weighing 150 lb jumps
from a height h = 2.0 in. onto the end of the board.
Determine the maximum bending stress in the diving
board and its maximum end deflection for the following
set of input values: a = 72 in., b = 40 in., C = 10.5 in.,
d = 1.875 in., and E = 2.00 X 10 6 psi. Compare the
impact values for the maximum bending stress and
deflection to corresponding static values for application
of the diver's weight. Neglect energy losses during
impact.
12.21 A solid circular shaft with a flywheel attached at
one end rotates at 10 rad/sec. The shaft is suddenly
stopped at the opposite end, and the kinetic energy of
the flywheel is transformed into elastic strain energy in
the shaft. Neglect losses of energy during the impact as
well as the kinetic energy of the shaft. Determine the
maximum shearing stress and maximum angle of rota-
tion of the shaft for the following input values: flywheel
weight = 500 N; idealize the flywheel as a disk of
radius = 0.30 m, length of shaft = 1.20 m, diameter of
shaft = 0.05 m, and G = 80.0 G Pa.
12.22 A hollow circular shaft with a flywheel attached
at one end rotates at 8.0 rad/sec. The shaft is suddenly
Sec. 12.3 / Axial. Torsional. and Bending Impact Analyses
stopped at the opposite end and the kinetic energy of
the flywheel is transformed into elastic strain energy in
the shaft. Neglect energy losses during the impact as
well as the kinetic energy of the shaft. Determine the
maximum shearing stress and the maximum angle of
rotation of the shaft for the following input values: fly-
wheel weight = 120 lb; idealize the flywheel as a disk of
radius = 15 in., length of shaft = 72 in., outside diam-
eter of shaft = 3.0 in., inside diameter of shaft = 2.5 in.,
and G = 12.0 X 106 psi.
12.23 A weight W = 20 lb is dropped from a height
Fig. PI2.23. Determine the maximum bending stress in
the beam and its maximum deflection at the point of
impact if 90 percent of the potential energy is trans-
formed into elastic flexural strain energy of the beam.
Use the following set of input values: a = 15 in.,
b = 25 in., beam depth = 2.0 in., beam width = 6.0 in.,
and E = 10 X 10 6 psi. Compare the impact values for
the maximum bending stress and deflection at the point
of impact to corresponding static values for gradual
application of W.
I
I
o-----r---------b----------
FIGURE P12.23
12.24 A weight W = 80 N is dropped from a height
h = 0.10 m onto a simply supported beam as shown in
Fig. P12.23. Determine the maximum bending stress in
the beam and its maximum deflection at the point of
impact if 85 percent of the potential energy is trans-
formed into elastic flexural strain energy of the beam.
Use the following set of input values: a = 0.40 m,
b = 0.60 m, beam depth = 0.05 m, beam width = 0.15
m, and E = 70.0 GPa. Compare the impact values for
the maximum bending stress and deflection at the point
of impact to corresponding static values for gradual
application of W.
569
12.25 Two possible axially loaded rods are shown in
Fig. P12.25(a) and (b) for resisting impact loadings. The
rod shown in Fig. P12.25(a) has a diameter 2D = 2 in.
over its top half and a diameter D = 1 in. over its
bottom half. Stress concentrations and energy losses are
to be ignored in your analysis. For W = 10 lb.,
h = 5 in., L = 16 in., and E = 10 X 10 6 psi, find the
maximum stress and deflection for each of the rods due
to impact. Compare the results and choose one of the
rods as being more effective for resisting impact load-
mgs.
/
L
I Given: beam width = 3 in., beam depth = 2 in., spring
T "
" Rigid I
(a) (b)
FIGURE P12.2S
12.26 Two possible axially loaded rods are shown in
Fig. P12.25(a) and (b) for resisting impact loadings. The
rod shown in Fig. P12.25(b) has a uniform diameter
D = 0.04 m, and the rod shown in Fig. P12.25(a) has a
diameter 2D = 0.08 m over its top half and a diameter
D = 0.04 m over its bottom half. Stress concentrations
and energy losses are to be ignored in your analysis.
For W = 50 N, h = 0.12 m, L = 0.40 m, and E = 70.0
GPa, find the maximum stress and deflection for each
of the rods due to impact. Compare results and choose
one of the rods as being more effective for resisting
impact loadings.
12.27 Refer to Fig. P12.27 and determine:
(a) The weight W.
(b) The height h from which W is to be dropped such
that the maximum stress in the beam is 20 MPa.
Given: beam width = 0.08 m, beam depth = 0.03 m,
and spring constant k = 1000 N/m. When the weight W
is statically applied to the system, the springs deform
0.02 m. Beam length L = 5 m. E = 200 G Pa. Ignore
beam and spring weights in your analysis.
570
"!
1
L _ _ _-1
1--- - -"2L 2
FIGURE P12.27
12.28 Refer to Fig. P12.27 and determine:
(a) The weight W.
(b) The height h from which W is to be dropped such
that the maximum stress in the beam is 32,000 psi.
constant k = 40,000 Ib/ft. When the weight W is stati-
cally applied to the system, the springs deform 0.08 in.,
Beam length L = 5 ft, E = 30 x 106 psi. Ignore the
beam and spring weights in your analysis.
12.29 An aluminum beam and a steel beam are simply
supported at their ends and SUbjected to an impact
loading by dropping a weight W from a height h onto
the midpoint of each beam. The length of the aluminum
beam is 0.30 m and each beam is 0.02 m in diameter.
Determine the length of the steel beam required to resist
the same load. The design stress of each material is 150
MPa and the moduli of elasticity of the aluminum and
steel beams are 70 GPa and 200 GPa, respectively.
Neglect energy lost during impact. Use h = 0.02 m.
12.30 An aluminum beam and a steel beam are simply
supported at their ends and subjected to an impact
loading by dropping a weight W from a height
h = 1.75 in. onto the midpoint of each beam. The length
of the aluminum beam is 25 in. and each beam is
1. 75 in. in diameter. Determine the length of the steel
beam required to resist the same load. The design stress
of each material is 25,000 psi and the moduli of elas-
ticity of the aluminum and steel beams are 10 x 10 6 psi
and 29 x 10 6 psi, respectively. Neglect the energy lost
during impact.
Ch. 12 / Analysis and Design for Impact and Fatigue Loadings
12.1* _ _ Engineers have long recognized that subjecting a metallic member to a large number of
Fatigue Loadings cycles of stress will produce fracture of the member by much smaller stresses than those
-Analysis and associated with static failure of the member. Poncelet in 1839 was probably the first to
Design introduce the term fatigue and discuss the property by which materials resist repeated
cycles of stress. Modern investigators would probably use a term such as progressive
fracture to replace the term fatigue.
Between 1852 and 1869, A. Wohler, a German engineer, designed the first repeated-
load testing machines. Wohler discovered that:
1. The number of cycles of stress rather than elapsed time of testing is primary.
2. Ferrous materials stressed below a certain limiting value can withstand an indefinite
number of cycles of stress without fracture.
The literature of fatigue studies is voluminous. These studies have proceeded along
two lines, fundamental research seeking to explain the phenomenon and empirical investi-
gations to provide information for practical design and analysis. Recent progress in
studies of crack propagation and use of the electron microscope have enhanced funda-
mental research efforts, but empirical methods still continue to be widely employed for
engineering design. Fatigue fractures originate at points where stress concentrations
occur, such as fillets, keyways, holes, and screw threads, or internal inclusions or defects in
the material. Cracks begin at these points of stress concentrations and then propagate
through the cross section until the remaining uncracked regions are insufficient to resist
the applied forces and fracture occurs suddenly.
An illustration of the type of fracture surface experienced in fatigue is shown in
Fig. 12.15, which represents the failure of a steering sector shaft of a late-model automo-
bile. The fatigue fracture originated on the surface of the shaft (see bottom of figure),

Final rupture

t t
Origin

FIGURE 12.15

Sec. 12.4 I Fatigue Loadings-Analysis and Design 571

 Large radius If

1\1
"2

L------L.-----r----r-----_ X

Note that bending 1I10ll1ent icon tnn[ owr [he

spo.:cimen length . Bcaring reaction nssllll1cd lIniform
in plolting the hear and mOlllcnt diagnllns.
Rotating beam fatigue testing machine
with shear and moment diagrams """"- - - - - - : : : - - : - - - - - -"""-- - - - --
l- Re~i~n -l
.\"

constant
bending
FIGURE 12.16 moment

probably as a result of stress concentration at the root of the notch, and extended slowly
almost through the entire cross section before final rupture occurred toward the top of the
figure. Note the beach marks, which are more or less concentric with the final rupture
zone. These beach marks represent the locations where the propagating crack was briefly
arrested and then began to propagate again.
R. R. Moore devised the rotating beam fatigue testing machine illustrated in
Fig. 12.16. The rotating specimen is subjected to a constant bending moment over its full
length as shown in the associated moment diagram. To minimize the effect of stress
concentrations, the surface of the specimen is polished and the geometry is chosen to
provide a gradual change in cross-sectional dimensions on both sides of the critical cross
section located at the center. Care is also taken to remove residual stresses from the
specimen. These residual stresses arise during unequal cooling of the specimen, and
annealing with gradual, carefully controlled, cooling will remove most of these stresses. In
summary, important variables, related to fatigue test specimens are size, shape, method of
fabrication, and surface finish.
For a given test, the choice of the weight Wand the set spacing a of the machine
bearings determines the bending moment applied to the specimen as it rotates at a
constant angular velocity w. As shown in Fig. 12.17, the loads are applied in a vertical
plane, and for a given point P on the specimen circumference the distance v measured
perpendicular to the neutral axis (N.A., which coincides with the u axis) varies with time.
This is the one quantity that is time-variant in the flexure formula.*
Mu v Wa R sin wt
S= I. = 2 nR4/4

2Wa .
S=--smwt (12.22)
nR 3

I S = Sr sin wt I (12.23)

* S will be used as a generic symbol for stress in this section, since repeated reference is made to the S-N
diagram in the huge volume of information available on fatigue.

572 Ch. 12 / Analysis and Design for Impact and Fatigue Loadings
 ILoads applied vertically
__ ~_~ ~ = angular velocity

v = R sin wi
- -N
- - j_ _ _ _ *----'_ _-+-__.....L-_ _ _ _ 1I

lu = INA = rrR4 = const.

4

FIGURE 12.17

S (stress)
+ Tension
- Compression

I
(time)

FIGURE 12.18

where Sr is the amplitude given by

Equation 12.23 expresses the fact that the bending stress S at any point P on the specimen
circumference will vary sinusoidally with time as shown in Fig. 12.l8. This variation
between a maximum tension Sr and a maximum compression of equal magnitude S, is
known as complete reversal and is the most severe form of stress cycle. Provided that the
amplitude S, is not set too low, the specimen will experience a fatigue failure after a
certain number of cycles N. The testing machine turns off automatically when the speci-
men fractures and the number of cycles to fracture is read at the counter. This test of a
single specimen provides two numbers: Sr and N. A large number of such tests will
provide a series of points, which are then plotted as an S-N diagram. Actually, the log
S-log N plot shown in Fig. 12.l9 is more convenient and will be used in this text, except
for Problems 12.37 and 12.42, in which S versus Nand S versus log N plots are requested.
Information obtained from S-N diagrams forms the basis for design and analysis for
fatigue loadings. Fatigue-testing machines are also available for axial, torsional, and
combined loadings and appropriate S-N diagrams may be constructed for these other
loadings. Definitions related to the S-N diagram are best understood by reference to
Fig. 12.19. The endurance limit Se is the maximum stress that can be completely reversed
an indefinitely large number of times without producing fracture. For the material of
Fig. 12.l9, Se equals 40.0 ksi. The endurance strength Ss is the highest stress in a complete

Sec. 12.4 / Fatigue Loadings-Analysis and Design 573

 S-N curve
Cast alloy steel
N, = 105 = specified N Completely reversed bending
Endurance limit = 40 ksi

100
90
80
70
60
g 50
'" 40
30

20

10
104 2 2 4 6 8 106 4 6 8 10'
N (cycles)

FIGURE 12.19

reversal fatigue test which the material can withstand without rupture for a specified
number of cycles N s . In Fig. 12.19, if the specified number of cycles Ns = 10 5 , the corre-
sponding endurance strength Ss for this material equals 56.6 ksi.
Figure 12.20 shows an S-N curve for an iron-based superalloy which illustrates the
effect of data scatter. Experimental results from fatigue tests do not lie perfectly along a
line, as shown in Fig. 12.19, but rather in a band, as shown in Fig. 12.20. The band within
which the the experimental points lie is indicated in Fig. 12.20 by the dashed lines above
and below the solid line. Stress levels corresponding to a specified number of cycles can be
stated with reasonable accuracy. For example, in Fig. 12.20 consider 2 x 10 5 cycles as
specified and observe that the ordinate at this point intersects the scatter band at points C
and D. The stress levels at D and C are in the ratio 8 : 7. This is to be contrasted with
fatigue life predictions, which are estimates at best. For example, in Fig. 12.20 consider a
stress level of 150 ksi and observe that a horizontal line at this level intersects the scatter
band at points A and B. The abscissas of B and A are in the ratio 4.11 : 1. For a stress level
of 150 ksi, the fatigue life varies from 9.0 x 104 cycles to 3.7 x 10 5 cycles. These effects of

S-N curve
Iron-based super alloy
4.11: I ratio Completely reversed bending
Endurance limit = 130 ksi
200
--- ___
--- ----;:.--
D

A C --:=-- :::r 8 : 7 ratio

100
90
80
70
60
.0; 50
~

'" 40
30

20

10
104 2 4 6 8 106 4 6 8 10'
N (cycles)

FIGURE 12.20

574 Ch. 12 / Analysis and Dasign for Impact and Fatigue Loadings
 data scatter are usually covered by the factor of safety for fatigue, which is usually
considerably larger than the factor of safety for static loadings.
The S-N curves for steel, unlike those for most nonferrous metals, level off after a
large number of cycles. As shown in Fig. 12.19 and 12.20, this leveling off occurs at about
106 cycles, but there are many materials for which a continual decline in stress levels will
occur with increasing number of cycles. In this case the designers are faced with the task
of estimating the number of stress cycles associated with the useful life of the component
to be designed and then basing their calculations upon a corresponding endurance
strength. Estimating the number of stress cycles is further complicated when the com-
ponent experiences high-frequency vibrations because in a very short time the number of
cycles can increase by very large amounts. For example, fatigue failure of such com-
ponents has been the cause of jet and helicopter aircraft crashes.
If the stress varies sinusoidally with time between a maximum tensile value Smax and
a minimum tensile value Smin as shown in Fig. 12.21(a), it is possible to decompose this
stress variation into a static component, as shown in Fig. 12.21(b), and a completely
reversed sinusoidal variation, shown in Fig. 12.21(c). This decomposition is desirable,
since a very large portion of experimental fatigue data has been obtained for completely
reversed cycling. Three relationships between the static component and the complete
reversal component are shown in Fig. 12.22. The Gerber parabola, the Goodman straight
line, and the Soderberg straight line are plotted together with experimental points in this

(a) Sinusoidal stress variation

........ Eq. (\ 2.24)

(b) Static component

........ Eq. (\ 2.25)

(c) Complete reversal

FIGURE 12.21

Sec. 12.4 / Fatigue Loadings-Analysis and Design 575

 S,

Gerber parabola Se based on 5 X 1O~ cycle life.

(0, Se) fiI:::--_ _ For shorter cycle life, point (0, Se), is
replaced by a value of S taken from the
appropriate S-N curve.

Equations:

Gerber parabola: S, = Se p_(;:v) 2] (12.26)

Goodman straight line: Say + S, = I (12.27)

Soderberg straight line ~ Se

'-----------------'-.--------"11----
(Sy, 0) (Su, 0)
Say Soderberg straight line: Say + S, = I (12.28)
Sy Se

FIGURE 12.22

figure. The Goodman straight line has been widely used in American engineering practice,
and the Soderberg straight line has been used to a lesser extent. The Gerber parabola has
not been widely used in America because it is not conservative with respect to a great deal
of the data. The Soderberg straight line provides a very conservative approach, since it is
based upon a yield stress Sy rather than upon an ultimate stress Su for the static com-

Eq. (12.29)

Eq. (12.30)

S,
SeiNe

(a)

Nu '" factor of safety associated with (1,0)

static ultimate component
Ne '" factor of safety associated with.
complete reversal endurance limit

(0, I)

Eq. (12.31)
Sr
SeiNe

(b)

Ny = factor of safety associated with

static yield component
FIGURE 12.23

576 Ch. 12 / Analysis and Design for Impact and Fatigue Loadings
 ponent. Factors of safety are not included in Fig. 12.22, but Fig. 12.23 provides non-
dimensional forms of the three methods that incorporate the appropriate factors of safety.
Further discussion of these methods follows in the examples.
A summary of the equations shown in Figs. 12.21 to 12.23 follows for ready reference
in solving fatigue loading problems. The reader will more readily understand these equa-
tions if he or she associates them with the figures.

SINUSOIDAL STRESS V ARIA TION WITH TIME (Fig. 12.18). Static component:

I Say = t(Smax + Smin) (12.24)

Completely reversed component:

IS, = t(Smax - Smin) I (12.25)

GERBER, GOODMAN, AND SODERBERG EQUATIONS WITHOUT SAFETY FACTORS

(Fig. 12.22). Gerber parabola:

(12.26)

Goodman straight line:

Say S,
-+-=1 (12.27)
Su Se

Soderberg straight line:

(12.28)

GERBER, GOODMAN, AND SODERBERG EQUA TIONS WITH SAFETY FACTORS

(Fig. 12.23). Gerber parabola:

(12.29)

Goodman straight line:

(12.30)

Soderberg straight line:

(12.31)

Sec. 12.4 / Fatigue Loadings-Analysis and Design 577

EXAMPLE 12.7

A cantilever machine component is to be fabricated of an iron-based superalloy (AISI

Grade 635) for which the fatigue endurance limit is 54 ksi. This component is subjected to
a completely reversed loading of 2.0 k maximum magnitude at the free end. A circular
cross section is to be chosen for this 25-in.-long beam using a factor of safety N e = 3. The
design details will provide generous fillets and rounds, which means that stress concentra-
tions need not be considered in this case. Determine the required diameter, D.

SOLUTION. Since the loading is completely reversed, the allowable stress is obtained
by dividing the endurance limit by the factor of safety.
Se 54 .
S = - = - = 18 kSI
r Ne 3
The flexure formula applies if one neglects shear effects compared to bending:
Mu v
S=-
r Iu

Substituting numerical values and D for diameter:

18 = 2(25)(D/2)
(n/64)D4

D = 3.05 in.

EXAMPLE 12.8

The beam shown in Fig. 12.24(a) is to be fabricated of a nickel alloy (Monel 400--hot
rolled bar) for which the fatigue endurance limit in bending is 289 MPa (l08 cycles, 20 q, D

the yield strength is 300 MPa, and the tensile strength is 570 MPa. The fillet radius r at
the change of cross section at the center of the beam has been chosen such that the stress
concentration factors are as follows:
ks = 1.5 (static at the net section)
kf = 1.3 (fatigue at the net section)
The loading is applied at the quarter point and ranges from a downward load P to an
upward load P /2. Use factors of safety with respect to yielding of Ny = 2, with respect to
ultimate of Nu = 3 and with respect to the endurance limit of Ne = 4. The beam has a
uniform thickness of 0.05 m. (a) Determine the maximum static downward load using first
yielding as a criterion; (b) determine the load range (i.e., P and P/2), using (i) the Gerber
parabola, (ii) the Goodman straight line, and (iii) the Soderberg straight line; and (c)
compare the solutions of part (b) on a percentage basis using the value from part (a) as a
basis for the comparisons.

SOLUTION
(a) This material is ductile, and hence a static analysis based upon use of a stress concen-

578 Ch. 12 / Analysis and Design for Impact and Fatigue Loadings
 Th icknc" - 0.05 III

0. 20m 0. 16 m
j

0.- 111 - 0.5111 1.0'n- -- -i

(al

l/
for
down-
ward
load

~----------------==----- .\"
(b)

FIGURE 12.24

tration factor at the center section will be very conservative. At the center section, where
M = 0.25P for a downward load P as shown in Fig. 12.24(b), the flexure formula incorpo-
rating static stress concentration factor ks and a factor of safety Ny on the yield stress
becomes

Sy =k M. v
Ny s [.
Substituting for the net section at the center, we obtain
300 X 10 6 1.5(0.25P)(0.08)
2 #0.05)(0.16)3
P = 85.3 kN
The section at the load application point must also be investigated. Note that stress
concentrations at loading and reaction points are being neglected in this example. Such
concentrations would be mitigated by distributing the loads and reactions over some
reasonable area. Substituting again into the flexure formula for the gross section at the
loading point and using ks = 1 yields
300 X 10 6 1.0(0.375P)0.10
2 MO.05)(0.16)3

P = 133.3 kN
Since P = 85.3 kN < 133.3 kN, choose

I P = 85.3 kN I Maximum static downward load using

first yielding as a criterion

Sec. 12.4 / Fatigua Loadlngs-AnalY8i8 and De8ign 579

 (b) Investigate the flexural stresses at the center section using equations from Fig. 12.21
and the flexure formula

Maximum stress:
S = 13 0.25P(0.08)
max . MO.05)(0.16)3

= 1520P

Minimum stress: Smin = - 760P

The static component of stress, from Eq. 12.24,

= ¥1520P - 760P)
= 380P

The completel); reversed component, from Eq. 12.25,

Sr = ¥Smax - Smin)
= ¥1520P + 760P)
= 1140P
Refer to Fig. 12.23 to obtain the equations in nondimensional form:
(i) Gerber parabola (Eq. 12.29)

~-1 (~)2
SeiNe - - SJN u
Substituting in terms of P and from the given information, we obtain

1140P [380P J2
(289 x 106 /4) = 1 - (570 x 106 /3)
Solving this quadratic for P gives

jP= 62.4 kN Gerber

(ii) Goodman straight line (Eq. 12.30)

~+~=1
Su/Nu SeiNe
Substituting in terms of P and from the given information, we find that
380P 1140P
-----;:-- + - 1
(570 x 10 /3)
6 (289 x 106 /4) -
Solving this linear equation for P gives

IP = 56.2 kN Goodman

580 Ch. 12 I Analysis and Design for Impact and Fatigue Loadings
 (iii) Soderberg straight line (Eq. 12.31)

~+~=1
Sy/Ny SeiNe
Substituting in terms of P and from the given information, we obtain
380P 1140P
-----::-- + - 1
(300 6
X 10 /2) (289 x 106 /4) -
Solving this linear equation for P gives

\ P = 54.6 kN Soderberg I
(c) If we assume the static value of P = 85.3 kN as a basis for comparison, the solutions
may be compared as follows:

Percentage
P (kN) Comparison
Static 85.3 100.0
Gerber 62.4 73.2
Goodman 56.2 65.9
Soderberg 54.6 64.0

EXAMPLE 12.9

A circular cylindrical shaft is to be fabricated of a material for which the S-N data are
given in Fig. 12.25. The maximum torque is 4000 ft-Ib and the minimum torque is
1000 ft-Ib. Determine the required diameter of the shaft. A small keyway in the shaft has
stress concentration factors k J = 1.3, ks = 1.4. The keyway is small enough to allow use of
gross cross-sectional area properties. The torsional ultimate strength of this material is
90 ksi. Use the Goodman straight line and factors of safety Ne = 4 and Nu = 3.

SOLUTION. The symbol S refers to shearing stress in this problem, since a shaft is to
be designed.

100
90;
80
70
60 S-N curve
~ 50 Ferrous alloy A I
~ 40 Endurance limit = 24 ksi

'" 30
Completely reversed torsion

20

10 L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _~_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~_ _ _ _ _ _ _~

N (cycles)

FIGURE 12.25

Sec. 12.4 I Fatigue Loadings-Analysis and Design 581

 MAXIMUM SHEARING STRESS:

S = 1.3 4000(12)(D/2)
max nD4
32
3.178 X 10 5
D3

MINIMUM SHEARING STRESS:

From Eq. 12.24,

1 (3.178 X 10 5 + 0.7945 X 10 5 )
- 2 D3

1.986 X 10 5
D3

From Eq. 12.25,

1 (3.178 X 10 5 - 0.7945 X 10 5 )
- 2 D3

1.192 X 10 5
D3

From Eq. 12.30 and Fig. 12.23 for the Goodman straight-line equation:

Substituting from above gives

1.986 x 10 5 1.192 X 10 5
----+ -1
D3/(90,000/3) D 3/(24,000/4)-

Solving for the diameter, we obtain

D = 2.98 in.
Consider static application of the maximum torque:
Tr
S=k S -J

Substitute given values:

582 Ch. 12 / Analysis and Design for Impact and Fatigue Loadings
 90,000 = 1.4 4000(12)(D/2)
3 nD 4 /32
D = 2.25 in.

2.98> 2.25 choose I D = 3.00 in. I

EXAMPLE 12.10

A rod of circular cross section is subjected to alternating tensile forces varying from a
minimum of 160 kN to a maximum of 450 kN. It is to be fabricated of a material with an
ultimate tensile strength of 700 MPa and an endurance limit for complete reversal of
axial forces of 560 MPa. Determine the diameter of the rod using safety factors of Nu = 3
and N e = 3.5 and stress concentration factors of ks = 1.6 and k J = 1.5. Use the gross area
in stress calculations and the Goodman straight line as a basis for design. Check the
diameter required for static loading.

SOLUTION. The symbol S refers to axial normal stress in this problem:

p
S = kJ -
A
MAXIMUM STRESS:

450 859.4
Smax = 1.5 nD2/4 = Ji2
MINIMUM STRESS:

1.5(160) 305.6
Smin = nD2/4 = Ji2
From Eq. 12.24,

From Eq. 12.25,

1 (859.4 305.6) 276.9

=2 Ji2-Ji2 =Ji2
From Eq. 12.30 and Fig. 12.23(a) for the Goodman straight-line equation:

~+~=1
SJN u SeiNe
582.5 X 10 /D
+ 276.9 10 3 /D 2
3 2 X
-----'-- - 1 D = 0.065 m
700 X 6 10 /3 560 X 106/3.5 -

Sec. 12.4 I Fatigue Loading_Analysis and Design 583

 Consider static application of the maximum axial force:
P
S=k sA
-
Substitute given values:
700 X 106 1.6(450 x 103 )
3 nD2j4
D = 0.0627 m
0.0650 > 0.0627 choose
PROBLEMS
12.31 A member is subjected to axial tensile loading P
which varies from a minimum of 80 k to a maximum of
380 k. A square cross section has been selected for this
member. Determine the size of the square required if the
endurance limit is 60 ksi for completely reversed axial
loading and the static ultimate strength is 130 ksi. Use
factors of safety N e = 4 and N u = 3. Ignore stress con"-
centrations for this preliminary design. Use the
Goodman straight line and construct a scaled plot of
this line together with the point on the line associated
with your solution to the problem.
12.32 A simply supported beam that is 12 ft long is
subjected to a load applied 4 ft from the left end, which
varies from 40001b to 14,0001b downward. It has a
rectangular cross section with a depth four times its
width. Use the Soderberg straight line to determine the
cross-sectional dimensions of this beam. Other given
information: Se = 20 ksi, Sy = 40 ksi, Ne = 3, and Ny =
2. Design details are such that stress concentrations
need not be considered.
12.33 A hollow cir<:ular cylindrical shaft is to be fabri-
cated of a material for which the endurance limit is 165
MPa and the static ultimate strength is 620 MPa. It is
to have an inside diameter equal to 0.8 of its outside
diameter. It is subjected to a maximum torque of 5000
N-m and a minimum torque of 1000 N-m. Determine
the shaft diameters using the Goodman straight line
584
I D = 0.065 m I
with N e = 4 and N u = 3. A small keyway in the shaft
has stress concentration factors k f = 1.25 and ks = 1.35.
The keyway is small enough to allow use of gross cross-
sectional area properties.
12.34 Refer to the plot of log stress versus number of
cycles in Fig. 12.25 (p. 581) for completely reversed
torsion. For this application the component cycle life is
105 cycles and you are to design for the corresponding
endurance strength S. rather than endurance limit Se.
The maximum torque is 3000 ft-Ib and the minimum
torque is -1000 ft-Ib. The static torsional ultimate
strength is 88 ksi. A hole drilled in the shaft gives rise to
stress concentration factors kf = 1.35 and k. = 1.45. Use
gross cross-sectional properties because the hole is rela-
tively small. Determine the required diameter of the
shaft if the inside diameter is 0.7 of the outside diameter.
Use the Goodman straight line and factors of safety
N. = 3.5 and Nu = 2.8.
12.35 A cantilever beam which is 2.0 m long is sub-
jected to a downward load at its free end which varies
from 1 kN to 12 kN. Choose a rectangular cross section
which has a depth four times its width. Other given
information: Se = 160 MPa, Su = 440 MPa, Ne = 4,
and Nu = 3. Use the Goodman straight line to deter-
mine the cross-sectional dimensions of this beam. You
may ignore stress concentrations for this preliminary
design.
Ch. 12 / Analysis and Design for Impact and Fatigue Loadings
12.36 Refer to Fig. 12.19 (p. 574) and note that the
sloping straight line on the log-log plot passes through
the following points: (10 4 , 80) and (10 6 , 40). Show that
the equation of this line may be written log S =
- 0.15051l0g N + 2.50513. Then verify the endurance
strength for a specified number of cycles Ns = 10 5 .
What is the endurance strength corresponding to
3 x 10 5 cycles?
12.37 Refer to Fig. 12.19 (p. 574) and read stress ordi-
nates to the two straight lines for N = 1 X 104 , 2 X 104 ,
... , 1 X 10 7 . Record these values in columns headed N
and S. Then prepare the following plots:
(a) S versus N.
(b) S versus log N (on semilog paper).
Observe these plots together with Fig. 12.19 and note
why the log S versus log N plot is to be preferred. Plot-
ting these data should increase your awareness of the
great expenditures of time and money required for
assembling fatigue test information on a wide variety of
materials.
12.38
(a) A series of complete reversal bending tests were run
on a steel alloy specimen and a plot of the data on
log-log paper appeared as two straight lines, similar to
Fig. 12.19 (p. 574). The sloping straight line on the left
passes through the following points: (10 5 , 60) and (10 6 ,
30). The line on the right has a constant ordinate of 30.
Stresses are given in ksi. Construct a log-log plot of
these data. What is the endurance strength of this
material for 3 x 10 5 cycles and for 8 x 10 5 cycles?
What is the endurance limit for this material?
(b) Refer to the data from the log-log plot described in
part (a). Write the equation of the sloping straight line
in the form log S = Clog N + D, where C and Dare
constants to be determined from the data. From the
equation find the endurance strength Ss corresponding
to N = 4 X 10 5 cycles. Check the result with the plot.
12.39 Rework Example 12.7 (p. 578) if the material is
changed to the cast alloy steel for which the S-N data
are provided in Fig. 12.16 (p. 572).
12.40 Use the data given in Example 12.8 (p. 578) for
the nickel alloy (Monel 400-hot rolled bar) and
Sec. 12.4 ;' Fatigue Loadings-Analysis and Design
prepare scaled plots similar to those shown in Fig. 12.23
(p. 576) for the Gerber parabola, the Goodman straight
line, and the Soderberg straight line. Clearly note on
your plots the points corresponding to the solutions to
Example 12.8.
12.41 Refer to Problem 12.40 and prepare scaled plots
as described there. Extend the plots to cover the case of
negative static components, Sav.
12.42 Refer to the log-log plot of S-N data for ferrous
alloy Al as shown in Fig. 12.25 (p. 581). These data
were obtained from completely reversed torsional tests.
Read stress ordinates to the two straight lines for
N = 1 X 104 , 2 X 104 , ••• , 1 X 10 7 • Record these values
in columns headed Nand S. Then prepare the following
plots:
(a) S versus N.
(b) S versus log N (on semilog paper).
Observe these plots together with Fig. 12.25 (p. 581)
and note why the log S versus log N plot is to be
preferred. Plotting these data should increase your
awareness of the great expenditures of time and money
required for assembling fatigue test information on a
wide variety of materials.
12.43 Refer to the log-log plot of S-N data shown in
Fig. 12.25 (p. 581). Write the equation of the sloping
straight line in the form log S = Clog N + D, where C
and D are constants to be determined from the data.
From the equation find the endurance strength Ss corre-
sponding to N = 5 X 10 5 cycles. Check the result with
the plot.
12.44 An axially loaded member is subjected to a
tensile force P which varies from a maximum value of
400 k to a minimum value of 60 k. The member has a
rectangular cross section d by 2d. Determine the cross-
sectional dimensions using an endurance limit of 40 ksi
for completely reversed axial loading and a static ulti-
mate strength of 90 ksi. Use factors of safety of Ne = 4
and Nu = 3 and stress concentration factors of kf =
1.20 and ks = 1.35. Your solution is to be based upon
the gross cross-sectional area. Use the Goodman
straight line and construct a scaled plot of this line
together with the point on the line associated with your
solution to this problem.
585
12.45 Solve Problem 12.44 using the Soderberg
straight line for yield stress of 65 ksi and Ny = 2. Con-
struct a scaled plot of the Soderberg straight line,
together with the point on the line associated with your
solution to the problem.
12.46 Solve Problem 12.44 for compressive forces and
plot the Goodman straight line in the appropriate
quadrant. Assume the member is short enough that
buckling is not a problem.
12.47 Solve Problem 12.45 for compressive forces and
plot the Soderberg straight line in the appropriate
quadrant. Assume the member is short enough that
buckling is not a problem.
12.48 Solve Example 12.9 (p. 581) using the Gerber
parabola. Compare your answer to the diameter of
3.00 in., which is the solution to Example 12.9.
12.49 Refer to Example 12.9 (p. 581) and solve again
for a maximum torque of 6000 ft-lb and a minimum
torque of 2500 ft-lb.
12.50 Refer to Example 12.9 (p. 581) and solve again
for a hollow circular cylindrical shaft with an outside
diameter equal to 1.4 times the inside diameter. Assume
that the same stress concentration factors apply in this
case, even though design details would vary at the
keyway in the case of a hollow shaft.
12.51 Refer to Example 12.10 (p. 583). Determine the
rod diameter if the alternating tensile forces vary from a
minimum of 90 kN to a maximum of 230 kN.
12.52 Refer to Example 12.10 (p. 583) and solve again
using the following new information: The cross section
is to be square with ks = 1.80 and kf = 1.68.
12.53 A steel rod is threaded at the ends and is sub-
jected to axial tensile loads varying from a maximum of
320 kN to a minimum of 90 kN. The material of which
the rod is to be fabricated has an ultimate strength of
560 MPa and an endurance limit for complete reversal
of tensile loading of 300 MPa. Find:
(a) The cross-sectional area of the rod using the
Goodman straight line with N e = 3 and N u = 2. Neglect
stress concentrations at the threads.
586
(b) The cross-sectional area of the rod assuming the
maximum force is applied statically.
12.54 A simply supported beam is subjected to a load
at its center which varies from zero to 10,000 lb down-
ward. It is 10 ft long and has a rectangular cross section
with a depth 3 times its width. Use the Goodman
straight line to determine the cross-sectional dimensions
of the beam. Other given information: Se = 20 ksi, Su =
60 ksi, N e = 3, and N u = 2. Design details are such that
the stress concentrations need not be considered.
12.55 Refer to Problem 12.54 and redesign the beam
for a center load that varies from 10,000 lb to 20,000 lb
downward.
12.56 A rod of circular cross section is SUbjected to
alternating tensile forces varying from a minimum of
200 kN to a maximum of 500 kN. It is to be fabricated
of a material with an ultimate tensile strength of
900 MPa and an endurance limit of 700 MPa. Deter-
mine the diameter of the rod using safety factors of
N u = 3.5 and N e = 4.0 and stress concentration factors
of ks = 1.80 and kf = 1.65. Use the gross area in stress
calculations and the Goodman straight line as a basis
for design. Check the diameter required for static
loading.
12.57 Refer to Problem 12.56 and redesign the rod for
axial tensile forces that vary from a minimum of 10 kN
to a maximum of 310 kN.
12.58 A hollow circular cylindrical shaft is to be fabri-
cated of a material for which the S-N data are given in
Fig. 12.25 (p. 581). The maximum torque is 2500 ft-Ib
and the minimum torque is 500 ft-lb. Determine the
required diameters of the shaft if the outside diameter is
1.6 times the inside diameter. A hole drilled in the wall
of the shaft gives rise to stress concentration factors
kf = 1.4 and ks = 1.5. Neglect the effect of the hole on
cross-sectional-area properties of the shaft (i.e., use gross
properties). The torsional ultimate strength of this
material is 88 ksi. Use the Goodman straight line and
factors of safety N e = 3.8 and N u = 2.9.
12.59 Refer to Problem 12.58 and redesign the shaft
for a maximum torque of 2000 ft-Ib and a zero
minimum torque.
Ch. 12 I Analysis and Design for Impact and Fatigue Loadings
12.60 A cantilever beam is subjected to a load at its
free end which varies from 2 kN to 10 kN downward. It
is 2.5 m long and has a rectangular cross section with a
depth 3.2 times its width. Use the Goodman straight
ADDITIONAL CHAPTER PROBLEMS
12.61 (Sec. 12.3) Refer to Problem 12.1 (p. 567) and
solve it for h = 3 in. rather than h = 6 in.
12.62 (Sec. 12.3) Refer to Problem 12.2 (p. 567) and
solve it for h = 0.20 m rather than for h = 0.15 m.
12.63 (Sec. 12.3) Use an energy input of 20,000 lb-in.
rather than 10,800 lb-in. and solve Problem 12.3 (p. 567).
12.64 (Sec. 12.3) Refer to Problem 12.4 (p. 567), re-
place W = 40 lb by W = 100 lb, and solve as stated.
12.65 (Sec. 12.3) Let W = 50 lb and h = 2.0 ft and
solve Problem 12.15 (p. 568).
12.66 (Sec. 12.3) Let W =
100 lb and h =2 in. and
solve Problem 12.17 (p. 568).
12.67 (Sec. 12.3) Refer to Problem 12.18 (p. 568) and
let W = 200 N and h = 0.20 m. Solve as stated.
12.68 (Sec. 12.3) Refer to Problem 12.20 (p. 569) and
solve it for the following inputs: diver weight = 175 lb,
h = 3.0 in., a = 60 in., b = 30 in., c = 13.5 in., d =
2.5 in., and E = 2.20 X 106 psi.
12.69 (Sec. 12.3) Solve Problem 12.23 (p. 569) for W
= 40 lb and h = 1.5 in. Assume that 85% of the po-
tential energy is transformed into elastic flexural strain
energy of the beam.
12.70 (Sec. 12.3) Refer to Problem 12.26 (p. 570) and
solve it for the following inputs: W = 80 N, h = 0.05
m, L = 0.30 m, E = 50 GPa, and D = 0.045 m.
12.5* __
Computer The following Examples illustrate the use of the FORTRAN language in the development
Applications of computer solutions. Refer to the detailed discussion given on pages 53 and 54.
Sec. 12.5 / Computer Applications
line to determine the cross-sectional dimensions of the
beam. Other given information: Se = 150 MPa, Su =
450 MPa, N e = 3, and N u = 2. Design details are such
that stress concentrations need not be considered.
12.71 (Sec. 12.3) Solve Problem 12.28 (p. 570) for the
following data: beam width = 4 in., beam depth = 2.25
in., spring constant k = 20,000 lb/ft, beam length = 6
ft, and E = 30 X 106 psi. When the weight W is stati-
cally applied to the system, the springs deform 0.3 in.
12.72 (Sec. 12.4) Solve Problem 12.31 (p. 584) for an
axial tensile loading P that varies from 100 k to 400 k.
12.73 (Sec. 12.4) Consider the load to be applied at the
center of the 12-ft-Iong beam and solve Problem 12.32
(p. 584).
12.74 (Sec. 12.4) Refer to Problem 12.33 (p. 584) and
solve it for a maximum torque of 6000 N-m and a min-
imum torque of 500 N-m.
12.75 (Sec. 12.4) Refer to Problem 12.35 (p. 584) and
solve it for a downward load at the free end of the beam,
which varies from 2 kN to 8 kN.
12.76 (Sec. 12.4) Refer to Problem 12.44 (p. 585) and
solve it for a tensile force P that varies from a maximum
value of 300 k to a minimum value of 100 k.
12.77 (Sec. 12.4) Use an axial tensile loading that varies
from a maximum of 250 kN to a minimum of 150 kN
and solve Problem 12.53 (p. 586).
12.78 (Sec. 12.4) Solve Problem 12.54 (p. 586) for a
center loading that varies from 2000 lb to 8000 lb down-
ward.
587
EXAMPLE C12.1

Write a FORTRAN program for torsional impact analysis of shafts of hollow circular
cylindrical or solid circular cylindrical cross section. Read data on the weight Wand the
height H the weight drops before impacting the member such that a torque is delivered to
the member to be analyzed. Also, read geometric and material properties of the shaft.
Determine the maximum shearing stress, the rotation in degrees, and the impact factor.

SOLUTION. The source PROGRAM TORIMP and sample I/O are given in
Fig. C12.I. Note that a negative value read for the weight W will stop the calculations.
Consistent lb-in. units are used for the sample I/O.

881~8 ~~~ERt~I~ORIMPIINPUT,OUTPUT)
OOlZO PRINT Z
00130 Z FORMAT (lX,"TORSIONAL IMPACT-SOLID AND HOLLOW CIRCULAR SHAFTS")
00140 PRINT 4
00150 4 FORMAT 11X,"READ A ZERO VALUE FOR 01 FOR SOLID CIRCULAR SHAFT")
001bO b REAO.,W,H,L,B,DO,DI,G
00170 IF IW.L T.O. )STOP
00180 PRINT 5
00190 5 FORMATIIX,"INPUT IN ORDER")
OOZOO PRINT 7
00210 7 FORMAT IIX,"WEIGHT,HEIGHT DROPPED")
00Z20 WR ITE *, W, H
00Z30 PRINT 9
00Z40 9 FORMAT IIX,"MEMBER LENGTH, TORQUE ARM")
00Z50 WRITE *,L,B
OOZbO PRINT 10
00Z70 10 FORMATIIXi"OUTSIDE DIAM.,INSIDE DIAM.,G")
00Z80 WRITE .,00,0 ,G
00290 PI-3.1415927
00300 J-IPI/3Z.)*IDO**4-DI*.4)
00310 RADICAL-SQRTlw**Z+Z*J*G*W*H/IB**Z*L))
00320 TAU-IW+RADICAL)*B*DO/IZ*J)
00330 THETA-Iw+RADICAL)*B*L/IJ.G)
00340 THETA-180.*THETA/PI
00350 IF-l.+SQRTll.+Z*J*G*H/IW*S**2*L))
003bO PRINT lZ
00370 lZ FORMAT IIX,"OUTPUT--STRESS,ROTATION,IMPACT FACTOR")
00380 WRITE *,TAU,THETA,IF
00390 GO TO b
00400 END

JP~aI~Nt~RoM~iE3ES~b~DDtN~0~0~be~Dce~~gbt~RS~~~lf
INPUT IN ORDER
WEIGHT,HEIGHT DROPPED
lZ0 •• 8
MEHBER LENGTH, TORQUE ARM
3b. 10.
OUTSIDE DIAH.,INSIDE DIAH.,G
It.5 O. 1Z000000.
OUTPUT--STRESS,ROTATION,IHPACT FACTOR
2914.350233152 .Z22b399545544 43.175559009b7
FIGURE C12.1

COMPUTER PROBLEMS

C12.1 Revise PROGRAM TORIMP of Example then use them in your program. Your program should
C12.l to solve axial impact problems. A deformable rod check to see that (1 does not exceed the yield stress.
of cross-sectional area A, length L, and modulus of elas-
ticity E is attached to a rigid body at its upper end and (1=
W + jW2 + 2AEWh/L
has a nondeformable disk attached to its lower end. A A
rigid weight W with a hole of appropriate diameter is
free to move along this rod. This weight is dropped IF = 1 + j1 + 2AEh/(WL)
from a distance h above the lower end of the rod and
impacts the nondeformable disk, which delivers impact A = (W + jW2 + 2AEWh/L)L
forces to the rod. Check the following equations and AE

588 Ch. 12 ! Analysis and Design for Impact and Fatigue Loadings
Use the following numerical values to check your to see that (1 does not exceed the yield stress.
program.
Input: W = 25 lb, h = 50.4 in., L = 96 in., (1 = (W + JW2 + 96WElh/ll) ~~
A = 0.495 in. 2 , E = 30 X 10 6 psi, (1y = 45,000 psi.
Output: (1 = 39,900 psi, IF = 791, A = 0.1278 in. IF = 1 + J1 + 96Elh/(WL3 )

C12.2 Revise PROGRAM TORIMP of Example A = (W + JW 2 + 96WElh/(L)3) 4~I

C12.l to solve bending impact problems. A simply sup-
ported beam of length L, flexural rigidity EI, and depth
2V is bent without twisting. A weight W is dropped
through a vertical distance h before impacting this beam
at its center. Check the following equations and then
use them in your program. Your program should check
Use the following numerical values to check your
program.
Input: W = 20 lb, h = 2 in., L = 60 in., 1= 2.67 in.4,
E = 30 x 10 6 psi, V = 1 in., (1y = 30,000 psi.
Output: (1 = 6820 psi, IF = 60.7, A = 0.0682 in.

Sac. 12.5 / Compute, Application. 589

 CHAPTER Selected Topics

13.1* - - - - - Several topics of special practical interest have been chosen for inclusion in this chapter.
Introduction
The selection is by no means exhaustive, but it provides a concise treatment of an
assortment of areas directly or indirectly related to the broad subject of mechanics of
materials.
Some of the selected topics are sufficiently independent to warrant placing them
either in an appendix or in a separate chapter. Others, because of their nature, could have
been included as separate sections in earlier chapters. For example, the topics of shear
centers and beams of two materials could have been included in Chapter 5. However, a
first course in mechanics of materials does not always include coverage of such topics and,
consequently, it was decided to separate them from the fundamental treatment of beam
analysis presented in Chapter 5. Furthermore, such a separation would provide flexibility
and convenience to instructors in the selection of topics for inclusion in a given course.
The range of the selected topics is sufficiently broad to satisfy a variety of needs.
These include cylindrical pressure vessels (thin- and thick-walled), shear center, beams of
two materials, reinforced concrete, curved beams, and computer applications using the
STRESS language.

13.2 Numerous industrial applications require the use of containers for either the storage or
Thin-Walled
the transmission of gases and liquids under high pressures. Examples include cylindrical
Pressure Vessels
or spherical tanks used for the storage of gaseous oxygen under high pressure and the
piping used to deliver high-pressure liquids to hydraulic machines.
Two types of pressure vessels are generally identified as thin-walled and thick-walled.
The distinction between these two types of vessels is based on the nature of the circum-
ferential (also known as hoop) stress distribution over the thickness of the vessel; if the
variation of this stress over the thickness is such that it may be assumed approximately
constant, the vessel is referred to as thin-walled; if not, it is known as thick-walled.
Thin-walled vessels are discussed in this section and thick-walled vessels are discussed in
Section 13.3. The distinction between thin-walled and thick-walled pressure vessels is
discussed in much more detail in Section 13.3 after the development of the appropriate
equations.
The two most commonly used types of thin-walled pressure vessels are cylindrical
and spherical. In the following paragraphs, we shall develop the stress equations for the
case of cylindrical thin-walled pressure vessels. The case of spherical thin-walled pressure
vessels will be dealt with in one of the examples.

590
 Consider the thin-walled cylindrical vessels shown in Fig. 13.1(a), which is subjected
to internal fluid pressure PI and which is assumed to have closed ends. As a result of this
pressure, the circumference of the vessel will tend to expand giving rise to a tensile stress
(JI tangent to the circumference of the vessel and known as the circumferential or hdop

stress. Also, as a consequence of the internal pressure PI ' longitudinal (along the z axis)
fibers of the vessel will tend to stretch, creating a tensile stress (Jz known as the longitudi-
nal stress. The stresses (JI and (Jz are shown on a plane stress element properly oriented on
the outside surface of the cylinder in Fig. 13.1(a), where one set of the element's planes are
parallel to the axis of the cylinder and the other set perpendicular to this axis. Note that,
because of geometric and loading symmetry, these two sets of planes are free from shear
stresses and consequently, they are principal planes and the stresses (Jt and (Jz are prin-
cipal stresses. If the stress element were taken on the inner surface of the cylinder, it would

/ - - - - - -+ x

(a)
.'.

do -t:,- Of (Ill:)

--- --~------_ .\"

-- --
_ --;:;;......-+----Pl l
(2r liz)
z_ _ _ _ _

Of (I lI:)

b)
)'

z----
/ - - - - - -- x

(e)

Figure 13.1

Sec. 13.2 / Thin-Walled Pressure Vessals 591

 have to be treated as a three-dimensional element subjected to the same tensile stresses 0',
and O'z in addition to a compressive stress equal in magnitude to P1' This compressive
stress acts on a set of parallel planes, one of which is the inner surface of the cylinder.
Consider the free-body diagram of a small portion of the cylinder with its fluid
content as shown in Fig. 13.1(b). This free-body diagram was obtained by first slicing the
cylinder into two halves with a cutting y-z plane, and then isolating a small segment from
one of the two halves, contained between two cutting planes perpendicular to the cylinder
axis at a distance dz apart. This free-body diagram is in equilibrium in the x direction
under the action of the fluid pressure P1 and of the stresses 0', which are assumed to be
uniformly distributed over the two areas t dz. The total force produced in the x direction
by the internal fluid pressure P1 is the product of P1 and the projected area 2r1 dz, namely
P1(2r 1 dz). Also, the resultant force produced by 0', is the product of 0', and the area t dz
[i.e., O',(t dz)]. Note that there are two O',(t dz) forces acting on the free-body diagram, one
on the top and one on the bottom. Thus
+ - L Fx = 0
from which

~ (13.1)
~
The longitudinal stress O'z may be obtained from the free-body diagram of
Fig. 13.1(c). This free-body diagram was obtained by cutting the cylinder into two parts
using a cutting plane perpendicular to its axis, and isolating one of the two parts. It is in
equilibrium in the z direction under the action of the fluid pressure P1 and of the stresses
0'%, which are assumed to be uniformly distributed over the annular area 2n[(r1 + r 2 )/2]t
where (r1 + r 2 )/2 represents the mean radius. However, a good approximation for the area
is obtained by using the inner radius r 1 in place of the mean radius (r1 + r 2 )/2. Thus the
resultant force produced by O'z is 0'(2nr1 t). Also, the resultant force produced by the fluid
pressure P1 is the product of this pressure and the projected area nri, namely P1(nrf).
Therefore,
I<"+LFz

from which

(13.2)

Thus the longitudinal stress O'z is exactly one-half of the circumferential stress. Notice that
both (1, and O'z were derived on the basis of equilibrium alone; these stresses do not
depend on the material being linearly elastic.
It should be noted that the symbol r1 in Eqs. 13.1 and 13.2 represents the radius to
the inner surface of the cylindrical vessel. Also, the pressure P1 in these two equations is
the gage pressure, which represents the difference between the total internal pressure and
the external atmospheric pressure. The stresses 0', and O'z as derived above apply only
away from the cylinder ends; in the neighborhood of the cylinder ends the constraint
afforded by the end plates greatly complicates the stress state. Such stresses generally
must be accounted for in designing thin-walled pressure vessels, however.

592 Ch. 13 / Selected Topics

EXAMPLE 13.1 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

A thin-walled cylinder with closed ends for which r 1 = 0.50 m and r2 = 0.52 m is sub-
jected to internal pressure P1 = 2 MPa. Determine (a) the absolute maximum shearing
stress on the inner surface of the cylinder, (b) the absolute maximum shearing stress on
the outer surface of the cylinder, and (c) the normal and shearing stresses in the wall of
the cylinder on a plane inclined to the longitudinal axis of the cylinder through a 30°
angle.

SOLUTION
(a) Consider a three-dimensional stress element on the inner surface of the cylinder such
that two of its planes are parallel to the cylinder longitudinal axis and two perpendicular
to this axis. The two planes parallel to the longitudinal axis are subjected to the circum-
ferential stress (1t given by Eq. 13.1. Thus

(1 = P1 r 1 = 2 x 0.50 = 50 MPa
t t 0.02
This stress is tensile and, as mentioned earlier, it is a principal stress. The two planes
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the cylinder are subjected to the longitudinal
stress (1 z given by Eq. 13.2. Therefore,
P1 r 1
(1 =--=25 MPa
z 2t
This stress is also a tensile principal stress. The third set of two parallel planes, one of
which is the inner cylindrical surface, is subjected to a radial stress which is equal in
magnitude to the applied pressure P1 = 2 MPa. This last stress is obviously a compressive
principal stress. Thus the stress element on the inner surface of the cylinder is subjected to
the following three principal stresses, which are consistent with the condition that alge-
braically, (11 ~ (12 ~ (13:
(11 = = 50 MPa
(1t

(12 = (1z = 25 MPa

(13 = (1, = -2 MPa
Therefore, the absolute maximum shearing stress is given by Eq. 2.16. Thus
(11-(13 50 +2
2 =-2-

= 126 MPa 1
This stress acts on a plane that bisects the 90° angle between (11 and (13 •
(b) Consider a three-dimensional stress element on the outer surface of the cylinder whose
planes are defined in the same manner as those in part (a). The circumferential and
longitudinal stresses are identical to those found in part (a). However, the radial stress on
the last set of two parallel planes, one of which is the outer cylindrical surface, is zero,
since it is a free surface. Thus the three principal stresses on the outer surface of the
cylinder are

Sec. 13.2/ Thin-Well.d Pre•• ur. V••••I. 593

 CT l = CT t = 50 MPa
CT 2 = CT z = 25 MPa

Hence the absolute maximum shearing stress is given by Eq. 2.16:

CT 1 - CT 3 50 +0
2 =-2-

= 125 MPa 1

This stress acts on a plane that bisects the 90° angle between CT land CT 3 .
(c) The Mohr's circle for the two-dimensional or plane stress condition defined by CT land
CT 2 is constructed as shown in Fig. 13.2(a). As shown in the two-dimensional stress element
of Fig. 13.2(b), the plane of interest B-B is inclined to the plane of CT 1 through a 30° angle
shown clockwise in the sketch, although a counterclockwise angle would serve the same
purpose. This plane is represented on the Mohr's circle by point B, whose coordinates
give the values of the normal and shearing stresses on this plane. Thus

CTB=OC+Rcos60=
50 +2 25 + (50 -2 25)
cos 60

= 37.50 + 6.25

= 143.75 MPa I
'B = R sin 60

= \10.83 MPa 1

0", = 50 MPa
0"2 = 25 MPa

= 25 MPa Axis of cylinder

T---
0"2
--~O+-----~r-----~~-.----r-.---_O"

"----,----,'030°
"-
' 0
(b)

0", = 50 MPa - - ---1

(3)

FIGURE 13.2

594 Ch. 13 / Selected Topics

EXAMPLE 13.2 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Consider a thin-walled spherical pressure vessel with inner radius r 1 , outer radius r2 [i.e.,
wall thickness t = r 2 - r l ) as shown in Fig. 13.3(a)]. This vessel is subjected to internal
fluid pressure PI . Derive an expression for the maximum normal tensile stress in the wall
of the vessel.

SOLUTION. As indicated in Fig. 13.3(a) because of geometric and loading symmetry,

the two sets of planes of a plane stress element taken at any point on the outside surface
of the vessel are subjected to tensile stresses a which are equal in magnitude. Also,
because of the symmetry, these two sets of planes are free from shear stresses and are,
therefore, principal planes and the stresses a are principal stresses.
The free-body diagram of the lower half of the spherical vessel and its fluid contents
is shown in Fig. 13.3(b). This free-body diagram is in equilibrium in the vertical direction
under the action of two forces: one the upward force a(2nrl t) produced by the stress a
acting over the annular area 2nrl t and the second is the downward force Pl(nri) prod-
uced by the fluid pressure PI acting over the projected area nri . Thus
+ 1 LFz=O

from which

Cal FIGURE 13.3 (b)

PROBLEMS ______________________________________________________________

13.1 A gas storage thin-walled cylindrical tank with
r l = 2.50 m and r 2 = 2.60 m is subjected to the internal
pressure PI = 3 MPa. Determine on a section far
removed from the two ends :
(a) The maximum normal stress in the wall of the tank.
(b) The absolute maximum shear stress in the wall of
the tank.
(c) The normal and shear stresses in the wall of the
tank on a plane inclined to the axis of the tank through
a 45° angle.

Sec. 13.2 I Thin-Walled Pressure Vessels 595

13.2 A thin-walled cylinder with closed ends is con-
structed as shown in Fig. P13.2 by butt-welding a plate
along a helix that makes an angle fJ = 30° with longitu-
dinal lines parallel to the axis of the cylinder. If r I = 50
in., PI = 300 psi, and the normal and shear stresses in
the weld are not to exceed 15,000 psi and 10,000 psi,
respectively, determine the minimum wall thickness.
(~
FIGURE P13.2
13.3 A water storage cylindrical thin-walled stand
tank is 20 m high and 2 m in inside diameter and has a
wall thickness of 0.04 m. The density of the water is
1000 kg/m3. Determine the absolute maximum normal
and shear stresses at the bottom of the tank when it is
full of water.
13.4 A cylindrical tank is to be used for the storage of
propane. The tank has a radius r l = 8 ft and a wall
thickness t = i in. If the material has a yield strength in
tension (Jy = 36 ksi, determine the maximum internal
pressure that may be applied if the factor of safety
Ny = 2.0.
13.5 A thin-walled cylinder with closed ends is con-
structed as shown in Fig. P13.2 by butt-welding a plate
with a spiral seam that makes an angle fJ = 60° with
longitudinal lines parallel to the axis of the cylinder. If
r I = 1.300 m, t = 0.025, and the normal and shear
stresses in the weld are not to exceed 150 M Pa and
100 MPa, respectively, determine the largest internal
pressure PI that may be applied to the cylinder.
13.6 A thin-walled cylindrical container has rigid
plates fastened to its two ends as shown in Fig. PI3.6.
The container is subjected to internal pressure PI = 400
psi and to an axial tensile load P = 100 k applied
through the end rigid plates. Let r l = 30.0 in. and r 2 =
30.5 in. and determine the principal stresses and the
absolute maximum shear stress:
596
FIGURE P13.6
(a) On the outside surface of the cylinder.
(b) On the inside surface of the cylinder.
13.7 Refer to the thin-walled cylinder shown in
Fig. P13.6 and described in Problem 13.6. In addition
to the loads indicated in Problem 13.6, the cylinder has
torques T = 500 k-ft applied to it through the two end
rigid plates. Determine the principal stresses and the
absolute maximum shear stress:
(a) On the outside surface of the cylinder.
(b) On the inside surface of the cylinder.
13.8 A toy balloon is inflated into the shape of a
spherical vessel with a radius r l = 0.15 m. If the thick-
ness of the inflated balloon is 1.5 x 10 - 4 m and the
internal pressure PI = 0.05 MPa, determine the
maximum tensile stress in the balloon material.
13.9 A spherical container is made of an aluminum
alloy which has an allowable tensile stress of 200 MPa.
The container has a radius r l = 3.0 m and a wall thick-
ness t = 0.015 m. Determine the maximum internal
pressure that may be applied to the container.
13.10 A spherical container is made of steel for which
the ultimate tensile strength is 50 ksi. The container has
a radius r l = 12.0 ft and a wall thickness t = i in. If the
internal pressure is not to exceed 300 psi, determine the
minimum factor of safety based on failure by fracture.
13.11 Refer to Example 13.2 and consider a three-
dimensional stress element on the inner surface of the
vessel. Show that absolute maximum shear stress in the
wall of the vessel is given by the expression:
Pl r l+ 2Pl t
I 'max I = 4t
Ch. 13 / Selected Topics
13.3*----- As stated in Section t 3.2, when the circumferential stress in the wall of the cylinder cannot
Thick-Walled
Cylindrical properly be assumed to be uniformly distributed across the thickness of the wall, the
Pressure Vessels cylinder has to be treated as a thick-walled cylinder. Examples of thick-walled cylinders
include gun barrels and the piping used to deliver high-pressure liquids to hydraulic
machines.
Figure 13.4(a) shows a cylindrical pipe which is open-ended and subjected to internal
pressure Pi and external pressure P2' Consider a circular segment of this pipe contained
between the two parallel planes A-A and B-B which are at a distance dz apart. An end
view of this circular segment is shown in Fig. 13.4(b). Note that because of geometric and
loading symmetry, the surfaces defined by planes A-A and B-B are free of shearing
stresses. However, the existence of the pressures Pi and P2 give rise to circumferential
(hoop) stresses at and radial stresses a r at any point in the wall of the cylinder. These
stresses are shown in Fig. 13.4b acting on the surfaces of a differential element located at a
radial distance r from the center of the cylindrical pipe. This differential element is
bounded by two concentric cylindrical surfaces separated by the distance dr and by two
longitudinal planes subtending the angle dO between them. Obviously, no shearing
stresses exist on the planes of at and a r and therefore they are principal stresses. Note that
both at and a r vary with the radius r and that while the radial stress on the cylindrical
surface located by the radius r is a r , it is a r + dar on the cylindrical surface located by the
radius r + dr.
A summation of forces acting on the differential element in the radial direction yields
the following equilibrium equation

(a r + dar)(r + dr) dO dz - a r r dO dz - 2at dr dz sin d: = 0 (a)

Considering that for small angles the function sin (dOI2) is approximately equal to d012,
and eliminating quantities of higher order, we obtain the relation
a r dr +r dar - at dr = 0 (b)

y
a, + da,

o x

-- L-'1n--
P2

t P2 t B
A
(a) (b)

FIGURE 13.4

Sec. 13.3 / Thick-Walled Cylindrical Pressure Vessels 597

 Division by dr results in one relation between the stresses at and a r . Thus

at = a dar)
+( r (c)
r dr-

A second relation between at and a r is obtained by considering the deformation of the

cylinder in the longitudinal direction. A more rigorous analysis shows that axial
(longitudinal) deformations are uniform for open-ended cylinders and may be assumed
uniform for close-ended cylinders at locations sufficiently removed from the two ends.
Therefore, the assumption may be made that the longitudinal strain Bz is a constant.
Using the third of Eq. 2.31, we obtain the following relation:

(d)

Since J1. and E are constants and since Bz may be assumed constant, the second relation
between at and ar may be expressed as follows
at = -ar - 2K (e)

where the constant 2K represents the quantity (Ee z )/J1. and its exact value will be deter-
mined from the boundary conditions, which will be stated later.
Eliminating at in Eqs. (c) and (e), we obtain

2ar + r ( dr
dar) = - 2K (f)

Multiply both sides of Eq. (f) by r to obtain

2rar + r2( ~r) = -2rK (g)

The left-hand side of Eq. (g) is the derivative with respect to r of the quantity r 2 a r •
Therefore,

(h)

and
C
a r =-K+2" (i)
r
where C is a constant of integration to be determined from the boundary conditions. The
circumferential stress at may now be obtained from Eq. (e). Thus
C
at = -K - r2 (j)

The two constants K and C are determined from the two boundary conditions in the
problem. These boundary conditions may be stated mathematically as follows:
for r = r1
for r = r 2 (k)

598 Ch.13 / Selected Topic.

 Substitution of these conditions into Eq. (i) leads to two simultaneous equations, which
may be solved for the constants K and C. Thus

and (I)
2 2
K = P2 r 2 - PI r 1
d-ri
When the values of C and K from Eq. (1) are substituted into Eqs. (i) and (j), they lead to
the equations for ar and at at any point in the cylindrical pressure vessel. Thus

(13.3)

and

(13.4)

Note that the absolute maximum value of ar is the larger of the two pressures PI and P2
and that the absolute maximum value of at occurs on the inner surface of the cylinder,
where r assumes its minimum value. Note also that, as in the case of thin-walled vessels
discussed in Section 13.2, the internal pressure PI represents the gage pressure.
The development of Eqs. 13.3 and 13.4 has assumed an open-ended cylinder, in
which case the longitudinal stress a z vanishes. There are a number of situations, however,
in which the walls of the cylinder are subjected not only to a r and a" but also to a z. This
situation occurs in cylindrical containers with closed ends subjected to internal and/or
external pressures.
A basic assumption made in the development of the longitudinal stress a z is to consider
it uniformly distributed on any transverse cross section of the cylinder. This assumption is
justified at least for transverse cross sections sufficiently removed from the two ends of the
cylinder.
Consider one part of a closed-ended cylindrical container subjected to both PI and P2
and lying to one side of a transverse cross section as shown in Fig. 13.5. The value of a z
may be obtained by summing forces in the z direction and setting them equal to zero.
Thus

from which

(13.5)

The deformations of an open-ended cylinder (both radial and circumferential) due to

the pressures PI and P2 become of major concern in certain industrial applications, such
as shrink-fit operations. It is, therefore, desirable to relate these deformations to the
geometry of the cylinder and the pressures PI and P2. Geometrically, the circumferential

Sec. 13.3 / Thick-Walled Cylindrical Pre•• ure Ve••el. 599

 y

~--~---r--~----------X

FIGURE 13.5

deformation bt is related to the radial deformation b, by the equation bt = 2nb,. Also,

from the relation between deformation and strain, bt = 2nn't, in which et is the circum-
ferential strain. These two equations lead to a relation between b, and et as follows:
(13.6a)
From Eq. 2.31,
1
et = E «(it - J.I.(i,) (13.6b)

Substitution of Eq. 13.6b into Eq. 13.6a leads to a general equation for the radial defor-
mation in terms of (it and (i,. Thus
r
b, = E«(it - J.I.(i,) (13.6c)

Substituting the values of (i, and (it from Eqs. 13.3 and 13.4, respectively, we obtain the
following equation for the radial deformation b,:

(13.7)

From the relation bt = 2nb, and Eq. 13.7, we obtain an equation for the circumferential
deformation bt :

b = 2n(1 - J.I.)r Pl ri - P2 r~
(13.8)
t E r~ - ri

Several special cases of practical interest will now be considered.

600 Ch. 13 I Selected Topics

 Internal Pressure Alone

There are many applications in which the cylindrical container is subjected only to
the action of internal pressure PI (i.e., P2 = 0). In such a case the radial and circum-
ferential stresses may be obtained from Eqs. 13.3 and 13.4, respectively, by setting P2 = o.
Thus

(13.9)

and

(13.10)

Since d/r2 is always larger than unity, Eq. 13.9 always yields a negative value for ar ,
which indicates that ar is always a compressive stress with a maximum absolute value on
the inner surface of the cylinder where r = r I . The circumferential stress at, however, is
always positive or tensile and, as in the case of ar , it assumes its maximum value at the
inner surface where r = r I .
If the cylindrical container is open-ended, as, for example, in the case of a gun barrel,
the walls of the cylinder are not subjected to longitudinal stress and a z = O. If, on the
other hand, the cylindrical container is closed-ended (i.e., it has caps or covers at its two
ends), as, for example, in the case of an oxygen tank, the walls of the cylinder are
subjected to a longitudinal stress a z which may be determined by specializing Eq. 13.5 to
the case when P2 = o. Therefore,

(13.11)

The radial and circumferential deformations experienced by the cylinder are given as
special cases of Eqs. 13.7 and 13.8, respectively, by setting P2 = o. Thus

(13.12)

and

(13.13)

External Pressure Alone

The stresses induced in a cylindrical container subjected only to external pressure P2

(i.e., PI = 0) may be quickly obtained as special cases of the general expressions derived

Sec. 13.3 I Thick-Wailed Cylindrical Pressure Ve••els 601

 earlier. The radial and circumferential stresses are obtained from Eqs. 13.3 and 13.4,
respectively, by setting PI = O. Therefore,

(13.14)

and

(13.15)

Note that both (I, and (It are compressive stresses.

If the cylindrical container is open-ended, the longitudinal stress (lz = O. If, however,
the container is closed-ended, the value of (lz is given by a special case of Eq. 13.5. Thus,
by setting PI = 0, we obtain

(13.16)

which is also a compressive stress.

The radial and circumferential deformations developed under the action of external
pressure only are obtained by setting PI = 0 in Eqs. 13.7 and 13.8, respectively; thus

(13.17)

and

(13.18)

EXAMPLE 13.3 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

A cylindrical pipe has a lO-in. inner diameter and a 20-in. outer diameter. It is subjected
only to internal pressure PI = 5000 psi. Show the radial and circumferential stress varia-
tion across the wall thickness of the pipe.

SOLUTION. Since the pipe is subjected only to internal pressure, the radial and cir-
cumferential stresses are given by Eqs. 13.9 and 13.10. Therefore,

_ 5000(25) ( _ 100)
(I, - 100 _ 25 1 r2

602 Ch. 13 I Selected Topics

 1
18333.4 psi
1
1
1 3333.3 psi
I
at- - - t--- ....".ot - - ,

10 in.
f-- - - - - 20 in. - - - - - . . ;

FIGURE 13.6

and

at
= 5000(25)
100 _ 25
(1 + 100)
r2

= 1666.7 ( 1 + 7
100)

A plot of these two equation is shown in Fig. 13.6. Note that while the radial stress a, is
compressive everywhere, the circumferential stress at is tensile throughout. Note also that
the inner fibers of the pipe are very heavily stressed when compared to the outer fibers
and that the variations of a, and at from the inner to the outer fibers are nonlinear.

EXAMPLE 13.4 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

The cylindrical pipe described in Example 13.3 is subjected only to external pressure
P2 = 5000 psi. Show the radial and circumferential stress variations across the wall thick-
ness of the pipe.

SOLUTION. Since the pipe is subjected only to external pressure, the radial and cir-
cumferential stresses are given by Eqs. 13.14 and 13.15, respectively. Therefore,

a =_ 5000(100) (1 _ 25)
, 100 - 25 r2

Sec. 13.3 / Thick-Walled Cylindrical Pressure Vessels 603

 1°,.0,
I

13.333.3 psi
·10 in.
--- ·~Oin.

FIGURE 13.7

and
5000(100) ( 25)
(Jt = - 100 _ 25 1+ -;z

These relations are plotted in Fig. 13.7. Note that in this case both (Jr and (Jt are compres-
sive stresses. The radial stress (Jr assumes a maximum value equal to P2 on the outside
surface, and the maximum circumferential stress occurs on the inner surface of the pipe.

EXAMPLE 13.5 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Frequently, in order to increase their load-carrying capacity, composite cylinders are

made by shrinking an outer cylinder or jacket onto an inner cylinder. Initially, the inside
radius of the jacket is a little smaller than the outside radius of the inner cylinder, and the
jacket is expanded by heating, for easy placement on the inner cylinder. If the difference
between the inside radius of the jacket and the outside radius of the inner cylinder is 11r,
develop an expression for the interface pressure Pi that is created between the jacket and
the inner cylinder after the shrink-fitting assembly is completed. Also, sketch the circum-
ferential stress distributions across the wall thicknesses for both the jacket and the inner
cylinder produced by Pi '

SOLUTION. Consider the assembly shown in Fig. 13.8. Let r 1 and r2 be the inside and
outside radii, respectively, for the inner cylinder. Let r 2 and r3 be the inside and outside

604 Ch.13 I Selected Topics

 - ~r

FIGURE 13.8

radii, respectively, for the jacket. The symbol r 2 may be used to represent the outside
radius of the inner cylinder and the inside radius of the jacket because their difference Ar
is very small. Assume both jacket and the inner cylinder to be made of the same material.
When the shrink-fitting process is completed, the interface pressure Pi expands the
inside radius of the jacket by the amount (jrj and shrinks the outside radius of the inner
cylinder by the amount (jrc . The jacket is subjected only to the internal pressure Pi and (jrj
is obtained from Eq. 13.l2. Thus

The inner cylinder is subjected only to the external pressure Pi and (jrc is given by
Eq. 13.17. Therefore,

The interface pressure Pi is found from the condition that the sum of the absolute magni-
tudes of (jrj and (jrc must be equal to the radial difference Ar. Therefore,

which, after simplifications, leads to

2pir~
--
ri
r~ -
=Ar
E (d - d)(d - rD
Therefore, the interface pressure Pi may be expressed in terms of the radial difference Ar,
the geometry of the cylinders, and the modulus of elasticity E as follows:

(Ar)E (r~ - d)(d - ri)

Pi = 2r~ r~ -ri

Sec. 13.3 / Thick-Walled Cylindrical Pr•••ur. V•••• I. 605

 The jacket is subjected to the internal pressure Pi only, and therefore the circum-
ferential stress distribution across its wall thickness is comparable to that found for the
pipe in Example 13.3. The inner cylinder is subjected to the external pressure Pi only, and
therefore the circumferential stress distribution across its wall thickness is similar to that
found for the pipe in Example 13.4. These distributions are shown qualitatively in
Fig. 13.8.

Internal Pressure on Thin-Walled Cylinders

The case of a cylindrical container subjected only to the internal pressure P1 was
discussed earlier and Eqs. 13.9 to 13.11 were developed for ar , al' and a z , respectively.
These equations will now be specialized to the case of cylindrical containers with rela-
tively thin walls.
Equation 13.10, which gives the circumferential stress at at any point within the walls
of a cylinder, may be specialized to obtain the circumferential stress a t1 on the inner
surface, where r = r 1 , and a t 2 on the outer surface, where r = r2' Thus

(13.19a)

and

(l3.19b)

Dividing Eq. 13.19a by Eq.13.19b, we obtain the dimensionless ratio at t/at2 as follows:

(13.20)

A graph of a r t/a r 2 as a function ofr2/r1 is shown in Fig. 13.9. It is evident that as the ratio
r 2/r 1 (i.e.,as the wall thickness of the cylinder) becomes larger, the ratio a tl /a r2 increases.
A range of values of the ratio r2 /r 1 may, however, be chosen for which a r t/a r2 is, for all
practical purposes, sufficiently close to unity. For such cases the circumferential stress
distribution across the wall thickness may be assumed uniform without introducing
appreciable error and the cylinder is said to be thin-walled.
The range of values of r2 /r 1 for which a cylinder may be assumed thin-walled (i.e., for
which a r t/a r2 == 1) depends upon specific applications. If, for example, a 5 percent
maximum variation in the circumferential stress is permissible across the wall thickness
(i.e., at t/ar2 = 1.05), the ratio r 2/r 1 may be no more than about 1.05. This means that the
wall thickness of the cylinder (i.e., r 2 - r1) cannot exceed a value ofO.05r 1 , or 5 percent of
the inner radius. If, on the other hand, a 10 percent maximum variation in the circum-
ferential stress is allowable, then r2 /r 1 is about 1.09, and the wall thickness may be as
large as 9 percent of the inner radius of the cylinder.
If the stress a tl is assumed to be equal to the stress ar2 , Eq. 13.19a yields the value of

606 Ch. 13 / Selected Topics

 1.5

1.4

1.3

1.1

1.0 I£-_.l....-_--'---_---'--_-"-_----'
1.0 1.1 I. 2 1.3 1.4 1.5

FIGURE 13.9

the uniform circumferential stress in the wall of a thin-walled cylinder. This equation may
be expressed in simpler form as follows:

(13.19a)

from which
r~ + ri
a, = P1 ---=--""---
(r 2 - r 1 )(r 2 + r 1 )
Since the wall thickness is relatively small, r 2 may be assumed equal to r 1 and conse-
quently, the quantities r~ + ri and r 2 + r 1 may be written, respectively, as 2ri and 2r 1 •
Also, the quantity r 2 - r 1 represents the wall thickness t of the cylinder. Therefore,

(13.21)

which agrees with Eq. 13.1 derived in Section 13.2. Thus the thin-walled cylinder is a
special case of the thick-walled cylinder.
In general, the radial stress a" because of its relative magnitude, is not as significant
a stress quantity as the circumferential stress a, in the case of thin-walled cylinders.
However, its value may be obtained from Eq. 13.9. The longitudinal stress, a z, when the
thin-walled cylinder has closed ends, may be obtained by specializing Eq. 13.11. Thus

(13.11)

This equation leads to

Sec. 13.3 / Thick·Walied Cylindrical Pre•• ure Ve••el. 607

 from which
which is identical with Eq. 13.2 derived in Section 13.2. Note that the longitudinal stress
a z is exactly one-half that of the circumferential stress at and that both of these stresses
are always tensile.
P~OBLEMS ____________________________________________________________
13.12 A thick-walled cylinder with closed ends is sub-
jected only to internal pressure PI = 8000 psi. If the
inner radius r l = 5 in. and the outer radius r2 = 10 in.,
determine the maximum values of a p ar , and a z at a
section sufficiently far away from the ends of the
cylinder.
13.13 A thick-walled cylinder with closed ends for
which r l = 0.25 m and r2 = 0.50 m is submerged in sea-
water to a depth of 20 m. Assume the density of sea-
water to be 1100 kg/m 3 and determine the maximum
values of a p a r , and a z at a section sufficiently removed
from the two ends of the cylinder. The gage pressure
inside the tank is zero.
13.14 A thick-walled cylinder with r l = 0.20 m is to be
subjected only to the internal pressure PI = 50 MPa. If
the maximum tensile stress in the cylinder is not to
exceed 100 MPa, determine the necessary wall thick-
ness.
13.15 A thick-walled cylindrical tank with r 2 = 3 ft
has closed ends and is subjected only to the external
pressure P2 = 20,000 psi. If the maximum compressive
stress, at distances far removed from the two ends, is
not to exceed 50,000 psi, determine the needed wall
thickness.
13.16 The internal pressure in the thick-walled cylin-
der described in Problem 13.13 is increased from zero to
2 MPa. Determine the maximum values of a p a r , and
az ·
13.17 A composite thick-walled cylinder is made by
shrinking a jacket onto a main cylinder as described in
Example 13.5. The following data are provided:
608
Ia z = Ptr
2t
l
I (13.22)
E = 30 X 106 , r l = 20 in., r2 = 30 in., r3 = 40 in., and
!:J.r = 0.05 in. Determine the absolute maximum values
of at and a r produced by the shrink-fitting operation.
13.18 The composite thick-walled cylinder described
in Problem 13.17 is subjected to the internal pressure
PI = 30,000 psi. Assume the external pressure P2 = 0
and determine the absolute maximum value of at.
13.19 A thick-walled cylindrical container has rigid
plates welded to its two ends as shown in Fig. P13.19.
The container is subjected only to internal pressure
PI = 60 MPa and to an axial tensile load P = 1000 kN
applied through the end rigid plates. Let r l = 0.25 m
and r2 = 0.35 m and determine the principal stresses
and the absolute maximum shear stress:
(a) On the outside surface of the cylinder.
(b) On the inside surface of the cylinder.
FIGURE P13.19
13.20 Refer to the thick-walled cylinder shown in
Fig. P 13.19 and described in Problem 13.19. In addition
to the loads indicated in Problem 13.19, the cylinder has
a torque T = 100 kN-m applied to it through the two
end rigid plates. Determine the principal stresses and
the absolute maximum shear stress :
(a) On the outside surface of the cylinder.
(b) On the inside surface of the cylinder.
Ch.13 / Selected Topics
13.21 A thick-walled cylinder with closed ends is sub- internal pressure PI if the allowable tensile stress is
jected only to internal pressure Pl. Let r l = 36 in. and 22 ksi and the allowable shear stress is 12 ksi.
r2 = 46 in. and determine the maximum permissible

13.1*_ _ In discussing the flexure of beams in Chapter 5, the assumption was made that whether
Shear Center
the beam was symmetrically or unsymmetrically loaded, the bending loads produced no
for Thin-Walled,
twisting action. For the usual type of cross section, this assumption is satisfied if the plane
Open Cross
of the loads passes through the centroid of the section. For open cross sections such as
Sections
channels and angles which consist of thin rectangles, application of the bending loads
through the centroid of the section produces twisting of these sections. This twisting may
be avoided by shifting the bending loads from the centroid of the section to a point in the
plane of the section known as the shear center. Locating the shear center for a given cross
section consisting of relatively thin rectangles requires the determination of the shearing
stresses produced in the thin rectangles by the flexural loads. These shearing stresses
produce a twisting moment that has to be balanced, to avoid twisting of the section, by
properly locating the plane of the bending loads through the shear center. Locating the
shear center in the plane of the section requires finding two coordinates with respect to
the two principal centroidal axes of the section. These concepts are illustrated by the
following three examples. Examples 13.6 and 13.7 deal with open cross sections consisting
of thin rectangles and possessing one axis of symmetry. As was shown in Section 5.2, an
axis of symmetry coincides with one of the two principal centroidal axes of inertia. In
such a case, as will be shown in Example 13.6, only one coordinate need be computed,
because the shear center lies on the axis of symmetry for the section. Example 13.8 deals
with an open cross section consisting of thin rectangles but possessing no axis of sym-
metry. In such a case, the principal centroidal axes need to be located before proceeding
to the determination of the shear center, which requires two separate computations to
locate its two coordinates.
EXAMPLE 13.6 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

A cantilever beam has a channel cross section as shown in Fig. 13.1O(a). This cross section
is symmetric about the centroidal u axis. Thus the centroidal u axis is one of the two
principal axes of inertia and the centroidal v axis the second. Assume the flange and web
thicknesses t to be very small in comparison to the dimensions wand h. (a) Consider a
concentrated load P at the free end of the cantilever acting in a direction perpendicular to
the centroidal u axis and in the negative v direction. Determine the shearing stresses and
the shearing forces in the two flanges and in the web of the section. What should be the
location of the applied load P so that these shearing forces produce no twisting of the
section? (b) Repeat part (a) if the load P is applied in a direction perpendicular to the
centroidal v axis and in the positive u direction.

SOLUTION
(a) Because of the way the load P is applied, the centroidal u axis is, itself, the neutral axis
for bending of the cantilever beam. Consider a small segment of the upper flange at
distance x from the load P and having a differential length dx and a finite width u. This

Sec. 13.4 / Shear Center for Thin-Wailed. Open Croas Sections 609
 v

~----------~~------~
J

(a)

---- - - - - ----
Ce ntroid "l/l ax is (neu tral axis)
(b)

II" = p

/I

I'

, VII
II" = P
e,.
h 1 1 - . -----+--

r'---------,
Cs f

vii
Ie) FIGURE 13.10 (d )
 small segment is isolated and its free-body diagram constructea as shown magnified in
Fig. 13.10(b). The force F R represents the resultant of the flexural stresses acting over the
flange segment of dimensions tu at a distance x from the load P, where the moment is Mu'
Therefore,

FR = f (J R dA = fT MuV
dA

The force F L represents the resultant of the flexural stresses acting over the flange segment
of dimensions tu at a distance x + dx from the load P, where the moment is Mu + dM u.
Thus
Mu + dMu d
FL = f (JL dA =f Iu v A

The force F represents the resultant of the shearing stresses 't"ux on the inner longitudinal
surface of the block shown in Fig. 13.10(b), which must exist in order to balance forces in
the x direction. Hence

and

F = FL - dMuf
FR = - - v dA
Iu
The shearing stress 't"ux is assumed constant over the small thickness t, and consequently
F = 't"ux t dx. Therefore,

(a)

where dMJdx was replaced by the shear force v" (see Eq. 1.6) at the position in the beam
under consideration.
The existence of the shear stress 't"ux on longitudinal flange planes requires that a
shear stress 't"xu of equal magnitude exist on transverse flange planes. Thus

(b)

where the quantity Qu is used to represent f v dA. Note that Eq. (b) is identical with
Eqs. 5.l2a for horizontal and vertical shear stresses due to transverse loads in beams. As
discussed in Section 5.4, the quantity Qu = f v dA represents the first moment of an area
with respect to the neutral axis for bending and may be conveniently written in the form
Qu = Av. In this form A is the area between the free edge and the location on the upper
flange where 't"xu occurs, and v is the moment arm between the centroid of the area A and
the neutral axis. These quantities are shown in Fig. 13.l0(b). Therefore, using Eq. (b), we
can write the shearing stress 't"xu in the upper flange in the form

't"
v"
=-Av (c)
xu Iu t
As shown in Fig. 13.l0(b), A = tu and v = h/2, and consequently the shearing stress
't" xu in the upper flange of the section is given by the equation

Sec. 13.4 / Shear Center for Thin-Wailed, Open Cross Sections 611
 v.,h
'xu = 21 u (d)
u

Thus the shearing stress 'xu in the upper flange of the channel increases linearly from zero
at the free-surface to its maximum value v., hw/21u at the junction between the upper
flange and the web of the channel where u = w.
The shear force VI on the transverse flange plane [see Fig. 13.lO(b)] is the resultant
of the shear stress 'xu which are assumed constant over the flange thickness t. Hence, by
Eq. (c),

v:I = f' xu dA = ~t
1u f vA dA (e)

By substituting the values for v, A, and dA as shown in Fig. 13.10(b), one obtains the

i
magnitude of the shear force VI in the upper flange. Hence

VI = v
_v
W
-h (tu)(t du)
1u t 0 2
from which

v., thw 2
v:I -
-
- 41u
- (f)

A free-body diagram of a segment of the cantilever beam between the free end and the
location defined by the coordinate x is shown in Fig. 13.lO(c). Note that the shear force VI
in the upper flange is pointed in the negative u direction. Note also that equilibrium of
forces in the u direction requires that both transverse flange planes located at a distance
dx from each other in Fig. 13.10(b) be subjected to the same shear force VI'
By considering a small segment of the lower flange, as was done for the upper flange,
we conclude that the magnitudes of the shear stress and the shear force in this lower
flange are given, respectively, by Eqs. (d) and (f). As shown in Fig. 13.10(c), the shear force
VI in the lower flange has to point in the positive u direction. This conclusion is reached
either from examination of the shear stress 'xu in the lower flange as was done for the
upper flange, or simply by considering equilibrium of forces in the u direction in the
free-body diagram of Fig. 13.l0(c).
By assuming that the shear v., at any location along the beam is carried entirely by
the web of the channel, we may quickly conclude on the basis of the equilibrium of forces
in the v direction that the shear force V2 in the web, shown in Fig. 13.1O(c) must be equal
to the applied force P. Thus V2 = v., = P and must be directed in the positive v direction
in order to resist the action of the force P. The assumption that the flanges do not
contribute in resisting the vertical shear is valid for all practical purposes.
The fact that V2 is equal to the shear force v." which in turn is equal to the applied
force P, can also be established by the use of Eq. (e). Thus referring to Fig. 13.10(c) we see
that

V2 = v.,
1u t
f [(VA)flange + (VA)web] dA

where the quantity (VA)flange represents Q for the entire flange and is equal to twh/2, and
the quantity (VA)web represents Q for that part of the web between the flange and the

612 Ch. 13 / Selected Topics

 location defined by the coordinate v at which the shear stress is considered. Thus, as
discussed earlier, the entire quantity [(iiA)flange + (iiA)web] represents the first moment of
the area between the free surface of the flange and the location in the web defined by the
coordinate at which the shear stress is considered. Therefore, using the information in
Fig. 13.10(c),

V2 = -
v" ih [tWh
-+ (vt)(h - V)] t dv
lut 0 2 2

= v" (tWh2 + th3)

lu 2 12
By neglecting terms containing the quantity t 3 in comparison to the other terms, the
moment of inertia of the section with respect to the u principal centroidal axis becomes
twh 2 th 3
IU=12+12
Thus, as before, the shear force in the web is shown to be equal to v", the entire shear
force at the section, which, in turn, is equal to the applied force P.
Equilibrium of the free-body diagram shown in Fig. 13.10(c) requires that the torque
produced by the forces VI about the x axis be balanced by an equal and opposite torque
about this axis produced by V2 = v" and P = v". Hence
v" eu - VI h =0
from which

and by substituting for VI from Eq. (f), we obtain

(g)

which could be expressed in terms of the dimensions of the channel section if the value of
lu is substituted. Thus, to avoid twisting action when the load P is applied normal to the
u axis, it should be placed at a distance eu from the centerline of the web, as shown in
Fig. 13.10(c).
(b) If the force P is applied in a direction perpendicular to the centroidal v axis, and in
the positive u direction, shear forces would be induced in both flanges and in the web of
the channel section, as shown in Fig. 13.lO(d). By inspection and considering the fact that
the channel is symmetric about the centroidal u axis, it can be concluded that VI = VI.
and V2 = V~ only when the load P is coincident with the centroidal u axis. Therefore, to
avoid twisting of the channel section when the applied load is perpendicular to the v axis,
it should be placed such that

(h)

Thus the two coordinates of the shear center of the channel section are established as
given by Eqs. (g) and (h), and its location is depicted by point C. in Fig. 13.10(d). Note

Sec. 13.4 I Shear Center for Thin-Walled. Open Cro•• Section. 613
 that the shear center of a given cross section is a function only of its geometry and does
not depend upon the loads that are applied.

EXAMPLE 13.7 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Locate the shear center Cs for the cross section shown in Fig. 13.11(a). The thickness
t= 0.2 in. is the same for all rectangles in the cross section.
SOLUTION. The centroid C of the cross section is located by the usual methods.
However, because of the symmetric nature of the cross section, only one coordinate for
the centroid C need be determined. Also, the axis of symmetry is one of the two principal
axes of inertia. Establish the u and v principal centroidal axes as shown in Fig. 13.11(a).
As was shown in Example 13.6, the shear center for this symmetric cross section lies
along the axis of symmetry (i.e., along the u principal centroidal axis). Thus only the u
coordinate for the shear center need be determined. This may be accomplished by
assuming an applied load acting paraIlel to the v principal centroidal axis and positioning
it such that it produces no twisting action in the cross section. Assume for purposes of
this solution that the applied load acts in the negative v direction. However, it should be
pointed out that the same answer is reached even if the load were assumed to act in the
positive v direction.
The shear force induced in any rectangle in the section of Fig. 13.11(a) may be found
by using Eq. (e) of Example 13.6 and the information contained in Fig. 13.11(a). Thus

f--- -----l 2.0 in .

.5
~

VBC

e"
c
o
C
II
M c o c, II

.5
~
M

2.0 in.

f.' D
~
1.0 in.

F 0.2 in.
(3) (b)
FIGURE 13.11

614 Ch.13 / Selected Topics

 VAB = -v"
Iu t
f-
(vA) dA

V. 11.00.2v
= _v_ (V) V.
2.5 - - (0.2 dv) = 0.22 .....£

1
0.2Iu 0 2 Iu
2 0
VBC = -V.2
v .
[0.2(1.0)(2.0) + 0.2u(1.5)](0.2 V.
du) = 1.4.....£
O. Iu 0 Iu
The shear forces in members DE and EF are identical in magnitude with those in
members BC and AB, respectively. Although the shear force in member DC may be found
in a similar manner, it is not required for the solution of this problem. All these shear
forces, plus the applied shear v", are shown schematically in Fig. 13.l1(b). The torques
produced by all these shearing forces with respect to any axis perpendicular to the uv
plane must be in equilibrium. Thus summing torques with respect to an axis through
point 0 perpendicular to the uv plane, we obtain

Therefore,

Substituting the values obtained earlier for VBC and VAB in terms of v" , we obtain
3.32

If the value of I u = 3.89 in.4 is substituted, the value of eu is found to be

Ie u = 0.85 in. I
Thus the shear center Cs for this symmetric cross section lies along the u principal
centroidal axis at a distance eu = 0.85 in. to the right of the centerline of vertical rectangle
CD, as shown in Fig. 13.l1(b).

EXAMPLE 13.8 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Using the methods developed in Examples 13.6 and 13.7, outline a procedure for locating
the shear center for an open cross section that possesses no axes of symmetry, such as the
one shown in Fig. 13. 12(a).

SOLUTION. The first step in the solution of this type of problem is to locate the
centroid of the section and establish the principal centroidal axes as shown in
Fig. 13.l2(a). An applied shear load v" is then assumed acting parallel to the v principal
centroidal axis and, using the procedures discussed in Examples 13.6 and 13.7, the shear
forces in the various rectangles of the cross section are determined using Eq. (e) of
Example 13.6. These shear forces as well as the applied force v" are shown schematically
in Fig. 13.l2(a). Examination of the forces in Fig. 13.l2(a) shows that a judicious choice of

Sec. 13.4 / Shear Center for Thin-Walled. Open Cross Sections 615
 \"
b. - b.

. Vi I \
V2 ,
\
\
\
- ---
- - - . - - - - - : : Vu
/I _u _ -LI

C\ \ C\ e"

\ v'2
V3

b2 -j- b2

,.. e"
-- I

la) (b)
FIGURE 13.12

the axis about which the torques are summed in determining eu would eliminate the need
for finding all the shear forces. For example, summing torques about an axis through
point 0 would eliminate the need for determining V2 and V3 , since they pass through this
axis and their torques would be zero. Thus
ev V. - Vi h = 0
from which

(a)

Since VI is expressible in terms of v" , Eq. (a) yields the value of eu in terms of the
cross-sectional dimensions.
An applied shear force V. is now assumed acting parallel to the u principal centroidal
axis and the shear force V~ shown in Fig. 13.12(b) is determined using Eq. (e) of Example
13.6. Summing torques about an axis through point 0 in Fig. 13.12(b) yields the relation
ev V. - V~ h = 0
from which

I' v
~ V',v.h I (b)

Since V'I may be expressed in terms of V., the quantity e v may be given entirely in terms
of the cross-sectional dimensions.

616 Ch.13 I Selected Topics

PROBLEMS ____________________________________________________________
13.22 Locate the shear center for:
(a) An angle section.
(b) A tee section with equal flanges.
13.23 Use Eq. (e) of Example 13.6 to determine the
shear force VCD in rectangle CD of Fig. 13.11. Check
your answer by applying the conditions of equilibrium.
13.24
(a) Assume that a load is applied normal to the axis of
symmetry of the section shown in Fig. P 13.24 and
determine the shear forces in rectangles AB, BC,
and CD.
(b) . Locate the shear center for this cross section.
b
A
211
FIGURE P13.24
13.25 A hollow equilateral triangular tube is slit longi-
tudinally at the midpoint of one of the three sides, as
shown in Fig. P13.25. Assume the width of the cut to be
insignificantly small. This tube is to be used as a cantile-
ver to carry a load normal to the axis of symmetry of
the cross section.
(a) Determine the shear forces induced in rectangles AB
and Be.
B
c A a
FIGURE P13.25
Sec. 13.4 / Shear Centar for Thin-Walled. Open Cro •• Section.
(b) Locate the shear center for this cross section.
13.26 If in Problem 13.25, the applied force Pacts
along rectangle CB instead of being normal to the axis
of symmetry, determine the amount of torque to which
this cross section is subjected.
13.27 The cross section shown in Fig. P13.27 is that
for a cantilever beam subjected to a load P = 5 k at the
free end and acting perpendicular to the axis of sym-
metry of the cross section. The load is placed so that it
coincides with the centerline of the web. How much
T
torque is induced in the cross section?
Si
"
7.0 in.
'---------.J i O.S in.
5.0 in. 2.0 in.~
0.5 in.
FIGURE P13.27
13.28--13.22 Compute the location of the shear center
for the following symmetric cross sections. Assume the
load to act perpendicular to the axis of symmetry and
that the thickness t is very small in comparison to the
overall dimensions of the cross section.
13.28 Cross section shown in Fig. PI3.28.
FIGURE P13.28
617
13.29 Cross section shown in Fig. P13.29. 13.32 Cro eCli n hown in Fig. P 13.32.

FIGURE P13.29

13.30 Cro section hown in F gi . P 13.30.

FIGURE P13.32

13.33-13.34 Compute the location of lhe hear center

FIGURE P13.30
for the following un ymmetric cross sections.
13.33 Cro ection hown in Fig. P13.33.
13.34 Cross section shown in Fig. P 13.34.
13.31 C ro ection shown in Fig. PI3.3!.
- -0.20111 - -""
T - --f.=; = = == ===:::::J 1=0.01 m

D
0.2' III 10 in.

o in.

• Iin.
f--O.07 III 5 in.

FIGURE P13.31 FIGURE P13.33 FIGURE P13.34

13.5*_ _ Beams are often constructed of two different materials in order to achieve certain desir-
Beams of able effects. Such is the case, for example, with reinforced concrete beams which will be
Two Materials dealt with in some detail in Section 13.6. In this section the general theory underlying the
method of solution for beams of two materials will be developed and discussed. The
theory is based upon the same fundamental assumptions used in Chapter 5 for deriving
the flexure equation, except that, in general, the moduli of two different materials have to

618 Ch. 13 / Selected Topics

 , II

08

(cl
OA °A
a
0'
u u u
dA = b d v dA = b. du dA = I. dv
r<"'<"",,",,*"'<lh,..,

dv

E
Mu

I
•
= 1..
/I

(a) ( b ) Act ual section (d ) qu iva len t sect ion (el Equivalent section
(materia l B (material A
transformed into transformed in to
an equivalent an equivalent
amount of amollnt of
material A) material 8)

FIGURE 13.13

be assumed unequal. Also, the two materials are assumed to be securely fastened together
so that there is no relative displacement between them, and hence the two-material beam
can be assumed to act as a single unit. It is assumed that the loads are so placed to
produce no twisting action.
Consider a segment of a beam subjected to symmetric bending about the u principal
centroidal axis by the moments M u , as shown in Fig. 13.13(a). In this case the neutral axis
for bending coincides with the u principal centroidal axis. The cross-sectional area of the
beam is shown in Fig. 13.13(b) and indicates that the beam is composed of two materials,
A and B. One of the basic assumptions made in deriving the flexure equation is that plane
sections before bending remain plane after bending. According to this assumption, a plane
section such as a-a before bending remains plane but rotates into the new position d-a'
as shown in Fig. 13.13(a). Thus for any distance v from the neutral axis (i.e., the u axis) the
deformations <5, and hence the strains e, of both materials are identical. Therefore,
(13.23a)

By introducing the assumption that both materials obey Hooke's law, we conclude that

aA aB
-=- (13.23b)
EA EB
where E A, a A and EB' a B represent the modulus of elasticity and the stress for materials A
and B, respectively. Equation 13.23(b) can be written as follows:

Sec. 13.5 / Beems of Two Materials 619

 EB
a B = - a A = na A (13.24)
EA

in which n = EB/ EA is a shrinking or magnifying factor, depending upon whether EB < EA

or EB> EA. In either case there is an abrupt change in the magnitude of the bending
stress at the junction between material A and material B. For purposes of discussion,
assume that EB < E A , and therefore n is less than unity and by Eq. 13.24, for any position
defined by the coordinate v, the stress a B is less than the stress a A. A stress distribution
with respect to the u coordinate is shown schematically in Fig. 13.13(c).
In analyzing beams of two materials, it is very convenient to deal with an equivalent
cross section instead of dealing with the actual cross section of the beam. This equivalent
cross section is obtained by transforming either of the two materials into an equivalent
amount of the second material. Consider the differential quantity of normal force dF B
acting over the differential area dA = b dv in material B of the original cross section as
shown in Fig. 13. 13(b). This element of force may be written
dF B = aBb dv (13.25a)
Substituting for a B its value from Eq. 13.24, we obtain
dF B = aA(nb) dv = aAb e dv (13.25b)
Equation 13.25b shows that that portion of the actual cross section that is made of
material B may be transformed into an equivalent amount of material A by changing the
actual width b of material B into an equivalent width be of material A. It is evident from
Eq. 13.25b that the relation between the actual and the equivalent widths is given by

I be = nb I (13.26)

Thus, in obtaining the equivalent cross section shown in Fig. 13.13(d), material B was
transformed into an equivalent amount of material A by Eq. 13.26 to obtain a new cross
section of the same material. This equivalent cross section is capable of developing the
same resistance to bending as the actual cross section. Obviously, another equivalent
cross section may be used by transforming material A to an equivalent amount of

A s-t C
u

bs be

(.) (b)

FIGURE 13.14

620 Ch. 13 / Selected Topics

 material B to obtain a new cross section of the same material. Such an equivalent cross
section is shown in Fig. 13. 13(e).
Beams of more than two materials may be analyzed in basically the same fashion.
For example, the cross section shown in Fig. 13.l4(a) consists of the three materials A, B,
and C. If it is assumed that E A > EB > Ec , and bending is to be about the v axis, the
equivalent cross section would be that shown in Fig. 13.14(b).
Once an equivalent cross section of a homogeneous material is obtained, it may be
analyzed for stresses and deflections by the methods developed in previous chapters.
Some of these ideas and concepts are illustrated in Example 13.9.
EXAMPLE 13.9 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

A composite cantilever beam 10 ft long is to support a uniform load of 100 lb/ft perpen-
dicular to the u axis along its entire length. The cross-sectional area of the beam is shown
in Fig. 13.15(a). Let Eoak = 2 X 106 psi and Eal = 10 X 10 6 psi and determine the
maximum flexural stresses in the oak and in the aluminum. Also determine the deflection
at the end of the cantilever beam.

SOLUTION. Transform the oak into an equivalent amount of aluminum by using

Eq. 13.26, in which n = Eoak/ Eal =!. Thus
be = nb = !(2) = 0.4 in.
The equivalent cross section is shown in Fig. 13.15(b). The maximum flexural stresses for
both the oak and the aluminum occur where the bending moment assumes its maximum
value at the fixed end of the beam. Thus
WL2
(M.)max = 2 = 5000 lb-ft = 60,000 lb-in .

.5 .5
'"
'"0 '"0'"

"-AI AI
V
A
.~

1
8 in.
+ u AI Oak Oak Oak
Oak

- I 1-2.0 in ..j
. I- -I .5.... I--- - I .= 1-2.0 in. -I .~ I-
.,.,
.5 .5 0 '"
"! '"
"!
'" '"
'"0
0
(a) Actual section ( b) Equivalent scction (c) Eq uivalent sect ion
(Oak tr-. nsro rmed to alu min um) (Aluminum transfo rmed to Oak)

FIGURE 13.15

Sec. 13.5 / Beams of Two Materials 621

 Using the flexure equation, we can obtain the flexural stress in the aluminum as follows:

= 16250 psi 1

The maximum flexural stress in the oak is now obtained from Eq. 13.24. Thus
(O'oak)max = n(O'al)max = 1(6250)
= 11250 psi 1
The same answers may be obtained by transforming the aluminum into an equiva-
lent amount of oak. Thus

te = !.. = (0.25)(5) = 1.25 in.

n
The equivalent section thus obtained is shown in Fig. 13.15(c). Hence
60,000 x 4
(O'oak)max = (n)(4.5)(8)3

11250 psi

and

( ) _ (O'oak)max _ 1250
O'almax- - 1
n 5"

= 16250 psi 1
The deflection at the end of the cantilever beam may be obtained by using either of
the two equivalent cross sections. Thus, using the equivalent cross section shown in
Fig. 13.15(b), we obtain
(100/12)(10 X 12)4
8 x 10 X 106(0.9/12)(8)3

= I 0.563 in. 1
The same answer can be reached by using the equivalent section shown in Fig. 13. 15(c).
Thus

(100/12)(10 X 12)4
8 x 2 X 106 (4.5/12)(8)3

= 10.563 in.

622 Ch. 13 I Selected Topics

EXAMPLE 13.10

A beam of two materials is constructed such that the two materials are placed on top of
each other instead of side by side as was assumed in the development of Eqs. 13.24 and
13.26. Derive the applicable equations for this type of arrangement.

SOLUTION. A segment of a beam subjected to symmetric bending about the u prin-

cipal centroidal axis by the moments Mu is shown in Fig. 13.16(a). The same assumptions
that led to Eq. 13.24 lead to the following relations:

SB = G:)SA (a)

from which, by using Hook's law, one may obtain

(b)

where n = EB/EA is, again, a shrinking or magnifying factor, depending upon whether
EB < EA or EB> EA' In either case there is an abrupt change in the magnitude of the
flexure stress at the junction between material A and material B, where vA = VB' For
purposes of discussion, assume that EB < EA so that n is less than unity. It follows from
Eq. (b) that at the junction (i.e., at vA = VB)' (JB is less than (J A' A stress distribution with
respect to the V coordinate is shown schematically in Fig. 13.16(a).
The development of the equivalent cross section proceeds in essentially the same
manner as was followed in deriving Eq. 13.26. Thus consider the actual beam cross
section shown in Fig. 13. 16(b ). Assume that material B of this actual section is to be
transformed into an equivalent amount of material A. The differential element of normal
force dF B acting over a differential area dA = b dv becomes
(c)

,.<;t7'>i--- "

Q'

h. = IIh b, =bill
(3) (b) AClual secli on (e) Equivale nl seclion (d) Equivalen l scclion
(malerial/] (ma lerial A Iransformed
Iransformed inlO inlo an equiva lenl
an equivalenl amOlln l of ma lerial Bl
amounlOr
malcriall1 )

FIGURE 13.16

Sec. 13.5 I Beams of Two Materials 623

 Substituting for (J B its value in terms of (J A from Eq. (b), we obtain

dF B = (:~)VB(nb) dv = (:~)VBbe dv (d)

where the quantity ((J A/V A)V B represents the stress at a distance VB from the neutral axis in
a homogeneous material A. Therefore, Eq. (d) shows that the portion of the actual cross
section made of material B may be transformed into an equivalent amount of material A
by changing the actual width b of material B into an equivalent width be of material A.
This equivalent width is obtained from the relation
be = nb (e)
which is identical with Eq. 13.26. The equivalent cross section is capable of developing the
same bending resistance as the actual cross section. Also, either material may be trans-
formed into an equivalent amount of the second material. Transforming material B into
an equivalent amount of material A yields the equivalent section of homogeneous
material A shown in Fig. 13.16(c). Transforming material A into an equivalent amount of
material B leads to the equivalent section of homogeneous material B shown in
Fig. 13.16(d).

PROBLEMS ______________________________________________________________

13.35 A simply supported beam 5 m long carries a 13.37 Repeat Problem 13.35 if the load of 2000 N/m
uniform load of intensity 2000 N/m and acting along acts along the u instead of the V principal centroidal
the V principal centro ida I axis. The cross section for the axis.
beam is shown in Fig. P13.35. Assume that Ewood =
10 X 10 9 N/m2 and Esteel = 200 X 109 N/ m 2 and deter- 13.38 A cantilever beam 15 ft long has the cross
mine the maximum flexural stresses induced in the steel section shown in Fig. P13.38. A concentrated load
and in the wood by transforming the wood into steel. P = 5000 lb is placed at the free end acting in a plane
Determine also the deflection of the beam at midspan. that contains the v principal axis of inertia. Let Ea' = 10
v x 106 psi and E br = 15 x 10 6 psi and determine the

Wood

,.,o
I
+ "

1
0.01 ",
t-Stcel

1----0.20 III
Stecl -

0.01 III
- - --+-+-_11

FIGURE P13.25

13.36 Repeat Problem 13.35 by transforming the steel

into wood. FIGURE P13.38

624 Ch.13 I Selected Topics

maximum flexural stresses in the aluminum and in the
brass. Solve the problem by transforming the brass into
aluminum. Determine also the deflection at the end of
the cantilever.
13.39 Repeat Problem 13.38 by transforming the alu-
minum into brass.
centroidal axis as shown in Fig. P13.44. Determine the
maximum flexural stress in the two materials, specifying
their location in the cross section. Determine also the
maximum deflection in the beam. Let Es = 200 X 10 9
N / m2 and E D . F . = 12 X 10 9 N / m 2.
u
P = 10 kN

13.40 A rectangular wood beam lOin. deep and 5 in.

wide is reinforced by securely fastening aluminum plates
5 in. wide and :i in. deep at both top and bottom. If the
beam is simply supported over a span of 20 ft , deter-
mine the safe value of a concentrated load placed at
midspan. Let Ew = l.5 X 106 psi, EA = 10 X 10 6 psi /
Steel
and the allowable stresses for wood and aluminum are,
respectively, 1000 and 10,000 psi. Assume the load to
act perpendicular to the 5-in. side of the composite
section. FIGURE P13.44

13.41 Repeat Problem 13.40 with the midspan load
acting parallel to the 5-in. dimension. All other condi-
tions remain unchanged.
13.42 A rectangular wooden beam 0.30 m deep and
0.20 m wide is reinforced by securely fastening steel
plates 0.20 m wide and 0.015 m thick at both the top
and bottom. The beam is to serve as a cantilever 4 m
long and is to carry a uniform load of intensitx w. Let
Ew = 10 GPa and Es = 200 GPa and the allowable
flexural stresses for wood and steel be, respectively,
12 MPa and 140 MPa. Determine a safe value for the
uniform load intensity w. Assume the load to act per-
pendicular to the 0.20-m side of the composite section.
13.43 Repeat Problem 13.42 if the load w is to act
parallel to the 0.20-m side of the composite section.
13.45 A cantilever beam 12 ft long is to carry a
uniform load of intensity w = 500 Ib/ft along its entire
length, acting in a plane that contains the v principal
centroidal axis. The cross-sectional area of the beam is
shown in Fig. P13.45. Let Es = 30 X 10 6 psi EA = 10
x 106 psi, and Eo = 2 x 106 psi, and determine the
maximum deflection of the cantilever and the maximum
flexural stresses in the three materials.
0.5 in.
Steel I
- - -- 1 - - --11

13.44 A simply supported beam 5 m long is acted

upon by a concentrated force P = 10 kN acting at mid-
span and making a 30° angle with the u principal FIGURE P13.45

13.1i*_ _ The flexural stress equation (Ix = M. vi I·. applies to beams fabricated of one material, but
Reinforced reinforced concrete beams comprise an example of a broad class of composite materials.
Concrete Beams In order to apply the equation, the steel rods used to reinforce concrete beams on the
-Elastic Method tension side are replaced by fictional concrete, which will resist tension. Since the tensile
strength of concrete is small compared to its compressive strength, the tensile resistance of

Sec. 13.6 / Reinforced Concrete Beams-Elastic Method 625

 Il, . = e,L

...~~~~--------~~--------------------l-----~~
A•• E,

~-------------- L ---------------4

(.) Steel rod or fiber

~-------------- L --------------~
(b) Fictional concrete fiber

FIGURE 13.17

concrete is ignored in the computations. Refer to Fig. 13.17 to understand how this
replacement based upon the following two concepts is to be accomplished.
1. The force resisted by the fictional concrete fiber must equal the force resisted by the
steel rod or fiber:
(13.27)
2. The deformation of the fictional concrete fiber must equal the deformation of the steel
rod or fiber. Steel rods embedded in concrete are bonded to the concrete by adhesion
forces, friction forces, and forces between the concrete and lugs formed on the steel rod
surfaces. Strains in the steel rods and adjacent concrete surrounding the steel rods are
equal as long as the bond is not broken.
(13.28)
In general, b = F L jAE. Applying this equation for concrete and steel as expressed by
Eq. 13.28 gives

Fe Le = FsLs
(13.29)
Ae Ee AsEs
Solving for Ae yields

(13.30)

By Eq. 13.27, Fe = Fs and Le = Ls = L, which reduces Eq. 13.30 to

Es
A=-A (13.31)
e Ee s

The ratio of the modulus of elasticity of steel to the modulus of elasticity of concrete is
referred to as the modular ratio and is denoted by the symbol n. Equation 13.31 may be
written

(13.32)

626 Ch. 13 I Selected Topics

 The simple equation enables engineers to transform, for purposes of analysis, a reinforced
concrete beam to an equivalent concrete beam, which then may be analyzed with the
flexural stress equation. Once the stress is calculated in the fictional concrete it must be
interpreted as a stress in the steel rods by using Eq. 13.29 modified as follows. For the
concrete and steel fibers,
Fs
a =-
s As

Substitute these into Eq. 13.29 to give

(13.33)

Note that Lc = Ls = L and solve for as:

(13.34)

or

(13.35)

To find the stress in the steel rods, the stress in the fictional concrete must be multiplied
by the modular ratio, n. Equations 13.32 and 13.35, together ~ith the flexural stress
equation 5.10, form the basis for the elastic analysis of reinforced concrete beams.

EXAMPLE 13.11

Refer to Fig. 13.18 and determine the stresses in the concrete and steel of this reinforced
concrete beam associated with an applied moment of 100 k-ft.

SOLUTION. Use Eq. 13.32 to transform the steel area to equivalent concrete as
depicted in Fig. 13.18.
nAs = 10(3.20) = 32.0 in. 2

,,= 14 in . M
e ) M= 100k-ft

--,,,,n:
14 in .-

N~A - _ II
Side "iew

A, = 3.20 I IIA, = 10(3.20) = 32.0 in.l

I .... I vZ227222722227/h

eros section ; +ransformcd cross sectioJ1

II

Stresses in equiva lent concrete

FIGURE 13.18

Sec. 13.6 / Reinforced Concrete Beams-Elastic Method 627

 Note that the transformed cross section consists of the concrete in compression above the
neutral axis and the equivalent concrete having an area of 32 in. 2 , which replaces the steel
rods. Concrete below the neutral axis, which would be in tension, is ignored in the
analysis, since the tensile strength of concrete is only 10 to 20 percent of the compressive
strength of concrete. In fact, tensile cracks develop in reinforced concrete beams at rela-
tively low load levels, and the engineer is justified in ignoring concrete on the tension side
of flexural members.
The next step is to calculate c, which locates the neutral axis with respect to the top
of the beam.
2
LAjvj=O
j= 1

14c 2c - 32(24 - c) = 0

7c 2 + 32c - 768 =0
This quadratic equation in c has roots c = 8.44 or - 13.0. The negative root has no
physical significance; hence c = 8.44 in.
The moment of inertia of this transformed area with respect to the neutral axis is
given by the following:
Iu = INA = -M14)c 3 + 32(24 - C)2

= INA = 1(14)(8.44)3 + 32(24 - 8.44)2 = 10,550 in. 4

where the moment of inertia of the equivalent concrete (replacing the steel rods) is ignored
with respect to its own centroidal axis. Applying the flexure formula (Eq. 5.10) to find the
maximum concrete stress, we find that

l00(12X8.44)
(Jc =
10,550

= I 0.96 ksi or 960 psi I

This maximum concrete stress occurs at the top of the beam at the section, where the
bending moment reaches the given value of 100 k-ft. Applying the flexure formula
together with Eq. 13.35 to find the stress in the steel rods, we obtain
Mid - c)
(J = n --=~--'-
S INA

100(12)(24 - 8.44)
= 10 10,550

= 117.7 ksi or 17,700 psi I

628 Ch.13 / Selected Topics

PROBLEMS __________________________________________________
13.46 Refer to the reinforced concrete beam depicted
in Fig. 13.18, change d from 24 in. to 22 in. and b from
14 in. to 15 in., and determine the stresses in the steel
and concrete. Use a modular ratio n = 10 and Mu =
50 k-ft.
13.47 A reinforced concrete beam has a rectangular
cross section with b = 0.36 m, d = 0.60 m, and As =
20.6 X 10 - 4 m 2 • If a moment of 140 kN-m is applied to
the beam, find the steel and concrete stresses. Use n = 8.
13.48 Refer to the reinforced concrete beam depicted
in Fig. 13.18. Determine the allowable bending moment
that may be applied to this beam if the allowable stress
in the concrete is 2000 psi and the allowable steel stress
is 30,000 psi. Note that these allowable stresses do not
occur simultaneously unless the beam has been designed
for what are termed balanced conditions.
13.49 Refer to Problem 13.47. Determine the allow-
able bending moment that may be applied to this beam
if the allowable stress in the concrete is 14 MPa and the
allowable steel stress is 200 MPa. Note that these allow-
able stresses do not occur simultaneously unless the
beam has been designed for what are termed balanced
conditions.
13.50 A reinforced concrete beam has a rectangular
cross section with b = 18 in., d = 30 in., and As = 5.00
in. 2 . If a moment of 180 k-ft is applied to the beam, find
the steel and concrete stresses. Use n = 10.
13.51 The: cross section described in Problem 13.50 is
to be used for a 10-ft-long cantilever beam. Note that
the steel would have to be placed near the top of the
cantilever beam in order to resist the tensile forces
developed there. If the beam is subjected to a uniform
load of intensity wand the allowable stresses are 2000
psi and 25,000 psi for concrete and steel, respectively,
find w. This value of w would include the weight of the
beam. Deduct this weight per foot to determine w',
which is the allowable uniform load that this beam
would carry. Use a unit weight of 150 Ib/ft 3 for rein-
forced concrete. Note that the given allowable stresses
do not occur simultaneously unless the beam has been
designed for what are termed balanced conditions. Use
n = 10.
Sec. 13.6 / Reinforced Concrete Beams-Elastic Method
~ ____________
13.52 A reinforced concrete beam has a rectangular
crosS section with b = 0.46 m, d = 0.75 m, and As =
32.0 X 10 - 4 m 2 . If a moment of 250 kN-m is applied to
the beam, find the steel and concrete stresses. Use
n = 10.
13.53 The cross-section described in Problem 13.52 is
to be used for a simply supported beam that is 6 m
long. If the beam is subjected to a uniform load of
intensity wand the allowable stresses are 15 MPa and
200 MPa for concrete and steel, respectively, find w.
This value of w would include the weight of the beam.
Deduct this weight per foot to determine w', which is
the allowable uniform load that the beam would carry.
Use a unit weight of 2.36 x 104 N/m 3 for reinforced
concrete. Which material, steel or concrete, is stressed
critically? Use n = 10.
13.54 A reinforced concrete beam has a rectangular
cross section with b = 15 in., d = 22.5 in., and As = 4.00
in. 2 . If a moment of 100 k-ft is applied to the beam,
find the steel and concrete stresses. Use n = 12.
13.55 Refer to Fig. P13.55 and compute the moment
resistance of this reinforced concrete beam with the
cutout shown. Given: (Je = 1600 psi, (Js = 20,000, and
n = 9.
(HINT : Assume that the neutral axis intersects the
cutout.)
I:6 ;" .1.6\~ .1.6 ;" : I
-,.-----,-
- r--
FIGURE P13.55
629
13.56 Refer to Fig. P13.56 and compute the moment (HINT: Assume that the neutral axis lies at a distance
resistance of this reinforced concrete beam. Given: a c = greater than 4 in. from the top of the beam.)
2000 psi, as = 24,000, and n = 10.
13.57 A proposal has been made to use the cross

.....
4 in.
section shown in Fig. P 13.56 for a prismatic beam to
support a loading of w = 4 k jft in addition to the
-L weight of the beam over a simply supported span of
16 ft. Allowable stresses, which need not be simulta-
neous, are a c = 2000 psi and as = 24,000 psi. Use
n = 10 and assume that the neutral axis lies at a dis-
tance greater than 4 in. from the top of the beam. Assess
this proposal by doing appropriate calculations.
Assume that reinforced concrete weighs 150 Ibjft3.

FIGURE P13.56

13.7*_ _ When an initially curved beam is subjected to bending action, two normal stresses are
Circumferential
Stresses in induced at every point in the member. One of these stresses acts on radial planes and
Curved Beams points in the circumferential direction. These stresses, referred to as circumferential stresses
are, in general, the most significant stresses in a curved beam and are the only stresses
discussed in this section. The second normal stress acts on circumferential planes and
points in the radial direction and are referred to as radial stresses. Although of interest in
many situations, radial stresses in curved beams will not be discussed here. Furthermore,
it has been shown in more refined solutions that the presence of radial stresses in curved
beams does not seriously affect the value of the circumferential stress developed here.
Consider the curved beam shown in Fig. 13.l9(a). This curved beam has the cross-
sectional area shown in Fig. 13.19(b) in which the v principal centroidal axis is an axis of
symmetry. The initial radius of curvature for the curved beam, measured from the cen-
troidal axis of the section, is denoted by the symbol r. The curved beam is subjected to the
pure bending moments M u' which are assumed to act in the plane of symmetry. Bending
moments that tend to decrease the radius of curvature are, by convention, assumed
positive. Thus those in Fig. 13.19(a) are positive moments.
Except for the fact that the beam is not initially straight, the fundamental assump-
tions used in deriving the equation for the circumferential stress are the same as those
used in deriving the flexure equation in Section 5.3. Thus consider two adjacent cross
sections (radial planes) a-a and b-b in Fig. 13.19(a) separated by the angle dc/>. Using the
assumption that plane sections before bending remain plane after bending, plane section
b-b remains plane but rotates about the axis of zero stress represented by point 0, into
the position b'-b', rotating through the small angle Adc/>. The circumferential deformation
C-C" at the centroidal axis may be expressed in terms of cc, the circumferential strain at
this axis by the relation CC" = (cc)CC = (cc)r dc/>. The circumferential strain c at any
point D a distance v from the centroidal axis may be written as follows:

630 Ch. 13 I Selected Topic.

 v
a

Neutral axis

E
E (center of curvature)
(a) (b)

FIGURE 13.19

D'D" C'C" + vt1dl/J Be r dl/J + vt1dl/J

B = - - = ------'-
DD' DD' (r + V) ,dl/J
BJ + v(t1dl/J/dl/J)
r+v

= B + _ V ( t1dl/J _ B ) (13.36a)
e r + V dl/J e

If the material obeys Hooke's law, the circumferential stress at any point D a distance V
from the centroidal axis may be expressed in terms of the quantities of Eq. 13.36a. Hence

(13.36b)

Equation 13.36b indicates that the circumferential stress in curved beams is not directly
proportional to the distance V measured from the centroidal axis, as is the case with
straight beams. Its exact variation with the coordinate V will be determined after finding
the two unknown quantities Be and t1dl/J/dl/J. These two unknown quantities are deter-
mined by applying the conditions of equilibrium. Thus, since the curved beam is subjected
to pure bending, the circumferential stresses distributed over a given cross section lead to
circumferential forces that are self-equilibrating. Hence

f (J' dA = 0

Substituting from Eq. 13.36b and rearranging terms, we obtain

B
e
A = - ( t1d l/J -
dl/J
B )
e
fr
_v dA
+v (13.36c)

Sec. 13.7 / Clrcumf.rential Stre•••• ln Curved aum. 631

 Let

1
K= - -
A
f v
--dA
r+v
where K is a dimensionless quantity representing a property of the cross-sectional area of
the curved beam. Substituting into Eq. 13.36c and simplifying, we obtain

Be = (~~ - Be) K (13.36d)

The second condition of equilibrium is expressed by the fact that the resisting
moment is equal to the applied moment. Therefore,

f O'V dA = Mu (13.36e)

Substituting for 0' its value from Eq. 13.36b yields

M u = E [Be f V dA + (~~ - Be) fr: V dA ] (13.36f)

Since V is measured from the centroidal u axis, it follows that f v dA = O. Also, the
quantity f [v 2 /(r + v)] dA may be expressed in terms of the property K as follows:

f~ f
r+v
dA = v dA - r f _v_ dA = KAr
r+v
(13.36g)

Thus Eq. 13.36f may now be written as

Mu = (~~ - Be)EKAr (13.36h)

From a simultaneous solution of Eqs. 13.36d and 13.36h, we obtain the values of the
unknown quantities !1de/>lde/> and Be as follows:

!1de/> = Mu
de/> EAr
(1 +!) K
(13.36i)

and
Mu
B =- (13.36j)
e EAr
Substitution of Eqs. 13.36i and 13.36j into Eq. 13.36b yields the value of the circum-
ferential stress in terms of known quantities. Hence

Mu
0'= - [ 1 + - v- -] (13.37)
Ar K(r + v)

A sketch of the stress distribution given by Eq. 13.37 is shown in Fig. 13.l9a. Note that
point 0, representing the axis of zero stress, is located at a distance v from the centroidal
axis, which may be determined, for pure bending, from Eq. 13.37 by setting 0' = O. Thus

632 Ch.13/ Selected Topics

 (13.38)

where the negative sign signifies that the location of point 0 is toward the center of
curvature of the curved beam from the centroidal axis of the cross section.
Determination of the factor K will be illustrated in Example 13.12 for a rectangular
cross section and numerical values of K for use in the solution of problems are provided
within the problem statements. The use of Eq. 13.37 to determine the circumferential
stress at various locations in a curved beam will be illustrated in Example 13.13.

EXAMPLE 13.12

A curved beam has a rectangular cross-sectional area with the dimensions shown in
Fig. 13.20. The radius of curvature for the beam measured from the centroid of the
section is r. Determine the value of K by the use of its basic definition.

""
u
;; a a
i!
a
'-
0
.,
+
~

;: h v
BI

Ir - v dv

FIGURE 13.20

SOLUTION. A differential element of area dA needs to be defined so that the integral in

the equation for K can be evaluated. Such an element of area is shown in Fig. 13.20. Thus

K= _-.!..f-V- dA = __ v _ bdV I_f+a_

A r +v 2ba _a r + v
1 f+a V
= - 2a - a r + V dv
1 [f+a dv-
= -- f+a --dv
r ]
2a - a -a r+V
1
= - 2a [V - r In (r + v)]~:

r (r a)
-1 +-In -+-
2a r - a

S.c. 13.7 / Circumf.r.ntial Str••••• ln Curved B88m. 633

EXAMPLE 13.13

A curved beam is fixed at one end and subjected to the load P = 8000 Ib as shown in
Fig. 13.21(a). The cross-sectional area of the beam is a 2 x 4 in. rectangle. Determine the
value of the distance d, measured from the centroid of the section, so that the maximum
tensile and compressive stresses along section n-n do not exceed 5000 and 15,000 psi,
respectively. Determine also the location of the point of zero stress at section n-n for the
value found for distance d.

SOLUTION. The value of K for the rectangular cross section of this curved beam can
be obtained by using the equation derived in solution of Example 13.12. Thus

K = _ 1+ ~4 In (66-2
+ 2)

= - 1 + 1.5 In 2 = 0.0397
Note that the value of K is, in general, a very small quantity, and care must be exercised
in obtaining an accurate value.
Construct the free-body diagram of that portion of the curved beam above section
n-n as shown in Fig. 13.21(b). Equilibrium requires that at section n-n, this portion of the
curved beam be subjected to a compressive axial force Fn = 8000 Ib and a bending
moment Mu = 8000d Ib-in., as shown in Fig. 13.21(b). Thus the curved beam at this
particular cross section is subjected not only to a positive bending moment resulting in a
normal circumferential stress given by Eq. 13.37, but also to a compressive axial force Fn
leading to a uniform compressive normal stress given by F nf A. Hence, for any location at
this section of the curved beam, the normal stress is given by the algebraic sum of these
two stresses. Thus

- [ 1 + -v- -]
Fn - +Mu
(J=
A Ar K(r + v)

I-
p = 8000 Ib
d
p = 8000 Ib

4'

m']~

Ir-----
i· II

/I
I

, · oJ in.

2 in. 1 ~v
,
(a)

FIGURE 13.21

634 Ch. 13 / Selected Topics

 Consider point B at section n-n on the inner surface of the curved beam. This point
is subjected to compressive stresses due to both F. and M u. Hence
8000 8000d [ - 2 ]
(JB = -15,000 = - -8- + 8(6) 1 + (0.0397)(6 - 2)
Solution of this relation for d yields
d = 7.25 in.
Consider now point C at section n-n on the outer surface of the curved beam. At this
point the bending moment causes tension, while the axial force produces compression,
resulting in a net tensile stress.
8000 8000d [ 2 ]
(Je = 5000 = - -8- + 8(6) 1 + (0.0397)(6 + 2)
This equation leads to a value for d as follows:
d = 4.93 in.
Therefore, the tensile stress is the governing factor and the maximum distance of the load
p from the centroid of section n-n is

I d = 4.93 in. I
The point of zero stress is located by finding the position in section n-n (i.e., the value
of v) at which the algebraic sum of the axial and bending stresses vanishes.
8000 8000(4.93) [I v ] _ 0
- 8 + 8(6) + (0.0397)(6 + v) -

Solution of this relation for v yields

v = 0.052 in.

measured from the centroidal axis away from the center of curvature of the curved beam.

PROBLEMS ____________________________________________________________

13.58 The curved beam shown in Fig. P13.58(a) has a

rectangular cross section as shown in Fig. P13.58(b).
Determine the maximum tensile and maximum com-
pressive circumferential stresses in the member. Deter-
mine the value of K by using the equation derived in
Example 13.12. p = 5000 Ib ~3 in .

I in.
13.59 At the location considered in Problem 13.58,
construct a complete circumferential stress distribution " (b)
(3)
computing the circumferential stress at !-in. intervals
and accurately locating the point of zero stress. FIGURE P13.58

Sec. 13.7 / Circumferential Stresses in Curved Beams 635

13.60 The curved member shown in Fig. P13.60 has a
solid circular cross section 0.10 m in diameter. If the
maximum tensile and compressive stresses in the
member are not to exceed 150 MPa and 200 MPa,
respectively, determine the value of the load P which
may be carried safely by the member. Use K = 0.0718.
Compute the maximum tensile and compressive stresses
at:
(a) An infinitesimal distance above section a-a.
(b) At section b-b. Use K = 0.0583.
13.63 The clamp shown schematically in Fig.

0.15 m P
P13.63(a) has the T section shown in Fig. P13.63(b). The
material is such that the allowable tensile and compres-
sive stresses are, respectively, 5000 psi and 15,000 psi.
Determine the maximum capaCity of the clamp. Use
K = 0.1102.

P
10 in.

P
FIGURE P13.60
(a) (b)

13.61 Repeat Problem 13.60 if the member has a trap- FIGURE P13.63
ezoidal cross-sectional area as shown in Fig. P13.61.
Use K = 0.1588.
13.64 The hook shown in Fig. P13.64(a) has the cross
section shown in Fig. P13.64(b}. The hook has a rated
capacity of 20 kN. Compute the maximum tensile and
compressive stresses in the hook when subjected to its
rated capacity load. Use K = 0.0886.

FIGURE P13.61
O.lO j ~O.OS", (bl

0.06 m
13.62 The curved member shown in Fig. P13.62(a) has
a triangular cross section as shown in Fig. P13.62(b). 0.03 m 0.03 m

o.lomDo.osm (e)

3 in.
P = 20 k •
a • 0. 12 m
P = 20 k (a)
FIGURE P13.64
b b

13.65 What changes would take place in the stresses

10 in.
computed in Problem 13.64 if the cross section of the
(a) (b)
hook were the trapezoid shown in Fig. P13.64(c)? Use
FIGURE P13.62 K = 0.1306.

636 Ch. 13 I Selected Topic.

13.1*_ _ A large number of problem-oriented languages are now available for programming digital
Computer
computers. They have been developed to enable engineers and scientists to communicate
Applications
readily with digital computers. IBM STRESS was developed in the Civil Engineering
Using the
Department of The Massachusetts Institute of Technology. STRESS and STRUDL are
STRESS
two problem-oriented languages widely employed by designers, but only STRESS will be
Language
discussed here. STRESS is an acronym for STRuctural Engineering System Solver and
STRUDL is an acronym for STRUctural Design Language. An introduction to the use of
STRESS will be given here by providing complete programs for an indeterminate plane
truss, an indeterminate plane frame, and a hingeless arch.
Design of indeterminate structures composed of members of varying stiffness presents
the following dilemma. To determine the internal forces in a statically indeterminate
structure, the stiffnesses of the members of the structure must be known. These stiffnesses
depend upon the cross-sectional geometry and material of the various members of the
structure. But the cross-sectional geometry cannot be determined until the internal forces
are known. The dilemma is resolved by assuming initial cross-sectional dimensions, com-
puting member stiffnesses, and then proceeding with the analysis for the internal forces.
Once the internal forces are known, the various member sizes are selected and their
stiffnesses are compared to those assumed initially. Usually, further analyses and revisions
of member sizes will be required. In other words, design of statically indeterminate struc-
tures is an iterative procedure. Digital computers very rapidly and accurately carry out
these iterations for structures composed of large numbers of members.
Only the first iterative step will be taken for the structures of this section. STRESS
provides output of internal forces, reactions, and displacements. This information would
be used to determine member sizes and additional iterations would be required. Determi-
nation of member sizes has been discussed in Chapter 10 so this aspect of design will not
be repeated here. Additional STRESS analyses would generally be required for other
loadings, since a number of loadings and combinations of loadings are considered in the
design of most structures. STRUDL would be more useful in design practice, since it
includes the design step of selecting member sizes to meet various criteria. Learning the
STRUDL language is no more difficult than learning the STRESS language. Good judg-
ment based upon a knowledge of fundamental concepts and experience is required for
proper use of these languages. Output from any digital computer should always be viewed
with scepticism. Order-of-magnitude appraisals and check calculations should always be
a vital part of assessing the validity of any computer output.
Any structure composed of components, such as those discussed in this book, may be
analyzed for internal forces once the following information is specified:

1. The geometry of the structure.

2. The properties of the material of which the structure is fabricated.
3. The loads applied to the structure.

A STRESS program provides this information in compact form. The digital computer has
been programmed to formulate and solve the equations of equilibrium and compatibility
and then to write out the results in readily useable form. Each of the three programs given
here may be punched one line to a punch card and run at any computer center where the
STRESS language is available. Only the JOB card and the control cards must be added
to those shown in Figs. C13.2, C13.5, and C13.8. After these adjustments are made, the

Sec. 13.8 / Computer Applications Using the STRESS Language 637

 card deck will be ready for the card reader at a computer center other than the one at
Bradley University, where these programs were run. Punched cards are no longer widely
used. Information punched in a single card is now likely to be displayed as a single line on
the screen of a time-sharing terminal. Such terminals, with cathode ray tube displays, have
largely replaced key punch machines used for punching cards.

EXAMPLE C13.1 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Write a STRESS program for the statically indeterminate plane truss shown in
Fig. C13.l. External loads are applied at joints 2 and 3 as shown in the figure. Geometric
data are provided in the figure and the truss is fabricated of steel for which E = 29,000
ksi.

IS k f,;\
2~--------_~~2~------_,3~--2~Ok

25 ft
CD

1~--------~~~4~--------~----X
1------20 f t - - - - - t l E = 29,000 ksi

Cross-section properties: AX = 7.8 in.2 , IZ = 17.7 in.4

Statically indeterminate plane truss

FIGURE C13.1

SOLUTION. Study of Fig. C13.2 showing the STRESS program, together with
Fig. C13.1 will enable the reader to understand the program and the straight-forward
nature of the language. The hinged joints of the truss are numbered 1, 2, 3, and 4 and the
members are numbered 1 to 6. An origin is chosen at joint 1 for the global coordinate
system XY shown in Fig. C13.l. The global coordinate system is considered right-handed
and thus the Z axis (not shown) is directed outward and perpendicular to the plane of the
figure. JOINT COORDINATES are given in the global or overall, coordinate system.
These coordinates are given in XY order and Z is omitted because the structure lies in

638 Ch.13 / Selected Topics

 STRUCTURE INDETERMINATE PLANE TRUSS
TYPE PLANE TRUSS
NUMBER OF JOINTS 4
NUMBER OF SUPPORTS 2
NUMBER OF MEMBERS 6
NUMBER OF LOADINGS 1
JOINT COORDINATES
1 0.0 0.0 S
2 0.0 300.0
3 240.0 300.0
4 240.0 0.0 S
JOINT RELEASES
4 FORCE X
MEMBER PROPERTIES PRISMATIC AX 7.8 Il 17.1
1 THRU 6
MEMBER INCIDENCES
112
223
3 .3 4
414
51.3
624
CONSTANTS E 29000. ALL
LOADING NO.ONE
TA8ULATE MEMBER FORCES
JOINT LOADS
2 FORCE Y 15.0
.3 FORCE X 20.0
SOLVE
PROBLEM CORRECTLY SPECIFIED, EXECUTION TO PROCEED.
FIGURE C13.2

the XY plane. The letter S follo.wing the coordinates of joints 1 and 4 signifies that these
are supports for the structure where it is attached to the earth or to another structure
assumed to be nondeformable. The roller at joint 4 is assumed to be frictionless, which
means that a reaction does not act in the global X direction at joint 4. This is stated
under JOINT RELEASES in the program.
MEMBER PROPERTIES are stated in the local coordinate system for each
member. These local coordinate systems are not shown, but each member has a local
coordinate system. Consider member 5, which extends from joint 1 to joint 3. (Refer to
MEMBER INCIDENCES and the entry 5 1 3 for this order.) The local coordinate
system for member 5 has an origin at the first-named joint (i.e., 1). The local x axis is
directed positively from the origin at 1 along the member toward joint 3. (This choice of
origin and local x axis positive direction is always made consistent with the MEMBER
INCIDENCES statement of the program.) For planar structures, the local z axis is
chosen positive in the same direction as the global Z, which is directed outward and
perpendicular to the plane of the figure. Finally, the local y axis is chosen positive such
that the local coordinate system xyz is a right-handed orthogonal coordinate system. All
members of the truss have equal cross-sectional areas and bending resistances. AX 7.8 of
the program refers to the cross-sectional area of each member, which is oriented perpen-
dicular to the local x axis of each member. IZ 17.7 refers to the area moment of inertia of
each member with respect to the local z principal axis of each member. Actually, the
members of this pin-connected truss are not bent, because of the fact that loads and
reactions are only applied at the joints. If loads were applied in the XY plane at points
between the joints, the bending resistance IZ would be required. In any analysis involving
bending, the yz set of axes is assumed to comprise the principal axes.
All members of the truss are fabricated of steel for which the modulus of elasticity is
29,000 ksi. One statement of the program : CONSTANT E 29000. ALL states this infor-
mation on material properties of the members of this truss.
The truss is loaded at joints 2 and 3, and this information is given under JOINT
LOADS in the program. Joint loads directions are stated in terms of global coordinates.
For example, the 20-k load applied at joint 3 of the truss is applied in the positive X
direction and the corresponding program statement is 3 FORCE X 20.0. If the load were

Sec. 13.8 / Computer Applications Using the STRESS Language 639

 ..,.,....,......",.." ..",." ...." ...,..." ..
STRUCTURE INDETERMINATE PLANE JRUSS

",.,....."" ..".",...,.,........"" ....,...

LOADING NO.ONE

MENBER FORCES x

NENBER JOINT AXIAL FORCE

1 1 -21.6~2 3
1 2 23.6 2
2
2
2
3
-6.922
6.922 0

"
3 3 16.348 y
3 4 -16.348
4 1 -6.922
4 4 6.922
5 1 -20.936
5 3 20.936
6 2 11.080
6 4 -11.080

(a) (b)

FIGURE C13.3

to act leftward or in the negative X direction, - 20.0 would be the appropriate program
entry.
The TABULATE command specifies the output requested. In this case only member
forces are desired as output. If both forces and joint displacements are requested, the
appropriate program statement becomes TABULATE ALL.
SOLVE and STOP commands complete the STRESS program. These are followed
by control cards, which complete the card deck. It is convenient, but not required, to start
STRESS commands in card column 7. Control card information must be punched in card
columns as specified by systems programmers at each computer center. This control card
information is programmed in another language, referred to as JCL (Job Control
Language).
The last statement of Fig. C13.2, PROBLEM CORRECTLY SPECIFIED, EXECU-
TION TO PROCEED, is not a part of the input card deck but is printed out by the
high-speed printer to indicate that there are no errors in the STRESS language program-
ming and that the calculations will be made. However, the programmer must still care-
fully check the program and input values to see that he or she is solving the desired
problem. Digital computers will readily provide correct solutions to problems that the
programmer did not intend to solve if the programmer is careless about providing proper
input values.
Figure C13.3(a) provides output for the statically indeterminate plane truss. Axial
forces are given for each member in terms of the local coordinate system for each
member. For example, consider member 5 and the corresponding output:

Member Joint Axial Force

5 1 -20.936
5 3 20.936

Refer to the local coordinate system for member 5 shown in Fig. C13.3(b). At joint 1 the
axial force is negative, which means that it acts in the negative local x direction; at joint 5

640 Ch.13 / Selected Toplce

 the axial force is positive, which means that it acts in the positive local x direction. Taken
together, these statements mean that member 5 is in tension and carries a force of
20.936 k or 20,936 lb. The remainder of the output may be interpreted in a similar
fashion.

EXAMPLE C13.2 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Write a STRESS program for the statically indeterminate plane rigid frame shown in
Fig. C13.4. Joints 1 and 4 are rigidly fastened to ground (or another very rigid structure)
and the joints at 2 and 3 are also charcterized as rigid. The term rigid frame is used to
mean that couples (or bending moments) as well as axial and shear forces are transmitted
at the four joints 1, 2, 3, and 4. A horizontal force of 10 kN is applied to the right at joint
3, and a horizontal uniform load of 0.1 kN/cm acts to the right over the entire length of
member 1. Geometric and material property data are also shown in the figure. Although
the centimeter (1 m = 100 cm) is discouraged as a unit of length in the SI system of units,
it is sometimes convenient and will be employed in this example.

0.1 kN/cm

1
2 3 10kN

It - - 6 0 0 cm--"l.1 E = 20,000 kN/cm 2

Cross-section properties: AX = 40 cm 2 ,/Z = 10,000 cm4 ,

Depth = 30 cm

Statically indeterminate plane rigid frame

FIGURE C13.4

SOLUTION. The STRESS program for this plane rigid frame is shown in Fig. C13.5.
This program has many features which are very similar to those discussed in Example
C13.1 and shown in Fig. C13.2. Only a brief discussion of different and new features
shown in Fig. C13.5 will be discussed here, The statement TYPE PLANE FRAME
provides for transmission of couples as well as forces at the joints. The global coordinate

Sec. 13.8 / Computer Applicetions Using the STRESS Language 641

 STRUCTURE INOETER~i~rE PLANE FRAME
TYPE PLANE FRAME
NUMBER OF JOINTS 4
NUMBER OF MEMBERS 3
NUMBER OF SUPPORTS 2
NUMBER OF LOADINGS 1
JOINT COOROINATES
1 0.0 300.0 S
2 0.0 1200.0
3 600.0 1200.0
4 600.0 0.0 S
MEMBER PROPERTIES PRISMATIC AX 40.0 IZ 10000.0
1 THRU 3
MEMBER INCIDENCES
112
223
3 3 4
CONSTANTS E 20000. ALL
LOADING NO.ONE
TABULATE All
JOI NT LOAOS
3 FORCE X 10.0
MEMBER LOADS
1 FORCE Y UNIFORM -0.1
SOLVE
PROBLEM CORRECTLY SPECIFIED, EXECUTION TO PRUCEED.

FIGURE C13.5

system origin is chosen 300 cm vertically below joint 1 in order to place this planar
structure in the first quadrant (X Y), as indicated. The statement TABULATE ALL
requests joint displacement as well as force and reaction outputs. The uniform load is a
load applied to member 1, and this information is provided by the statements
MEMBER LOADS
1 FORCE Y UNIFORM -0.1

MEMBER FORCES

MEMBER JD INT AXIAL FORCE SHEAR FORCE MOMENT

1 1 -30.903 83.904 25423.43
I 2 30.903 6.096 9590.22
2 2 6.101 -30.903 -9591l.23
2 3 -6.11l1 31l.903 -8951.40
3 3 30.903 16.111 8951.40
3 4 -30.91l3 -16.111 10381.90

APPLIED JOINT LOADS, FREE JOINTS

JOINT FORCE X FORCE Y MOMENT Z

2 0.005 -0.000 -0.01
3 10.010 0.0 -0.00

REACTIONS. APPLIED LOADS SUPPORT JOINTS

JOINT FORCE X FORCE Y MOMENT l

1 -83.904 -30.91l3 25423.43
4 -16.111 30.903 10381.90

fREE JOINT OISPLACEMENTS

JOINT X-DISPLACEMENT Y-I) I SPLACEMENT ROTATlllN

2 14.1795 0.03'08 -0.0052
3 14.1749 -0.0464 -0.0043

STRUCTURE INDETERMINATE PLANE FRAME

===========================================================:.sa:
FIGURE C13.6

642 Ch. 13 / Selected Topics

 Here Y of the program statement refers to the local y axis for member 1. The local x axis
for member 1 is directed positively along the member from joint 1 (the origin) toward
joint 2, which is consistent with
MEMBER INCIDENCES
1 1 2
In order for the local z axis for member 1 to coincide with the global Z axis and for the
local coordinate system to be right-handed, the local y axis for member 1 must be
directed positively to the left and perpendicular to the member. Since the uniform load
acting on member 1 is directed to the right, which is the negative y direction in the local
coordinate system, the loading is programmed as a negative intensity with the given
magnitude of 0.1 kN/cm. In general, member loads are expressed in terms of local coordi-
nates and joint loads are expressed in terms of global coordinates.
Force and displacement output is shown in Fig. C13.6 for this plane rigid frame.
Units of the output are consistent with the input information. In general, the programmer
must provide inputs in consistent units in order for the output to be consistent. STRESS
is independent of the system of units employed by the programmer. In this particular
case, forces are in kN, moments are in kN-cm, linear displacements are in cm, and
rotational displacements are in rad. MEMBER FORCES are given in the local coordi-
nate system for each member. APPLIED JOINT LOADS, REACTIONS, and FREE
JOINT DISPLACEMENTS are given in the global coordinate system. MOMENTS are
positive when acting counterclockwise on a member or on a joint, which is consistent
with a vector representation of these couples along the positive Z or z axes, which are
directed positively outward and perpendicular to the XY or xy planes of Fig. C13.4.

EXAMPLE C13.3 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Write a STRESS program for the parabolic hingeless arch depicted in Fig. CI3.7. The
arch is rigidly supported at its end joints, numbered 1 and 21, and is subjected to a
uniform temperature increase of 30°F. The equation of the parabolic arch axis is given by

,.-----------------~--~~~-------. x
J @@
1
30 ft 18
1920 @
11
y

f - - - - 6 0 ft ------~.+I~.------60 ft----.."

Parabolic center line shown above

Arch subdivided into 20 members
Fixed ends at joints I and 21
Uniform temperature change + 30° F
Coefficient of thermal expansion:
6.5 X 10- 6 in./in./ of
E = 432,000,000 Ib/ft 2
Parabolic hingeless arch-temperature change

FIGURE C13.7

I Sec. 13.8 / Computer Applications Using the STRESS Language 643

 STRUCTURE HINGELESS ARCH-TEMPERAtURE CHANGE
TYPE PLANE FRAME
NUMBER OF JOINTS 21
NUMBER OF MEMBERS 20
NUMBER OF SUPPORTS 2
NUMBER OF LOADINGS 1
JOINT COORDINATES
1 -60.0 30.0 S
2 -54.0 24.3
3 -4B.0 19.2
4 -42.0 14.1
5 -36.0 10.8
6 -30.0 1.5
1 -24.0 4.8
8 -18.0 2.1
9 -12.0 1.2
10 -6.0 0.3
11 0.0 0.0
12 6.0 0.3
13 12.0 1.2
14 18.0 2.1
15 24.0 4.8
16 30.0 1.5
11 36.0 10.8
18 42.0 14.1
19 48.0 19.2
20 54.0 24.3
21 60.0 30.0 S
MEM8ER PROPERTIES PRISMATIC
1 AX 3.805 Il 16.10
2 AX 3.445 Il 62.01
3 AX 3.125 Il 50.00
4 AX 2.845 IZ 39.83
5 AX 2.605 Il 31.26
6 AX 2.405 IZ 24.05
1 AX 2.245 IZ 11.96
8 AX 2.125 Il 12.15
9 AX 2.045 IZ 8.18
10 AX 2.005 IZ 4.01
11 AX 2.005 Il 4.01
12 AX 2.045 IZ 8.18
13 AX 2.125 IZ 12.15
14 AX 2.245 Il 11.96
15 AX 2.405 IZ 24.05
16 AX 2.605 IZ 31.26
11 AX 2.845 Il 39.83
18 AX 3.125 IZ 50.00
19 AX 3.445 IZ 62.01
20 AX 3.805 Il 16.10
MEM8ER INCIDENCES

,,
112
223
3 3 It
4 It 5
556
~
889
9 9 10
10· 10 11
111112
12 12 13
13 13 14
14 1~ l5
U 16 it
111118
18 18 19
19 19 20
20 20 21
CgNSTANTS E 432000000.0 ALL
LADING NO.ONE
TA8ULA TE AlL
MEM8ER TEMPERATURE CHANGES 0.0000065
1 THRU 20 30.0
SOLVE
PR08LEM CORRECTLY SPECIFIED, EXECUTION TO PROCEED.

FIGURE C13.8

y = 1~OX2, where X and Yare global coordinates for an origin chosen at the crown of
the arch. Other geometric and material data are shown in the figure.

SOLUTION. Since the arch axis is curved, it was divided into 20 straight members or
segments, as indicated in Fig. C13.7. Such subdividing of members is widely employed by
engineers for computer analyses, and this approach is termed the finite-element method.
The STRESS program for this parabolic arch is shown in Fig. C13.S. This program has
many features that are very similar to those discussed in Examples C13.1 and C13.2 and
shown in Figs. C13.2 and C13.5, respectively. The single new statements of this arch
program are

644 Ch.13 / Selected Topics

 MEMBER TEMPERATURE CHANGE 0.0000065
1 THROUGH 20 30.0
This subjects all 20 members of the arch to a 30°F increase in temperature, and since the
arch is monolithic and rigidly constrained at its end joints (1 and 21), internal forces and
couples will be developed all along the arch axis. The arch is fabricated of a material for
which the coefficient of thermal expansion is 0.0000065 in.jin.tF or ftjfttF.
Force and displacement output is shown in Fig. C13.9 for this parabolic arch.
MEMBER FORCES are given in the local coordinate system for each member.
APPLIED JOINT LOADS, REACTIONS, and FREE JOINT DISPLACEMENTS are
given in the global coordinate system. MOMENTS are positive when acting clockwise on
a member or a joint, which is consistent with a vector representation of these couples
along the positive Z or z axes, which are directed positively inward and perpendicular to
the XY or xy planes of Fig. C13.7. Pound-foot units have been used consistently in the
program. Theoretically, the APPLIED JOINT LOADS, FREE JOINTS should all equal
zero, since external forces are not applied to the arch at these joints. All of these output
values, while not zero, are very small when compared to the member forces on a percent-

APPLIED JOINT LOADS, FREE JOINTS

JOINT FORCE X fORCE Y MOMENT.Z

2 -0.801 2.1092 1.00
3 0.738 0.625 -5.88
4 9.102 8.555 31.69
5 2.035 3.815 10•• 56
110 1.871 -0.301 110.88
7 -10.211 2.293 -18.59
8 -1.898 8.020 32.57
9 0.551 -0.317 -10.06
10 -0.605 -5.654 13.19
11 -0.336 1.136 -12.06
12 0.133 110.506 110.19
13 5.055 -3.351 150.50
MEM8ER FORCES 14 0.117 -14.941 88.54
15 0.965 10.703 -13.33
11. 5.158 2.055 -46.31
MEMBER JOINT AXIAL FORCE SHEAR FORCE MOMENT 17 -6.258 11.012 -21.56
1 1 18410.188 17466.563 655047.06 18 -12.980 15.'157 110.06
1 2 -18410.188 -17466.563 -510496.00 19 -0.152 0.703 510.00
2 2 19344.750 16424.250 5101097.00 20 1.98Q -1.594 9.88
2 3 -19344.750 -164210.250 -381162.00
3 3 20310.125 15215.500 381156.13
3 4 -20310.125 -15215.500 -267039.94
4 4 21287.938 13831.063 267071.63 REACTIONS,APPLIED LOADS SUPPORT JOINTS
4 5 -21287.938 -13831.063 -168095.00
5 5 22246.438 122310.125 168139.56 JOINT fORCE X fORCE Y MOMENT Z
5 6 -22246.438 -122310.125 -8431104.88
1 25311.461 -16.785 655047.06
6 6 23154.688 101017.926 810319.15
21 -25373.117 -24.988 -654915.0Q
6 7 -23154.688 -10417.926 -15834.94
7 7 23955.000 8385.043 15816.35
7 8 -23955.000 -8385.0103 371086.40
8 8 24618.375 6163.637 -371053.83 FREE JOINT DISPLACEMENTS
8 9 -24618.375 -6163.637 15573.81
9 9 25096.750 3773.063 -75583.88
9 10 -25096.750 -3773.063 98415.5110
10 10 25346.375 1270.125 -981062.38 JOINT X-DISPLACEMENT Y-DISPLACEMENT ROTATION
10 11 -25346.375 -1270.125 106092.69 2 0.0007 -0.0015 -0.0001
11 11 25346.375 -1263.375 -106104.75 3 0.0007 -0.0037 -0.0003
11 12 -25346.375 1263.375 98515.06 4 0.0002 -0.0066 -0.0004
12 12 25098,,750 -37510.250 -98500.88 5 -0.0004 -0.0099 -0.0005
12 13 -25098.150 37510.250 75123.38 6 -0.0011 -0.0136 -0.0005
13 13 24626.875 -6l1t9.1006 -75572.88 7 -0.0016 -0.0174 -0.0006
13 lit -24626.875 61109.406 375100.910 8 -0.0018 -0.0212 -0.0006
14 14 23956.125 -8392.953 -37452.39 9 -0.0016 -0.02107 -0.0005
14 15 -23956.125 8392.953 -15900.64 10 -0.0009 -0.0275 -0.0004
15 15 23147.625 -101019.883 15887.31 11 0.0000 -0.0286 -0.0000
15 16 -23147.625 101019.883 -84445.06 12 0.0009 -0.0275 0.00010
16 16 22247.063 -12237.125 810398.75 13 0.0016 -0.021t1 0.0005
16 17 -22247.063 12237.125 -168194.00 14 0.0018 -0.0212 0.0006
17 17 21288.688 -13825.813 168112.44 15 0.0016 -0.0174 0.0006
11 18 -21288.688 13825.813 -261111.50 16 0.0011 -0.0136 0.0005
18 18 20312.563 -15202.063 261125.56 17 0.0004 -0.0099 0.0005
18 19 -20312.563 15202.063 -381140.910 18 -0.0002 -0.0066 0.0004
19 19 19348.500 -16411.313 381194.94 U -0.0007 -0.0037 0.0003
19 20 -19348.500 161011.313 -510428.00 20 -0.0007 -0.0015 0.0001
20 20 18412.688 -171057.625 510431.88
20 21 -18412.688 17451.625 -6~915.00

FIGURE C13.9 STRUCTURE HINGELESS ARCH-TEMPERATURE CHANGE

==========.&===========.============a==a======~= •••
Sec. 13.8 / Computer Applications Using the STRESS Language 645
 age basis and hence may be neglected. These nonzero values arise in practice because
digital computers, like pocket calculators, make truncation and round-off errors in calcu-
lations. Single-precision calculations were made for the STRESS programs presented in
this section. For systems that involve large numbers of members it may be necessary to
employ double-precision calculations to solve the resulting matrix equations.

COMPUTER PROBLEMS

Problems C13.6 to C13.8 require the use of a digital com-
puter with the STRESS language available on the system.
Consult computer personnel for appropriate control cards
( or statements) to use with STRESS.
C13.1 Draw free-body diagrams of members 1 and 2
of the statically indeterminate plane truss of Fig. C 13.1.
Refer to MEMBER INCIDENCES statements of
Fig. C13.2 for these members and clearly show the local
coordinate system on your free-body diagrams.
MEMBER FORCES are shown in Fig. C13.3.
C13.2 Draw a complete free-body diagram of member
1 of the plane rigid frame of Fig. C13.4. Show the local
coordinate system on this diagram and the forces
applied to the member at joints 1 and 2 by referring to
Figs. C13.5 and CI3.6. Show that this member is in
equilibrium under the action of the applied uniform
load and the forces applied to it at the joints 1 and 2.
C13.3 Refer to Figs. C13.7 to C13.9 for the parabolic
hingeless arch and construct a complete free-body
diagram of member 3 of the arch. Show that the equa-
tions of equilibrium are satisfied by the forces applied to
the member at joints 3 and 4. Clearly show the local
coordinate system for this member, which is straight
between joints 3 and 4.
13.4 Refer to Figs. C13.7 to C13.9 for the parabolic
hingeless arch and construct a complete free-body
diagram of the entire arch. REACTIONS, APPLIED
LOADS SUPPORT JOINTS for joints 1 and 21 of
Fig. C13.9 will provide the end reactions. Show that the
equations of equilibrium are satisfied by this self-
equilibrating system.
C13.5 Refer to Figs. C13.4 to C13.6 for the plane rigid
frame and construct a free-body diagram of member 3,
which is subjected to forces at joints 3 and 4. Clearly
show the local coordinate system for this member and
write the equations of equilibrium for it to show that
the equations are satisfied.
C13.6 Write a STRESS program and run it at the
computer center for the structure shown in Fig. C13.1.
Remove the loads shown at joints 2 and 3 and apply the
following loads at joint 3: a force of 15 k directed hori-
zontally to the left and a force of 10 k directed vertically
downward. Interpret the output by showing all member
forces on a diagram of the truss and clearly show
whether each member is in tension or compression.
C13.7 Write a STRESS program and run it at the·
computer center for the plane frame of Fig. C13.4.
Remove uniform loading applied to member 1 and the
concentrated load applied at joint 3. Apply a downward
uniform loading to member 2 of 0.1 kN/cm intensity
over its full length. Interpret the output by showing
complete free-body diagrams of all three members of the
frame.
C13.8 Write a STRESS program and run it at the
computer center for the hingeless arch of Fig. C13.7.
Remove the uniform temperature loading and apply a
downward concentrated load of 2000 lb at the crown
joint 11. Interpret the output by drawing a free-body
diagram of the entire arch and show that it is in equi-
librium.

646 Ch.13 / Selected Topics

APPENDIX COlDpller ProoralDlDinolor
Mechanics 01 Malerials

A subset of the FORTRAN language has been used in this bo.ok. Only those aspects
of the language and the statements used in the computer ~xamples will be discussed here.
This limited part of the language will suffice for solution of the computer problems.
The most difficult parts of the FORTRAN language to learn are the details of
FORMAT statements. To simplify reading data and writing results, we have chosen an
unformatted version of the language. The FORMAT statement is used in a limited way to
label printed information.
FORTRAN is an acronym for FORmula TRANslation. This computer language
enables engineers and scientists to communicate readily with digital computers without
having to learn machine language. The computer programs shown in this book are
written in FORTRAN. These programs are termed" FORTRAN source programs."
Example programs were run in FTNTS (fORTRA~ Time Sharing).
Example programs of this text were run at time-sharing terminals connected through
telephone lines to a CDC (Control Qata Corporation) Cyber 171 digital computer located
at the Bradley University Computer Center. Users on other campuses should consult
their computer center staff regarding computer access and usage. An unformatted version
of FORTRAN is very desirable for beginners. Even though a limited set of statements are
employed, you will find that a wide variety of problems in mechanics of materials may be
programmed and solved as illustrated in the book.
All statements of the FORTRAN source programs of this book are preceded by
sequential line numbers. These numbers provide a convenient means of referring to
program statements, particularly when editing programs. For example:

00100 PROGRAM COLFOR (INPUT, OUTPUT)

00110 9 1= 1

--i
00120 TOPCOL = O.

line numbers

Line numbers are not referred to within FORTRAN source programs. They provide for
external reference rather than internal reference within programs.
Statement numbers provide for internal statement references within programs. 'Not
every statement need be numbered and the numbering is arbitrary rather than sequential.

647
 Examples
statement number
!
00210 6 READ*, A, B, C, D
(A series of intermediate valid statements appear in the program)
00470 GO TO 6
i
statement number
The use of statement numbers shown above provides for multiple runs of the program for
various sets of data. Values for A, B, C, and D are read, calculations are performed, and
values are written out; then control is transferred back to the READ statement by use of
the unconditional GO TO statement, where" 6" refers to the statement to which control
is passed.
statement number
!
00160 PRINT 2
00170 2 FORMAT(IX, "COLUMN DESIGN FORCES")
i
statement number
The statement number" 2" associates the PRINT statement with the FORMAT state-
ment above. These statements are discussed further below.
Two sequential times, referred to as compile time and object time, are of importance
to understanding computer operations. FORTRAN source programs must be translated
to machine language and the time of this translation is referred to as compile time. The
machine language program that performs this translation is referred to as the compiler.
The machine language version of the original FORTRAN source program is referred to
as the object program. The time at which the object program, together with numerical
data, is used to perform calculations is referred to as object time.
By definition, alphanumeric characters are the letters of the alphabet and the digits
zero through 9. In general, other special characters may be included in the definition of
alphanumeric characters, but the foregoing definition will suffice for this text. Capital
letters are used for all statements and Greek letters must be represented indirectly (e.g.,
BETA for [3).
Only nonsubscripted variables are used in this text and they are either floating-point
or integer variables. All variable names consist of from one to seven alphanumeric charac-
ters. The first character must be alphabetic. Integer variable names begin with the letters
I, J, K, L, M, or N, while floating-point variable names begin with the remaining letters of
the alphabet. Integer variables are used for counting or identification, while floating-point
variables are used for measured or calculated quantities. Our primary purpose in this
book is to deal with measured or calculated quantities and we have employed primarily
floating-point variables. In almost every case when we use integer variable names, we
utilize the type statement REAL (discussed below) to convert them to floating-point
variables in our programs. Examples of floating-point variable names used in the text: W,
E, SIGX, VNEG, VPOS, COLWT, STORYHT. Examples of integer variable names used
in the text: IV, L, K LMIN, MNEG, MPOS. However, all of these were converted to
floating-point variables by use of type statements such as REAL IV, L, K, and LMIN.

648 App. A / Computer Programming for Mechanics of Materials

 Program names consists of from one to seven alphanumeric characters with the first
character mandatorily alphabetic. Examples of program names used in the text: LIFT,
COLFOR, TORQUE, RECTORQ, SSLIN, CANTPAR, and EXAMC51.
Operations symbols employed in FORTRAN are +, -, *, I, and **. They have
meanings as follows:

+ addition subtraction
* multiplication 1 division
** exponentiation or raising to a power

Logical expressions are formed from variable names, operation symbols, relational
operators, and logical operators. The relational operators and their meanings are

.LE. less than or equal to

.LT. less than
.EQ. equal to
.NE. not equal to
.GT. greater than
.GE. greater than or equal to

The logical operators are .AND., .OR., and .NOT. Since two-valued logic is used, a
logical expression is either true or false. Examples of logical expressions from the text are

(L.LT.O.)
(N.EQ.O.)
(X.GT.(L-O.OOI ))
(ALPHA.GT.O)

A large number of mathematical functions are available for use in FORTRAN SOl.lrce
programs, but only those shown below were used in this text. Function arguments used in
this text are floating-point arithmetic expressions. Function arguments are always to be
enclosed in parentheses and for trigonometric functions the arguments must be stated in
radians. Although X is used as the argument below, it represents any arithmetic expres-
sion, such as (E*IVI(A *SIGY)).

SQRT(X) square root of x

SIN(X) sine x
COS(X) cosine x

Arithmetic-Assignment Statement
Example: MPOS = W*L**2/8.-W*L/2.*X
This statement consists of a single variable to the left of an equal sign and an
airthmetic expression on the right side of the equal sign. In FORTRAN the
equality sign does not have the customary mathematical meaning" is equal to."
Instead, it means" is to be replaced by." In this example the variable on the left
of the equal sign is MPOS and the arithmetic expression on the right side is
W*L **2/8.-W*L/2. *X. Other examples in this text are

X5 = F/(SQRT(P**2 + Q**2))
VPOS = W*L/2.- W*X

App. A I Computer Programming for Mechanics of Materials 649

 PROGRAM Statement
Example: PROGRAM EXAMC71 (INPUT, OUTPUT)
The first statement of any program must be a PROGRAM statement. This
statement must have the following elements:
PROGRAM
This is part of the FORTRAN language which must be the first word of this
statement.
Name
Every program must be named with a name that may consist of up to seven
alphanumeric characters but must begin with a letter. The name is created by
the programmer. In this example, the name is EXAMC71. Other examples in
this text are LIFT, EXAMC22, and COLFOR.
(INPUT, OUTPUT)
This is part of the FORTRAN language which sets up files for storage of input
and output information.
REAL Statement
Example: REAL MNEG, MPOS, L
This is an optional statement which must follow the PROGRAM statement. It
consists of the word REAL followed by a list of integer variables separated by
commas. Note that a comma is not required after the word REAL. Its purpose is
to have integer variables treated as real variables in the program. In this
example the integer variable names are MNEG, MPOS, and L. Other examples
in this text are
REALL
REAL L, IU, MC
READ*
Statement Example: READ*, F, P, Q, E, L, D
The READ* Statement allows us to enter any values you wish for the variables
named, which in this case are F, P, Q, E, L, and D. This is the input statement
that enables us to enter numerical values into the computer memory. Other
examples are
READ*,L, W
READ*, W, L, A, EX, EY, IU, D
WRITE*
Statement Example: WRITE*, X, VNEG, VPOS, MNEG, MPOS
The WRITE* statement enables us to have printed out numerical values for the
variables named, which in this case are X, VNEG, VPOS, MNEG, and MPOS.
This is the output statement that directs the printer to write out numerical
values for variables that are calculated or read into the program. Other exam-
ples are
WRITE*, IGAMA, SIGN
WRITE*, D, T, P, SIGO, M

650 4pp. A / Computer Programming for Mechanics of Materials

 Unconditional
GO TO
Statement Example: GO TO 20
This statement transfers control to the statement number that follows the words
GO TO. In the example, control is passed unconditionally to statement number
20. Other examples are
GOTOS
GOT06
STOP
Statement Example: STOP
This statement is executed when the machine language program is making use of
input data to perform calculations. If all the data have been read, the computer
will be halted by the STOP statement. An easy way to recall its meaning is to
remember the phrase" STOP the calculations." Refer to the text programs to see
how this STOP statement is used. The STOP statement is associated with object
time.
END
Statement Example: END
The last statement of every FORTRAN program must be the END statement. It
signals the compiler that there are no more FORTRAN statements to be trans-
lated to machine language. An easy way to recall its meaning is to remember the
phrase" END the translation." Refer to the text programs to see how this END
statement is used. The END statement is associated with compile time.
Logical
IF
Statement Examples: IF(H.EQ.O.AND.B.EQ.O.AND.T.EQ.O)STOP
IF(NF.EQ.l) GO TO 9
IF(ALPHA.LT.O)IGAMA = ALPHA *180./PI-O.Ol
This statement consists of the word IF followed by a logical expression in
parentheses followed by one of three statements: STOP statement, uncon-
ditional GO TO statement, or an arithmetic statement. If the logical expression
in parentheses is true, the statement to the right of the parentheses is executed. If
this logical expression is false, the statement to the right of the parentheses is
ignored.
Logical IF statements are often used following a READ statement in order.
to stop calculations. For example:
6 READ*, DO, DI, L, T, G
IF(DO.LT.O.)STOP
When data are provided for the READ statement, a zero value for DO will stop
the calculations. In such a case numerical values must also be provided for DI,
L, T, and G. Arbitrary values will be satisfactory for these other values.
PRINT
Statement Example: PRINT 2
This statement consists of the words PRINT followed by a FORMAT statement
number. In this example the FORMAT statement number is 2.

App. A I Computer Programming for Mechanics of Materials 651

 FORMAT
Statement Example: 2 FORMAT(IX, "ERECTION SHEARS AND MOMENTS")
This statement consists of a statement number followed by the word FORMAT
followed by parenthetical information in double-quote marks. In this example
the statement number is 2. In parentheses IX directs the printer to leave one
blank column before printing the phrase ERECTION SHEARS AND
MOMENTS. The programmer may have any desired phrase printed in this
fashion. Such phrases are particularly useful in identifying numerical values that
are printed out. Another example
PRINT 5
5 FORMAT(3X," WEIGHT PER FOOT, LENGTH")

652 App. A / Computer Programming for Mechanics of Materials

APPENDIX IllClillS II ClllIClillS
lid SIIIIIIPIS

Connection or Support Force Unknowns

Action line of force, T, lies along the link or

cable; the angle, 8, is known;
Weightless link or cable; cable is perfectly flexible T is unknown and must be tensile for the cable

Action line of the reaction is perpendicular to the

frictionless surface; the reaction, R, may act up to
the right or down to the left; the magnitude and sign
of R are unknown; for 8 = 0°, the reaction is
Rollers on a frictionless surface directed vertically upward or downward

653
 Connection or Support Force Unknowns

Frictionless pin or hinge
Rx
I -tRy }
Two unknown component reactions, Rx
and Ry (alternatively, the total
reaction magnitude and its inclination
angle may be considered as the unknowns)

~p Mz R
Two unknown y
force components (R x and Ry) and an
Fixed support unknown bending moment or couple (Mz )

.. 0
Mx ~------------

Torsionally fixed support One unknown moment or torque, Mx or Tx

z
Three unknown component reactions,
Frictionless ball and socket Rx,Ry , andR z

-x

Three unknown component reactions,

Universal joint Rx. Ry and R z , and a single couple, Mx

654 App. B / Reactions at Connections and Supports

 APPENDIX Phisicllind Mlchinicil
Proplrlils 01 Slllclld Milirilis
Properties in this table are typical and should not be used for design purposes.
Consult the material manufacturers for more specific data .
.
Coefficient of Yield Strength Ultimate Strength
Thermal Modulus of Modulus Endurance
Specific Expansion Elasticity Rigidity Tension Shear Tension Limit Percent Poisson's
Weight
(Ib/in.')
•
( x 1O - in./in.j'F)
E
( x 106 psi)
G
( x 106 psi)
q,
(ksi) "
(ksi)
q.
(ksi)
Compression
(ksi)
Shear
(ksi)
q,
(ksi)
Elongation
in 2.0 in.
Ralio
Material 6
J'

METALS
Ferrous
Carbon steels
(e.g.• ASTM A36) 0.284 6.5 29.0 11.5 36.0 20.5 58.0 26.0 23.0 0.26
High·strength,
low·alloy steels
e.g.• ASTM A44I) 0.284 6.5 29.0 11.5 46.0 26.0 67.0 30.0 21.0 0.26
(ASTM A572. G6O) 0.284 6.5 29.0 11.5 60.0 34.0 75.0 34.0 18.0 0.26
Quenched and tempered
steels
(e.g.• ASTM A514) 0.284 6.5 29.0 11.5 100.0 57.0 115.0 52.0 18.0 0.26
Weathering steels
(e.g., ASTM A588) 0.284 6.5 29.0 11.5 50.0 28.5 70.0 31.5 21.0 0.26
Stainless steels
(e.g., Type 316,
cold·worked) 0.290 9.9 27.0 10.5 150.0 85.5 200.0 80.0 25.0 0.26
Nonferrous
Wrought aluminium
(e.g.,6061·T6) 0.098 13.0 10.0 3.8 35.0 20.0 38.0 24.0 13.5 12.0 0.32
Cast aluminum
(e.g., 195· T4) 0.102 12.7 10.0 3.8 16.0 32.0 26.0 7.0 8.5 0.32
Sand cast magnesium
(e.g., AZ9IB·F) 0.065 14.5 6.5 2.4 23.0 34.0 14.0 3.0 0.35
Titanium alloy
(e.g., ASTM B265) 0.161 5.2 16.6 160.0 170.0 13.0
Copper alloy
(e.g., ASTM B152) 0.322 9.8 17.0 40.0 45.0 15.0
Beryllium
(e.g., hot·pressed
structural grade) 0.066 6.4 42.0 30.0 42.0 3.0
Lead
(e.g.• cast with
6% Sb 0.393 3.5 2.8 6.6 2.5 22.0
Hard red brass alloy
(85% Cu, 15% Zn,
0.07% Pb, 0.06% Fe) 0.316 10.4 15.0 70.0 78.0 20.0 4.0

NONMETALS
Commercial Woods
Douglas fir 0.017 1.8 7.1 1.2
Longleaf yellow pine 0.021 2.0 8.5 1.5
White oak 0.024 1.6 7.0 1.9
Concrete
Low-strength 0.083 5.6 3.1 3.0
High·strength 0.083 5.6 5.1 8.0
Miscellaneous
Epoxy
(e.g., glass·fiber
filler) 0.066 12.8 3.0 15.0 4.0
Polyester
(e.g., 25% glass
reinforced) 0.058 34.0 1.5 19.3 4.5 2.0
Polyurethane
(e.g., rigid foam) 0.022 35.0 0.1 2.8 5.5
Polyvinyl chloride
(e.g., rigid) 0.051 41.7 0.5 6.8 60.0

655
 Properties in this table are typical and should not be used for design purposes.
Consult the material manufacturers for more specific data.

Coefficient of Yield Strength Ultimate Strength

Thermal Modulus of Modulus Endurance
Specific Expansion Elasticity Rigidity Tension Shear Tension Limit Poisson's

Material
Weight
(kN/m')
a
(x IO~· m/m;oC)
E
(GPa)
G
(GPo)
",
(MPa)
t,
(MPa)
".
(MPa)
Compression
(MPa)
Shear
(MPa)
".
(MPa)
Ratio
I'

METALS
Ferrous
Carbon steels
(e.g.• ASTM A36) 77.1 11.7 200.0 79.3 248.2 141.3 400.0 179.3 0.26
High-strength,
low-alloy steels
(e.g.• ASTM A441) 77.1 11.7 200.0 79.3 317.2 179.3 462.0 206.9 0.26
(ASTM A572, G6O) 77.1 11.7 200.0 79.3 413.7 234.4 517.1 234.4 0.26
Quenched and tempered
steels
(e.g., ASTM ASI4) 77.1 11.7 200.0 79.3 689.5 39lo 792.9 358.5 0.26
Weathering steels
(e.g., ASTM A588) 77.1 11.7 200.0 79.3 344.8 196.5 482.7 217.2 0.26
Stainless steels
(e.g., type 316,
cold-wolked) 78.7 17.8 186.2 72.4 1034.3 589.5 1379.0 5'1.6 0.26
Nonferrous
Wrought aluminum
(e.g.,6061-T6) 26.6 23.4 69.0 26.2 24i.3 137.9 262.0 165.5 93.1 0.32
Cast aluminum
(e.g., 195-T4) 27.7 22.9 69.0 26.2 110.3 220.6 179.3 48.3 0.32
Sand cast magnesium
(e.g.. AZ91B-F) 17.6 26.1 44.8 16.5 158.6 234.4 96.5 0.35
Titanium alloy
(e.g.. ASTM B265) 43.7 9.4 114.5 1103.2 1172.2
Copper alloy
(e.g., ASTM B152) 87.4 17.6 117.2 275.8 310.3
Beryllium
(e.g., hot-pressed
. structural grade) 17.9 11.5 289.6 206.9 289.6
Lead
(e.g.. cast with
6% Sb) 106.7 24.1 19.3 45.5 17.2
Hard red brass alloy
(85% Cu, 15% Zn,
0.07% Pb, 0.06% Fe) 85.8 18.7 103.4 42.7 537.8 137.9

NONMETALS
Commercial Woods
Douglas fir 4.6 12.4 49.0 8.3
Longleaf yellow pine 5.7 13.8 58.6 10.3
White oak 6.5 11.0 48.3 13.1
Concrete
Low-strength 22.5 10.0 21.4 20.7
High-strength 22.5 10.0 35.2 5'.2
M isc:ellaneous
Epoxy
(e.g.. glass-fiber
filler) 17.9 23.0 20.7 103.4
Polyester
(e.g., 25% glass
reinforced) 15.7 61.2 10.3 133.1 31.0
Polyurethane
(e.g., rigid foam) 6.0 63.0 0.7 19.3
Polyvinyl chloride
(e.g.. rigid) 13.8 75.1 3.4 46.9

656 App_ C / Physical and Machanical Propartlas of Salected Matarlals

APPENDIX Properlies 01 Plane Areas

Shape and Ce ntro id Area Mo ment Radius of

Area
Dimensions Location o f Inertia Gyra tio n
Rectangular area

[Qj-,
y
r =_h_
Ix = fi bh 3 x y'12
A = bh x =o
= fi hb 3
y =O
Iy r =_b_
y y'12

~b----l

Triangular area
y

1l /\ f
A =t bh y=t h r = _ h_
Ix = t; bh 3 x y'1S
x
c+ \
I---b---JT
Circular sector area

~
D sin
x =- --ex
exD2 3 ex
t sin 2ex)
4

;.;:: +c x A=-
4 Ix = ~4 (ex -
y =O
D/2
~
ex = 1r leads to circular area
y

x= O
x A = 1rD2 1rD4 D

~:d
4 Ix = Iy ="64 rx =ry =4"
y= O

657
 Shape and Area Centroid Area Moment Radius of
Dimensions Location of Inertia Gyration

Elliptical area

rb-
y
1rab
3
x=O Ix =--4 rx =~
A = 1rab
'\
y=O
t{ x
I _ 1roo 3
y - 4
ry =T
~c+
~
nth-degree
parabolic quadrant

liEj-·
y

_ (n+l)a
x = 2(n + 2)
A = nab
n+I _ (n + I)b
Y=2n+T

/~a
Vertex

nth-degree
parabolic spandrel
y

!~
n+I
x=--a
n+2
1"L-
b Y A=~
+ x
n+I
- n+I b

~~
Y = 2(2n + I)

Vertex

658 App. D I Properties of Plane Areas

APPENDIX Dlsign Proplrtils lor
Slllctld Structural Sictions

rttjW
Grip k

Web
S Shapes Dimensions

Flange Elastic Properties

Axis X-X Axis V-V

Designation Area Depth Thickness Width Thickness
A d 'w br 'r I S r I S r

In.2 In. In. In. In. In.4 In. 3 In. In.4 In.3 In.

S24 x 121 35.6 24.50 0.800 8.050 1.090 3160 258 9.43 83.3 20.7 1.53
x 106 31.2 24.50 0.620 7.870 1.090 2940 240 9.71 77.1 19.6 1.57

S24 x 100 29.3 24.00 0.745 7.245 0.870 2390 199 9.02 47.7 13.2 1.27
x 90 26.5 24.00 0.625 7.125 0.870 2250 187 9.21 44.9 12.6 1.30
x 80 23.5 24.00 0.500 7.000 0.870 2100 175 9.47 42.2 12.1 1.34

S20 x 96 28.2 20.30 0.800 7.200 0.920 1670 165 7.71 50.2 13.9 1.33
x 86 25.3 20.30 0.660 7.060 0.920 1580 155 7.89 46.8 13.3 1.36

S20 x 75 22.0 20.00 0.635 6.385 0.795 1280 128 7.62 29.8 9.32 1.16
x 66 19.4 20.00 0.505 6.255 0.795 1190 119 7.83 27.7 8.85 1.19

SI8 x 70 20.6 18.00 0.711 6.251 0.691 926 103 6.71 24.1 7.72 1.08
x 54.7 16.1 18.00 0.461 6.001 0.691 804 89.4 7.07 20.8 6.94 1.14

S15 x 50 14.7 15.00 0.550 5.640 0.622 486 64.8 5.75 15.7 5.57 1.03
x 42.9 12.6 15.00 0.411 5.501 0.622 447 59.6 5.95 14.4 5.23 1.07

S12 x 50 14.7 12.00 0.687 5.477 0.659 305 50.8 4.55 15.7 5.74 1.03
x 40.8 12.0 12.00 0.462 5.252 0.659 272 45.4 4.77 13.6 5.16 1.06

S12 x 35 10.3 12.00 0.428 5.078 0.544 229 38.2 4.72 9.87 3.89 0.980
x 31.8 9.35 12.00 0.350 5.000 0.544 218 36.4 4.83 9.36 3.74 1.00
SIO x 35 10.3 10.00 0.594 4.944 0.491 147 29.4 3.78 8.36 3.38 0.901
x 25.4 7.46 10.00 0.311 4.661 0.491 124 24.7 4.07 6.79 2.91 0.954

S8 x 23 6.77 8.00 0.441 4.171 0.426 64.9 16.2 3.10 4.31 2.07 0.798
x 18.4 5.41 8.00 0.271 4.001 0.426 57.6 14.4 3.26 3.73 1.86 0.831

S7 x 20 5.88 7.00 0.450 3.860 0.392 42.4 12.1 2.69 3.17 1.64 0.734
x 15.3 4.50 7.00 0.252 3.662 0.392 36.7 10.5 2.86 2.64 1.44 0.766

S6x17.25 5.07 6.00 0.465 3.565 0.359 26.3 8.77 2.28 2.31 1.30 0.675
x 12.5 3.67 6.00 0.232 3.332 0.359 22.1 7.37 2.45 1.82 1.09 0.705
S5 x 14.75 4.34 5.00 0.494 3.284 0.326 15.2 6.09 1.87 1.67 1.01 0.620
x 10 2.94 5.00 0.214 3.004 0.326 12.3 4.92 2.05 1.22 0.809 0.643

S4 x 9.5 2.79 4.00 0.326 2.796 0.293 6.79 3.39 1.56 0.903 0.646 0.569
x 7.7 2.26 4.00 0.193 2.663 0.293 6.08 3.04 1.64 0.764 0.574 0.581

S3 x 7.5 2.21 3.00 0.349 2.509 0.260 2.93 1.95 1.15 0.586 0.468 0.516
x 5.7 1.67 3.00 0.170 2.330 0.260 2.52 1.68 1.23 0.455 0.390 0.552
Source : American Institute of Steel Construction .

659
 Pipe Dimensions and Properties

Dimensions Weight Properties

per Foot
Nominal Outside Inside Wall Lbs. A I S r
Diameter Diameter Diameter Thickness Plain In. 2 In.4 In. 3 In.
In. In. In. In. Ends

Standard Weight

1
""2 0.840 0.622 0.109 0.85 0.250 0.017 0.041 0.261
].
4 1.050 0.824 0.113 1.13 0.333 0.037 0.071 0.334
1 1.315 1.049 0.133 1.68 0.494 0.087 0.133 0.421
[1-4 1.660 1.380 0.140 2.27 0.669 0.195 0.235 0.540
112 1.900 1.610 0.145 2.72 0.799 0.310 0.326 0.623
2 2.375 2.067 0.154 3.65 1.07 0.666 0.561 0.787
212 2.875 2.469 0.203 5.79 1.70 1.53 1.06 0.947
3 3.500 3.068 0.216 7.58 2.23 3.02 1.72 1.16
3! 4.000 3.548 0.226 9.11 2.68 4.79 2.39 1.34
4 4.500 4.026 0.237 10.79 3.17 7.23 3.21 1.51
5 5.563 5.047 0.258 14.62 4.30 15.2 5.45 1.88
6 6.625 6.065 0.280 18.97 5.58 28.1 8.50 2.25
8 8.625 7.981 0.322 28.55 8.40 72.5 16.8 2.94
10 10.750 10.020 0.365 40.48 11.9 161 29.9 3.67
12 12.750 12.000 0.375 49.56 14.6 279 43.8 4.38

Extra Strong

1
"2 0.840 0.546 0.147 1.09 0.320 0.020 0.048 0.250
3
;;: 1.050 0.742 0.154 1.47 0.433 0.045 0.085 0.321
1 1.315 0.957 0.179 2.17 0.639 0.106 0.161 0.407
114 1.660 1.278 0.191 3.00 0.881 0.242 0.291 0.524
[1-2 1.900 1.500 0.200 3.63 1.07 0.391 0.412 0.605
2 2.375 1.939 0.218 5.02 1.48 0.868 0.731 0.766
212 2.875 2.323 0.276 7.66 2.25 1.92 1.34 0.924
3 3.500 2.900 0.300 10.25 3.02 3.89 2.23 1.14
312 4.000 3.364 0.318 12.50 3.68 6.28 3.14 1.31
4 4.500 3.826 0.337 14.98 4.41 9.61 4.27 1.48
5 5.563 4.813 0.375 20.78 6.11 20.7 7.43 1.84
6 6.625 5.761 0.432 28.57 8.40 40.5 12.2 2.19
8 8.625 7_625 0.500 43.39 12.8 106 24.5 2.88
10 10.750 9.750 0.500 54.74 16.1 212 39.4 3.63
12 12.750 11.750 0.500 65.42 19.2 362 56.7 4.33

Double-Extra Strong

2 2.375 1.503 0.436 9.03 2.66 1.31 1.10 0.703

212 2.875 1.771 0.552 13.69 4.03 2.87 2.00 0.844
3 3.500 2.300 0.600 18.58 5.47 5.99 3.42 1.05
4 4.500 3.152 0.674 27.54 8.10 15.3 6.79 1.37
5 5.563 4.063 0.750 38.55 11.3 33.6 12.1 1.72
6 6.625 4.897 0.864 53.16 15.6 66.3 20.0 2.06
8 8.625 6.875 0.875 72.42 21.3 162 37.6 2.76
Source: American Institute of Steel Construction.
Note: The listed sections are available in conformance with ASTM Specification A53 Grade B or A501. Other sections
are made to these specifications. Consult with pipe manufacturers or distributors for availability.

660
 W Shapes Dimensions

Web Flange Elastic Properties

Axis x-x Axis y-y

Designation Area Depth Thickness Width Thickness
A d tw bf tf I S r I S r

In? In. In. In. In. In.4 In. 3 In. In. 4 In.3 In.

W36 x 300 88.3 36.74 0.945 16.655 1.680 20300 1110 15.2 1300 156 3.83
x 280 82.4 36.52 0.885 16.595 1.570 18900 1030 15.1 1200 144 3.81

W36 x 210 61.8 36.69 0.830 12.180 1.360 13200 719 14.6 411 67.5 2.58
x 194 57.0 36.49 0.765 12.115 1.260 12100 664 14.6 375 61.9 2.56

W33 x 241 70.9 34.18 0.830 15.860 1.400 14200 829 14.1 932 118 3.63
x 221 65.0 33.93 0.775 15.805 1.275 12800 757 14.1 840 106 3.59

W33 x 152 44.7 33.49 0.635 11.565 1.055 8160 487 13.5 273 47.2 2.47
x 141 41.6 33.30 0.605 11.535 0.960 7450 448 13.4 246 42.7 2.43

W30 x 211 62.0 30.94 0.775 15.105 1.315 10300 663 12.9 757 100 3.49
x 191 56.1 30.68 0.710 15.040 1.185 9170 598 12.8 673 89.5 3.46

W30 x 132 38.9 30.31 0.615 10.545 1.000 5770 380 12.2 196 37.2 2.25
x 124 36.5 30.17 0.585 10.515 0.930 5360 355 12.1 181 34.4 2.23
W27 x 178 52.3 27.81 0.725 14.085 1.190 6990 502 11.6 555 78.8 3.26
x 161 47.4 27.59 0.660 14.020 1.080 6280 455 11.5 497 70.9 3.24
W27 x 114 33.5 27.29 0.570 10.070 0.930 4090 299 11.0 159 31.5 2.18
x 102 30.0 27.09 0.515 10.015 0.830 3620 267 11.0 139 27.8 2.15

W24 x 162 47.7 25.00 0.705 12.955 1.220 5170 414 10.4 443 68.4 3.05
x 146 43.0 24.74 0.650 12.900 1.090 4580 371 10.3 391 60.5 3.01

W24 x 94 27.7 24.31 0.515 9.065 0.875 2700 222 9.87 109 24.0 1.98
x 84 24.7 24.10 0.470 9.020 0.770 2370 196 9.79 94.4 20.9 1.95

W24 x 62 18.2 23.74 0.430 7.040 0.590 1550 131 9.23 34.5 9.80 1.38
x 55 16.2 23.57 0.395 7.005 0.505 1350 114 9.11 29.1 8.30 1.34

W21 x 147 43.2 22.06 0.720 12.510 1.150 3630 329 9.17 376 60.1 2.95
x 132 38.8 21.83 0.650 12.440 1.035 3220 295 9.12 333 53.5 2.93

W21 x 93 27.3 21.62 0.580 8.420 0.930 2070 192 8.70 92.9 22.1 1.84
x 83 24.3 21.43 0.515 8.355 0.835 1830 171 8.67 81.4 19.5 1.83

W21 x 57 16.7 21.06 0.405 6.555 0.650 1170 111 8.36 30.6 9.35 1.35
x 50 14.7 20.83 0.380 6.530 0.535 984 94.5 8.18 24.9 7.64 1.30

Source: American Institute of Steel Construction.

App. E / Design Properties for Selected Structural Sections 661

 W Shapes Dimensions

Web Flange Elastic Properties

Axis x-x Axis y-y

Designation Area Depth Thickness Width Thickness
A d tw b, t, I S r I S r
In. 2 In. In. In. In. In.4 In. 3 In. In.4 In. 3 In.

W18 x 119 35.1 18.97 0.655 11.265 1.060 2190 231 7.90 253 44.9 2.69
x 106 31.1 18.73 0.590 11.200 0.940 1910 204 7.84 220 39.4 2.66
W18 x 71 20.8 18.47 0.495 7.635 0.810 1170 127 7.50 60.3 15.8 1.70
x 65 19.1 18.35 0.450 7.590 0.750 1070 117 7.49 54.8 14.4 1.69
W18 x 46 13.5 18.06 0.360 6.060 0.605 712 78.8 7.25 22.5 7.43 1.29
x 40 11.8 17.90 0.315 6.015 0.525 612 68.4 7.21 19.1 6.35 1.27
W16 x 100 29.4 16.97 0.585 10.425 0.985 1490 175 7.10 186 35.7 2.51
x 89 26.2 16.75 0.525 10.365 0.875 1300 155 7.05 163 31.4 2.49
W16 x 57 16.8 16.43 0.430 7.120 0.715 758 92.2 6.72 43.1 12.1 1.60
x 50 14.7 16.26 0.380 7.070 0.630 659 81.0 6.68 37.2 10.5 1.59
W16 x 31 9.12 15.88 0.275 5.525 0.440 375 47.2 6.41 12.4 4.49 1.17
x 26 7.68 15.69 0.250 5.500 0.345 301 38.4 6.26 9.59 3.49 1.12
W14 x 730 215.0 22.42 3.070 17.890 4.910 14300 1280 8.17 4720 527 4.69
x 665 196.0 21.64 2.830 17.650 4.520 12400 1150 7.98 4170 472 4.62
W14 x 426 125.0 18.67 1.875 16.695 3.035 6600 707 7.26 2360 283 4.34
x 398 117.0 18.29 1.770 16.590 2.845 6000 656 7.16 2170 262 4.31
W14 x 132 38.8 14.66 0.645 14.725 1.030 1530 209 6.28 548 74.5 3.76
x 120 35.3 14.48 0.590 14.670 0.940 1380 190 6.24 495 67.5 3.74
W14 x 82 24.1 14.31 0.510 10.130 0.855 882 123 6.05 148 29.3 2.48
x 74 21.8 14.17 0.450 10.070 0.785 796 112 6.04 134 26.6 2.48
x 68 20.0 14.04 0.415 10.035 0.720 723 103 6.01 121 24.2 2.46
x 61 17.9 13.89 0.375 9.995 0.645 640 92.2 5.98 107 21.5 2.45

W14 x 53 15.6 13.92 0.370 8.060 0.660 541 77.8 5.89 57.7 14.3 1.92
x 48 14.1 13.79 0.340 8.030 0.595 485 70.3 5.85 51.4 12.8 1.91
W14 x 38 11.2 14.10 0.310 6.770 0.515 385 54.6 5.87 26.7 7.88 1.55
x 34 10.0 13.98 0.285 6.745 0.455 340 48.6 5.83 23.3 6.91 1.53
W14 x 26 7.69 13.91 0.255 5.025 0.420 245 35.3 5.65 8.91 3.54 1.08
x 22 6.49 13.74 0.230 5.000 0.335 199 29.0 5.54 7.00 2.80 1.04
Source: American Institute of Steel Construction.

662 App. E I Design Properties for Selected Structural Sections

 W Shapes Dimensions

Web Flange Elastic Properties

Axis x-x Axis y-y

Designation Area Depth Thickness Width Thickness
A d tw bf tf I S r I S r

In. 2 In. In. In. In. In.4 In.3 In. In.4 In. 3 In

W12 x 190 55.8 14.38 1.060 12.670 1.735 1890 263 5.82 589 93.0 3.25
x 170 50.0 14.03 0.960 12.570 1.560 1650 235 5.74 517 82.3 3.22

W12 x 58 17.0 12.19 0.360 10.010 0.640 475 78.0 5.28 107 21.4 2.51
x 53 15.6 12.06 0.345 9.995 0.575 425 70.6 5.23 95.8 19.2 2.48

W12 x 50 14.7 12.19 0.370 8.080 0.640 394 64.7 5.18 56.3 13.9 1.96
x 45 13.2 12.06 0.335 8.045 0.575 350 58.1 5.15 50.0 12.4 1.94

W12 x 35 10.3 12.50 0.300 6.560 0.520 285 45.6 5.25 24.5 7.47 1.54
x 30 8.79 12.34 0.260 6.520 0.440 238 38.6 5.21 20.3 6.24 1.52

W12 x 22 6.48 12.31 0.260 4.030 0.425 156 25.4 4.91 4.66 2.31 0.847
x 19 5.57 12.16 0.235 4.005 0.350 130 21.3 4.82 3.76 1.88 0.822
WlO x 112 32.9 11.36 0.755 10.415 1.250 716 126 4.66 236 45.3 2.68
x 100 29.4 11.10 0.680 10.340 1.120 623 112 4.60 207 40.0 2.65

WI0 x 45 13.3 10.10 0.350 8.020 0.620 248 49.1 4.32 53.4 13.3 2.01
x 39 11.5 9.92 0.315 7.985 0.530 209 42.1 4.27 45.0 11.3 1.98

WlO x 30 8.84 10.47 0.300 5.810 0.510 170 32.4 4.38 16.7 5.75 1.37
x 26 7.61 10.33 0.260 5.770 0.440 144 27.9 4.35 14.1 4.89 1.36

WlO x 19 5.62 10.24 0.250 4.020 0.395 96.3 18.8 4.14 4.29 2.14 0.874
x 17 4.99 10.11 0.240 4.010 0.330 81.9 16.2 4.05 3.56 1.78 0.844
W8 x 67 19.7 9.00 0.570 8.280 0.935 272 60.4 3.72 88.6 21.4 2.12
x 58 17.1 8.75 0.510 8.220 0.810 228 52.0 3.65 75.1 18.3 2.10
W8 x 28 8.25 8.06 0.285 6.535 0.465 98.0 24.3 3.45 21.7 6.63 1.62
x 24 7.08 7.93 0.245 6.495 0.400 82.8 20.9 3.42 18.3 5.63 161

W8 x 21 6.16 8.28 0.250 5.270 0.400 75.3 18.2 3.49 9.77 3.71 1.26
x 18 5.26 8.14 0.230 5.250 0.330 61.9 15.2 3.43 7.97 3.04 1.23

W8 x 15 4.44 8.11 0.245 4.015 0.315 48.0 11.8 3.29 3.41 1.70 0.876
x13 3.84 7.99 0.230 4.000 0.255 39.6 9.91 3.21 2.73 1.37 0.843

W6 x 25 7.34 6.38 0.320 6.080 0.455 53.4 16.7 2.70 17.1 5.61 1.52
x 20 5.87 6.20 0.260 6.020 0.365 41.4 13.4 2.66 13.3 4.41 1.50

W6 x 16 4.74 6.28 0.260 4.030 0.405 32.1 10.2 2.60 4.43 2.20 0.966
x 12 3.55 6.03 0.230 4.000 0.280 22.1 7.31 2.49 2.99 1.50 0.918

W5 x 19 5.54 5.15 0.270 5.030 0.430 26.2 10.2 2.17 9.13 3.63 1.28
x 16 4.68 5.01 0.240 5.000 0.360 21.3 8.51 2.13 7.51 3.00 1.27

W4 x 13 3.83 4.16 0.280 4.060 0.345 11.3 5.46 1.72 3.86 1.90 1.00

Source: American Institute of Steel Construction.

App. E / Design Properties for Selected Structural Sections 663

 y
x tf
k

T X X d

tw
Grip
Channels
'0
Y bf American Standard

J~
Dimensions

The radius of gyration r may be found from the relation r =

Web Flange Shear Axis X-X Axis y-y

Area Depth Center
Designation A d Thickness Width Average x Loca-
tw bf thickness tion I S I S
tf eo
In.2 In. In. In. In. In. In. In.4 In. 3 In.4 In. 3
C15 x 50 14.7 15.00 0.716 3.716 0.650 0.798 0.583 404 53.8 11.0 3.78
x40 11.8 15.00 0.520 3.520 0.650 0.777 0.767 349 46.5 9.23 3.37
x 33.9 ~.96 15.00 0.400 3.400 0.650 0.787 0.896 315 42.0 8.13 3.11
C12 x 30 8.82 12.00 0.510 3.170 0.501 0.674 0.618 162 27.0 5.14 2.06
x 25 7.35 12.00 0.387 3.047 0.501 0.674 0.746 144 24.1 4.47 1.88
x 20.7 6.09 12.00 0.282 2.942 0.501 0.698 0.870 129 21.5 3.88 1.73
CIO x 30 8.82 10.00 0.673 3.033 0.436 0.649 0.369 103 20.7 3.94 1.65
x 25 7.35 10.00 0.526 2.886 0.436 0.617 0.494 91.2 18.2 3.36 1.48
x 20 5.88 10.00 0.379 2.739 0.436 0.606 0.637 78.9 15.8 2.81 1.32
x 15.3 4.49 10.00 0.240 2.600 0.436 0.634 0.796 67.4 13.5 2.28 1.16
C9 x 20 5.88 9.00 0.448 2.648 0.413 0.583 0.515 60.9 13.5 2.42 1.17
x 15 4.41 9.00 0.285 2.485 0.413 0.586 0.682 51.0 11.3 1.93 1.01
x 13.4 3.94 9.00 0.233 2.433 0.413 0.601 0.743 47.9 10.6 1.76 0.962
C8 x 18.75 5.51 8.00 0.487 2.527 0.390 0.565 0.431 44.0 11.0 1.98 1.01
x 13.75 4.04 8.00 0.303 2.343 0.390 0.553 0.604 36.1 9.03 1.53 0.854
x 11.5 3.38 8.00 0.220 2.260 0.390 0.571 0.697 32.6 8.14 1.32 0.781
C7 x 14.75 4.33 7.00 0.419 2.299 0.366 0.532 0.441 27.2 7.78 1.38 0.779
x 12.25 3.60 7.00 0.314 2.194 0.366 0.525 0.538 24.2 6.93 1.17 0.703
x 9.8 2.87 7.00 0.210 2.090 0.366 0.540 0.647 21.3 6.08 0.968 0.625
C6 x 13 3.83 6.00 0.437 2.157 0.343 0.514 0.380 17.4 5.80 1.05 0.642
x 10.5 3.09 6.00 0.314 2.034 0.343 0.499 0.486 15.2 5.06 0.866 0.564
x 8.2 2.40 6.00 0.200 1.920 0.343 0.511 0.599 13.1 4.38 0.693 0.492

C5 x 9 2.64 5.00 0.325 1.885 0.320 0.478 0.427 8.90 3.56 0.632 0.450
x 6.7 1.97 5.00 0.190 1.750 0.320 0.484 0.552 7.49 3.00 0.479 0.378
C4 x 7.25 2.13 4.00 0.321 1.721 0.296 0.459 0.386 4.59 2.29 0.433 0.343
x 5.4 1.59 4.00 0.184 1.584 0.296 0.457 0.502 3.85 1.93 0.319 0.283
C3 x 6 1.76 3.00 0.356 1.596 0.273 0.455 0.322 2.07 1.38 0.305 0.268
x 5 1.47 3.00 0.258 1.498 0.273 0.438 0.392 1.85 1.24 0.247 0.233
x 4.1 1.21 3.00 0.170 1.410 0.273 0.436 0.461 1.66 1.10 0.197 0.202

Source: American Institute of Steel Construction.

664 App. E / Design Properties for Selected Structural Sections

 y
x

Angles
Equal Legs
Properties for Designing

Axis
Weight Axis X-X and Axis Y-Y Z-Z
per
Size and Thickness k Foot Area I S r x or y r
In. In. Lb In. 2 In.4 In.3 In. In. In.

L8 x 8 x It 114 56.9 16.7 98.0 17.5 2.42 2.41 1.56

1 Ii 51.0 15.0 89.0 15.8 2.44 2.37 1.56
7
"8
112 45.0 13.2 79.6 14.0 2.45 2.32 1.57
3 Ii 38.9 11.4 69.7 12.2 2.47 2.28 1.58
4
2-
8
114 32.7 9.61 59.4 10.3 2.49 2.23 1.58
..2-
16 1 136 29.6 8.68 54.1 9.34 2.50 2.21 1.59
1
2: It 26.4 7.75 48.6 8.36 2.50 2.19 1.59

L6 x 6 x 1 It 37.4 11.0 35.5 8.57 1.80 1.86 1.17

i 118 33.1 9.73 31.9 7.63 1.81 1.82 1.17
3 114 28.7 8.44 28.2 6.66 1.83 1.78 1.17
4
i 118 24.2 7.11 24.2 5.66 1.84 1.73 1.18
16
9
1 /6 21.9 6.43 22.1 5.14 1.85 1.71 1.18
t 1 19.6 5.75 19.9 4.61 1.86 1.68 1.18
16
7 1.2.
16 17.2 5.06 17.7 4.08 1.87 1.66 1.19
3 7
14.9 4.36 15.4 3.53 1.88 1.64 1.19
"8 "8
...2... II 12.4 3.65 13.0 2.97 1.89 1.62 1.20
16 16

L5 x 5 xi 118 27.2 7.98 17.8 5.17 1.49 1.57 0.973

1 114 23.6 6.94 15.7 4.53 1.51 1.52 0.975
4
5
"8 118 20.0 5.86 13.6 3.86 1.52 1.48 0.978
1
2: 1 16.2 4.75 11.3 3.16 1.54 1.43 0.983
16
7
l~ 14.3 4.18 10.0 2.79 1.55 1.41 0.986
3 7
12.3 3.61 8.74 2.42 1.56 1.39 0.990
"8 "8
...2...
16 l~ 10.3 3.03 7.42 2.04 1.57 1.37 0.994

L4x4xt 118 18.5 5.44 7.67 2.81 1.19 1.27 0.778

5
"8 1 15.7 4.61 6.66 2.40 1.20 1.23 0.779
1
2:
7
"8 12.8 3.75 5.56 1.97 1.22 1.18 0.782
7 II 11.3 3.31 4.97 1.75 1.23 1.16 0.785
16 16
1 1 9.8 2.86 4.36 1.52 1.23 1.14 0.788
8 4
5 11 1.24 1.12 0.791
16 16 8.2 2.40 3.71 1.29
1 2- 6.6 1.94 3.04 1.05 1.25 1.09 0.795
4 8

Source: American Institute of Steel Construction.

App. E ! Design Properties for Selected Structural Sections 665

 APPENDIX Pllslic IISigl PpoplPlils lop
Sllll:lld Slpul:luPl1 Sll:liOIS

Zx Plastic Design Selection Table for Wand M shapes

Fy = 50 ksi Fy = 36 ksi
A Zx d rx ry
Mp Py Shape Mp Py
tw

Kip-ft Kip In.' In. 3 In. In. Kip-ft Kip

2140 '2080 41.6 514 W33)( 141 55.0 B.4 2.43 1540 '1500
2130 '2370 47.4 512 W27 x 161 41.8 11.5 3.24 1540 1710
- - 39.7 509 W36)( 135 59.3 14.0 2.38 1530 '1430
2030 3780 75.6 487 WI4 x 257 13.9 6.71 4.13 1460 2720
2000 4100 81.9 481 WI2 x 279 10.4 6.16 3.38 1440 2950
1950 2390 47.7 468 W24 x 162 35.5 10.4 3.05 1400 1720
1950 '1920 38.3 467 W33)( 130 57.1 13.2 2.39 1400 '1380
- - 42.9 461 W27 x 146 45.3 11.4 3.21 1380 '1540
1820 '1950 38.9 437 W30 x 132 49.3 12.2 2.25 1310 '1400
1820 3430 68.5 436 WI4 x 233 15.0 6.63 4.10 1310 2470
1780 3710 74.1 428 WI2 x 252 11.0 6.06 3.34 1280 2670
1740 '2150 43.0 418 W24 x 146 38.1 10.3 3.01 1250 1550
- - 34.7 415 W33 x 118 59.7 13.0 2.32 1250 '1250
1700 '1830 36.5 408 W30 x 124 51.6 12.1 2.23 1220 '1310
1630 3100 62.0 390 WI4 x 211 16.0 6.55 4.07 1170 2230
1610 3390 67. 7 386 WI2 x 230 11.7 5.97 3.31 1160 2440
1580 '1710 34.2 378 W30 x 116 53.1 12.0 2.19 1130 '1230
1550 2160 43.2 373 W21 x 147 30.6 9.17 2.95 1120 1560
1540 '1930 38.5 370 W24 x 131 40.5 10.2 2.97 1110 1390
1480 2840 56.8 355 WI4 x 193 17.4 6.50 4.05 1070 2040
1450 3090 61.8 348 WI2 x 210 12.5 5.89 3.28 1040 2220
1440 '1590 31.7 346 W30 x 108 54.7 11.9 2.15 1040 '1140
1430 '1680 33.5 343 W27 x 114 47.9 11.0 2.18 1030 '1210
1390 1940 38.8 333 W21 x 132 33.6 9.12 2.93 999 1400
- - 34.4 327 W24 x 117 44.1 10.1 2.94 981 '1240
1330 2590 51.8 320 WI4 x 176 18.3 6.43 4.02 960 1860
- - 29.1 312 W30 x 99 57.0 11.7 2.10 936 '1050
1300 2790 55.8 311 WI2 x 190 13.6 5.82 3.25 933 2010
1280 1800 35.9 307 W21 x 122 36.1 9.09 2.92 921 1290
1270 '1500 30.0 305 W27 x 102 52.6 11.0 2.15 915 '1080
- - 30.6 289 W24 x 104 48.1 10.1 2.91 867 '1100
1200 2340 46.7 287 W I4 x 159 20.1 6.38 4.00 861 1680
- - 32.7 279 W21 x III 39.1 9.05 2.90 837 1180
Source: American Institute of Steel Construction.
Note : Boldface type indicates the lightest-weight section ofthe group .
• Check shape for compliance with Formulas (2.7-1a) or (2.7-lb). Sect. 2.7, AISC Specification, as applicable,
when subjected to combined axial force and bending moment at ultimate loading.

666
 Zx Plastic Design Selection Table for Wand M shapes

Fy = 50 ksi Fy = 36 ksi
A Zx rx ry
Mp Py d Mp Py
Shape
tw
Kip-ft Kip In. 2 In. 3 In. In. Kip-ft Kip

1160 *1390 27.7 278 W27 x 94 54.9 10.9 2.12 834 * 997
1150 2500 50.0 275 W12 x 170 14.6 5.74 3.22 825 1800
1090 1760 35.1 261 W18 x 119 29.0 7.90 2.69 783 1260
- - 42.7 260 W14 x 145 21.7 6.33 3.98 780 1540
1060 *1390 27.7 254 W24 x 94 47.2 9.87 1.98 762 * 997
- - 29.8 253 W21 x 101 42.7 9.02 2.89 759 1070
- - 24.8 244 W27 x 84 58.1 10.7 2.07 732 * 893
1010 2240 44.7 243 W12 x 152 15.8 5.66 3.19 729 1610
- - 38.8 234 W14 x 132 22.7 6.28 3.76 702 1400
958 1560 31.1 230 W18 x 106 31.7 7.84 2.66 690 1120
933 *1240 24.7 224 W24 x 84 51.3 9.79 1.95 672 * 889
921 *1370 27.3 221 W21 x 93 37.3 8.70 1.84 663 983
892 2000 39.9 214 W12 x 136 17.0 5.58 3.16 642 1440
- - 35.3 212 W14 x 120 24.5 6.24 3.74 636 1270
879 1430 28.5 211 W18 x 97 34.7 7.82 2.65 633 1030
833 *1120 22.4 200 W24 x 76 54.4 9.69 1.92 600 * 806
825 1470 29.4 198 W16 x 100 29.0 7.10 2.51 594 1060
817 *1220 24.3 196 W21 x 83 41.6 8.67 1.83 588 875
- - 32.0 192 W14 x 109 27.3 6.22 3.73 576 1150
- - 25.3 186 W18 x 86 38.3 7.77 2.63 558 911
775 1770 35.3 186 W12 x 120 18.5 5.51 3.13 558 1270
- - 20.1 177 W24 x 68 57.2 9.55 1.87 531 * 724
729 1310 26.2 175 W16 x 89 31.9 7.05 2.49 525 943
717 *1080 21.5 172 W21 x 73 46.7 8.64 1.81 516 * 774
683 1560 31.2 164 W12 x 106 21.1 5.47 3.11 492 1120
- - 22.3 163 W18 x 76 42.8 7.73 2.61 489 803
667 *1000 20.0 160 W21 x 68 49.1 8.60 1.80 480 * 720
638 * 910 18.2 153 W24 x 62 55.2 9.23 1.38 459 * 655
625 1130 22.6 150 W16 x 77 36.3 7.00 2.47 450 814
613 1410 28.2 147 W12 x 96 23.1 5.44 3.09 441 1020
613 1650 32.9 147 WIO x 112 15.0 4.66 2.68 441 1180
604 *1040 20.8 145 W18 x 71 37.3 7.50 1.70 435 749
600 * 915 18.3 144 W21 x 62 52.5 8.54 1.77 432 * 659
579 1210 24.1 139 W14 x 82 28.1 6.05 2.48 417 868
558 * 810 16.2 134 W24 x 55 59.7 9.11 1.34 402 * 583
554 * 955 19.1 133 W18 x 65 40.8 7.49 1.69 399 688
- - 25.6 132 W12 x 87 24.3 5.38 3.07 396 922
- - 19.7 130 W16 x 67 41.3 6.96 2.46 390 709
542 1470 29.4 130 WI0 x 100 16.3 4.60 2.65 390 1060
538 * 835 16.7 129 W21 x 57 52.0 8.36 1.35 387 * 601
525 1090 21.8 126 W14 x 74 31.5 6.04 2.48 378 785
513 * 880 17.6 123 W18 x 60 44.0 7.47 1.69 369 * 634
- - 23.2 119 W12 x 79 26.3 5.34 3.05 357 835
479 1000 20.0 115 W14 x 68 33.8 6.01 2.46 345 720
471 1300 25.9 113 WIO x 88 17.9 4.54 2.63 339 932
467 * 810 16.2 112 W18 x 55 46.4 7.41 1.67 336 * 583

App. F / Plastic Design Properties for Selected Structural Sections 667

APPENDIX 91 Unils
FUNDAMENTAL UNITS IN MECHANICS
Quantity Unit Symbol
Mass kilogram kg
Length meter m
Time second s

SELECTION OF DERIVED UNITS AND CONVERSION FACTORS

Quantity Symbol English to SI
Length m 1 ft = 0 .3048 m
Area m2 1 ft 2 = 0.0929 m 2
Volume m3 1 ft3 = 0.0283 m 3
Moment of inertia m4 1 in.4 = 0.4162 x 10- 6 m 4
Section modulus m3 1 in. 3 = 16.39 x 10 - 6 m 3
Density kg/m 3 1 Ib/ft 3 = 16.03 kg/m 3
Force N (Newton) lib = 4.448 N
Moment or torque N'm 1 Ib-ft = 1.356 N . m
Stress or pressure N /m2 (Pascal) 1 psi = 0.006895 MPa
Energy or work m·N 1 ft-Ib = 1.356 m .N
Coefficient of thermal expansion m/mt C 1 in.jin.tF = 1.8 m/mr C

SI UNIT PREFIXES
Multiplication Pronunciation Meaning
Factor Prefix Symbol (U.S.) (U.S.)

1000000000 = 10 9 giga G jig' a (a as in about) One billion times

1 000 000 = 106 mega M as in megaphone One million times
1000 = 10 3 kilo k as in kiLowatt One thousand times
100 = 10 2 hecto h heck'toe One hundred times
10 = 10 1 deka da deck' a (a as in about) Ten times
0.1 = 10 - 1 deci d as in decimal One tenth of
om = 10- 2 centi c as in sentiment One hundredth of
0.001 = 10- 3 milli m as in military One thousandth of
0.000001 = 10- 6 mIcro fl as in microphone One millionth of
0.000000001 = 10- 9 nano n nan' oh (an as in ant) One billionth of

668
 APPENDIX Selected Reterences
ARGES, K. P., and PALMER, A. E. Mechanics of Materials.
McGraw-Hili Book Company, New York, 1963.
Au, T. Elementary Structural Mechanics. Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1963.
BAULD, R. Mechanics of Materials, Brooks/Cole Publishing
Co., Engineering Division, Monterey, Calif., 1982.
BEEDLE, L. S. Plastic Design of Steel Frames. John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., New York, 1958.
BEER, F. P ., and JOHNSTON, E. R. Mechanics of Materials.
McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1981.
BEER, F. P ., and JOHNSTON, E. R. Vector Mechanics for Engi-
neers: Statics and Dynamics, 3rd ed. McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York, 1977.
BORESI, A. P., SIDEBOTTOM, 0., SEELY, F. B., and SMITH, J. O.
Advanced Mechanics of Materials, 3rd ed. John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., New York, 1978.
BURGREEN, DAVID. Elements of Thermal Stress Analysis. c.P.
Press, Jamaica, N .Y., 1971.
BYARS, E. F ., and SNYDER, R. D. Engineering Mechanics of
Deformable Bodies, 2nd ed. Internal Textbook Company,
Scranton, Pa., 1969.
CHAJES, ALEXANDER. Principles of Structural Stability Theory.
Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1974.
CHOU, P. c., and PEGANO, NICHOLAS. Elasticity. Van Nostrand
Reinhold Company, New York, 1967.
CRANDALL, S. H., DAHL, N. c., and LARDNER, T. J., eds. An
Introduction to the Mechanics of Solids, 2nd ed. (with SI
units). McGraw-Hili Book Company, New York, 1978.
DEN HARTOG, 1. P. Advanced Strength of Materials. McGraw-
Hill Book Company, New York, 1952.
DEN HARTOG, J . P . Strength of Materials. Dover Publications,
Inc., New York, 1961.
DRUCKER, D . C. Introduction to Mechanics of Deformable
Solids. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1967.
DUGDALE, D. S., and RVIZ, D. Elasticity for Engineers.
McGraw-Hill Book Company (U.K.) Ltd., London, 1971.
EISENSTADT, M. M. Introduction to Mechanical Properties of
Materials. Macmillan Publishing Company, New York,
1971.
669
FERGUSON, P. M . Reinforced Concrete Fundamentals. John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1973.
FONG, T. J., eds. Fatigue Mechanisms. ASTM STP 675,
ASTM, Philadelphia, 1979.
FORD, HUGH. Advanced Mechanics of Materials. John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., New York, 1963.
FREUDENTHAL, A. M. Introduction to Mechanics of Solids.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1966.
FROCHT, M. M. Photo-Elasticity. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
New York, 1941,
FUCHS, H . O. Metal Fatigue in Engineering. John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., New York, 1980.
GINSBERG, J . H., and GENIN, 1. Statics and Dynamics. John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1977.
GOL'DENBLA T, I. I. Some Principles of the Mechanics of
Deformable Media. P. Noordhoff, Groningen, Holland,
1962.
HIBBELER, R. C. Engineering Mechanics: Statics, 3rd ed. Mac-
millan Publishing Company, New York, 1983.
HIGDON, A., OHLSEN, E. H ., STILES, W. B., WEESE, J. A., and
RILEY, W. F . Mechanics of Materials, 3rd ed. John Wiley
& Sons, Inc., New York, 1976.
HOADLEY, A. Essentials of Structural Design. John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., New York, 1964.
ILYUSHIN, A. A., and LENSKII, V. S. Strength of Materials. Per-
gamon Press, Inc., Elmsford, N.Y., 1967.
JAMES, M. L., et al. Applied Numerical Methods for Digital
Computations-With FORTRAN and CSMP. Dun-
Donnelley Publishing Corporation, New York, 1977.
JONES, R. M. Mechanics of Composite Materials. Scripta Book
Company, Washington, D .C., 1975.
LEITHOLD, L. The Calculus with Analytic Geometry. Harper &
Row, Publishers, New York, 1968.
LEVINSON, 1. Mechanics of Materials. Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1970.
LIN, T. H. Theory of Inelastic Structures. John Wiley & Sons,
Inc., New York, 1968.
LUBAHN, J. D., and FELGAR, R. P. Plasticity and Creep of
Metals. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1961.
LUXMOORE, A. R., and OWEN, D. R. J., eds. Numerical Methods
in Fracture Mechanics. University College Swansea, West
Glamorgan, U.K., 1978.
MCCORMAC, J. C. Structural Analysis. Intext Educational
Publishers, New York, 1975.
MCCUEN, R. H. Fortran Programming for Civil Engineers.
Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1975.
MERIAM, J. T. Statics-SI Version. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
New York, 1975.
MILLER, F. E., and DOERINGSFELD, H. A. Mechanics of
Materials. International Textbook Company, Scranton,
Pa., 1966.
MOTT, R. L. Applied Strength of Materials. Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1978.
NEVILLE, A. M. Properties of Concrete. Pitman Publishing Pty
Ltd., Carlton, Victoria, Australia, 1973.
NICHOLS, ROBERT. Composite Construction Materials Hand-
book. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1976.
OGIBALOV, P. M., MALININ, N. I., NETREBKO, V. P., and
KISHKIN, B. P. Structural Polymers, Testing Methods,
Vols. I and II. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1974.
POLAKOWSKI, N. H., and RIPLING, E. Strength and Structure of
Engineering Materials. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood
Cliffs, N.J., 1966.
PoPOv, E. P. Introduction to Mechanics of Solids. Prentice-
Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1968.
PoPOv, E. P. Mechanics of Materials (SI Version), 2nd ed.
Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1978.
RADON, J. c., ed. Fracture and Fatigue. Pergamon Press, Inc.,
Elmsford, N.Y., 1980.
ROARK, R. J. Formulasfor Stress and Strain, 4th ed., McGraw-
Hill Book Company, New York, 1965.
SANDOR, B. I. Strength of Materials. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Engle-
wood Cliffs, N.J., 1978.
SEELY, FRED B., and SMITH, J. O. Resistance of Materials, 4th
ed. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1956.
SHAMES, I. H. Mechanics of Deformable Solids. Prentice-Hall,
Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1964.
SHANLEY, F. R. Strength of Materials. McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York, 1957.
670
SHIGLEY, J. E. Mechanical Engineering Design. McGraw-Hill
Book Company, New York, 1972.
SINGER, F. L. Strength of Materials, 3rd ed., Harper & Row,
Publishers, 1980.
SLOANE, ALVIN. Mechanics of Materials. Macmillan Publishing
Company, New York, 1952.
SMITH, C. W. Fracture Mechanics. ASTM, Philadelphia, 1979.
SMITH, J. 0., and SIDEBOTTOM, O. M. Inelastic Behavior of
Load-Carrying Members. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New
York,1965.
SNYDER, R. D., and BYARS, E. F. Engineering Mechanics:
Statics and Strength of Materials. McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York, 1973.
TIMOSHENKO, S. P. History of Strength of Materials. McGraw-
Hill Book Company, New York, 1953.
TIMOSHENKO, S. P. Theory of Elastic Stability. McGraw-Hill
Book Company, New York, 1936.
TIMOSHENKO, S. P., and GERE, J. M. Mechanics of Materials.
Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, 1972.
TIMOSHENKO, S. P., and GOODIER, J. N. Theory of Elasticity,
3rd ed. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1970.
UGURAL, A. c., and FENSTER, S. K. Advanced Strength and
Applied Elasticity. Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co., Inc.,
New York, 1981.
VAN VLACK, L. H. Materialsfor Engineering. Addison-Wesley
Publishing Co., Inc., Reading, Mass., 1982.
VOLTERRA, ENRICO, and GAINES, J. H. Advanced Strength of
Materials. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J.,
1971.
WHITE, R. N., GERGELY, P., and SEXSMITH, R. G. Structural
Engineering. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1972.
WONG, C. T. Applied Elasticity. McGraw-Hill Book Company,
New York, 1953.
American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc., Manual of Steel
Construction, Eighth Edition. AISC, Chicago, 1980.
AS ME Journal of Applied Mechanics, 1934, 1935, 1936, and
1951.
Machine Design, Reference Issues, 1975, 1976, and 1977.
App. H / Selected References
Anslllleps 10
Inn-lllDbeped PpoblelDs
(Only partial answers are given for some problems; a pocket calculator was used to solve these
problems and three or more significant figures are given. It should be noted that in some cases more
significant figures are given than warranted by the accuracy of the data.)

Chapter 1

1.2 F = 150x + 120 kN (0 ~ x ~ 10)

1.4 x = 10 m, F = 125 kN
1.6 F = 122.5x lb (0 ~ x ~ 40)
1.8 R = 18 k -+ F = 26 k (8 < x < 12)
1.10 F = 4x lb (14 ~ x ~ 18)
1.12 F = 23 k (10 < x < 18)
1.14 F = 580 + 8x lb (20 < x ~ 28)
1.16 F = 63.72 - 1.18x k (4 ~ x ~ 54);f = 0.93 k/ft
1.18 TA = TB = 43,300 lb-ft
1.20 T = 200 N . m (10 < x < 16)
1.22 T = -10 k-in. (20 < x < 50)
1.24 T = 80x + 10x 2 N . m (0 ~ x ~ 6)
1.26 T mu. = 120 k-in., x = 40 in.
1.28 Tmax = 3600 k-in., x = 120 in.
1.30 T = 180 k-in. (220 < x < 270)
1.32 R = 86 kN t, C = 712 kN'm (ccw)
1.34 MA = -120kN' m, MD = 20kN· m
1.36 VB = -6.4 kN, MB = -21.5 kN· m
1.38 MA = 35 k-ft, MB = 58.75 k-ft, Mc = 56.25 k-ft
1.40 MA = -20 k-ft, MB = 20 k-ft
1.42 VA = 21 k, M A = 132 k-ft
1.44 VB = - 300 lb, M B = -1000 lb-ft
1.46 VA = -20 k, MA = -120 k-ft, ME = -200 k-ft
1.48 Rc = 34.3 k t, MA = -87.8 k-ft
1.50 Support bending moments: - 358,400 lb-ft
1.52 Bending moments at lift points: -1200 k-ft

671
 1.54 Mmax = 2400 N . m, x =4 m
1.56 Mmax = 2.062 k-ft, M min = -28.994 k-ft
1.58 DE: V = -4P, M = 4P(L - x) (0.7L :S x :S L)
1.60 Just to left of C: M = -7.5 QL; just to right of C: M = 0.5 QL
1.62 Mmax = 6912 N· m, x = 4.8 m
1.64 MB = -280 k-ft
1.66 Mmax = 32 k-ft (4 :S x :S 20)
1.68 BC: V = -60 kN, M = 600 - 60x (6:S x :S 10)
wBL WB
1.70 M = 12 x - 12I! x (O:S x :S L)
4

1.72 M = 4wLx - 24wI! (4L :S x :S 6L)

1.74 V = 1.7 wL (L < x < 4L); M = 4.60 wLZ , x = 4L
1.76 Vmax = wL/4, Mmax = l27SWI!
1.78 Vmax = P/2, Mmax = Pb
1.80 Vmax = iwb, M max = iwb 2
1.82 Tmax = 1260Ib-ft, V max = 360lb

1.84 F max = 860 lb, V = -600 1b

1.86 F max = 12 k, Vmax = 12.5 k, M max = 50 k-ft
1.88 F = 5.6 k, V max = 5.86 k, M max = 46.9 k-ft (4 k +- replaced by 5.6 k +- for equilibrium)

1.90 F = 40 k, V = -5 k, Mmax = 40 k-ft

1.92 At x = 16 ft: V = -800 Ib, M = -4267 Ib-ft
1.94 At x = 0: T = 18,000 k-ft, V = 900 k, M;= -135,000 k-ft
1.96 Vmin = - 16.57 kN, Mmax = 33.15 kN . m

Chapter 2

2.2 0" = -88.4 MPa, T = 2.00 MPa

2.4 (a) ax = -24.6 MPa, a y = 4.6 MPa, 'xy = 54.7 MPa
(b) a l = 46.6 MPa, a 2 = 0, a 3 = -66.6 MPa
2.6 0"1 = 20 ksi, o"z = 0, 0"3= -20 ksi; TI = Tz = Tmax = 20 ksi
2.8 (a) 0"1 = 75 ksi, o"z = 0"3 = 0, TI = TZ = Tmax = 37.5 ksi
(b) 0"1 = O"z = 0, 0"3 = -75 ksi, TI = TZ = Tmax = 37.5 ksi
2.10 0"1 = 0, =
-6.91 ksi, 0"3
O"z = -18.09 ksi
On plane 35° cw to X plane: 0" = -16.34 ksi, T = 4.06 ksi
2.12 (a) R = 16.1 ksi, OC = 17.4 ksi
(b) O"v = 23.4 ksi, 0"1 = 33.4 ksi, O"z = 1.3 ksi
2.14 (a) Two planes: 45° cw from X plane and 71.6 ccw from X plane 0

(b) On first plane: a = 25.0 ksi; on second plane: a = 5.0 ksi

2.16 (a) O"x = -157.5 MPa, O"y = -72.5 MPa, Txy = 73.6 MPa
(b) 'I
= 'Z = 'max = 85.0 MPa
2.18 0"1 = 65 MPa, O"z = 0, 0"3 = -115 MPa;
on plane 25° ccw from Y plane: 0" = - 35.1 MPa, T = 89.4 MPa

672 Answers to Even-Numbered Problems

 2.20 (a) R = 8.6 ksi (b) (1" = 6.0 ksi
(c) (11 = 21.6 ksi, (12 = 4.4 ksi, (13 = 0, "max = 8.6 ksi
2.22 I"max I = 15 ksi
2.24 l"Tmaxl = 9.05 ksi
2.26 UI = 14.0 ksi, U2 = 4.0 ksi, U3 = 0
2.28 UI = 14.14 ksi, U2 = 0, U3 = -15.86 ksi
2.30 1:. = 1:, = 50 X 10- 6 , Yn' = 300 X 10- 6
2.32 E. = -348 X 10-6 , E, = 248 X 10- 6 , 'Ynt = 233 X 10-6
2.34 1:" = 455 X 10- 6 , I:y = 445 X 1O- 6 ,y"y = 583 X 10- 6
2.36 Two answers: IX = 15.4° ccw from x axis; IX = 97.9° ccw from x axis
2.38 Two answers: a = 35.1° ccw from n axis; a = 43.6° cw from n axis
2.40 1:1 = 312.3 X 10- 6 ,1: 2 = 0, 1:3 = -512.3 X 10- 6 ; Ymax = I Ymax I = 824.6 X 10- 6
2.42 1:1 = 500 X 10- 6 ,1: 2 = 0, 1:3 = -500 x 10- 6 ; Ymax = I Ymax I = 1000 x 10- 6
2.44 'Ynt = -217 X 10- 6

2.46 'Ynt = -145 X 10-6

2.48 'Y., = 362 X 10-6
2.50 (a) 1:" = 167 X 1O- 6 ,l:y = -267 X 10- 6 , Y"y = 250 X 10- 6
(b) Ymax = 500 X 10- 6 (c) I' = -250 X 10- 6
2.52 (a) Y"y = 1670 X 10- 6 (b) 1:1 = 1250 X 10- 6 ,8 2 = 0, 83 = -750 X 10- 6
(c) I Ymax I = 2000 x 10- 6
2.54 (a) E = 187.5 GPa (c) I "max I = 75 MPa
2.56 (a) G = 18.0 X 106 psi (c) EI = 833 X 10- 6 , E2 = 0, E3 = -833 X 10-6
2.58 (a) UI = 149.8 MPa, U2 = 63.6 MPa, U3 = 0 (b) l"Tmaxl = 74.9 MPa
2.60 (a) (1" = 142.1 MPa, (1y = 66.9 MPa, ""y = 60.2 MPa (c) "max = 71.0 MPa
2.62 (b) (11=0,(12=-42:tMPa,(13=-137.1MPa (d) l" max l=68.6MPa
2.64 (a) UI = 0, U2 = -5140 psi, U3 = -24,000 psi (b) l"Tmaxl = 9450 psi
2.66 (a) EI= 200 X 10- 6 along the y axis; E2 = 138 X 10- 6 along the x axis; E3 = -113 X
10-6 along the z axis (c) l'Ymaxl = 313 X 10-: 6
2.68 (a) 81 = 317 x 10- 6 ,8 2 = -25 x 10- 6 ,83 = -242 X 10- 6 (c) IYmaxl = 559 x 10- 6

Chapter 3

3.2 (a) P = 25.7 kN (b) 8 = 3.45 X 10- 3 m

(c) EI = 476 10- 6 , E2 = E3 = -119 X 10- 6 , l'Ymaxl
X = 595 X 10- 6
3.4 (a) AAB = 1.450 in. 2, ABC = 1.933 in. 2, ACD = 0.967 in. 2

(c) I"max I = 31.1 ksi in AB

3.6 E = 61.1 GPa, (1 = - 81.5 MPa, I"max I = 40.8 MPa
3.8 d = 36.5 X 10-3 m
3.10 (a) P = 51.0 k (b) P = 19.6 k (c) P = 71.9 k
3.12 (b) 8BC = 9.0 X 10- 4 m (d) "TD = 327.9 MPa
3.14 P = 297.4 lb, bs = 0.178 in.
3.16 (b) b = 1.49 x 10- 3 m

Answers to Even-Numbered Problems 673

 3.18 (a) bA = 92.9 X 10- 3 m l (b) bB = 42.9 X 10- 3 m l (c) bD = 102.0 X 10- 3 m l
3.20 (a) (1)= 8.7 MPa, 112 = 113 = 0 (c) b BC = 1.1 X 10- 4 m
3.22 (a) 11= 90.0 MPa (b) b = -1.88 X 10- 4 m
3.24 (a) In Be: 0") = 1.89 ksi, 0"2 = 0"3 = 0 (c) 'TA = 12.32 ksi
3.26 (a) W = 11.0 kN (b) In AB: (1) = 6.5 MPa, 112 = 113 = 0
3.28 (a) O"p = 244.9 MPa, 8 p = 2449 X 10- 6
(c) (1) = 112 = 0, 113 = -244.9 MPa
3.30 (a) J1. = 0.30 (c) E = 46.9 GPa
3.32 (a) J1. = 0.333 (c) 0" = 833.3 MPa (e) E = 277.8 GPa
3.34 (a) I1p = 70 MPa (b) I1s = 107 MPa (c) E = 70.1 GPa
3.36 11. = 101,860 psi, 11, = 84,030 psi
3.38 (a) Percent reduction of area = 50.4 (b) Percent elongation = 22.5
3.40 11. = 5000 psi, Il. = 25 X 10- 4

3.42 (a) E = 29,000 ksi (b) I1p = 215 ksi

(c) Il. = Il, = 50,000 X 10- 6 (d) MT = 11.5 k-in./in.3

Chapter 4

4.2 AB = 19,100 psi, BC = 0 psi, CD = 15,646 psi

4.4 !max = 30.56 MPa, () = 0°
4.6 !max = 5660 psi, () = 0°
4.8 ! = 30.2 MPa
4.10 'Tmax = 10,580 psi
4.12 ! = 141.5 MPa
4.14 AB or DE: !max = 2.83 ksi
4.16 !max = 2.86 ksi
4.18 (1) = 5660 psi, 112 = 0, 113 = - 5660 psi
4.20 0") = 40.7, 0"2 = 0, 0"3 = -40.7 MPa
4.22 10") = 74.6, 0"2 = 0, 0"3 = -74.6 MPa
4.24 Outside: (1) = 175.5,112 = 0, 113 = -175.5 MPa;
inside: (1) = 105.3, 112 = 0, 113 = -105.3 MPa
4.26 (1) = 19.1,11 2 = 0, 113 = 19.1 ksi
Il) = 8.55 x 10-4, 112 = 0, 113 = 8.55 X 10- 4
4.28 0") = 2.86, 0"2 = 0, 0"3 = -2.86 ksi
8) = 11.9 x IO- S, 82 = 0, 83 = -11.9 x lO- s
4.30 (1) = 46.8, 112 = 0, 113 = -46.8 MPa
Il) = 0.234 X 10- 3, 112 = 0, 113 = -0.234 X 10- 3
4.32 0") = 99.50, 0"2 = 0, 0"3 = -99.50 MPa
8) = 0.50 X 10- 3, 82 = 0, 83 = -0.50 X 10- 3
4.34 (a) r = 0.0317 m
(b) The triangular shaft will twist 1.37 times the circular shaft.
4.36 (a) !max = 3.28 MPa (b) () = 4.99 X 10- 3 rad
4.38 T = 170 kN· m, () = 0.104 rad

674 Answers to Even-Numbered Problems

 4.40 T = 2.083 k-in., () = 0.169 rad
4.42 T = 500 N . m, Tm • x = 80 MPa
4.44 T = 50.2 k-in., constant = 10 ksi
4.46 (a) 6 x 106 psi (b) T = 30.43 k-in. (e) 9.14 x 10- 3 rad (d) 121b-in./in. 3
4.48 t = 0.05 in., Di = 4.40, L2 = 13.5 in.
4.50 (a) G = 12.0 X 106 psi (d) u = 0.0664 k-in./in.3
4.52 (a) G = 85.8 GPa (d) u = 0.523 MN . m/m 3
4.54 (b) G = 10.4 X 106 psi (d) u = 0.124 k-in./in. 3

Chapter 5

5.2 Ix = 1480 in.4, Iy = 810 in.4, Pxy = 825 in.4

5.4 Iu = Iv = 133.33 X 10- 6 m 4
5.6 Iu = 378.0 in.4, Iv = 132.0 in. 4
5.8 Iu = 21.67 X 10- 6 m 4, Iv = 5.47 X 10- 6 m 4
5.10 Mohr's circle is a point. I = constant = 133.33 x 10- 6 m 4
5.12 IX' = 9.52 X 10- 6 m4, I y ' = 17.62 X 10- 6 m4, PX'Y' = -7.01 X 10- 6 m4
5.14 ru = 4.62 in., rc = 4.76 in.
5.16 rv = 0.0327 m, rc = 0.0535 m
5.18 ru = 4.52 in., rv = 2.52 in.
5.20 a = 0.3651 m, Iy = 90.0 X 10- 6 m4
5.22 (a) Iu = 426.9 in.4, Iv = 215.4 in. 4 (b) = 4.39 in., rv = 3.12 in.
ru
5.24 (a) Iu = 11050 in.4, Iv = 1536 in.4 (b) ru = 8.31 in., rv = 3.10 in.
5.26 (a) Iu = 163.3 in.4, Iv = 18.3 in.4 (b) ru = 3.38 in., rv = 1.13 in.
5.28 (Trnax = 16.87 ksi (tension on top, compression on bottom)
5.30 = 45.00 MPa (tension on top, compression on bottom)
/T m • x

5.32 /T m • x = 60.00 ksi (tension on top, compression on bottom)

5.34 (b) /T m • x = 80.78 MPa (compression on top, tension on bottom)
5.36 /Ttop = 120.80 MPa (C), /Tbot = 189.84 MPa (T)
5.38 (Ttop = 4.329 ksi (T), (Toot = 3.459 ksi (C)
5.40 Mmax = 343 k-ft (b) w = 6.36 k/ft
5.42 F = 411.428 kN (C) (b) F = 205.716 kN (T)
5.44 (b) /T m • x = 14.80 MPa (tension on top, compression on bottom)
5.46 (e) /T m • x = 8.731 ksi (compression on top, tension on bottom)
5.48 (a) Rotate section 35.2° cw (b) (Trnax = 1.956 ksi (tension and compression)
5.50 (a) T = 1.099 ksi (b) T = 1.172 ksi
5.52 (a) T = 1.529 ksi (b) T = 1.615 ksi
5.54 (a) T = 1.85 MPa (b) T = 1.85 MPa

5.56 T = ~ (~)
5.58 (a) 'T = 4.137 ksi (b) 'Tmax = 4.482 ksi

Answers to Even-Numbered Problems 675

 5.60 (a) T = 639 psi (c) Tmax = 860 psi
5.62 0"1 = 10.24 MPa, 0"2 = 0, 0"3 = -217.24 MPa; Tmax = 113.7 MPa
5.64 0"1 = 33.805 ksi, 0"2 = 0, 0"3 = -1.417 ksi; Tmax = 17.611 ksi
5.66 0'1 = 38.749 ksi, 0'2 = 0'3 = 0; 'max = 19.375 ksi
5.68 Diameter = 0.346 in.
5.70 V = 2.726 kN
5.72 P=I72.8k
5.74 81 = 2282.9 X 10- 6 ,8 2 = -648.0 X 10-6,8 3 = -770.9 x 10- 6 ;
I Ymax I = Ymax = 3053.8 X 10- 6
5.76 O"rnax = 14,200 psi (tension and compression)
5.78 (aten)max = 167.48 MPa, (acomp)max = 196.89 MPa
5.80 (ate.)max = 193.68 MPa, (acomp)max =169.26 MPa
5.82 O"max = 3210 psi (tension and compression)
5.84 (alen)max = 3.762 ksi, (acomp)max = 4.294 ksi

Chapter 6

wx 4 wLx 3 wL2 x 2
6.2 (a) EI V= --+-----
• 24 6 4
WL4 -5wL4 WL2
(b) v == - 8EI = 396Eb 4 (c) 0'= llb 3 ; yes
•
P(L - a)3 PbL pIJ
6.4 (a) C I = C3 = 6L - -6-; C 2 = C4 = 0 (b) VI = V2 = - - -
48EI.
0.00652woL4. ... f:
6.6 x = 0.519L v = x = L/ V 3, M = 0.0642woL2
, EI.
4wa 3
6.8
3EI.
wV wV
6.10 VA = 0.00627 - l, vcenler = 0.000379 - i
EI. EI.
, Mo(L - x) Mo(2Lx - x 2 - 13)
6.12 v = v = ---''-'------...:;.
EI.' 2EI.
wLx 3 wx 4 w13x 2
6.14 Central region (L/3 :s; x :s; 2L/3) EI v
• 2
= 12
- - - 24
----
36
+ C3 x + C-4
-wIJ wL4 -205wL4
C3 = --n' C4 = - 1944 Deflection at x = L/2: v2 = 31104EI.

llwL4
6.16 VA =- 24EI.
-pIJ -5wL4
6.18 Center deflections: -48 ' - 3 8 With P = w/L, the deflection ratio is 1.6.
EI. 4EI.

6.20 V = _ wx 3 + wL'loading: W(~)2 The left end is fixed.

313 3' L
4w X 5 / 2 16w I X 9 / 2 8w I IJ 56w I L4
6.22 M. = - 1;V/2 EI.v = - 945V/2 + 105 x - 945

676 Answers to Even-Numbered Problems

 56w I L4
6.24 V ---
B - 945EI u
16w I L4 1lX C I X3 C 2 X2 wI 2L 2wI L2
6.26 EIu v =- ~ cos 2L + -6- + -2- + C 3 x + C4 ; C I = -1l-' C l = -----;z'
16w I L4
C 3 = 0, C4 = - - 4 -
1l
-W I X7 X3 X2. wlIJ
6.28 EIu v = 840IJ +CI"6+C2"2+C3X+C4,CI=0,Cl=0,C3= 120'

-w 1 L4
C4=~

WI X6 X3 Xl WI L WI 13
6.32 (a) EIu v = - 36013 + C I "6 + C 2 "2 + C 3 x + C 4; C I = -3-' C l = - -4-'

C 3 = 0, C4 = 0
(b) WI = 659.5 lb/in.
W X6 W X5 X3 X2 WL
6.34 EIu v = 9~Ll - 3~L +CI"6+C2"2+C3X+C4;CI=T,C2=0,
wIJ
C3 = - ~O ' C4 = 0

-wIIJ 7w IJ
C
3
=-
45
---2
-
360 '
C =0
4

6.38 (a) Uniform loading: ~L = ~

2E
(!:.),
h
Ve = 1.15 in.

(b) .
Concentrated loadmg: -Ve = -
L
2a (L)
3E
- ,
h
Ve = 1.54 in.

6.40 a = 0.39L
6.42 Vc (uniform)/vc (concentrated) = 0.625
6.44 (a) E = 1.327 X 106 psi (b) a = 1807 psi, bottom fiber at load
(c) = 109 psi, neutral axis at ends
't"
(d) v = 0.06039 in. (0.00039 in. due to beam weight)
6.46 (} = 1.18 X 10- 2 rad, v = 4.08 X 10- 2 m
6.48 v = 0.80 in. down, (} = 1.580 X 10- 2 rad cw
6.50 v = 0.452 in., 't" = 27.5 psi
6.52 (a) Mu = 852 k-ft (b) M v = 33.1 k-ft
6.54 (} = 3.51 X 10- rad cw, v = 19.4 X 10- 2 m down
2

6.56 IX = 4.58
wL4
6.58 P= 0.05, VE = 0.00677 -.-
EIu
6.60 () = CL/EI u, v = C13/(2EI u)

Answers to Even-Numbered Problems 677

 5Pb 3 17Pb 2
(c) Vc = 4EI (d) () = - - (ccw)
u D 12E1u
() _ 57wa 3 v _ 23wa 4 wa 4
6.68 (a) A - 72E1u (b) B - 36E1u (c) Vmax = 0.740 - at x = 1.4724a
E1u
47wa 4 57wa 3
(d) v - -- (e) () - - -
c - 72E1u D - 72E1u
5Pb 3 4Pb 2
6.70 Vc = 3EI! (}B = - - (cw)
u 3EI
5MoL2 3MoL
6.72 v = - - () = - -
B 16EIu ' A 2EIu
17Pa 3
6.74 Vc = 24Ell !

112Pa 3
6.76 VA = 12EI !
1

l1wa4
6.78 VB = 48EI !
1

6.80 Midspan deflection: 0.064 in. t

wL4 wL4
6.82 VM = 3.51 - L Vc = 2.3 - i
Elu Elu
13PI!
6.84 V = 12E1u !
WL4
6.86 V = 0.0099 - !
E1u
6.88 v = 0.0063 m t
p/3 p/3
6.90 () A = 12EIu = 86, 272Et4 (cw)
6.92 (}B = MB
3E1u
(a 3
~ b3 )
~
(cw)

I1Pa 3
6.94 VA = 6EI !
u

47wa 4
6.96 V ---
c - 72E1u

Chapter 7

7.2 (a) 0'\ = 45.54 MPa, 0'2 = 0, 0'3 = -11.9 MPa (b) () = 1.94 X 10- 2 rad
7.4 (a) 0'\ = 14.587 ksi, 0'2 = 0, 0'3 = -6.10 ksi, ITmaxl = 10.34 ksi
(b) I) = 0.020 in., () = 0.45 X 10- 4 rad

678 Answers to Even-Numbered Problems

 7.6 (a) Ul = 20.59 MPa, U2 = 0, U3 = -2.75 MPa, 'Tmax = 11.7 MPa
(b) I) = 5.0 X 10-4 m, 8 = 3.73 X 10- 3 rad
7.8 P = 675.5 kN
7.10 T = 172.9 k-in.
7.12 8 1 = 1202.6 X 10- 6 ,6 2 = -212.2 X 10- 6 ,6 3 = -566.0 X 10- 6 ,
I Ymax I = Ym• x = 1768.6 X 10- 6
7.14 Principal stress oflargest magnitude,lu = 117.85 MPa
7.16P = 109.7 kN
7.18 0"1 = 144.23 MPa, 0"2 = 0, 0"3 = -1.41 MPa, I "tmax I = 72.82 MPa
7.20 UA = 20.7 MPa (T), UD = 6.00 MPa (C)
7.22 0"1 = 0.557 ksi, (72 = 0, 0"3 = -1.183 ksi, I "t max I = 0.870 ksi
7.24 P = 81.566 kN
7.26 P = 72.464 k
7.28 (71 = 48.31 MPa, 0"2 = 0"3 = 0, I"t max I = 24.12 MPa
7.30 61 = 87.4
10- 6 ,6 2 = 6 3 = -21.9
X X 10- 6 , I Ymax 1= 109.3 X 10- 6
7.32 See Fig. P7.32 for answer
7.34 F = 3245.1 lb
7.36 Ul = 3.61 MPa, U2 = 0, U3 ITmaxl = 85.71 MPa
= -167.81 MPa,
7.38 (71 = 9.016 ksi, 0"2 = 0, 0"3 = -4.608 ksi, I "t max I = 6.812 ksi
7.40 (b) Ul = 10.447 ksi, U2 = 0, U3 = -10.447 ksi, l'Tmaxl = 10.447 ksi
7.42 F = 6.485 kN; 0"1 = 1.17 MPa, 0"2 = 0, 0"3 = -98.83 MPa
7.44 (T 1 = 1349 psi, 0"2 = 0, (T 3 = - 5639 psi, I "t max I = 3494 psi
7.46 0"1 = 204.21 MPa, (72 = 0, 0"3 = -3.31 MPa, I"tmaxl = 103.76 MPa
7.48 6 1 = 101.4 X 10- 6 ,8 2 = 42.9 X 10- 6 ,6 3 = -201.5 X 10- 6 , I Ymax 1= Ymax = 302.8 X 10- 6
7.50 Ul = 104.63 MPa, U2 = 0, U3 = -44.63 MPa, ITmaxl = 74.63 MPa
7.52 P = 7F = 45,1221b
7.54 P = 10F = 213.27 kN
7.56 (71 = 1.21 MPa, (72 = 0, 0"3 = - 87.27 MPa, I "tmax I = 44.24 MPa
7.58 Ul = 16.200 ksi, U2 = 0, U3 = -4.557 ksi, ITmaxl = 10.38 ksi
7.60 F = 6.158 kN; "tmax = 50.56 MPa
7.62 Ul = 13,100 psi, U2 = 0, U3 = -2320 psi, l'Tmaxl = 7710 psi
7.64 p = 0.85 kN/m2
7.66 0"1 = 19.327 ksi, (72 = 0, 0"3"" -1.791 ksi, I "tm • x 1= 10.559 ksi
7.68 Diameter = 8.451 in.
7.70 81 = 267.3 X 10- 6 ,8 2 =- 56.6 X 10- 6 ,8 3 = -97.5 X 10- 6 , I Yma• I = Ymax "" 364.8 x 10"-~
7.72 (71 = 35.76 MPa, (72 = 0, (73 = -4.52 MPa, I "tmax 1= 20.14 MPa
7.74 Diameter = 2.56 in.
7.76 T = 12.43 kN-m
7.78 Diameter = 4.08 in.
7.80 Diameter = 3.76 in.
7.82 T = 4.65 kN-m
7.84 M = 128,600 lb-in.

Answers to Even-Numbered Problems 679

 Chapter 8

8.2 See Example 8.2.

8.4 Critical W = 4klL
8.6 (a) Yes (b) No (c) 1258.51h/ft
8.8 Cruciform is 1.42 times as strong as the channel.
8.10 Minimum L ;: 70.8 ft
8.12 (a) Pe = 386.4 kN (b) 37.2 MPa (c) 274
8.14 (b) P e = 153 kN (c) 34.7 MPa (d) 1.56 m
8.16 (a) 816 k (b) 27.20 ksi (c) 16.6 ft
8.18 89.2:;;; LITv :;;; 200
8.20 1.86 ft
8.22 (a) 834 kN (b) 70.82 MPa (c) 348
8.24 The hollow circular is stronger by a factor of 1.214.

8.26 U = Ao
2
(_1
. )
P
cos kx _ Ao ( _ 1 ) cos 2nx when x
2 P L
= ~2' U = (i
1-- 1--
Pe Pe
. Mo -Mo
8.28 u = A cos kx + B sm kx + - ,
Pe
A = --, B
Pe
= 0, Le = LI2

. Q(L - xl QL Q
8.30 u = C 1 cos kx + C 2 sm kx + P ; C1 = - p' C2 = kP; tan kL = kL, kL = 4.49341

8.32 u = C 3 cos kx + C4
. Ao.
sm kx - 1 _ (PIPe) sm 'nxL> C 3 = 0, C4 =0

8.34 Ao = 0.45(PI P e' (i), (0.0, 0.45), (0.9, 4.50), (0.98, 22.50)
8.36 x = L12, (i = 0.01 m
sin k2 a - tan k2 L cos k2 a
8.38 (b)
sin kl a kl cos kl a
n 2 £1
(c) kl = k2 = k, tan ka tan kL = 0, P = IF"
8.40 758 k, N = 1.905
8.42 5405 k, 212
8.44 103.0 k
8.46 Pe ;: 39,870 lb. Very safe for stated loading. Would not approve because a more
economical solution is feasible.
8.48 109.3 k, P /W = 616
8.50 Not acceptable (9115 < 12,420Ib)
8.52 1010 kN
8.54 P = 39.93 k
8.56 72 k

Chapter 9

9.2 (I A = 54.21 MPa (C), (Ie = 23.23 MPa (C), (i = 2.323 X 10- 4 m

680 Answers to Even-Numbered Problems

 9.4 P = 16,723 lb, 8M = 3.43 X 10- 3 in.
9.6 AA = 7.21 in. 2 , AB = 2.35 in. 2
9.8 (a) 0.0433 m from right edge of magnesium block;
(b) (JM = 41.67 MPa, (Jw = 8.33 MPa (c) b = 1.67 X 10- 4 m
9.10 P = 189.23 k, (J A = 3.000 ksi (C), (JB = 2.000 ksi (C), (Jc = 1.000 ksi (C)
9.12 (JAB = 14.149 ksi (T), (JBC = 2.830 ksi (C), bAB = -b BC = 0.0028 in.
9.14 P = 46.82 k, aA = 33.75 ksi (T), [js = 0.018 in., [jA = 0.041 in.
9.16 aA = 57.90 ksi (T), as = 18.40 ksi (T)
9.18 (JAB = 20.675 ksi (T), (JBC = 0.404 ksi (C)
9.20 al = 31.334 ksi, a2 = 0, a3 = -31.334 ksi, l7"maxl = 31.334 ksi; (Jmax = 13.1 X 10- 3 rad
9.22 (a) I 't"max IBC = 66.09 MPa (b) 0max = 0.132 rad
9.24 l7"maxb = 20.536 ksi
9.26 T = 176.715 k-in.
9.28 Dl = 4.531 in., D2 = 3.021 in., D3 = 1.510 in.
9.30 For shaft Z: (a) I't"max I = (Jl = -(J3 = 8.76 MPa, (J2 = 0 (b) Oc = 0.00183 rad
9.32 I 't"max lAC = 17.526 ksi
9.34 l7"maxl = 2365 psi, (J = 0.00645 rad C
9.36 III = 773.7 X 10- 6 , 112 = 0, 113 = -773.7 X 10- 6 , IYmax I = 1547.4 X 10- 6
9.38 Av = iwL l, Bv = iwL L MB = kwI! C
9.40 aM = 1080 psi (C); Cv = 43,200 lb i, Mc = 129,600 lb-ft C
9.42 Av = lowL-4, MA = lowI! 0, Bv = 20wL-4, MB = lowL2 C 7

9.44 Bv=~(~A+WL)j,Cv=~(5WL-3~A)j,MC=!(aJI!-MA) C
9.46 (a) P = 0.0667wL ~ (b) P = 0.1667wL ~
9.48 (a) as = 38,048 psi (T) (b) = 0.228 in. ~ (c) Cv =
VB 176 lb i, Mc = 2112 lb-ft C
9.50 al = 37.786 ksi, a2 = a3' = 0, l7"maxl = 18.893 ksi
9.52 (JM = 482 psi (C), Cv = 28,776Ib j, Mc = 85,968Ib-ft C
9.54 III = 94.5 X 10- 6 , 112
= -23.6 X 10- 6 , 113 = -23.6 X 10- 6 , IYmax I = 118.1 X 10- 6
9.56 See answers to Problem 9.38.

° °
9.58 See answers to Problem 9.40.
9.60 (a) M A = 0.3333wI! (c) M A = 0.3634wL2
9.62 See answers to Problem 9.48.
9.64 See answers to Problem 9.52.
9.66 (Bv)CD = 39.814 k ~, Av = 40.186 k i, MA = 324.464 k-ft 0, (Vrnax)CD = 0.492 in. ~
lOPL A 3 + wL A 4
9.68 FC = ---03- --
lO[Al: + 3Iu l]
9.70 Av = 39.417 k j, MA = 244.167 k-ft 0, Bv = 9.417 k l on AB,
C v = 50.583 k j, Mc = 211.667 k-ft C
3Elub)
9.72 A v = ( -83 wL - - - I Bv
JJ.j., =
(5 8 wL
-
3Elub)
+- - I
JJ.j., MB = (1 -8 wI! 3Elub)
+-I!- C
9.74 See answers to Problem 9.42.
9.76 See answers to Problem 9.44.

Answers to Even-Numbered Problems - 681

 9.78 0"1 = 18.89 MPa, 0"2 = 0"3 = 0, I'max 1= 9.45 MPa
9.80 See answers to Problem 9.66.
9.82 See answers to Problem 9.68.
9.84 See answers to Problem 9.70.
15wIJbA
9.86 F=--.---
384(b 2 AL + lIu)
9.88 Av = 48.75 k i, MA = 281.25 k-ft 0, VB = 0.561 in. ~
9.90 Ul = 2.313 ksi, U2 = 0, U3 = -6.197 ksi, ITmaxl = 4.255 ksi
9.92 6 1 = 332.1 X 10- 6 ,6 2 = -322.5 X 10- 6 ,6 3 = -1299.5 X 10- 6 , IYma.1 = 1631.6 X 10- 6

9.94 Av (3 --e
= '8 wL - 3ElutS)
~,Bv
(5 --e
= '8 wL + 3ElutS) ~,MB
(1
= '8 wI3 -I' --If-
3EI tS)
C
9.96 See answers to Problem 9.42.
9.98 See answers to Problem 9.48.
9.100 See answers to Problem 9.68.
9.102 See answers to Problem 9.86.
9.104 See answers to Problem 9.88.

Chapter 10

10.2 (a) A = 1.786 in. 2 , L = 89.30 in. (b) Ny = 1.786

10.4 (a) Areas = 7.5 x 10- and 22.5 x 10-4 m 2
4

(b) Areas = 5..46 x 10-4 and 16.37 x 10-4 m 2

10.6 Areas = 5.000 and 15.000 in. 2 , N. = 3.00
10.8 For steel: Do = 0.1082 m, D; = 0.0541 m
For magnesium: Do = 0.1098, D; = 0.0549 m
10.10 Pin diameter = 0.435 in.
10.12 Pin diameter = 0.0513 m
10.14 Two C3 x 6 channels
10.16 ro = 0.356 m, r; = 0.0285
10.18 D = 7.17 in.
10.20 D = 0.0960 m
10.22 Do = 0.119 m, D; = 0.089 m
10.24 D, = 1.89 in., D2 = 4.21 in., D3 = 2.74 in.
10.26 D = 0.1184 m
10.28 3.84 x 1.92 in.
10.30 5.14 in. x 2.57 in.
10.32 b = 0.0451 m, h = 0.1902 m
10.34 t = 0.1000 m
10.36 Two 4 x 4 x i angles
10.38 Spacing d = 0.0675 m
10.40 S20 x 86
10.42 W8 x 21

682 Answers to Even-Numbered Problems

 10.44 9.88 in. x 9.88 in. Buy 12 in. x 12 in.
10.46 Hollow Do = 4.10 in., D = 3.28 in.,
j solid D = 3.21 in.
10.48 Do = 0.81 in., D j = 0.61 in.
10.50 Outside, 2.80 in.; inside, 2.10 in.
10.52 Outside, 3.31 in.; inside, 2.48 in.
10.54 S15 x 50
10.56 104.6 < 120.6. Unsafe for h = 35 ft
10.58 D = 3 in., P = 28 k; D = 6 in., P = 101 k

Chapter 11

11.2 2121 k-in., 2827 k-in., 1.33

11.4 Answer given.
11.6 16/(3n)
11.8 (c) 93.97 kN . m (d) 169.9 kN . m (e) 1.81
11.10 1.48
11.12 1.567
11.14 0.486
11.16 1.80
11.18 1.473
11.20 2.00
11.22 Mechanism ABC, 15.0 k
11.24 Mechanism ABC critical, 12.0 k
11.26 Mechanism CDE critical, 300 kN
11.28 540 kN
11.30 Mechanism ABC is critical, 375 kN.
11.32 w = 4.67 k/ft., K = 0.375
11.34 L21Ll = 1.172
11.36 Required section modulus = 250 in. 3
11.38 6-in. extra strong pipe
11.40 D = 0.0362 m
11.42 Required M p = 825 k-ft
11.44 (a) Required section modulus = 220 in. 3 (b) Required M p = 600 k-ft
11.46 D = 2.17 in.
11.48 Mechanism ABC critical, required M p = 435.38 k-ft
11.50 Mechanism CDE critical, required M p = 680 k-ft

Chapter 12

12.2 U ma • = 25.38 MPa, L\ma. = 2.014 X 10- 4 m

12.4 h = 116.3 in., F = 16,9441b
12.6 Answer given.

Answers to Even-Numbered Problems 683

 12.8 F max = 51971b, 'max = 2905 psi, IF = 43.3, e = 0.220
12.10 F max = 45431b, Mmax = 34,0751b in., IF = 227, L\max = 0.016 in.
12.12 Suddenly applied loading (h = 0) gives results that are twice the static loading values.

12.14 a max = [ W + JW2 + 96WEIh/V] ~; ; IF = 1 + J1 + 96EIh/WV

12.16 A = 3.18 X 10- 4 m 2
12.18 48.5 MPa
12.20 Impact values: a max = 4580 psi, L\max = 6.57 in.
12.22 14,260 psi, 3.27 0
12.24 Impact values: a max = 34.0 MPa, 0.00156 m
12.26 (a) 51.7 MPa (b) 40.9 MPa
12.28 W = 533.3 lb, h = 2.88 in.
12.30 Two solutions: L = 97.1 in., F = 5421b; L = 219.5 in., F = 240 lb
12.32 Width = 2.43 in., depth = 9.72 in.
12.34 Do = 2.95 in., D; = 2.07 in.
12.36 Endurance strengths: 56.57 and 47.95 ksi
12.38 (a) 43.1,32.1, and 30 ksi (b) C = -0.301, D = 3.2832,39.53 ksi
12.40 Gerber parabola:

Goodman straight line in first quadrant:

Sr = -0.507S. v + 289
Soderberg straight line in first quadrant:
Sr = -0.963S. v + 289
12.42 Values for plotting:

N X 10- 4 logN S (ksi)

4.000 50.00
10 5.000 34.64
50 5.699 26.80
100 6.000 24.00
600 6.778 24.00
1000 7.000 24.00

12.44 Goodman: d = 3.85 in., static: d = 3.00 in. Choose d = 3.85 in.
12.46 Choose d = 3.85 in.
12.48 Gerber: D = 2.80 in., static: D = 2.25 in. Choose D = 2.80 in.
12.SO Goodman: Do = 3.30 in., D; = 2.36 in.
12.52 Goodman: D = 0.0610 m
12.54 Goodman: width = 2.64 in.
12.56 Goodman: D = 0.0683 m

684 Answers to Even-Numbered Problems

 12.58 Goodman: Do = 2.75 in., Di = 1.72 in.
12.60 Goodman: width = 0.0539 m

Chapter 13

13.2 tmin = 0.875 in.

13.4 = 164 psi
Pm..
13.6 (a) cr 1 = 24.00 ksi, cr 2 = 13.05 ksi, cr 3 = 0, I 'max I = 12.00 ksi
(b) cr 1 = 24.00 ksi, cr 2 = 13.05 ksi, cr 3 = - 0.40 ksi, I 'max I = 12.20 ksi
13.8 cr max = 25 Pa
13.10 N min = 1.736
13.12 (cr,)max = 13,333 psi (T), (cr,)max = 8000 psi (C), (crz)max = 2667 psi (T)
13.14 Wall thickness t = 0.146 m
13.16 (cr,)max = 2.76 MPa (T), (cr,)max = 2.00 MPa (C), (crz)max = 0.38 MPa (T)
13.18 (cr,)max = 56,710 psi on inner surface of jacket
13.20 (a) 0"1 = 125.08 MPa, 0"2 = 67.74 MPa, 0"3 = 0, l'Tmaxl = 62.54 MPa
(b) 0"1 = 185.02 MPa, 0"2 = 67.80 MPa, 0"3 = -60.00 MPa. l'Tmaxl = 122.51 MPa
13.22 (a) At intersection of two angle legs (b) At intersection of flange and web

13.24 VAB = hi tv., (3h - 2h l ), e.

61.
=!!?.
31.
(6h l h2 + 3h 2 b - 2h~)

13.26 T = ( J3 ta 4 ) P
961.

13.28 e =-
• Iu

2rrtR 4 .
13.30 eu = - - , left of circular sectIOn center
Iu
ta 4
13.32 eu = 6.126-
Iu
13.34 ev = 6.33 in., eu = 5.42 in.
13.36 (crW)max =0.69 MPa, (crS)max = 13.89 MPa, v =0.0012 m
13.38 (cr A)max = 2900 psi, (cr B)max = 3560 psi, v = 0.44 in.
13.40 P = 6210 lb
13.42 = 18.184 kN/m
w
13.44 (crDF)max = 3.76 MPa, (crS)max = 12.35 MPa
13.46 cre = 0.53 ksi, crs = 9.66 ksi
13.48 Steel critical: M= 169.5k-ft
13.50 cre = 0.868 ksi, crs
= 16.29 ksi
13.52 cre = 6.29 MPa, crs = 117.8 MPa
13.54 = 15,440 psi
cre = 893 psi, crs
13.56 Steel critical: M = 133.7 k-ft
13.58 (crten)max = 36,915 psi, (crcomp)max = 17,430 psi
13.60 P = 47.19 kN

Answers to Even-Numbered Problems 685

 13.62 (a) (uten)max = 58.711 ksi, (ucomp)max = 7.763 ksi
13.64 (uten)max = 21.95 MPa, (ucomp)max = 12.72 MPa
C13.2 Axial force: 30.903 kN
C13.4 Arch thrust: 25,377.461Ib
C13.6 Modify STRESS program as follows:
Under JOINT LOADS
Remove 2 FORCE Y 15.0
Remove 3 FORCE X 20.0
Add 3 FORCE X -15.0
Add 3 FORCE Y -10.0
C13.8 Modify STRESS program as follows:
Remove MEMBER TEMPERATURE
CHANGES 0.0000065
Remove 1 THRU 20 30.0
(Add below TABULATE ALL)
Add JOINT LOADS
Add 11 FORCE Y 2000

686 Answers to Even-Numbered Problems

 Index

A flexural stress equation, 217

flexural stresses in, 211-30
Absolute maximum shear strain, 96 neutral axis in, 212
Absolute maximum shear stress, 81-89 principal stresses in, 216
Allowable stress, 485-86 shear flow in, 234
American Institute of Steel Construction, 415, 659-67 shear stress equations, 233
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 554 shear stresses in, 230--48
Angle of twist slopes, table, 291-92
circular cylindrical shaft, 163 statically indeterminate
closed thin-walled tubes, 197 area moment, 467-74
Anisotropic, 104 Castigliano's second theorem, 474-78
Answers to even-numbered problems, 671-86 plastic analysis of, 526--48
Appendixes, 647-70 superposition, 461-66
Arch, hingeless, by STRESS, 643-46 two successive integrations, 452-61
Area-moment theorems, 303, 305 Bending moment
Areas, properties of, 657-58 defined,23
Assumptions, for analysis of diagrams, 31-46
elastic curve differential equation, 269 diagrams for selected cantilevers, 299
energy theory of failure. See Theories of failure elastic curve differential equation, 269
flexural stress, 211-17 equations, 31
impact loading, 559-60 plastic, 526-33
simple theory of inelastic behavior, 526-27 Bending stresses, 212
torsion equation, 159-61 Boundary conditions
Axially loaded members, 1-13,121-58 beam deflections, 271
strain and deformation in, 130 columns, 396,410,412
stress in, 121 Brittle materials, 148-50
Axis of zero stress, 344

C
B
Cantilever-parts moment diagrams, 299-302
Beams Castigliano, A., 324
center of shear. See Shear center Castigliano's second theorem, 324-32
concrete. See Reinforced concrete beams deflections, 327, 331
curves. See Curved beams rotations, 327, 328, 330
defined,23,198,211 statically indeterminate beams, 474-78
deflection of. See Deflection of beams Center of curvature, 214, 266
elastic curves for, 268-80 Centroidal axes, 198
elastic strain energy in, 324-31 Centroids of areas. See Properties of areas

687
Circumferential stress, 591, 597, 630 table of selected cases, 291-92
Coefficient of thermal expansion, 432 two successive integrations, 268-80
Column equations Deformation
eccentric loading, 409 axial,130
initial curvature effects, 411 circumferential, 599, 600
Columns definition, 89
critical load, 396 radial, 599, 600
design of, 515-21 Derivatives of elastic curve equation, 280--90
eccentric loads on, 409-11 Design
effect of end conditions, 408--409 axially loaded members, 487-94
effective length, 408 basic concepts of, 484--87
empirical column equations, 414--27 columns, 515-21
Euler's critical load equation, 396 fatigue loadings, 571-87
initially bent, 411-13 flexural members, 500--15
slenderness ratio, 397 properties for selected structural sections, 659-67
Combined loads, 46-53 torsional members, 494--500
axial and torsional, 48 Design for inelastic behavior
flexural and axial, 48 of bending and torsional members, 544--49
flexural axial and torsional, 49 of plastic properties for selected structural sections, 666-67
Combined stresses Deviation, tangential, 304--15
axial and flexural, 342 Diagram
axial and torsional, 336 force, axial, 1-13
torsional and flexural, 352 Goodman straight line, 575
torsional, flexural and axial, 358 moment, 31--46
Compressive stress, 62-64 cantilever parts, 299
Computer applications, 53, 115, 155, 195,257,332,378,427, shear, 31-46
478,521,549,587 slope, 282-85
Computer applications using STRESS language, 637--46 Soderberg straight line, 575
Computer Programming for Mechanics of Materials, 647-52 stress-cycle, 575
Concrete. See Reinforced concrete beams stress-strain, 146, 147, 188, 189
Consistent deformations, 432, 435, 445, 452, 461, 467, 474 torque, 13-22
Crack propagation, 552, 571 Differential equation of elastic curve, 269
Creep, 485 Displacement, torsional, 163
Critical load, 391, 396 Distortion, 89, 90
Cross-shear stresses, 121, 134--36 Double shear, 135
Curvature Ductile materials, 148, 149
of beams, 266-68 Ductility, 148
radius of, 266, 630 Dynamic loading, 552
Curved beams, 630--36
Cylinders
thick-walled, 597-609
E
thin-walled, 590--96
Eccentric load, 344,409-11
D Eccentricity, 409
Effective column length, 408
Deflection of beams Elastic behavior, 147
area-moment method, 302-18 Elastic constants related, 106, 175
Castigliano's second theorem, 324--32 Elastic curve, of a beam, 268, 280
maximum, 309-12 differential equation of, 269
singularity functions. See Singularity functions for beam Elastic limit, 147
deflections Elastic range, 146
superposition, 290--98 Elasticity, modulus of, 103, 147

688 Index
Elastic strain energy Flexural stresses, 211-30
bending of beams, 324-32 Flexure equations, 217
Castigliano's second theorem, 324-32 Force, internal in members, 1-59
differentiation of strain energy due to bending, 326 normal, 60
torsional load, 189 shear, 60
Ehistoplastic stress-strain curve, 189, 526, 527 Fracture strength, 148
Empirical equations for column loads, 414-27 Frame, indeterminate rigid, by STRESS, 641-43
Endurance limit, 573 Frocht, M. M., 554
Endurance strength, 573-74
Energy strain, 151,367
Energy of distortion theory of failure, 367 G
Energy of volume change, 367
Equations Gage length, 144
absolute maximum shear strain, 96 Goodman straight line, 575
absolute maximum shear stress, 81
centroids and moments of inertia of areas. See Properties of
areas H
deflections and slopes of beams, 291-92
Euler, for columns, 393-407 Hinge, plastic, 533-34
valid range of slenderness ratio, 397 Homogeneous, 121
flexure, 217 Hooke's law, 104
maximum in-plane shear strains, 96 Horizontal shear stress, 233
maximum in-plane shear stresses, 70 Horsepower and torque relation, 497
principal strains, 96
principal stresses, 69
radius of curvature of a beam, 266-67
shearing stress in beams, 233
strain energy due to bending, 326 Idealized elastoplastic stress-strain curve, 189, 526-27
torsion, 180 torsional, 189
Equilibrium, stability of, 384-92 Impact analyses, 558-70
Equivalent cross section, 620 Indeterminate. See Statically indeterminate members
Euler, Leonard, 384, 393 Inelastic behavior
Euler's critical load, 393-407 of bending members, 526-44
Experimental solutions for torsion, 179 of torsional members, 523-26
Inelastic range, 146
Inertia, moment of, 198
polar, 199
F
product of, 200
Inflection point, 408, 409
Factor, stress concentration, 553-57
Internal forces in members, 1-59
Factor of safety, 414-17, 486
Isotropic, 104
Failure
creep, 485
excessive elastic action, 485,571-72
J
fatigue, 485
fracture, 485
Jacobsen, L. S., 554
inelastic (plastic) action, 485
theories of, 365-77. See also Theories of failure
Fatigue failure, 552 L
Fatigue-testing machine
R. R. Moore rotating beam, 572 Leven, M. M., 554
Fiber of zero stress, 344 Limit
Fiber stresses, 212 design, 523

Index 689
Limit (cant.) N
elastic, 147
proportional, 103, 147 Necking, 148
Load, axial Neutral axis
combined. See also Combined loads elastic, 212
completely reversed, 573 plastic, 528
critical, 391, 396 Neutral surface, 212, 267
dynamic, 552 Normal force, 60
eccentric Normal strain, 89
on columns, 409-11 Normal stress, 61
fatigue, 552 flexural,211-30
impact, 558-70 maximum and minimum, 69
repeated,571-87 sign convention for, 64
torsional, 13 subscript notation for, 63
Longitudinal principal plane, 212
o
M Octahedral plane, 370-71
Octahedral shear stress, 371
Maximum principal strain theory of failure. See Theories of
failure
Maximum principal stress theory of failure. See Theories of P
failure
Maximum shear stress theory of failure. See Theories of failure Parallel-axis theorems, 202, 203
Mechanical properties of materials, 144-55, 188-94 Percent elongation, 150
Member internal forces, 1-59 Percent reduction of area, 150
Membrane analogy, 182-87 Photoelasticity, 553
Metric system of units (SI), 63, 668 Physical and Mechanical Properties of Selected Materials,
Modular ratio, 626 655,656
Modulus Plane
elasticity, 103, 147 octahedral,370-71
resilience, 150, 189 principal, 69
rigidity, 106 Plane strain, 91
rupture in torsion, 189 Plane stress, 64
in shear, 106, 188 Plastic analysis, of statically indeterminate beams, 533-49·
toughness, 151 Plastic design, 523
in torsion, 189 properties for selected structural sections, 666-67
Young's, 103 Plastic hinge concept, 533
Mohr, Otto, 67 Plastic moment, 526-33
Mohr's circle Plastic range, 146
moments of inertia, 202, 206-209 Point of inflection, 408
strains, 97-100 Poisson's ratio, 104-105, 148, 175
stresses, 67-77 Prandtl, L., 182
Moment, bending. See also Bending moment diagrams for Pressure vessels
selected cantilevers thick-walled, 597-609
Moment-area method thin-walled, 590-96
determinate beams, 302-18 Principal axes and moments of inertia, 201
indeterminate beams, 467-74 Principal strain, 96
maximum deflection, 309-12 Principal stress, 69
Moment of inertia, 198 Product of inertia, 200, 201
polar, 162, 166, 199 Properties
Moment redistribution, 533-44 of angle sections, 665
Moore, R. R., 572 of areas, 657-58

690------------------------~----------------
Index
 of channel sections, 664 equations, 31
of selected materials related to load and bending moment in beams, 31,33
table of, 655, 656 sign convention for 23, 24
of pipes, 660 single, 136
of S shapes, 659 Shear center, 609
ofW shapes, 661-63, 666-67 Shear flow, 234
Proportional limit, 103, 147 Shear force defined, 23
Pseudo-mechanism, 533 Shear force in beams, 23
Pure shear stress, 105 Shear strain, 90
sign convention for, 90
Shear stress, 61-62
R
absolute maximum, 81-89
beams, 230-48
Radial stress, 597-99
cross, 121, 134-36
Radius equations in beams, 233
ofcurvature,266-67,630
horizontal in beams, 233
of gyration, 199-200
noncircular solid sections, 179
Ramberg-Osgood equation, 147 octahedral, 370-71
Reactions at connections and supports, 653, 654 sign convention for, 64
Redistribution of moments in beams, 533-44 subscript notation for, 63
Redundant, 434 due to torsion, 62, 166, 179
References, selected, 669-70 vertical in a beam, 233
Reinforced concrete beams Sign conventions, 1
elastic method, 625-30 area-moment method, 305, 306
Relation between elastic constants, 106, 175 axial forces, 2
Relations between stress and strain, 103-15 normal strains, 89
Repeated loading and cycles of stress, 571-87 normal stresses, 61-64
Resilience shear and moment diagrams, 24
modulus of, 150 shear strains, 90
shearing modulus of, 189 shear stresses, 61-64
Rigidity torques, 13-14
modulus of, 106, 188 Single shear, 136
in terms of Young's modulus, 106, 175
Singularity functions for beam deflections, 319-24
Rupture, modulus of. See Modulus of rupture in torsion
Slenderness ratio, 397
Rupture strength, 148
Slope of beams
area-moment method, 302-18
s Castigliano's theorem, 324-32
integration, 268-90
SI units, 63, 668 superposition, 290-98
Saint-Venant's principle, 556 table of selected cases, 291-92
Section modulus, 223, 505 Soderberg, C. R., 552
Service stress, See Allowable stress Stability of equilibrium, 384-92
Shafts Statically determinate members, 432
design, 494-500,544-48 Statically indeterminate members
hollow circular, 166-73 axial loads, 434-45
shape factor, 528-32 flexural loads, 452-78
solid circular, 161-66 area moment, 467-74
Shear Castigliano's second theorem, 474-78
in beams, 23 superposition, 461-66
center, 609 two successive integrations, 452-61
diagrams, 31-46 torsional loads, 445-52
double, 135 Stiffness, 148

Index 691
Strain Stress element, 63
defined, 89-90 STRESS language, computer applications using the, 637-46
dimensions of, 89 Stress notation, 63
energy, 151,324,367-68 Stress-number of cycles diagram, 573
engineering, 146 Stress-strain diagram, 146, 147, 188, 526-27
linear, 89 Stress-strain relations, 103-108
measurement of, 89 general plane, 106-108
normal, 89 shear, 105-106
plane, 91 uniaxial, 103-105
principal, 96 STRUDL,637
Mohr's circle for, 97-100 Struts. See Columns
shear, 90 Superposition, 106, 290-98
due to torsion, 160 Symmetric bending, 211-30
true, 146
Strain energy, 151
T
due to flexure, 326
due to torsional load, 189
Table
Strength of deflections and slopes of beams, 291-92
ultimate, 148 of moment diagrams for selected cantilever beams, 299
yield, 148 Tangential deviation, 302-18
Stress Tensile stress, 62-64
absolute maximum shear, 81-89 Test specimen, 144-45
allowable, 415, 486 Testing machine
bending, 212 fatigue, 572
biaxial, 64 impact, 558
circumferential, 591, 597, 630 universal, 144-45
compressive, 62-64 Theories of failure, 365-77
concentration, 553-57 comparison of, 371
cross shear, 121 energy of distortion, 367
defined, 60-62 maximum principal strain, 366
dimensions of, 63 maximum principal stress, 366
engineering, 146 maximum shear stress, 367
fiber, 212 octahedral shear stress, 370
flexural, 212 Thermal stresses, 433-34
maximum in-plane shear, 70 Thick-walled pressure vessels, 597-609
Mohr's circle for, 67-81 Thin-walled closed tubes, torsion of, 597-609
nominal, 553 Thin-walled pressure vessels, 590-96
normal, 61-62 Torque
plane, defined, 64 fully plastic, 523-26
point, at a, 60-61 Torsion
principal, 69 angle of twist in circular cylindrical shafts, 163
radial, 597-99 assumptions used in, 159-61
shear, 61-62 equation for stresses in circular cylindrical shafts, 162
tensile, 62-64 noncircular cross sections, 180
thermal, 433-34 shearing stress due to, 162, 166, 179
torsional shearing, 62, 166, 179 statically indeterminate members, 445-52
triaxial, 63 warping of cross sections, 179-80
true, 146 Toughness, modulus of, 151
uniaxial, 103, 124 Toughness, torsional, 189
working, 486 Transformed cross section, 627
Stress concentration factor, 553 Triaxial stress, 63
Stress concentrations, 553-57 True strain, 146

692 Index
True stress, 146 w
Truss, indeterminate, using STRESS, 638-41
Twist, angle of, 163, 180 Warping of cross sections of shafts due to torsion, 179-80
Wohler, A., 571
Working stress, 415, 486
u
Ultimate strength, 148
Uniaxial stress-strain relations, 103 Y
Units, metric (SI), 63, 668
Yield point, 148
Units, U.S. Customary, 63
lower, 148
Unsymmetric bending, 248-57
upper, 148
Yield strength, 148
v Yield stress in torsion, 189
Young's modulus of elasticity, 103, 147
Vertical shear stress, 233 related to modulus ofrigidity, 106, 175

Index 693