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ARCHAEOLOGICAL FINDS PROCEDURES MANUAL

Author: Tony Grey
With contributions by:
Liz Barham, Geoff Egan, Damian Goodburn, Jo Groves, Lynne Keys, Penny
MacConnoran, Cath Maloney, Jacqui Pearce, Terry Smith and Angela Wardle

Museum of London Specialist Services

Museum of London 2006

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Contents
1 Introduction........................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Background ............................................................................................................. 1

1.2 Structure and organisation ...................................................................................... 1

1.3 Finds within the MAP2 process .............................................................................. 1

2 Excavation.............................................................................................................. 3

2.1 Summary guidelines on finds for field staff............................................................ 3

2.2 Collection ................................................................................................................ 3

2.3 Handling of finds on site....................................................................................... 11

2.4 On-site processing................................................................................................. 12

2.5 The Treasure Act................................................................................................... 17

2.6 Moving finds and equipment off site .................................................................... 17

3 Processing ............................................................................................................ 18

3.1 Treatment and storage........................................................................................... 18

3.2 Washing ................................................................................................................ 19

3.3 Drying ................................................................................................................... 22

3.4 Marking................................................................................................................. 23

3.5 Bagging and storage.............................................................................................. 23

4 Initial recording................................................................................................... 26

4.1 Bulk finds .............................................................................................................. 26

4.2 Registered finds..................................................................................................... 29

4.3 Post-recording storage........................................................................................... 43

4.4 Data entry.............................................................................................................. 46

5 Assessment and analysis ..................................................................................... 48

5.1 Pottery assessment ................................................................................................ 48

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5.2 Clay tobacco pipe assessment ............................................................................... 48

5.3 Building material assessment and discard policy ................................................. 48

5.4 Assessment of other materials............................................................................... 50

6 Archive ................................................................................................................. 51

6.1 Archive deposition ................................................................................................ 51

6.2 The site archive – finds checklist.......................................................................... 52

7 Other guidelines .................................................................................................. 53

7.1 Health and safety precautions in handling finds ................................................... 53

7.2 Handling finds correctly to minimise damage ...................................................... 53

7.3 X-ray room............................................................................................................ 54

7.4 Mounting temporary exhibitions........................................................................... 59

7.5 Volunteers ............................................................................................................. 60

7.6 Good work practice............................................................................................... 60

7.7 Working abroad..................................................................................................... 61

8 Bibliography and useful sources........................................................................ 63

9 Appendix: Oracle database codes for bulk finds ............................................. 64

10 Appendix: Oracle codes for registered finds .................................................... 66

11 Appendix: Finds record sheets........................................................................... 72

12 Appendix: Example of a site’s finds inventory report..................................... 80

13 Appendix: The Treasure Act ............................................................................. 81

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Figures
Fig 1 Example of finds label filled in by excavator 4
Fig 2 Example of a registered finds card 31
Fig 3 Example of sketched drawing of crucible on registered find card 36
Fig 4 Examples of sketched drawings of glass on registered find cards 39
Fig 5 Example of sketched and photocopied drawing of leather on registered find card40
Fig 6 Example of sketched and photocopied drawing of nailed shoe on registered find
card 40
Fig 7 Example of sketched drawing of leather item on registered find card 41
Fig 8 Example of label for bulk finds box 43
Fig 9 Example of label for bulk finds box containing range of contexts 44
Fig 10 Example of label for registered find 45
Fig 11 Example of label for box of registered finds 46
Fig 12 Bulk finds catalogue sheet 72
Fig 13 Pottery spot dating record sheet 73
Fig 14 Clay tobacco pipe recording sheet 74
Fig 15 Building material recording sheet 75
Fig 16 Worked stone recording sheet 77
Fig 17 Quern stone recording sheet 79
Fig 18 Example of finds inventory report 80

Tables
Table 1 Guidelines for treatment of small finds on site 11
Table 2 Guidelines for post-excavation treatment and storage of finds 18
Table 3 Keywords used in registered find cards 32
Table 4 Recommended x-ray exposures 57
Table 5 Oracle codes for bulk finds 64
Table 6 Oracle codes for registered find material types 66
Table 7 Oracle codes for registered find object types 67
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1 Introduction

1.1 Background
The aim of this volume is to act as a working guide for the care of finds during fieldwork,
processing and post-excavation assessment, and for the production of site archives.
Although it will be used primarily by finds staff, it will also be of use to site excavation
staff. The procedures described in this manual revise and update those developed by the
Museum of London and are compatible with the archive standards document ‘General
standards for the preparation of archaeological archives deposited with the Museum of
London’ (1998).
The authors would like to thank the City of London Archaeological Trust who gave a
generous grant towards the preparation of this document. The work of Jo Groves who
edited an earlier (1984) version of this manual is also gratefully acknowledged.

1.2 Structure and organisation

Museum of London Specialist Services (MoLSS) operates under the umbrella of the
Museum of London Archaeological Service (MoLAS). The MoLSS Finds Section
includes processing staff and specialists in pottery, small finds, building materials and
clay pipes. Staff are divided between those concerned with finds processing and the
completion of on-site finds work and site archives, and those involved in the preparation
of assessments, research archives and publications. Finds processing staff work closely
with the conservation laboratory at the Museum of London, environmental processing
staff, site excavation supervisors and staff, finds specialists and archive staff from the
Museum’s archive – the London Archaeological Archive and Research Centre (LAARC).
Finds and environmental processing staff occupy a purpose-built, integrated finds
and environmental processing facility at Mortimer Wheeler House, which is the first of
its kind to be built within the UK. This facility includes power-hosing and other washing
areas as well as a drying room with heaters and a dehumidifier. It considerably
streamlines and speeds up the various processing tasks. The benefits of the facility can
also be offered to external clients.

1.3 Finds within the MAP2 process

The Museum of London’s working procedures conform to those laid out in the English
Heritage guidance document The Management of Archaeological Projects (English
Heritage 1991). For finds this has highlighted the clear division between the completion
of a site archive – an essential prerequisite for any project, and the subject of this guide –
and the use of the archive to undertake assessment of finds. Any analysis work leading
from the assessment will also naturally draw upon the completed archive. The creation of
a finds archive to a standardised format is therefore essential. Once completed, it will

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allow the long-term curation of finds in accessible form and for assessments and analysis
to be carried out efficiently and accurately.

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2 Excavation

2.1 Summary guidelines on finds for field staff

The following guidelines are primarily aimed at archaeologists working on site who, as
excavators, create the finds archive:
• Do refer to Section 2.2 which deals with finds collection policy.
• Bags only require one staple for closure unless of a very large size with a lot of
heavy material. Avoid over-stapling bags.
• Separate and bag finds by type as far as possible, for example keeping pot
separate from animal bone, CBM, etc. Sometimes the term ‘General’ is used and
all finds from a context combined. Try to avoid this.
• When storing and transporting finds, ensure that building material and other
heavy items are crated separately in order to avoid damage to more vulnerable
materials.
• Ensure that ‘small finds’ are stored in Stewart tubs, or in boxes away from the
bulk materials.
• Do not attempt to wash pottery, clean coins, etc as this will be done by finds staff.
• If finds have to be placed in an environmental sample bucket, ensure that this is
clearly labelled.
The site supervisor needs to ensure that there are adequate supplies of finds
equipment so that archaeologists can correctly collect and store finds until removal from
site. Firstly, there must be an adequate supply of recycled bags of all sizes likely to be
required. A few new bags should also be kept. Ensure an adequate supply of context
labels (and do not use environmental bucket labels in finds bags). Supervisors and
archaeologists should seek advice from animal bone and finds specialists regarding
retention and sampling strategies on site. Budgetary constraints may sometimes lead to an
over emphasis on pottery retention at the expense of CBM and animal bone for example.
If in doubt over lifting fragile finds, sampling strategies or other procedures seek
advice from appropriate staff from the Conservation Department, Finds Processing or
Environmental Processing sections.

2.2 Collection
The Museum of London’s finds collection policy conforms to national guidelines and
best practice: its main aim is to ensure that our collected material meets the requirements
of current and future research. The following criteria are a statement of general best
practice; there may be variations in collection policy for particular sites. These site-
specific collection policies should be detailed in the method statement of written scheme

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of investigation for that site, and should be drawn up by project managers in consultation
with the appropriate specialists and with external curators.

Finds not collected

All finds (and animal bone) from all periods are routinely collected except the following:
• Unstratified unworked bone
• Non-artefact wood or charcoal
• Unstratified building material (unless of a type that would be registered; see
Section 4.2)

Collection of bulk materials

It is recommended that excavation staff collect each type of bulk material – pot, building
material, animal bone, etc – in separate bags. This not only facilitates speedier processing
by the Finds Processor (pottery may be dealt with as a priority) but also ensures that the
more fragile bulk materials are not crushed by brick and tile. A description of the
contents should be written on the context labels – (eg, BM, POT, BONE). It is
appreciated that this on-site sorting may not always be feasible on smaller
sites/evaluations but it should be done where possible.
Bags of bulk material should be accompanied by two context labels for larger
bags, one loose within the bag and facing outwards, the other also within the bag facing
outwards and stapled near the top of the bag. A single label will suffice in the smaller
sizes of bags, 4” x 6” (102 x 153mm) and 6” x 8” (153 x 230mm). To fill in the context
labels use a waterproof marker pen that is not too thick (Fig 1). A single staple is
sufficient to seal all but the biggest sizes of bags.

Fig 1 Example of finds label filled in by excavator

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Pottery
All pottery should be collected and no discrimination made against late material,
especially that of 19th-century date. Finds can be culled at a later date if necessary, but
this should be a matter of archive policy and only undertaken with specialist consultation.

Clay tobacco pipes

It is important to emphasise that all clay pipe fragments should be collected on site and
kept. Pipes were usually discarded whole or freshly broken and it should be possible to
recover at least some of the resulting joining fragments (depending on the nature of the
deposit). The importance of this lies in the potential to reconstruct complete pipes, which
is in itself a significant element of clay pipe studies.

Building material: collection guidelines

Normally the excavator should keep all building material from every stratified context,
although in some circumstances, in accordance with advice from the building material
specialists, a sample of the material may be taken instead (sampling is described in the
following section).

Brick and tile

Building materials provide evidence for interpreting the structures on a site. Moreover,
certain features which may have diagnostic value, for example stamps, other marks, fine
moulding sand, are not easily seen when the material is in an unwashed state. Further, it
is not possible to distinguish most fabric types whilst the materials are still in a dirty
condition. It is therefore important (except where sampling is appropriate) that total
assemblages are collected from all contexts for subsequent finds processing and
recording.

Daub and mud brick

All fragments of daub and mud brick should be kept. Wattle, stake and post impressions
in daub, and (where present) keying can provide information about the construction of
buildings.

Painted wall plaster

All fragments, plain or decorated, should be kept regardless of size or colour. Individual
pieces of plaster should be excavated with care and should be laid painted face upwards
on a bed of newspaper in a tray.
No attempt at cleaning the surface should be carried out by the excavator. If
collapsed walling is encountered with quantities of wall plaster attached, or if there are
face down areas of plaster fragments adjacent to one another, these may have potential as
evidence of a decorative scheme. Contact the building material specialists and the
conservators immediately: they may arrange to have them lifted as a block.

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Loose tesserae
All loose tesserae should be kept.

Worked stone or architectural fragments

All loose pieces of worked stone should be kept for examination by a specialist. The term
‘worked stone’ does not include simple roughly hewn blocks but does include blocks
with a dressed face, ashlars, scoinsons (blocks with two or more dressed faces at an
angle), slabs and mouldings (carved architectural fragments).

Building material: sampling

In certain cases building material should be sampled: sampling policies should always be
discussed with a building material specialist. Some examples of sampling strategies are
given in the following paragraphs.

Large quantities of ceramic building materials

When a context produces a large quantity – defined as more than one crate – of ceramic
building material, it may be necessary to sample it. Contact the building material
specialists who will advise.

Post-Roman bricks
Brickwork should be recorded using the prompts on the masonry recording sheet. A
sample of two bricks should be taken from each building phase. If two or more brick
types are present (eg different colours or sizes) then two of each type should be sampled.
All shaped bricks should be kept: this includes bricks that have been cut to a simple angle
as well as more elaborately shaped examples.

In situ tesserae
Decorated mosaics are always retained. Inform the Conservation Department who will
arrange lifting or discuss preservation in situ as appropriate. Plain tessellated floors
should be sampled. Contact the building materials specialists who will advise.

In situ floor tiles

All in situ floor tiles should be kept. Decorated floor tiles should be given an individual
finds number. The number should be marked in the correct position on the plan showing
the orientation of the tile and in the triangle on the context label. In situ plain floor tiles
should be planned and the overall design recorded if more than one colour of tile has
been used. Contact the building materials specialists who will be able to advise.

Stone
Undressed stone from masonry structures tends to be under-sampled on many
excavations. It should be noted that excavators’ identifications of building stone as, for

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example, ‘ragstone’ or ‘greensand’ are frequently incorrect and result in a false under-
representation of the less common building stones such as oolitic limestones. Ideally,
therefore, representative samples of stone from structural remains should be taken (and
further advice can be sought from a building materials specialist). Fist-size fragments of
stone should be taken for petrological examination and these should be entered on the
non-environmental sample register as a ‘petro-sample’. Note that a single stretch of
walling may contain more than one variety of stone; a sample of each type should be
taken.
Simple mouldings – a run of similar stones forming a continuous string course or
the like – may also be sampled. All examples of more complex mouldings should be
kept.

Mortar and opus signinum

It is sometimes useful to take mortar samples, particularly of Roman opus signinum
floors. Representative samples of mortar from walls can also be taken and may assist
post-excavation analysis, for example the comparison of different structures. These
should be 300–500g in weight (approximately one 6”x 9” (153 x 230mm) finds bag).
Larger samples may be required for coarser mortars and opus signinum): these should be
approximately 1000g in weight (Approximately one 8” x 12” (204 x 306mm) finds bag).

Prehistoric flint
Collection methods for prehistoric flint vary enormously according to the nature of the
archaeological site. For sites with significant in situ prehistoric material it is clearly
necessary to devise site-specific collection and recording policies, in advance of the
actual excavation, and in consultation with internal or external specialists. The collection
and recording procedures need to take into account both the type of excavation and the
date of the flintwork. For example, a small evaluation which comes across in situ
Neolithic material could have a collection policy that both worked and burnt flint are
100% collected, but are recorded by grid square or by context. An excavation of in situ
Mesolithic material may require the three-dimensional location (and individual bagging)
of every single find using a Total Station. At the other end of the spectrum, in the case of
a medieval site with some residual prehistoric flint, it would only be necessary to bag the
flint and record its context in the usual way.

Worked/struck flint
Worked flint excavated from a primary context should be bagged individually to
minimise edge damage caused by flints rubbing against each other. Exceptionally fine
pieces (such as barbed-and-tanged arrowheads) should be placed in polystyrene boxes
with acid-free tissue paper and then bagged up. If it has been decided that the flintwork is
to be three-dimensionally recorded on site then each flint must be allocated a special
finds number at the time of excavation: this number should be written in the pre-printed
triangle on the context label accompanying the object.

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Depending on the nature of the site, it may be appropriate to carry out chemical
analysis on some types of flint artefact to establish if animal fats or proteins or traces of
adhesives such as resin or beeswax are present. If so, a small amount of the soil
surrounding and immediately in contact with the artefact should be collected and bagged.
This material should be handled as little as possible and must not be washed. Specialist
advice must be sought about storage of flints selected for such analyses as plastic bags
and other packaging can often cause problems for the scientific work proposed.

Burnt flint
Nodules of burnt flint are frequently found on prehistoric sites and contexts such as
cooking pits or buried soils can contain large quantities of this material. These types of
context will require an appropriate recording and sampling strategy.
Note that burnt flint must not be exposed to light if it is to be used for
thermoluminescence dating. Select only large pieces of flint for this purpose and place
immediately in a black polythene bag. If a policy of counting, weighing and discarding
burnt flint is undertaken on site, a representative sample should still be kept for the
specialist.

Samples (non-building material)

To avoid confusion with environmental samples all finds samples must be clearly
labelled as such by excavators. The sample type should be written on the context label
and on the external label. Guidelines for the collection of the more common sample types
are given in the following paragraphs. It is not a comprehensive list; other materials such
as ash, pitch or pigments may be sampled at the excavator’s discretion.
Samples taken specifically for environmental material are the responsibility of the
Environmental Department, and must be kept separately from all other sample types. If
finds such as pottery are placed in environmental tubs on site, these tubs must be clearly
and boldly labelled and kept apart from tubs of environmental samples.

Dendrochronological
Every structural timber context must be sampled by taking at least one slice, ideally 0.03-
0.05m thick. Bark is particularly important for dating and must be kept if present.
Generally it is not possible to reliably date isolated samples with fewer than c 50 rings. It
is often possible, however, to construct a mini chronology from a group of samples with
fewer than 100 rings. The sample should be carefully selected from the length of the
timber. A slice from one end may not give the best or longest sequence of rings.
Site excavators and the Timber specialist will take these samples, double bag and
label them, then liaise with environmental staff over transportation to the environmental
laboratory. Dendrochronological work is carried out by the Environmental Section and
more detailed information on the sampling of timbers may be obtained from the timber
specialist.

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Slags
Samples should be collected from hearth and ‘industrial-type’ pits and the approximate
size of the original deposit recorded on the context label by the excavator.
For collection purposes iron slag can be divided into two main groups: bulk (large
types visible to the eye when excavating) and micro-slags (tiny types invisible in soil).
The two yield significant information about the processes involved but the areas on site
where each is likely to be most plentiful are different and each requires a different
collection method.

BULK SLAGS
These have usually been removed from the smithy because of size and will be found
either as external dumps or as deposits in nearby cut features (pits, ditches etc).
Sometimes, mainly in the Roman period, they will have been taken away and used as
metalling on roads or other surfaces. Bulk slags are generally recovered by hand but if
significant quantities are being found an additional soil sample labelled ‘hammerscale
sample for 1mm sieving/flotation’ will provide some idea of the quantity of micro-slags
still adhering, a useful indicator of how much re-deposition the slag has undergone.
Any queries regarding slag, particularly if large quantities are being found, should
be addressed to the relevant finds specialist.

MICRO-SLAGS
These are often referred to as hammerscale and remain in greatest quantity in the
immediate area of smithing activity, usually around the hearth and anvil within a smithy
or forge. Although invisible in soil they are extremely magnetic so if present can be
detected by running any magnet through the floor deposits of a structure with a hearth,
ash, burning or quantities of bulk slag. The hammerscale so attracted will resemble
broken silvery fish scales or tiny spheres. If located as an occupation deposit inside a
structure a magnetic susceptibility survey can be undertaken or, if time is short, a swift
sampling technique is to lay out a grid across the floor surface and take soil samples from
each square. Note that all the squares in the grid should be sampled since areas devoid of
micro-slag but surrounded by significant quantities of hammerscale may indicate the
positions covered by the anvil block, a raised fire-bed or internal features of the smithy.
The soil samples for hammerscale should be of the same weight (be sure to use
bags without holes) and each can be allocated a different sample number or can be
identified by context sub-division (eg 2081A, 2081B and so on). On the labels in each
bag should be written ‘hammerscale sample for 1mm sieving/flotation’. A plan of the
grid showing the position of each sample should be made by the excavator.

Large quantities of single finds type

If large quantities of a single bulk material type are to be collected from one context it
may be necessary for the appropriate specialist to conduct an on-site sampling procedure.
Specialists can be reached through the Finds Manager (if there are no finds personnel on
site).

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Recovery of vulnerable finds

The Conservation Department should be contacted before any attempt to excavate fragile
finds or assemblages that are likely to be damaged on lifting.
Roman hobnail shoes may be lifted in blocks to preserve the nail pattern. Inform
the conservation laboratory. Other fragile metal or pottery may need block lifting. Fragile
pottery may require bandaging to maintain structural integrity prior to lifting. Metals,
glass and other fragile finds should be collected in separate bags from heavier finds such
as pottery and building material, labelled accordingly and stored in Stewart tubs for
transport off site. Complete pots and bottles should be kept separate from other bulk
materials (and labelled accordingly) and carefully packed for transport.

Metal Detecting
The Finds Section recommends the carrying out of metal-detecting on excavations in
order to maximise screening of particular kinds of deposit and also where close dating
evidence is desirable.
The use of metal detectors is highly relevant on waterlogged sites where
conditions inevitably make finds retrieval by hand less effective. In addition, all contexts
likely to contain well-preserved items of pre 18th-century metalwork (dumps, pits, wells
and ditches) should be detected, if not otherwise bulk-sampled for sieving. Where
appropriate, this activity should be built into the project design so that the budget
allocation will allow for it. In instances where the application of metal-detectors may be
appropriate, the Project Manager should make the necessary arrangements for their use
on site – so long as there is appropriate funding to deal with the finds. Metal-detectors
have also been used in field surveys to detect concentrations of metal finds that may
indicate occupation. In these cases the Project Manager may make arrangements with
local societies where appropriate and the funding for analysis and conservation should be
allowed for in the budget.
In certain circumstances, normally on riverfront sites, it is possible to call on the
help of the Society of Thames Mudlarks who can assist in the detection of larger deposits
such as waterfront dumps and foreshores. Requests for their assistance should be
implemented at the pre-excavation planning stage.

Sieving to improve finds retrieval

The sieving of contexts, although very labour intensive, can result in 100% finds
retrieval. It should be undertaken where any important materials, which might otherwise
be missed, are being recovered from hand-excavated deposits. These might include early
medieval bonework, waste from glass working and all the fragments of broken objects.
It has other advantages in countering any bias present in the normal hand
collection of pottery (eg discrimination in favour of brightly-coloured/glazed sherds), and
in obtaining the best possible pottery dates for periods in which datable sherds form a
small percentage of the fabric types (eg late 4th century and mid-Saxon periods). The
data provided are especially reliable for statistical analysis.

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On-site numbering of finds

On occasion the excavator will need to make a precise record of the position of certain
objects; these may need to be plotted three-dimensionally using a Total Station, drawn
onto a site plan, or recorded by photography. An example of this would be grave goods in
situ within a burial, all of which would require individual numbering in addition to the
actual context number. Such items could be numbered separately with a special reference
number written both in the triangle of the context label and on the site plan. This
reference number is not a registered finds number but simply an instant reference number
for the excavator that may be referred to as a Special Find (SF).

2.3 Handling of finds on site

Initial treatment
The following guidelines (Table 1) are those advised by the Conservation Department for
on-site use. If uncertain about the treatment of a find the simple rule of thumb is to
maintain the conditions in which it was excavated. For further advice consult a Finds
Processor who can if necessary contact Conservation.

Table 1 Guidelines for treatment of small finds on site

Materials Treatment Packaging Comments
Inorganic materials
Metals Dry out Dry perforated poly bag in Metal storage conditions for
Dry Box with silica gel. If certain sites may vary. Contact
Do not clean
fragile, cushion on acid- Conservation Department at
free tissue in a clear plastic start of site to discuss policy
box inside a poly bag but in the main desiccated
storage for dry materials. To
avoid damaging objects, all
bags containing ‘small finds’
must be stored in a separate
container to bulk finds
Ceramic, stone (If delicate or Perforated poly bag;
and wall plaster crumbly may need handle painted surfaces
extra support or with care; put articulated
lifting by sections on a flat support
Conservation
Department)
Shale and jet Do not clean; keep Double bag, water to
wet cover, put in wet box
Glass If plain and robust Do not bag with bulky Treat as a small find.
bag dry; Saxon, objects. Store Procedures may change for
medieval and medieval/decorated glass sites with much medieval
decorated glass in wet box glass (eg monastic sites)
should be kept wet
Organic materials

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Leather, wood, Do not clean; keep Double bag; avoid Contact Finds Section if
fibre, worked wet handling. Store in wet box. waterlogged deposits are
bone, antler, Do not separate encountered. Get individual
Check daily that wet
ivory, horn, components (eg shoes) finds to Finds Section as soon
objects do not dry out
tortoiseshell, as possible
while stored on site
amber
Composite materials
Eg leather shoe Treat as for organics Treat as for organics Take to Finds Section on day
with iron excavated; these objects often
buckle, iron need immediate attention
knife with ivory
handle

2.4 On-site processing

Short-term excavations and evaluations (the majority of projects) will not require or will
not be able to accommodate on-site finds or environmental processing. In these cases, the
site supervisor will arrange the transport of the excavated material to the Finds and
Environmental Sections at intervals during the site excavation or at the end. Unless
suitable accommodation can be set up it will be preferable to remove the finds and
environmental samples to the Mortimer Wheeler House processing facility, even for
large-scale projects.
The advantages of having a Finds Section presence on site, if the project size and
available accommodation warrant it, include the provision of advice on finds handling,
retrieval and retention as well as the arrangement of informal ‘show-and-tell’ exhibitions
of cleaned finds for site staff and visitors. The project manager attached to a particular
site is responsible for making arrangements for on-site accommodation. He/she will agree
the required accommodation with the Finds Manager at the pre-excavation planning
stage.

Finds facilities on site

The amount of on-site finds/environmental accommodation required by the Finds Section
on each excavation will vary according to the scale and nature of the site and the number
of finds/environmental staff working there. The following paragraphs are suggested
guidelines for the average site.

Main workroom
This may be either a portakabin or part of an existing building due for decommissioning
such as a basement. The floor space should be at least 5 metres by 7 metres.
• Sink(s) with drainer and silt trap fitted below and with hot and cold water
supply.
• UPVC duckboards for standing at the sink.

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• Drying shelves comprising slatted wooden shelving fitted against the walls:
shelves to be approximately 2m high and 0.7m deep, with shelves about 17
cm apart. Power points are required for table lamps, heaters, microscopes and
electric kettle. The outdoor power hose will require connection to the site 110
volt power supply.
• Windows are desirable for natural light (but are not always available
especially if a basement is being used).
• Tables and chairs will be needed. Some contractors may offer to supply these.
• Toilets should be nearby and include male and female facilities.
• Kitchen facilities may have to be shared with site staff but a place for tea
making is recommended.
• Heaters are essential during winter and to assist in finds drying.
• A computer and printer for data entry may be necessary on larger sites.
• Telephone. Both a landline and a mobile phone should be available to finds
staff. A list of essential telephone numbers including those for the
conservators, finds officer and relevant specialists should also be taken to site.
• See Health and Safety Policy Operational Procedures (MoLAS 2003),
Appendix 8 ‘Generic risk assessment’, M3 ‘Setting up site facilities, offices,
welfare and storage’, M20 ‘Fire on sites’, M24 ‘Work in occupied premises’.

Outdoor power-hosing facilities

Power hosing of bulk materials should take place on site where possible. A rectangular
black plastic water tank with waste outlet and a wire basket fitted on top, together with a
fine plastic mesh, is normally used. The Finds Section keeps two Karcher pressure
washers, one for permanent use at Mortimer Wheeler House and one for use on site.
A garden hose with an adjustable spray nozzle should additionally be used on site
for more fragile finds with sink-washing retained for the most fragile and smallest finds.
Garden hose facilities will also be required for the Environmental Section. Volunteers
would not be asked to operate the pressure washer.
The following hosing facilities are essential:
• A good outdoor mains water supply from taps that can have the hoses fitted
and which are for the sole use of the finds team (plus separate taps for the
environmental staff). Preferably, these should be situated close to the
workroom/portakabin.
• A drain for the waste water close to the taps.
• A skip for dumping tank-cleaning sludge, preferably near to the hosing area.
• Tables for working surfaces beside the hosing tanks.

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See Health and Safety Policy Operational Procedures, (MoLAS 2003), Appendix
8 ‘Generic risk assessment’, M14 ‘Use of portable electrical equipment’, M18 ‘Use of
rubbish skips’, M19 ‘Disposal of waste materials’, M25 ‘Installation and use of
temporary electrical supplies’.

Security and access

The finds workroom/portakabin should be secure. Recovered valuable items such as gold
or silver objects and coin hoards should be promptly removed to Mortimer Wheeler
House or the Museum of London conservation laboratory as necessary. It is desirable but
not always possible that the workroom be located at ground level to ensure ease of
movement of bulky and heavy loads being removed by van to Mortimer Wheeler House.
Similarly, ease of van access is desirable.
See Health and Safety Operational Procedures (MoLAS 2003), ‘Introduction: 15,
Manual Handling’, and Appendix 8 ‘Generic risk assessment’, M11 ‘Storage of materials
on site’, M23 ‘Working alone’.

Equipment Required
Finds staff allocated to a site will normally be expected to collect and arrange for the
dispatch of the necessary equipment and materials prior to moving on to the site and to
liaise with the site supervisor over dispatch of these to the site by van. For excavations or
evaluations that do not have an on-site finds presence, the supervisor should arrange for
collection of essential finds supplies from the Finds Section.
The following checklist represents finds equipment and consumables that are
associated with the processing of finds both on and off site:

Furniture
• Tables
• Chairs
• Shelving

Washing equipment
• Garden hose(s)
• Karcher pressure washer
• UPVC duckboards
• Washing-up bowls
• Toothbrushes
• Scrubbing brushes
• Sponges

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• Barbecue/cocktail sticks/skewers
• Wooden spatulas
• Dental probes
• Rubber gloves
• Seed trays
• Bread crates
• Newspaper

Packaging and storage equipment

• For unwashed finds: re-used polythene bags (which can be used several times)
• For cleaned finds: new polythene bags – bag sizes are 4”x 6” (102 x 153mm),
6”x 9” (153 x 230mm), 8”x 12” (204 x 306mm), 12”x18” (306 x 459mm),
18”x 24” (459 x 612) and 24”x 36” (612 x 918). Perforated polythene bags are
used except for finds kept in water when solid bags are used.
• Heat sealer for sealing solid bags which contain organic material or finds
stored in water
• Context labels
• Registered finds labels
• Bulk and registered finds box labels
• Staplers and staple remover
• Staples
• Acid-free tissue paper
• Thin foam (polyethylene) backing for registered finds
• Strong bubble wrap
• Stewart tubs 12” x 12” and an assortment of smaller seal-fresh storers
• Bags of silica gel incorporating a humidity indicator strip (and stored in a
Stewart tub)
• Cardboard boxes. The standard box (a long ‘shoe box’) is the mostly
commonly used size but some square boxes and ‘skeleton boxes’ will also be
needed.
• Plastic bread crates and mushroom boxes
• Plastic tanks in case of larger waterlogged finds
• Masking tape
• Scotch tape

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• Double-sided adhesive tape

• Garden/site gloves for handling heavy items like stone

Stationery (for registering, marking)

• Pencils
• Eraser
• Black Bic-type biros
• Black Pentel-type markers
• MS50 marker pens
• Fine waterproof marker pens
• Artline 70 pens for labels used in wet storage
• Mapping pens
• Mapping pen nibs
• Black and white ink (Winsor and Newton)
• Varnish (Paraloid)
• Rotring-type pens
• Tippex
• Lever arch files
• Hole punch
• Registered finds cards
• Bulk catalogue sheets
• Scrap paper (used printer paper for notes)
• Ruler and set square
• Magnet

Office
• Computer
• Printer
• Printer paper
• Photocopier
• Filing cabinets
• Desks with drawers

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• Table lamps
• Heaters
• Weighing scales

2.5 The Treasure Act

It is the responsibility of the project manager after consultation with the relevant finds
specialist to submit any items falling under the provisions of the Act to the local coroner
via the treasure co-ordinator (currently the Portable Antiquities Officer at the British
Museum). For a summary of the Treasure Act see Chapter 13.

2.6 Moving finds and equipment off site

The finds processor based on site should make arrangements with the site supervisor to
have finds moved off site either in stages during the excavation or at the end – whichever
is most appropriate.
If necessary, help with the loading up on site may be sought from the excavation
team via the site supervisor. Always be aware of the health and safety implications of
moving heavy objects like building stone that may require specialist lifting equipment. If
necessary, contact the relevant project manager in advance.

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3 Processing

3.1 Treatment and storage

The following table (Table 2) summarises the basic methods of treatment and storage for
most archaeological finds.

Table 2 Guidelines for post-excavation treatment and storage of finds

Material Corrosion Treatment Storage
Antler Wash Dry
Basket/wicker Do not clean Damp
Bone (animal) Wash Dry
Bone (human) Contact
Environmental
Section
Copper Green corrosion Do not clean Dry
products
Ceramic1 Wash Dry
Fibre Do not clean Wet
Flint artefacts Wash with Dry
fingers/sponge
Flint, burnt Stable Wash Dry
Flint, burnt Breaking up Dry brush Dry
Glass (if stable) Wash Dry
Glass (medieval or Flaking badly, Do not clean Wet
otherwise unstable) possibly opaque
Gold No corrosion Wash Dry
Flaking gilding Do not clean Contact
Conservation lab
Horn Laminates Wash gently Wet
Iron Magnetic attraction Do not clean Desiccated after
and brown or initial drying
sometimes blue unless nails
corrosion products

1
Examine amphorae for painted lettering: if present do not wash. Do not wash crucibles as this may remove residues.

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Iron slag Vesicular Wash Dry

Ivory Criss-cross lines Do not clean Wet
Jet Black, shiny, Wash gently Wet
resembles plastic
Lead/pewter Heavy, grey/white Do not wash Desiccated after
corrosion products initial drying
unless waste
Leather Wash gently with Wet
fingers/sponge
Plaster (painted wall) Damp sponge, do Dry
not immerse in
water
Resin (amber) Do not clean Wet
Shale Grey or black, Wash gently Wet
laminates
Shell (discard unless Wash gently with Dry
from significant fingers
dump)
Silver Black/mauve Do not clean Dry
corrosion products
Stone (except shale or Dry brush or wash Dry
gilded)
Wood Wash gently with Wet
fingers/sponge
Composite objects
Waterlogged As leather Transfer to
metal/organic Conservation lab
as soon as
possible
Bone/iron As iron As iron

3.2 Washing
A context label must be kept with the finds at every stage of washing and drying. Ensure
that context labels are washed clean so that they need not be replaced at a later stage.
There are three washing systems in use: the electric pressure washer, the garden hose and
the bowl or sink.

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See Health and Safety Policy Operational Procedures (MoLAS 2003) Appendix
7 Condition of remains and pathogens that may be associated with old burials, and
Appendix 8 Generic Risk Assessment M43 ‘Finds washing/cleaning’.

The electric pressure washer

The finds processing section has a power hosing room and two electric washers, one in
permanent use and one for use on site. The pressure washer provides a powerful and
adjustable spray and is most useful for large quantities of robust finds including
architectural stone, ceramic building material, some pottery, and animal bone. It is not
suitable for small bags of pottery or glass, small sherds, tin glazed pottery which may
flake, low fired pottery, mudbrick and daub, amphorae with painted inscriptions, vessels
with residue on inner surfaces, architectural stone or pot with painted or gilded surfaces,
wood, leather or small or fragile animal bones. For fragile objects or exploratory
washing, the power can be turned off and a gentle spray of water used.
Use of the pressure washer raises a number of health and safety issues. It
generates a spray mist so a mist mask should be worn; detritus may be blasted upwards so
goggles should be worn; in an enclosed space the noise requires ear defenders to be used;
finally, the tank on which the objects for washing are placed needs to be at a height which
precludes undue bending or awkward posture which could lead to back strain. For all
washing procedures gloves must be worn. Thin latex or vinyl gloves as well as thick
rubber washing-up gloves are available.
The tank must be emptied regularly to ensure that the silt does not build up as it
can cause a blockage in the drainage system.

The garden hose

Mortimer Wheeler House has a washing room containing two tanks with garden hoses
connected to the mains water supply for finds washing as well as two environmental
tanks. The garden hose is suitable for washing most finds especially those for which
power hosing is not appropriate including small quantities, small items and fragile items.
A fine plastic mesh is used to cover the grill over the tank and a bowl of water is used for
dipping and rinsing in conjunction with hosing. Washing equipment includes nail
brushes, scrubbing brushes, toothbrushes, wooden cocktail sticks, test tube cleaning
brushes, wooden spatulae for scraping and sponges.
Gloves must be used and goggles are recommended. Tanks must be emptied on a
regular basis before they become full of silt.

Sink and bowl

The finds and environmental area of Mortimer Wheeler House contains a dedicated sink
washing bay used mainly by volunteers and students on work experience. Two bowls of
water are used, one for washing and the other for rinsing. In all cases when washing, the
finds are drained on a clean newspaper prior to placing in newspaper lined seed trays or
plastic mushroom-type crates for drying. Finds, especially bricks and tiles, will dry more
quickly if propped up or stood on end. Bulk materials with a lot of soil adhering should

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first be scraped with a plastic or wooden implement (never use a metal implement for
scraping). Water should be changed frequently and bowls of muddy water must not be
emptied directly down the sink but should first be filtered through a fine sieve to prevent
drain blockage and to ensure that very small items are not overlooked. Toothbrushes, nail
brushes and scrubbing brushes are suitable for washing most categories of finds.

Materials requiring special washing

Some materials require particularly gentle treatment. Further details on how to clean the
full range of archaeological materials are given in Table 2 and in the following
paragraphs.

Fragile pottery
Care must be taken with prehistoric and Saxon pottery as it is often low-fired, soft and
friable and it may not be washable at all. Prior to any attempt to wash it, this pottery
should be placed on a drying tray for at least two days to harden up. It may then be
washable using a very soft brush or a sponge (note that soft pottery may disintegrate on
washing, or its surfaces may be left with brush imprints). Care should be taken when
washing amphorae as painted inscriptions (tituli picti) could be inadvertently removed.

Glazed tiles
If washing glazed tiles, dry the tile with the glazed face down to reduce the likelihood of
salt damage.

Glass
Glass may be washed in a bowl of water or hosed. Care is needed to avoid cuts when
washing glass.

Roman painted wall plaster

Decorated Roman wall plaster should be washed very carefully with a damp sponge
using a dabbing motion rather than a smearing motion. The plaster should not be
immersed in water. If any pigment comes off on the sponge, no further cleaning should
be attempted. Pale blue or grey and pale pink pigments are particularly delicate. Excess
dirt should be removed from the sides and back of the plaster but the finds processor
should be aware of the possibility of clay walling still adhering: if identified, this should
be left intact. If the pigment appears to be unstable or loose, contact the conservator for
advice. If the relationship between fragments from a wall collapsed in situ has been
retained ensure that the fragments are placed back in a tray in their original positions after
sponging.

Flint
Flint artefacts may be washed by gentle rubbing with the fingers or a sponge. Do not
brush, as this will be detrimental to microwear and other microscopic studies. Always

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keep fingers away from the edges of struck flint; this prevents cuts and also avoids
damaging microwear traces. Flintwork to be chemically analysed for traces of resin or
animal fat should not be washed.

Iron slag
Iron slag can be washed but this should be done with care using a garden hose and not a
pressure washer; if the slag looks only loosely concreted (and may therefore disintegrate),
washing is not recommended. Contexts involving two or more large bags of slag can be
washed using a 1mm mesh laid over a tank and a hose turned on to medium pressure.
Never use a brush; turning the larger pieces around under the spray and the gentle use of
fingertips should ensure adequate cleaning. Washing slag by this method facilitates rapid
and clean identification by specialists at a later stage yet ensures that micro-slags, pieces
of fuel evidence or other finds often found adhering to unwashed slags are not lost. All
material that remains in the mesh after the soil has been washed through should be placed
in a tray to dry with the slag. When dry the slag and residue can be transferred to the
same bag unless some are fragile in which case they can be separately bagged (non-holed
bags where necessary). Except for removal of pottery fragments, bone, metal and so on,
no sorting of the residue is required; it should be left for a specialist to examine.
If using a bowl to wash slag, clean water should be used for each context and after
washing a context the soil left in the bottom of the bowl should be poured into a clean
sieve with a very fine mesh and rinsed gently. The standard procedures for drying and
bagging up (described in the following sections) should then be followed. New
volunteers and other inexperienced staff may need initial guidance on procedures for
washing slag, the retrieval of residues and bagging up.

Leather
Bulk leather should be thoroughly washed, using gloved fingers and sponges. It will not
be washed again in the conservation laboratory.

Wood
Wood should be carefully sponge washed.

3.3 Drying
The finds and environmental section contains a dedicated drying room with wooden
slatted shelving, drying ovens, heating and a de-humidifier. Drying finds should have a
site code and date washed label on the shelf accompanying them. Finds must be
thoroughly dry before bagging up or mould may grow necessitating rewashing.
Seed trays and mushroom crates need fresh newspaper lining. When finds are
removed from drying trays, grubby paper must be discarded. If the paper is clean and
reusable, all debris must be tapped out of the trays. Unused trays must be carefully and
neatly stacked. Recyclable newspaper is ideal for lining trays. Two sheets per tray are
sufficient.

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3.4 Marking
Pottery, ceramic tobacco pipes and registered ceramics are the only categories of finds
that require marking. A mapping pen is used with black or white Winsor and Newton
permanent ink. Black ink is used on most items, with white ink only used on black
sherds. If the sherd has a rough surface a layer of Paraloid varnish is brushed on and
allowed to dry to provide a smooth surface for marking. Prehistoric and Saxon pottery
will always require a base coat of Paraloid varnish. London sites often produce large
quantities of pottery and so complete marking often poses something of a challenge;
budgetary constraints often result in this work being done by volunteers.

Marking pottery
Pottery may be marked straight from the drying trays or after bagging up and boxing.
Each sherd is marked with the site code in block capitals followed by the context number
in a box eg SRP98 35000. The writing should be small, neat and legible. Write on the
inside of the sherd towards the middle so that if a piece breaks off the sherd, the marking
would not be lost, also to ensure that the marking would not be seen if the pot were to be
reconstructed. Base sherds should be marked on the underside. Do not write over
inscriptions, decoration or makers’ marks. Pottery recovered from environmental samples
need not be marked.

Marking tobacco pipes

Marking is as for pottery but with the addition of the registered finds number (if
applicable). Marking should be placed on the underside of the stem or an unobtrusive part
of the bowl, if there is no stem. The registered finds number does not have angled or
other brackets around it. Marking should not be done on the foot or spur or over any
decoration or mark.

Marking registered ceramics

All registered ceramics should be marked as for tobacco pipes with a layer of Paraloid to
be used if the surface is too rough to mark directly.

3.5 Bagging and storage

Introduction
Mortimer Wheeler House contains a temporary finds and environmental material store.
All catalogued and boxed bulk finds are kept in temporary storage until their removal for
assessment, analysis or archival deposition. They are stored by material. Finds to be
registered are kept separate from bulk finds. Large quantities of building material, animal
bone and pottery may be kept in stackable plastic crates (prior to boxing). Recording and
registration is done straight from the drying trays or plastic crates and boxing is only
done after recording to avoid oversights. The standard box size is the long ‘shoe box’.

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Occasionally, skull boxes and skeleton boxes are used for large sized objects. Building
material is stored in large plastic crates to await specialist recording.

Bagging bulk finds

Clean dry finds not requiring special storage conditions are put in polythene bags. The
most frequently used standard bag sizes are 4” x 6” (102 x 153mm), 6” x 8” (153 x
230mm), 8” x 12” (204 x 306mm) and 12” x 18” (306 x 459mm). Occasionally, 18” x
24” (459 x 612mm) or 24” x 36” (612 x 918mm) bags may be needed for very large
objects. Perforated bags are used except for tiny objects or for organic material kept in
water in which case solid bags are used. Always use the most appropriate size of bag
(take care not to combine heavy robust pieces with fragile sherds in the same bag).
Each bag contains one material type, with one Tyvec context label kept loose
inside and facing outwards for smaller bag sizes. Larger bag sizes require two labels, with
one stapled to the inside of the bag near the top and facing outwards and the other kept
loose inside the bag. The original labels filled in on site should be retained where
possible. These should be cleaned during washing. A permanent ink marker pen is used.
The triangle at bottom left of the label is available for sample numbers if required.
Bags are fastened by staples; all but the largest bags require one staple only.

Fragile finds for registering

Fragile finds, complete or fragmentary (which are to be registered), should be packaged
by placing the object in a clear plastic box (crystal box) supported on a bed of crumpled,
acid-free tissue paper so that it cannot move and is visible without having to open the
box. The box is then placed in a bag.
All registered finds require a sheet of thin foam (polyethylene) backing cut to
snugly fit the lower half of the bag to provide support. The grooves of the foam should
run horizontally within the bag. The loose registered finds label is placed on the reverse
side of the backing sheet.

Painted wall plaster

If there are only a few fragments from a context, place the pieces in small polythene bags
with foam backing and store in a standard box. For bigger quantities, place a bed of tissue
paper in a cardboard standard box or in the bigger flat boxes that are especially suitable
for large pieces of plaster or large contexts. Place the pieces of plaster – painted side up –
carefully on the bed of tissue. Consolidate with additional tissue as necessary. Do not
place more than a single layer of plaster in the box and never use a box for more than one
context. Put two context labels inside the box and attach a box label to the outside.
However, do not pack decorated plaster in the way just described if so doing will
result in the loss of relationships between fragments from a wall which has collapsed in
situ. If the plaster areas have not been lifted by a conservator, keep the fragments in their
original position in a solid-based crate or tray; sand can be used to secure the fragments
in position; cover with polythene and ensure that nothing is placed on the surface.
Contact the conservators for advice on storage.

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Wet storage
The object requiring wet storage is placed in a solid bag with sufficient water to cover it
and context labels (or registered finds labels as required) filled in with a waterproof
marker pen. One is placed inside and one outside. Avoid filling the bag with too much
water. Expel as much air as possible then heat seal. Add a second label and heat seal
above it. On site, double bagging should be used rather than stapling to avoid water
leakage and rust. The inner bag is folded in two and placed in a larger outer bag that is
then folded down. The objects should be placed in a plastic Stewart tub for transport and
kept in a cool dark place. No consolidants, biocides, tapes or adhesives should be used
without specific advice. Large items of timber will be kept in a water tank and wrapped
in black plastic sheeting taped up with parcel (Scotch) tape for transport and temporary
storage at Mortimer Wheeler House.

Desiccated storage
This is usually reserved for dry iron (except nails, slag and waste), some lead and,
ideally, copper alloy. Such storage is usually after registering, but it could be done on site
prior to transport to Mortimer Wheeler House if delay is anticipated. The object is air-
dried and then bagged up if fragile but is then kept in an air-tight, polythene Stewart box,
12 inches by 12 inches by 6 inches, containing a 500g bag of the drying agent, silica gel.
Avoid stacking the tubs too high as the lids tend to break or stretch drawing air in.
The condition of the silica gel is monitored by a humidity indicator strip attached
to the silica gel bag which is visible from the outside of the box. There is a limit to the
amount of moisture silica gel can absorb and it needs to be replaced when the spot of the
humidity indicator strip turns a lighter shade than the strip. The bags of silica gel are
regenerated by heating in an oven at about 120 degrees centigrade. Avoid leaving the
container open and always ensure that the lid is properly shut because the silica gel will
absorb the damp air and consequently need changing more frequently.

Storing oversized objects

Oversized objects such as stone mouldings, whale bones and amphorae that are too big to
fit into boxes should be treated as follows:
• Mark the item with the site code, context and registered find number (if any).
• Two Tyvec labels should be tied around the object with string.
• Place the item in a large polythene sack or wrap it in polythene sheeting. Use
bubble wrap if extra protection is needed.
• Place in a crate or pallet as appropriate.
• It is important that further labels are attached to the outside of the wrappings and
also to the crate or container.

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4 Initial recording
There are two basic categories of finds; bulk finds and registered finds (registered finds
are sometimes known as small finds or special finds) and the two types of find are
recorded differently and stored separately. The two basic elements of the Museum of
London’s recording system are the finds and animal bone bulk record sheet (catalogue
sheet) and the registered finds card. All bulk finds are recorded on the bulk record sheet
whilst all registered finds are recorded on registered finds cards.

4.1 Bulk finds

Definition of bulk finds

The following categories of finds are treated as bulk finds, though for most categories
there are exceptions that are classed as registered finds (see also Section 4.2).

• Pottery
The following exceptions should be treated as registered finds: crucibles, figurines,
stamps and marks (apart from post-medieval ones), graffiti, lamps, moulds (including bell
moulds), whole pots (except tin-glazed drug jars) and vessels (or sherds) with dates.

• Ceramic tobacco pipes

Pipes with marks, stamps or decoration should be treated as registered finds.

• Post-medieval window glass

• Post-medieval clear and green bottle glass

• Post-medieval glass phials

• Leather waste and scraps

• Medieval and post-medieval detached shoe soles and uppers

The following exceptions should be treated as registered finds: uppers with fastening
devices (buckles, button holes, etc), uppers with decoration, parts of the sole/upper with
repair pieces, pattens (or parts thereof)

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• Iron nails

• Slag

• Ceramic building material

The following types of building material should be treated as registered finds: mosaics,
complete rare Roman and medieval tiles, decorated floor tiles, decorated wall tiles, stove
tiles, hearth bricks (Netherlands moulded type), tiles with impressions (eg animal prints
and stamps, including roller-stamped flue tiles, but not signature and tally marks).

• Stone building material

• Roman and medieval painted wall plaster

• Daub, including keyed clay walling

• Mud brick

• Kiln furniture

• Flint and burnt flint

Note that the excavation of certain prehistoric sites may require the separate recording of
flint as special finds (see Section 2.2).

• Animal bone
Note that for the purposes of processing and initial recording, animal bone is treated as a
bulk find. Artefacts in animal bone are treated as registered finds.

Recording bulk finds

All categories of bulk finds plus animal bone must be bulk recorded prior to dispatch to
specialists. Bulk finds and animal bone are recorded on finds bulk record (catalogue)
sheets. For a small site this is best done in a single session when all the washing and
bagging up has been done. For a medium size or large site several cataloguing sessions
will be necessary as processing progresses as the build-up of cleaned material may
otherwise be too great.
One bulk record (catalogue) sheet is used per context (Fig 12 in Chapter 11).
These sheets merely record the presence or absence of finds by means of a tick beside the
relevant entry and the date period for the find. If in doubt as to the date of the find this
entry may be left until checking is done. Therefore, POT or CBM will suffice instead of
POT Roman or CBM Medieval. The periods accepted by Oracle are: PREP (prehistoric);
ROM (Roman); SPOT (Saxon); MPOT (Medieval); PPOT (post-medieval).

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It is unnecessary to fill in any comments as these will not be entered onto the
computer. However, finds processors working on a lengthy site whose records will not be
computed for some time may find it useful to record certain information in the comments
section as a personal aide-memoir such as ‘complete Bellarmine’, ‘good group’, and so
on. Such notes could be of use in the event of an on-site display, for example. Always use
a black biro to fill in the sheet. For most categories of bulk finds the main record is a tick
in the appropriate circle in the left-hand column. Note the exceptions to many of the
categories of bulk finds (detailed in Section 4.1) that are classified as registered finds.
Note the following additional guidelines on how to fill in the bulk record sheet for
certain classes of material.

Additional guidelines for recording building material

Refer to the information sheet on identifying ceramic building material if uncertain about
determining period. Tick the circle and specify the material type(s) by ticking the
appropriate box(es). If the period is unknown, ring the material heading instead of ticking
a box. Medieval and post-medieval brick samples – tick appropriate ceramic box or
boxes.
Some categories of building material require a keyword to be written in the
appropriate box. They are:
• Keyed clay walling ie daub with roller-stamped keying, specified as KCW under
the ‘daub’ heading.
• Roman painted wall plaster must be specified by writing RPWP under the plaster
heading. Other types of plaster by PLAS under the ‘plaster’ heading.
• Opus signinum is specified as OPSI under the ‘other’ heading.

Additional guidelines for recording bulk glass

Each category of post-medieval bulk glass must be bagged separately and the context
label must specify the object name eg window, phial, green bottle glass, clear bottle glass.

Additional guidelines for recording iron

Includes both iron slag and hammerscale. Nails should be bagged separately from slag.

Additional guidelines for recording leather

Medieval and post-medieval detached shoe uppers and soles (with no special features
such as decoration or fastenings) as well as leather waste and scrap of all periods are
recorded on the bulk record sheet. All bulk shoe parts may be bagged up together by
context. Waste should be bagged separately.

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Additional guidelines for recording burnt flint

The number of pieces from each context should be counted and weighed and the values
recorded on the context label, the bulk recording sheet and in an Excel file for the site
prior to any decision regarding retention or discard of the burnt flint.

Bulk finds from wet sieving

Sieving of environmental samples will also produce finds that are handed over to the
finds processing team. The context label and bulk finds recording sheet should record
whether the sample was wet-sieved – WS (using a 1mm mesh) or bulk-sieved – BS
(using a 4mm mesh). This information (WS or BS) should be written in the pre-printed
box to the right of the context number on labels and record sheets.

Checking the bulk finds record (catalogue) sheet

The accuracy of the bulk finds catalogue is crucial. Great care must be taken to ensure
that no omissions occur of any material type within any context. Prior to assessment, the
bulk finds catalogue may be used to create priority lists of specific material types for
specialist recording. Oversights in the catalogue can adversely affect such priority
listings. Finds cataloguing is by its nature an uncheckable activity and for this reason it is
a task that should not be given to volunteers. Bagged finds should not be boxed until they
have been catalogued to avoid finds being overlooked from the recording process.
The pottery and CBM sections of the sheet will be checked against the completed
spot-dating sheets and amended where necessary.

4.2 Registered finds

Definition of registered finds

Most finds are treated as bulk finds (see Section 4.1); all other finds should be treated as
registered finds. The following are special types of finds which, although within
categories of find that are normally treated as bulk finds, are treated instead as registered
finds.

Pottery
• Crucibles
• Figurines
• Stamps and marks (apart from post-medieval)
• Graffiti
• Lamps
• Moulds, including bell moulds

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• Whole pots (except tin-glazed drug jars)

• Sherds or vessels with dates

Leather
• Uppers with fastening devices (buckles, button holes, etc)
• Uppers with decoration
• Parts of the sole/upper with repair pieces
• Pattens or parts thereof

Building material
• Mosaics
• Complete rare Roman and medieval tiles
• Decorated floor tiles
• Decorated wall tiles
• Stove tiles
• Hearth bricks (Netherlands moulded type)
• Tiles with impressions, eg animal prints and stamps, including roller-stamped
flue tiles (but not signature and tally marks)

Recording registered finds

All finds which are not recorded on the bulk finds recording sheet are recorded
individually as registered finds, using A5 registered finds cards.
All registered finds, except coins which are taken to the conservation laboratory,
must be accompanied by a photocopy of the registered find drawing bearing the site code,
context and registered find numbers, and the material and object names.
Priority should always be given to registering the following:
• wet composite objects such as iron knives with wooden or bone handles
and leather straps with metal accessories, such as buckles or straps.
• vulnerable materials such as ivory, jet and shale and medieval glass which
are all held in wet storage
• coins
• wet wood and leather
• wet wood and leather
• metal objects

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The registered find card records an individual find that may consist of one or more
fragments. If there is any doubt as to whether the fragments are from the same object they
are registered separately. An exception to this would be non-joining body fragments of,
for example, a glass vessel that are of similar colour but which only necessitate a single

registration number even though they may belong to more than one vessel. Write neatly
in block capitals with black biro (Fig 2).

Fig 2 Example of a registered finds card

Registration number (museum accession number)

For each site the registration numbers begin at number 1 and continue in numerical order
as required. Care must be taken to avoid double numbering if more than one person (for
example a staff member and a volunteer) is working on a particular site, or if work
resumes on a site that has been interrupted by a long time delay. Ensure that the
registration number file is always kept up to date and always referred to. When a batch of
registering has been completed, a registered finds card must be filled in with the site code
and the next registration number in the sequence. This card should then be filed
alphabetically in the tray designated for next-number cards for all sites.

Site
As for context label

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Context
As for context label

Object
See Table 7 in Chapter 10 for names permitted: names other than those listed on the
thesaurus must not be used. When an object cannot be identified precisely there are a few
general categories that may be used, for example - VESSEL, RING, CUP. In most cases
objects are named as if complete; an arrowhead is recorded as ARROW; a bottle rim is
recorded as BOTTLE. There are some names that refer to part of an object, as HANDLE,
but these are only used if a complete identification is not possible. If unsure about the
definition of an object name refer to the index of categories. Leave the field blank if the
identification is uncertain or unknown. Do not use a question mark against an object
name except on the back of the card.
Certain categories of objects have a keyword (Table 3), which is written on the
back of the card at the top left corner, in addition to their object name. This usually
applies to ceramics (pottery, building material, tobacco pipes) that bear makers’ marks
and stamps, impressions such as animal prints and so on. They may occasionally apply to
other materials, for example Roman painted wall plaster with graffito, metals and leather.

Table 3 Keywords used in registered find cards

Material Object Keyword
Ceramic Amphora Stamp or graffito (graf)
Ceramic Amphora Painted inscription
Ceramic Coarseware Graffito (graf)
Ceramic Mortarium Stamp
Ceramic Tobacco pipe Decoration (deco)
Ceramic Tobacco pipe Mark (stamps on pipes are rare)
Ceramic Samian Stamp or graffito (graf)
Ceramic Tile Animal or shoe print
Ceramic Tile Roller stamp
Abbreviate decoration and graffito/graffiti to ‘deco’ and ‘graf’ when computing.
Post-medieval pottery marks and stamps are not registered.
Building material requiring a keyword will have the object name ‘tile’.

Material
See Table 6 in Chapter 10 for names permitted. Names other than those on the thesaurus
must not be used.
• Bone: includes antler and horn. Specify antler or horn on the back of the card and
add to the COMMENTS field of the registered finds file when computing.

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• Copper: includes all copper alloys, ie bronze, brass, etc. The words ‘copper
alloy’ must not be used.
• Fibre: includes all textiles.
• Lead: includes pewter, tin and tin/copper alloys (if predominantly tin). Specify on
the back of the card if laboratory identification available.
• Resin: = amber
• Samples: have ‘sample’ as their material name and the sample type as the object
name.

Period
This refers to object period not context period. Leave field blank if uncertain or unknown.
Do not use a question mark except on the back of the card. Use one of the following:
Prehistoric, Roman, Saxon, Medieval (up to 1485), Post-medieval

See also
This field applies only to composite objects which are objects composed of more than
one material (eg a knife with bone handle and iron blade), in which case a card is written
out for each material using the same registered finds number. The cards are completed in
the following way:
Do a drawing on the back of one card (drawing guidelines are described in the
following section) photocopy it and stick the copy to the back of the other. This cross-
referencing does not apply to nailed Roman leather shoes that require only one card as
per normal.

Location
The importance of promptly recording each change of location on the registered finds
card cannot be stressed enough. Failure to record the movement of an object is poor work
practice and results in wasted time while attempts are subsequently made to locate it.
The most frequently used locations are:
• MoLAS store: the main store; applicable to objects not requiring special treatment
of any kind or conserved objects not requiring special storage conditions.
• Laboratory: coins are given this location and any object in damp storage such as
ivory, shale, medieval glass, jet and wet organic composite objects which must be
immediately dispatched to the conservation laboratory.
• Illustration: for objects handed over to the Drawing Office for drawing.
• Photographic: the Photographic Department.
• Person’s name: applicable to objects submitted to an external specialist or an
individual within the Museum group. The person’s name must be recorded in all
cases.

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Conservation, X-Ray, Illustration, Photography, Specialist Report

The appropriate boxes should be ticked to record any of these processes and any
additional record number stated.

The back of the card

A scaled illustration is usually done on the back of the card with a Rotring or other
suitable drawing pen. This is to facilitate matching up of objects with their labels should
they part company and to provide information about the object.
The drawing should be done quickly but accurately with little or no shading, using
pencil first if necessary, followed by the pen. The object is drawn simply in plan with the
light falling from the top left-hand corner. Show any breaks and draw a cross-section if
appropriate. State scale if not drawn at 1:1. Erase pencil lines.
Drawings of large objects may be done on a sheet of paper and then reduced on
the photocopier so that they can be stuck to the back of the card. The adhesive EVA
CON-R (EVA 125) is recommended and a scale should be included.
A brief written description and/or comments are added to supplement the
drawing. This information should include where appropriate:
• Dimensions in mm
• Whether WHOLE, HALF or a fragment
• Method of manufacture (if significant)
• Presentability
Write ‘displayable’ on the back of the card if you consider the object is suitable for
display to the public within a museum context. The object does not have to be a unique or
exotic item: ‘ordinary’ items such as counters, bottles or buttons can all be suitable for
display. In deciding which items are suitable, the following criteria should be considered:
• The object must be complete or very nearly complete in the case of exceptional
items.
• It must be in good condition. A complete, otherwise displayable, object with
surface concretions would not be displayable.
• Where detail or decoration is important, this must be sharp and clear. For
example, a complete medieval floor tile with a faded pattern is not displayable,
nor is a complete but corroded Roman brooch.
• If the object satisfies the above criteria, it is essential that the word ‘displayable’
is written on the back of the card at the time that the object is registered and when
it can readily be assessed by the finds processor.
• Do not write ‘not displayable’ on the backs of cards of unsuitable items.

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Additional guidelines by material

The following are some additional guidelines for registering specific types of find
on the registered finds card.

Clay tobacco pipes

For information, consult the guidelines developed by Oswald (1975) and Higgins and
Davey (1994), although this applies mainly to assessment and analysis. Identification
information recorded on the back of the registered finds cards should always be cross-
checked with that of the recording sheets subsequently compiled by the clay pipe
specialist. The following items should be registered:
• Pipes with maker’s marks
These can take the form of moulded initials on the sides of the spur or heel; stamped
marks on the bowl (usually the front or back); moulded or stamped names along or
around the stem; moulded symbols underneath the heel or on the sides of the heel or spur;
ink (rubber) stamps, transfer-printed or hand-written marks (rare). All these categories
should be recorded under the code MARK. If it is clear, the mark should be drawn on the
back of the registered finds card. For maker’s initials on the heel or spur, the correct way
to read these is from left to right with the bowl held as used by the smoker (ie the initial
on the smoker’s left stands for the first name, and that on the right for the surname). If the
initials are unclear it may be better not to attempt to transcribe them. Stamped and
moulded symbols should also be sketched in outline, with a note of their position on the
pipe. However, it is not necessary to draw the whole bowl or fragment of pipe surviving;
nor is it necessary to make any classification of bowl type at this stage.
• Decorated pipes
All forms of moulded or stamped and rouletted decoration should be registered. This
includes simple leaf or wheatsheaf seams on the bowl, but not milling around the top of
the bowl. Note that decoration can be found anywhere on a pipe (ie along or around the
whole stem or part of it only, and anywhere on the bowl, including the heel or spur). All
decoration should be recorded on the registered finds card as DECO, but should not be
illustrated because of time constraints.
• Mouthpieces
These can take a variety of forms, including cut and moulded (various), and can be
waxed or glazed.
• Whole pipes
These are very rare indeed and should be registered even if unmarked and undecorated
and would include broken pipes that can be restored as whole.

Pottery
The following items should be registered:
• Crucibles

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These are important because they often retain evidence for industrial processes, usually
metalworking. If a rim or base, determine diameter by a rim diameter chart. Draw
according to pottery illustration conventions, ie cross-section and inside of vessel shown
on the left side of the centre line with the right side showing the outside (Fig 3).

Fig 3 Example of sketched drawing of crucible on registered find card

• Lamps
• Figurines
• Marks and stamps
This category refers to maker’s stamps – it is not necessary to register decorative stamps.
It is not necessary to register later post-medieval vessels with factory marks or retailer’s
names (ie late 18th century and 19th century), but 16th to early 18th century pots with
maker’s or similar marks should, ideally, be registered because these date from a time
before factory marks became common.
• Graffiti – this includes all deliberate, post-firing (pre-deposition) marks.
• Pots with dates – up to the 19th century, or pre-industrial ceramics.
• Moulds – including bell moulds, etc
• Whole pots
Whole pots should be registered, however plain or aesthetically unappealing. Individual
registering of such items is preferable because they have potential for display and some
are incorporated in the Museum of London reserve collection. Roman and Saxon burials
are sometimes accompanied by grave goods including whole pots that need secure
numbering for planning and photography while still in situ. A whole pot is one that is
unbroken on retrieval (chips and cracks notwithstanding). In the case of large groups of
whole pots of the same form from a single context (eg tin-glazed ware ointment/drug
pots), these should be given a single registration number for the entire group. It is
important that elements of individual assemblages should not become separated and
scattered across the archive, thereby hindering assessment and analysis.

Copper
Unidentifiable lumps of copper alloy require only an outline drawing since they are
recorded on X-Ray plates. If possible, a section should also be drawn.

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Coins
An outline drawing is all that is required on the registered find card. Coins go straight to
the laboratory after registering. After conservation, coins should be passed to the Finds
Manager for archive storage. Unstratified coins should also be sent to the laboratory
where they will be X-rayed but not necessarily conserved. When coins are returned after
treatment and specialist identification and dating, the following procedures should be
followed:
• The full identification should be entered onto the coin file on the Oracle database
• The identification sheets should be given to the Finds Manager for filing in the
archive.
• The X-ray number should be recorded on the card and the Oracle table. Period or
other changes must be made to labels, cards and registered finds Oracle table
• The coin should be reassessed for displayability and this part of the record
updated both on the registered finds card and on the registered finds Oracle table.

Decorated tiles and impressions on tiles

These sometimes photocopy well. Whenever possible a photocopy, stuck onto the back of
the registered finds card with EVA CON-R (EVA 125) adhesive, should be used as a
quick alternative to a drawing. When photocopying, place the tile on a polythene sheet, or
keep in its bag to protect the screen from scratching. Use a scale as necessary.
When registering roller-stamped flue tiles, refer to the file of die-type photocopies
in the Finds Processing area; the relevant examples may be re-copied and stuck on the
backs of the registered finds cards with that part of the drawing which corresponds to the
tile outlined in red biro.

Fibre
Fibre, which is entered on the registered finds cards as a material name, can have the
following options for object type:
• Cloth – woven fabric
• Thread – up to 2 ply only
• Cord – plied silk, wool or cotton rope – plied or plaited vegetable fibre, coarser
then cord braid – woven strands of fibre, usually wool or silk, may be flat or
circular in section
• Felt – compacted animal hairs
• Knitting – using one or more needles
• Net – any open mesh fabric
• Lace – patterned openwork fabric
• Purse

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• Bag
Any post-conservation fibre identifications should be noted on the backs of the
registered finds cards and on the appropriate computer entries.

Flint
Worked and struck flint is usually recorded on the bulk record (catalogue) sheets
as FLINT. Exceptions are arrowheads and axes, which are registered. Note that there may
be special instructions on cleaning and handling flint (see Section 2.2). Note also that
special recording methods may have been employed on prehistoric sites that require
worked flint to be treated as registered finds, and/or to be recorded in detail on the
worked flint table in the Oracle database. A special finds number (written in the triangle
on the context label) will have been allocated to flints that were recorded three-
dimensionally on site: this number should be transferred to the triangle on the registered
finds cards and labels.
Concentrations of burnt flint nodules should be checked to ensure that no struck
flintwork (ie blades and flakes as opposed to nodules) is present. If burnt artefacts are
present, they should be included with the flintwork.

Glass
Ideally, glass should be the last material type to be registered from a site because it
requires a good deal of sorting. Prior to registering, all bags of glass should be sorted into
context order (in ‘shoe’ boxes) to ensure that individual vessels are not spread around
several different bags.
Body fragments, as opposed to rim, handle or base fragments, which appear
similar to each other should be registered under one registration number, even though
they may represent more than one vessel. In many instances it is impossible to determine
the precise form but the possibilities may have been narrowed down to two or three types.
If this is so, enter VESSEL in the object name field on the registered finds card and
labels, and write the possible types on the back of the card like the following example:
bowl/cup. Do not forget to amend the registered finds file on the computer, adding on the
suggested forms in the ‘comments’ field. Pottery drawing conventions are used where
possible for vessel glass but the cross-section is left blank, unless the fragment is very
small in which case it is neater to ink it in (Fig 4). Body fragments need only a plan and
section drawing.
Appropriate amendments should be made on registered finds cards, computer
registered file and labels after specialist identification.

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Fig 4 Examples of sketched drawings of glass on registered find cards

Graffiti, stamps, etc

If ceramic, draw the impression only, not the object. Transfer any spot-dating information
from the context label to the back of the card.

Iron
Always test with a magnet if material identification is uncertain. The magnetic attraction
on a very corroded object, however, will be weak. Since iron objects are usually
unrecognisable lumps and are always recorded on X-ray plates, an outline drawing is
sufficient with a section if possible.

Leather shoes
The leather will be wet so do not draw directly onto the registered finds card; draw an
outline of the shoe at 1:1 on a sheet of polythene, using a fine marker pen if the drawing
is to be reduced by more than half. Indicate stitch holes and other features but do not
attempt to shade. Use a dotted line to outline the bottom unit if it is hidden by the upper.
Denote grainside by ‘G’ and flesh side by ‘F’. Some shoes may require two views to
show all features present. Draw a scale and reduce the drawing on the photocopier until it
reaches a size that fits onto the registered finds card. Attach the drawing to the back of
the card with adhesive. Photocopies of these reduced drawings – with site code, context
and registration numbers – should accompany the leather when it is sent to the
conservation laboratory (Fig 5).

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Fig 5 Example of sketched and photocopied drawing of leather on registered find card
For nailed shoes it may be quicker to use a polythene sheet and a finer pen to copy the
outline and nailing pattern. The drawing can then be reduced on the photocopier (Fig 6).

Fig 6 Example of sketched and photocopied drawing of nailed shoe on registered find
card
Keep all the original full-size drawings; they are kept in individual site files in the finds
archive and can be of use for reference to rate of shrinkage, etc (site code and context and
registration numbers should be written on the drawings). For Roman shoes, note on the
back of the card:
• shoe type – whether nailed shoe, sandal, one-piece shoe or stitched shoe
• any special nailing pattern, such as S-shape or diamond, etc
For all shoes note if possible:
• whether left or right foot
• parts present (eg insole, middle, sole, heel-stiffener)
• any other noteworthy features

Non-shoe leather

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Leather will be wet, so do not draw directly onto the registration card; draw an outline at
1:1 on a sheet of polythene. Indicate stitch holes and other features but do not attempt to
shade. Denote whether flesh or grain side using ‘F’ or ‘G’ on the drawing. Attach a
photocopy of the drawing to the back of the registration card with adhesive (Fig 7). If the
drawing is too large to fit onto the card, reduce on a photocopier (and include a scale).
All full-size drawings should be kept and filed as for shoes.

Fig 7 Example of sketched drawing of leather item on registered find card

Samples
Write ‘sample’ in the material field and the sample type, if known, for example
PIGMENT in the object field. On the back of the card transfer any information written on
the context label by the excavator and state dry weight in grams where appropriate.

Wood
Wet wooden objects must be kept immersed in water and are normally stored in sealed
polythene bags and kept within Stewart plastic tubs. Breakable objects must not be stored
unprotected with larger more robust ones. Take care to protect fragile objects by storing
each in an individual container such as a small plastic box or in a sealed bag of water
within an individual polystyrene box before placing in the Stewart tub. During
registration, wet wooden objects should spend the minimum of time out of water and a
water spray container should be used if necessary.
Draw as for leather. A good full-size record drawing of the object is required prior
to conservation because of the possibility of shrinkage or distortion during conservation
treatment. In the case of simpler objects such as pegs, combs, stoppers, etc, the
registration drawing produced by the finds processor will suffice. In the case of more
difficult-to-draw items such as vessels or ornate and intricate objects it may be best to
have the record drawing carried out by a member of the illustration team. In the latter
case, a photocopy of the illustration drawing should be obtained from the illustrator and
stuck onto the back of the registered finds card. When sent to the conservation laboratory
the objects should be accompanied by photocopies of the registered finds card drawings
with the site code, context and registration number added. The full-size drawings should
be retained for eventual archive deposition.

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Certain special or exceptional items and all wet composite objects containing
wood will need to be taken to the Laboratory immediately after registration, thus
bypassing the system detailed in the preceding paragraphs. In these cases, the conservator
will arrange for drawing and wood identification to take place prior to treatment.
Large wooden objects (boat pieces, structural timbers, barrels, etc) are usually
reviewed on site with the review being arranged by the timber specialist. Reviews are
normally attended by the timber specialist, a curator, a conservator and a finds processor.
Registration normally follows a curatorial review to keep or at least store a large timber.
Drawing will be done on site and the timber specialist will supply drawings to both the
Finds Section and the conservation laboratory. Occasionally, samples of large timbers
may be registered into the Museum of London ancient timbers reference collection at the
discretion of the timber specialist. Large wooden objects may be stored in tanks in the
yard adjoining the Museum of London car park by arrangement with the conservation
laboratory. They must be accompanied by:
• two registration labels filled in using Artline 70 marker pen and heat-sealed
within separate 4” x 6” (102 x 153mm) bags
• dymo rod-strip with site code, context and registration numbers heat-sealed within
a 4” x 6” (102 x 153mm) polythene bag supplied by the conservation laboratory
on request
Attach bags containing labels to the wood by means of rust-proof nails which will
be supplied by the laboratory on request.

Filing of registered finds cards

Before computing and filing in metal drawers, the registered finds cards are checked by
the Finds Manager. The cards are filed in the following order:
• by site
• by material
• within material, by object alphabetically
• within object and unidentified object, by context
• within single context, by registration number
The registered finds cards are therefore filed in the same way as the registered
objects are stored. Use pink guide cards as site dividers and blue or beige guide cards as
material dividers.
Registered finds cards must not be removed from the filing drawers unless for
updating, microfiching or photocopying.

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4.3 Post-recording storage

Boxing dry bulk finds

After cataloguing, bulk finds are boxed in standard boxes, long ‘shoe boxes’. Larger
boxes, such as skeleton or square boxes should only be used if the item is too big for a
standard box. Each material is boxed separately in order of context number.
A self adhesive bulk finds box label should be stuck to one end of the box taking
care to position the bottom of the label at the bottom of the box to ensure that no written
details are obscured by the box lid. The details should be written neatly and legibly in
black capitals with a black Pentel-type marker pen. Details should never be written
directly onto the box end. Obsolete box labels should not be left on a box but should be
peeled off or cancelled out by pen.
There are two kinds of box label; one for bulk finds and one for registered finds.
With the bulk box label, if there are finds from three contexts or fewer in the box, write
each context number in the context field and write the material contained in the contents
field (Fig 8). Do not use computer keyword abbreviations on the box label (such as
ANBN).

Fig 8 Example of label for bulk finds box

If there are finds from more than three contexts write the context range only in the
context field, ie the lowest and highest numbers separated by a dash (Fig 9).

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Fig 9 Example of label for bulk finds box containing range of contexts
If there are only a few bulk finds from a site, put all the materials in one box and
write ‘ALL’ in the context field and list the materials present in the contents field.
Animal and human bone are always boxed separately from other finds and from
each other where possible.
The period field of the box label should be filled in where this information is
known – especially in the case of pottery, as this will enable estimates of the relative
quantities of Roman and post-Roman pottery to be made prior to spot dating.
Bulk finds are stored by site and within site by material and context number
respectively. All dry bulk finds should be boxed immediately after cataloguing with the
exception of ceramic and stone building material that should be stored by context in
stackable crates to await recording.
Each bulk material type should be sorted by context prior to boxing. Care should
be taken to ensure that contexts are not ‘scattered’, ie all the pottery from a single context
must be contained within the same box (unless it will not all fit in one box).
Boxes containing pottery should not be filled to capacity as the space required
after spot dating and quantification is usually greater because groups of pot or individual
vessels are bagged separately. The contents of over-full boxes are liable to get damaged.

Bagging and boxing registered finds not requiring special conditions

Each registered find is accompanied by two Tyvec registered finds labels with the details
filled in with a black biro (Fig 10). The aim is for the object to be visible without being
removed from the bag. One label is placed inside the bag with the object. The second
label is stapled, using one staple, between the two flaps of the bag with the underside of
the label next to the bag (this enables the label to be written upon later if necessary, eg to
add the X-Ray number). Both labels should face in the same direction. Fold the bag in
half and secure it with one centrally placed staple. Each registered object is supported by
a square of thin backing foam cut to slightly less than half the height of the bag and wide
enough to fit snugly.

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Fig 10 Example of label for registered find

All objects, unless they are too large, are stored in 6” x 9” (153 x 230mm), 8” x
12” (204 x 306mm) or 12” x 18” (306 x 459mm) perforated polythene bags or solid bags
for very tiny objects. The bagged finds are boxed in standard boxes separately from bulk
finds. They are boxed by material and are arranged in each box in the following order,
unless unidentified or glass:
• by object, alphabetically
• by context
• by registered finds number
Unidentified objects are stored by material, and then by context and registered
finds number. Registered glass awaiting recording should also be stored in numerical
order of context and registered finds number.
A stick-on box label is fixed to one end of the box and the details of its contents
filled in with a black Pentel-type marker (Fig 11). Write on the label:
• the context range of the contents or ‘ALL’ if all the registered finds of that
material are in the box
• material
• object name or alphabetical range of object names. If unidentified write ‘unident’.
Do not list the registered finds numbers unless there are just one or two large or
fragile items in the box with nothing more to be added (Fig 11).

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Fig 11 Example of label for box of registered finds

If there are insufficient registered finds of the same material to merit separate
boxes, different materials may be boxed together bearing in mind the possible fragility of
the items concerned. A buffer of acid-free tissue may be necessary. The registered finds
from a small site may fit into one box in which case merely write ‘ALL’ in the context
and category of registered finds fields.

Fragile finds
See Section 3.5.

Wet storage
Heat seal (see Section 3.5). If registered finds, replace context labels with registered finds
labels.

Freezer storage
Heat seal as for wet storage finds (see Section 3.5) but using a very small amount of
water and no fungicide/bactericide (this is toxic and should never be used anywhere). If
registered finds, replace context labels with registered finds labels. Store bags in a ‘Seal
Fresh Storer’ labelled on the side with a list of contents. Please note that items prepared
for freezer storage will be at the request of the conservators.

Desiccated storage
See Section 3.5.

4.4 Data entry

Data from all the finds records is computerised. The data is input onto the Oracle
database using the current input program: the bulk finds record paper sheet is entered

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onto the bulk finds Oracle table and the registered finds cards are entered onto the
registered finds Oracle table. Computer codes for Oracle data entry are given in Chapters
9 and 10. The terms are based on those in the Museums Documentation Association list.
Data from the registered finds cards is put onto the computer after cards have been
checked. Keywords used on the back of the card are typed into the comments field. Do
not use the comments field unless absolutely necessary as in the case of keywords and
probable identifications. Do not input dimensions.
See Health and Safety Policy Operational Procedures (MoLAS 2003), Appendix
8 ‘Generic Risk Assessment’ M33 ‘Office Work’.

Bulk finds thesaurus

For a computerised list of material and object names see Table 5 in Chapter 9. They have
a three or four character code and are listed alphabetically by the code. Only names that
exist in the thesaurus may be used on bulk recording sheets; note that the terms can also
be called up from the menu while inputting onto the Oracle database.

Registered Finds thesaurus

For a computerised list of material and object names see Table 6 and Table 7 in Chapter
10. They have a three or four character (letter) code for computing purposes and are listed
alphabetically by the code. Only names that exist in the Thesaurus may be used on
registered finds cards; note that the terms can also be called up from the menu while
inputting onto the Oracle database. Requests for adding new names may be addressed to
the Finds Manager.
Finds staff should familiarise themselves with the appearance of less common
objects by contacting finds specialists and by reference to published illustrations.
Additionally, there is a file of cards with object definitions and representative illustrations
that may be consulted.

Checking and correcting print-outs

When finds data has been computerised, a printed copy of the file should be checked for
errors. The checking is done line by line (it is useful to use a ruler or blank card to do
this) against the recording cards/record sheets and any corrections or additions are
marked in red biro. These corrections and additions are then made to the computer file.
Small blocks of data need not be printed out but may be checked on the screen.
Any changes made to record sheets or registered finds cards must immediately be
updated on the corresponding computer files as well. These changes should be done by
the designated Finds Processor for sites currently being processed. In all other cases, such
as new identifications by specialists or conservation laboratory, paper and computer
record updates are the responsibility of the Finds manager.

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5 Assessment and analysis

After processing and initial recording, finds are assessed. This process is intended to
assess what potential the finds have to answer archaeological research questions; in other
words, how significant the finds are from a particular site. The finds assessment forms
part of the site report, normally an evaluation report or a post-excavation assessment of
an excavation. Depending on the recommendations in the report (and on the securing of
further funding), further analysis of the finds may then be carried out.
This section does not attempt to give a methodology for the processes of
assessment and analysis but provides some notes on the recording processes and the types
of documentation used by specialists.

5.1 Pottery assessment

Pottery, after it has been processed and catalogued, is submitted to pottery specialists for
spot dating via pro-forma recording sheets (Fig 13 in Chapter 11) followed by
computerised data entry. The parameters of fabric, form and decoration are recorded by
codes for each pottery type, for each context. Each parameter within each type has an
allowed date range. Spot dating sets date limits for each context which assists the site
supervisor in phasing the site and provides data for subsequent, more detailed analysis.
When a box of pottery has been spot-dated the pottery specialist should update the
right hand column of the box label by adding the appropriate period code (eg RPOT)
followed by a tick and his/her initials.
Pottery date ranges alone are sometimes requested by site staff for particular
contexts/context groups especially for long-running sites. This is an interim measure only
and is not a substitute for proper spot-dating.

5.2 Clay tobacco pipe assessment

Registered and bulk recorded pipes are assessed and the data entered on the clay tobacco
pipe recording sheet (Fig 14 in Chapter 11).

5.3 Building material assessment and discard policy

After recording on bulk finds catalogue sheets all building material is recorded in detail
on building material recording sheets Fig 15 in Chapter 11). This includes bulk and
registered material. Architectural fragments, also known as worked stone, are sometimes
recorded by a specialist on a more detailed worked stone recording sheet (Fig 16) in
Chapter 11).
Most ceramic and stone building material is discarded after recording but the
following are kept:

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Worked stone to retain

• All registered stone
• non-registered mouldings such as paving and roofing (excluding small pieces of
common fabrics, eg Welsh slate)
• any other items of particular interest

Roman ceramic building material to retain

All registered material (see Section 4.2) is kept, along with the following types of bulk
material:
• cut or shaped tiles or bricks of uncommon forms
• flue tiles
• rare fabrics
• new signature marks and tally marks
• new flange types
• most painted wall plaster
• daub with good wattle, stake, post, or other impressions
• keyed clay walling
• complete tiles and good display items
• any other items of particular interest

Medieval and post-medieval ceramic building material to retain

All registered material (see Section 4.2) is kept, along with the following types of bulk
material:
• hearth tiles
• undecorated floor tiles
• finials
• rare fabrics
• complete and good display items
• any other items of particular interest

Bricks to retain
Most post-Roman bricks are discarded. The following types are always kept:
• Bricks of a new type or fabric
• Moulded or cut bricks

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• Bricks with inscriptions, maker’s marks, graffiti and animal prints, etc (these are
registered)
Note that all building material to be retained after recording should have ‘KEEP’ written
on both the context label and the box label.

5.4 Assessment of other materials

If large quantities of quern stone are found on a site, these can be recorded using the
relevant specialist recording sheet (
Fig 17 in Chapter 11).
The timber recording sheet (not illustrated) is designed for recording in situ
structural timbers on site but it is also used by specialists to record large timber finds, for
example barrel parts, shovels and spades.

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6 Archive
Archaeological finds – both the artefacts and the records – are permanently archived in
the London Archaeological Archive and Research Centre (LAARC) after assessment or
analysis. For many sites, finds are temporarily archived in the finds section of Mortimer
Wheeler House while the (often lengthy) processes of assessment and analysis are carried
out.

6.1 Archive deposition

Anyone depositing finds and records within the LAARC must first familiarise themselves
with the Museum of London document ‘General standards for the preparation of
archaeological archives deposited with the Museum of London’ (1998). All relevant finds
records are forwarded directly to the MoLAS Archive Officer who will arrange to have
them microfiched prior to deposition. The task of collating and forwarding finds records
for each site is currently carried out by the Finds Manager.
All lever arch files must be clearly labelled with site code and type of record
sheets. The following record sheets are all currently in use by MoLAS:
• bulk finds catalogues sheets
• pottery recording sheets
• building material recording sheets
• clay pipe recording sheets
• coin recording sheets
• registered finds cards
Other records may include:
• original leather registered finds drawings
• quern recording sheets
• stone moulding recording sheets
• specialist correspondence (letters etc) relating to the dating or identification of
objects
Pencil lines must be erased from the backs of registered finds cards. Ensure that
all writing on the fronts of registered finds cards and record sheets is in black biro, to
avoid problems with microfiching. Ensure that the x-ray number on the registered finds
card has been entered into the appropriate field of the Oracle registered finds database.
Ensure that all bulk finds catalogues have been checked against the pottery dating
records so that no anomalies exist; the dating on the pottery record sheets overrides that
on the bulk finds catalogue sheets. Ensure that the computer version of the bulk finds
catalogue is correct.

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A finds inventory – listing both bulk and registered finds – should be created for
each site that is being deposited and this can be automatically generated from the Oracle
database (see Fig 18 in Chapter 11). Note that if building material from any single
context has been discarded in its entirety, this must be recorded manually on the printed
finds inventory by writing ‘discarded’ in the appropriate box. The updated paper copy of
the finds inventory must be deposited with the other finds records.

6.2 The site archive – finds checklist

Registered finds
• Objects packaged, labelled, conserved or stabilised as necessary
• Registered finds cards
• Computerised registered finds list
• X-ray plates of iron, copper and silver objects as necessary
• Conservation records
• Drawings of registered leather, wood or composite organic objects at 1:1
before conservation
• Drawings of objects too large to X-ray in-house

Bulk finds
• Objects cleaned, bagged, marked as necessary, boxed and labelled
• Bulk record sheets (retained until computerised catalogue has been verified)
• Computerised record

Non-environmental samples
• Samples bagged and labelled
• Record sheets

Finds inventory
• A printed version of the Oracle database list of all bulk and registered finds

Other documents
• Basic quantification (box counts) of registered and bulk finds by object and
type (for storage, assessment and costing purposes)

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7 Other guidelines

7.1 Health and safety precautions in handling finds

The health and safety of all those who deal with finds must be considered at all times.
Finds processors need to be aware of precautions regarding tetanus, Weil’s Disease,
anthrax, heavy metals such as lead and mercury, manual lifting, repetitive strain and
dealing with human remains.

Metals
Latex or vinyl plastic medical gloves should be worn when registering and handling
copper alloy, silver, lead and iron objects. Cotton gloves are also available. Masks should
be worn for prolonged handling of lead or corroded iron or copper alloy.
See Health and Safety Policy Operational Procedures (MoLAS 2003) Appendix
8 ‘Generic Risk Assessment’ M34 ‘Work with Lead and Lead Compounds’.

Unwashed finds
Latex or heavy-duty rubber washing up gloves should always be worn when handling all
unwashed material. Occasionally excavated material has been contaminated with diesel
fuel or from heavy metals or chemicals present on site. The site supervisor or project
manager should advise of any risk. If diesel is smelled when washing, any contaminated
material may be laid aside and not washed. A mask should be worn if contamination is
suspected. Full personal protective clothing plus mask may be used if the decision is
taken to wash contaminated material.

Human and animal bone

The risk of infection from handling human and animal bone is considered negligible but
it is still advisable to take precautions. During handling, gloves and overalls should be
worn and hands and fingernails thoroughly washed afterwards.

7.2 Handling finds correctly to minimise damage

All whole or fragile objects should be handled, transported and packaged with care. Food
and drink must not be allowed to come into contact with archaeological objects in the
workplace or at finds presentations.

Pottery
Complete vessels must never be picked up by their handles but supported with a hand
under the base. On occasion it may be necessary to use masking tape to hold together
sherds of pottery for research or photography purposes. This tape must not be left on the
pot for more than two days (since it leaves a sticky residue).

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Metal
Handling of coins, badges or any conserved metal item should be kept to a minimum and
cotton gloves worn. Correct packaging should ensure that objects can be viewed without
the need to handle.

Wood, leather and other organics

These should only be removed from water for short periods during illustration or
registering. Whilst out of water they should be sprayed from time to time.

7.3 X-ray room

The x-ray machine is run by the Conservation Department, mainly the Archaeology
Section. Conservators and some finds processing staff have access to the x-ray room. No
one is to use the machine without instruction by the Radiological Protection Supervisor.
All use of the x-ray machine is recorded in a log book. This includes details of:
users, plate number, exposures, safety checks and replenishment of x-ray developer.

Safety
The x-ray machine is completely shielded and designed to be used while the operator is
in the room. It is checked annually by the National Radiological Protection Board.
Radiation levels around the machine do not exceed background radiation. However, we
still recommend working away from the machine when x-rays are on, especially during
high or long exposures.
A radiation monitor, sensitive to low levels of radiation, is used regularly to check
for leakage and is also used during each x-raying session. It is placed next to the cabinet
before the machine is switched on. Individual dose badges are also worn by each user.
These are checked four times a year by the NRPB and the results are posted in the x-ray
room. To date, no exposure to x-radiation has been registered.
No one is to use x-ray equipment during pregnancy.
The machine must not be left running and unattended. If leaving the room for a
period of time (over 10 minutes) switch off the machine and take the key with you. The
machine must then be warmed up again. At the end of a session the machine must also be
unplugged at the mains. The key is to be returned to the front desk (Security).
There are three essential safety procedures at the beginning of each session:
• Wear your individual dose badge at chest level.
• Switch on the red light outside the x-ray room to show that machine is in use
(switch next to the door on the inside).
• Check that the x-ray ‘ON’ light on the machine is working, and that nothing is
blocking the door interlock.

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If anything unusual is noticed, turn off the machine and see the Radiological
Protection Supervisor or, if not available, anyone in the Conservation Department.

Running-up procedure: a note of caution

If the machine is run within a narrow kV range, the full range is not given a work-out.
We run the machine at fairly high kVs so the lower kV range is not used enough. There is
a danger of tube puncture if this is not balanced (replacement tubes are very expensive).

Switching on, safety check, and running up

The machine must be warmed up before each session. Changes in procedure will be
posted in the x-ray room.
• Wear your individual dose meter badge at chest level.
• Switch on red light over x-ray room door.
• Make sure the cabinet door is closed and that the kV knob is turned fully counter-
clockwise.
• Switch on at mains, and use the x-ray machine key to switch on machine to on
position.
• Test the safety cut-out switch on the cabinet door by pressing the ‘ON’ button (the
red light will turn on) and pull the door 2-3mm without actually opening it. The
red light should turn off but if it does not, switch off the machine and contact the
Radiological Protection Supervisor immediately.
• Close the cabinet door properly before the next step.
• Check the log book to determine the length of time the machine has been idle and
set the timer according to the charge below. Ensure timer is switched on.
• Press the ‘START’ button (the red light will turn on) and turn the kV dial
clockwise until the kV meter registers 30 kV. When the timer reaches zero, x-rays
are stopped (the green light turns on).
• Press the ‘START’ button again, increase the kV to 50.
• Record details of the running-up procedure in the log book.

Film and lead screens

We routinely use a fine-grained industrial x-ray film (Kodak Industrex M). This is
supplied in boxes. Never open the box except in darkroom conditions or the whole batch
could be ruined (cost £150 per full box). Loose paper slips for use as the guide sheets are
in envelopes next to the film.
The film is placed in light-tight cassettes between lead screens. X-rays scatter
when they hit the objects and the base of the chamber. Scattered x-rays will affect the
film, giving a fuzzy, low contrast image. Lead screens above and below the film are used
to absorb scatter. We use 0.15 mm lead screens under and over the film. Do not

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completely remove the screens from the cassettes when loading/unloading. Avoid
touching the screens as fingerprints and scratches on them will leave marks on the x-ray
image.
Cassettes are used because the film is not supplied in light-fast envelopes and also
because they hold the film and screens neatly aligned. The beige side is the top. To avoid
distortion, the objects must be as close to the film as possible, putting the plane of interest
‘parallel’ to the film. Place the cassette in the centre of the chamber so that it is in the
centre of the x-ray beam. Other types of film are available which give shorter exposure
times at the cost of some loss of detail. They may be useful for very thick/dense objects
or for large batches of objects. Contact the Conservation Department for more
information on these films.

Preparation and using cassettes

The majority of copper-alloy and iron objects are x-rayed. The only exceptions are slag,
nails and copper-alloy items that are in outstanding condition. You should find the
cassettes loaded and ready for use, with white slips stuck to the beige side.
Sort objects by type of material, thickness and extent of corrosion. Similar objects
should be x-rayed together. Where possible, objects from the same site should also be x-
rayed together.
Each plate is given its own individual plate number – written in the top right
corner of the plate. Place a plain paper sheet (guide sheet) on top of the x-ray cassette.
Referring to the log book that is provided, write the next consecutive x-ray number in the
top right corner of the guide sheet and place the corresponding lead number on top of
this. It should be noted that external sites (non-London) have their own separate
sequences of x-ray numbers and the External Site Log should be consulted prior to x-
raying metals from non-London sites. Arrange the objects on the guide sheet writing the
sitecode, context number (in a box) and registered finds number (without brackets),
preferably just below each item. Try to fit as many items as possible on each plate but do
not overcrowd. After x-raying, retain the guide sheets as they will be needed later during
the plate-marking process. (Unused guide sheets are stored in the x-ray room.)
If you have to have more than one exposure on one plate, mask off an area with
the lead sheets, these are painted grey for your protection. When you expose the second
area, remember to mask off the first area.

Exposing the film

• Check that the green light is on.
• Place the prepared cassette in the centre of the chamber and close the door.
• Set the timer to the required time. (see guide in x-ray room)
• Press the ‘START’ button (the red light will turn on).
• Turn the kV dial to required value (see Table 4 and note also guide in x-ray room)
• Wait until the green light shows before opening door and taking out cassette.

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• Record the details of the exposure in the log book.

• Re-bag the objects but without stapling, and return them to their box along with
the guide sheet to identify them. Mark the labels with the x-ray number in red
biro. Keep in desiccated storage if iron.

Table 4 Recommended x-ray exposures

Exposure Effect Recommended for
Short time High More penetrating Objects of uniform
kV Decrease contrast thickness

Long time Low kV Less penetrating objects with varying

Increase contrast thickness/density
In order to get the most detail the kV should be at least 120. This makes the lead
screens work as image intensifiers, which increases the photographic effect, reduces
exposure time and strengthens the contrast of the image. The lead screen intensifiers will
only work at 120kV+ and only in the rigid cassettes as the floppy ones have not got good
enough film-to-lead screen contact.

Processing the film

Before developing:
• Be sure that the red warning light (outside the door) is ON.
• Switch on the safe lights.
• Switch off the overhead light and shut the door of the x-ray room.
Open cassette, remove film and attach to hangar. Do not completely remove lead
screens and avoid touching them. Stack the opened cassettes all the same way round
ready for re-loading. Remove the old white slips and retain them. Do not put more than
two plates in the tank at one time (they scratch easily). The developing sequence is as
follows:
• Developer: 5 minutes, agitate film for the first minute.
• Water spray: 60 seconds.
• Fixer: 4 minutes in the first bath; 5 minutes in the second bath
• Wash: at least 1 hour in fast running water
• Dry: 3 to 4 hours or overnight, When using the during cabinet it should
take about 1 hour
• Clean the area after use. X-ray chemical spills do not show until dry. Tank
lids and the worktop must be wiped down with wet paper towelling.

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Reloading cassettes
This must be done in the dark, though safe-lights may be left on. Do not open the box
until the main light is off. It is best to re-load while processing the film as they should
always be left loaded and ready for the next user at the end of each session. The reloading
instructions are as follows:
• Have the cassettes stacked ready all the same way round, open with one lead
screen the well-side and the other on the flat side.
• Inside the box of film are one or two bags containing the film. The one in use will
have the open end at the bottom turn the bag round. Take out the film (beware of
card sheet in each bag!).
• Place film in well-side of cassette, put second screen face down on top of it and
ensure that all three layers are lying flat by running your fingers lightly over the
surface. This is important to avoid spoiling film and screen.
• Close the cassette by bringing flat side over and secure the clip.
• When all are loaded, stick a white slip in the centre of the beige side of each one
with masking tape.

Marking the x-ray plates and updating records

After processing, the plates are marked up on a light box using a mapping pen and
Winsor and Newton white ink. Write over the numbers left by the lead figures at the top
right hand corner of the plate. Using the guide sheets, neatly write the site code, context
number in a box and registered finds number below the image of each object on the film.
Do not put brackets or similar around the registered finds number. If the plate contains a
single site, the site code need only be written once at the top of the plate instead of
beneath each object image.
Record the exposure used in the bottom right hand corner, eg 90 kV/30 sec. If
using film other than MX with screens in cassette, record film type and whether in screen
or not.
Ensure ink is dry before putting the plate in polyester envelope and file in
numerical order in the Conservation Department. If you are taking the plates out for study
or for any reason, file a proxy form for each plate in its place in the file. The guide sheets
are retained for reference and filed in lever arch files numerically by plate number.
Write the x-ray number with red biro on both registered finds labels for each
object. Using black biro write the x-ray number in the appropriate box on the front of the
registered finds card for each item. Both x-ray boxes should be ticked. The appropriate
computer field within the Oracle registered finds database must also be updated with the
x-ray number.

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7.4 Mounting temporary exhibitions

Finds processing staff may be asked to mount, or assist in mounting, exhibitions on or off
site for open days for the public, for developer displays or special events. The following
are some useful guidelines and procedures.
• Finds selected for displays and which will be separated from their bags or labels
must be securely identifiable so that they can subsequently be easily reunited. A
photocopy of the registered finds drawing should be placed in the registered finds
bag. All ceramics should be marked. A list of all finds taken for display must be
drawn up and checked against finds being returned to packaging and storage.
• Ensure that all items are suitably packed for transport.
• Display tables need to be secured or reserved in advance. Each table needs a
suitable covering cloth. Always ensure tables are in correct location before
starting to lay out.
• Plastic or Perspex display mounts are usually needed.
• Captions need to be accurately researched and typed. The MoLAS drawing office
normally produce the captions that are written by finds staff.
• Staff need to man the displays at all times to avoid theft or breakage and to
answer queries as needed.
• Valuable finds such as coins or items of precious metals should only be displayed
in locked cases.
• Finds displays are frequently done in conjunction with Environmental displays
and close liaison with Environmental staff is to be encouraged so that human
bone, animal bone, seeds and artefacts form an integrated display.
• For off-site events (topping outs in offices, etc) allow plenty of time for getting to
venue and for inevitable wasted time when you get there prior to being able to
commence setting up. In other words allow much more time than you think you
will need.
• Make sure a van is booked to get material to the venue and for removal after the
event.
• Bring gloves for handling objects.
• Bring a small paint brush for brushing away the debris on tables.
• Ensure in advance the availability of electric sockets for X-ray box, microscopes,
etc.
• If possible take photographs of the display and its visitors.

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7.5 Volunteers
The Finds and Environmental Sections frequently make use of volunteers who come from
a variety of backgrounds and whose needs vary. Often, volunteers are used in response to
requests from individuals or organisations and positive publicity may thus be generated.
There are several types of volunteer:
• The interested individual. This would include the individual, sometimes retired,
who has a keen interest in archaeology and is willing to help out.
• The school student on work experience.
• The university or extra-mural student taking a formal course in archaeology who
needs to complete a set number of hours of practical work in order to fulfil course
requirements.
• The overseas student on exchange. This includes university students and high
school students from the USA (‘interns’).
The wide variety of volunteers will have differing needs which need to be met as
fully as possible. The tasks carried out should be of benefit both to the volunteer and the
organisation. In general, a variety of tasks should be available. The work should be
interesting where possible given that some of the tasks are repetitive and basic. Staff
should be ready to answer queries and offer advice and help at all times. Volunteers who
are regular helpers rather than students may claim a daily volunteer allowance to assist
with transport costs and appropriate forms are available for this purpose. Completed
forms are submitted to the Finds Manager who will arrange payment in cash.
Elderly volunteers will usually be offered light tasks which can be done while
sitting at a desk. Students who are fulfilling course requirements will need to undertake a
suitable range of tasks. School students may well be interviewed by their teacher who
will ask what they have learned.
Tasks involving heavy lifting should not be given to volunteers.
Power hosing and washing with the garden hose are given only to students who
wish to carry out these tasks. Computer inputting should only be given to such students
under careful supervision and after instruction.
Tasks for which sufficient project funding is not available such as pot marking
may be usefully undertaken by volunteers.
Volunteers usually attend from 10.00 am to 4.00 pm but there is an element of
flexibility.

7.6 Good work practice

The most important aspect of good work practice is the careful observation of health and
safety advice and regulations (see Section 7.1). Beyond this, good work practice involves
making the best use of resources. The following are some suggestions:
• Be polite and courteous.

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• Carefully adhere to budgeted time allocated under each project and

promptly submit weekly work returns to the Finance Office.
• Be neat and tidy. Clean up after washing finds and keep working areas
clean and tidy.
• Keep supplies and equipment in their proper places.
• Always recycle bags (for use on site) sorting them by size into the
appropriate boxes that are provided.
• Ensure context labels are washed along with the finds so that they do not
need to be replaced by new labels.
• Ensure that grubby paper and debris are removed from drying (seed) trays
and that trays are left clean and ready for the next user.
• Do not allow silt to go down the plug-holes of sinks as the drainage is
easily blocked. Keep silt traps clean and regularly empty tanks of silt.
• Minimise water wastage. Keep taps off when not in use. Remedy leaking
hoses and taps. A water recycling device may be desirable to reduce the
quarterly water bill.
• At the end of the working day ensure that all electrical appliances are
turned off including computers and heaters.

7.7 Working abroad

Occasionally, Finds and Environmental Processors find themselves working abroad on
projects being undertaken by MoLAS or in a private capacity for external projects. They
may be asked to introduce Museum of London working practices in full or in part. This is
an excellent opportunity to publicise the work of the Museum of London in a positive
way. Finds and Environmental Processors may find that:
• there is no finds office and only minimal finds procedures;
• no environmental sampling takes place with no equipment on hand;
• artefacts and samples cannot by law be removed from that country to the UK for
post-excavation work.
The Finds Processor working abroad will need:
• to be sensitive to cultural and professional differences which may be considerable
and be able to adapt to these;
• to work longer, possibly unsocial hours. Foreign projects are often tightly funded
and the project manager may expect very long hours in return for the privilege of
working on the project.

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The Finds and Environmental Processor may have the opportunity to set up UK-
style procedures. It may be necessary to take out a basic finds kit of items not available
on the project including:
• Tyvec finds and context labels
• Registered finds cards
• Bulk record sheets (there may be no photocopier available)
• Other useful stationery including marker pens and drawing pens
• A pottery rim diameter chart
• It may be necessary to use locally available materials such as an oil drum for an
environmental washing tank
• Small polythene bags for packing fragile items
The guidelines in this Finds Processing Manual may be adapted to suit the
requirements of overseas projects.
A project overseas may be run from a university in Europe, North America or
Australia. Such projects need to be as self-contained as possible with a project
conservator, illustrator, environmentalist, finds specialist and ceramicist to hand. Project
participants may need to exercise several skills such as photography and computer
inputting. Participants may be expected to fit in with predetermined procedures but there
may be the opportunity to introduce procedures adapted from the Museum of London.

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8 Bibliography and useful sources

British Museum, 1982 Selection and retention of environmental and artefactual material
from excavations, British Museum Working Party unpub rep
Atkinson, D R, and Oswald, A, 1969 London clay tobacco pipes, J British Archaeol
Assoc 32, 171–227
DUA, 1984 Pottery archive users handbook, Museum of London unpub rep
Goodburn-Brown, D. and UKIC Archaeology Section, 2001 Excavated artefacts and
conservation – UK sites – Conservation Guidelines No. 1, unpub UKIC Archaeology
Section rep
Higgins, D A, and Davey, P, 1994 Draft guidelines for using the clay tobacco pipe record
sheets, unpub rep
Museum of London, 1998 General standards for preparation of archaeological archives
deposition in the Museum of London, unpub MoL rep
MoLAS 2003, Health and Safety Policy Operational Procedures, unpub MoL rep
Oswald, A, 1975 Clay pipes for the archaeologist, BAR Brit Ser 14, Oxford
Rhodes, M, 1990 Artefact collection and retention policy, unpub MoLondon rep
Watkinson, D (ed), 1978 First aid for finds, London

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9 Appendix: Oracle database codes for bulk finds

Table 5 Oracle codes for bulk finds

Material Expansion
ANBN ANIMAL AND NON-HUMAN
BONE
BM UNKNOWN OR UNSPECIFIED
CBM
BONE BONE
BUFL BURNT FLINT
DAUB DAUB
FLIN WORKED/STRUCK FLINT
GLAS GLASS
HUBN HUMAN BONE
KILF KILN FURNITURE
KILS KILN STRUCTURE
LESC LEATHER SCRAPS (ALL
PERIODS)
LEWA LEATHER WASTE (ALL PERIODS)
MCBM MEDIEVAL CBM
MORT MORTAR
MPOT MEDIEVAL POTTERY
MSHO MEDIEVAL SHOES
MUDB MUDBRICK
NAIL NAIL
OPSI OPUS SIGNINUM
PCBM POST-MED BUILDING MATERIAL
PHIA PHIAL
PIPE CLAY PIPE
PLAS PLASTER
PMCG POST MED CLEAR BOTTLE
GLASS
PMGG POST MED GREEN BOTTLE
GLASS
PMSH POST MED SHOE
PMWG POST MED WINDOW GLASS
POT POTTERY

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PPOT POST MEDIEVAL POT

PREP PREHISTORIC POT
RCBM ROMAN CBM
RPOT ROMAN POT
RPWP ROMAN PAINTED WALL
PLASTER
SLAG SLAG
SPOT SAXON POTTERY
STON STONE

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10 Appendix: Oracle codes for registered finds

Table 6 Oracle codes for registered find material types

Material Expansion
AMBE AMBER
BONE BONE
CERA CERAMIC
COAL COAL
COMP COMPOSITE
COPP COPPER
CORA CORAL
FIBR FIBRE
FLIN FLINT
GLAS GLASS
GOLD GOLD
IRON IRON
IVOR IVORY
LEAD LEAD
LEAT LEATHER
PLAS PLASTER
PLST PLASTIC
RESI RESIN
SAMP SAMPLE
SHEL SHELL
SILV SILVER
STON STONE
TORT TORTOISE SHELL
WAX WAX
WOOD WOOD

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Table 7 Oracle codes for registered find object types

Object Expansion BIRD BIRD-FEEDER BUTT BUTTON
ADZE ADZE BKBG BOOK BINDING BUZZ BUZZWHEEL
ADZH ADZE-HAMMER BLAD BLADE (FLINT CALE CALENDER OR
ONLY) LINEN SMOOTHER
ALLE ALLEY
BMOU BELL MOULD CALT CALTROP
ALT ALTAR
BOAH BOAT HOOK CAME CAMES
AMPH AMPHORA
BOAT BOAT CAND CANDLESTICK/HOL
AMPU AMPULLA DER
BOBB BOBBIN
ANCH ANCHOR CANN CANNON-BALL
BODK BODKIN
ANKL ANKLET CANS CANDLESNUFFER
BOLT BOLT
ANTL ANTLER-PICK CAP CAP (FIBRE)
BOMB BOMBARD
ANVI ANVIL CAPT CAPITAL
BOOK BOOK-CLASP
APCO APPLE-CORER CARD CARDING COMB
BOSS BOSS
ARMO ARMOUR CASK CASKET
BOTT BOTTLE
ARRO ARROW CAUL CAULDRON
BOW BOW
AUGE AUGER CENS CENSER
BOWD BOW DRILL
AWL AWL CFIX CRUCIFIX
BOWL BOWL
AXE AXE CHAI CHAIN
BOX BOX
AXLE AXLE CHAN CHANDELIER
BRAC BRACELET
BABO BALLISTA BOLT CHAP CHAPE
BRAI BRAID
BADG BADGE CHES CHESSMAN
BRAK BRACKET
BAG BAG CHIS CHISEL
BRIC BRICK SAMPLE
BALL BALL (LEATHER) CHMA CHAIN-MAIL
BRID BRIDLE BOSS
BALU BALUSTER CHOP CHOPPER OR
BROM BROOM CLEAVER
BARG BARGE-FENDER
BROO BROOCH CHUR CHURN
BARR BARREL
BRUS BRUSH CINU CINERARY URN
BASK BASKET
BTHK BOAT-HOOK CLAS CLASP
BEAD BEAD
BUCH BUCKET CHAIN CLOA CLOAK-FASTENER
BEAK BEAKER
BUCK BUCKLE CLOC CLOCK
BELJ BELL JAR
BUKT BUCKET CLOS CLOTH-SEAL
BELL BELL
BULL BULLET CLOT CLOTH
BILL BILL-HOOK
BUPL BUCKLE-PLATE CMOU COIN MOULD
BIND BINDING (TEXTILE
OR LEATHER) BURN BURNISHER COAL COAL

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COAR COARSEWARE DIST DISTILLING VESSEL FLOR FLOOR TILE

COBA COIN BALANCE DIVI DIVIDERS FLUT FLUTE
COFF COFFIN DODO DODECAHEDRON FOIL FOIL
COIN COIN DOMI DOMINO FONT FONT
COLL COLLAR DOOL DOOR-LATCH FORK FORK
COMB COMB DOOR DOOR-KNOCKER FRIT FRIT
COMC COMB CASE DRAI DRAINPIPE-COLLAR FURN FURNACE
COMP COMPASS DRHK DRESS-HOOK GAMI GAMING BOARD
CORD CORD DRIL DRILL-BIT GARG GARGOYLE
CORE CORE (FLINT) DRIN DRINKING-HORN GART GARTER
COSG COSMETIC EARP EAR-PICK GAUN GAUNTLET
GRINDER
EARR EAR-RING GEM GEM
COSM COSMETIC BRUSH
ENTR ENTRENCHING- GLOV GLOVE
COSS COSMETIC SET TOOL
GOFF GOFFERING IRON
COST COSTREL ESCU ESCUTCHEON
GOUG GOUGE
COUC COUCH LEG EYEL EYELET
GRAP GRAPPLING-IRON
COUL COULTER FABR FABRICATOR
GRAT GRATER
COUN COUNTER FAN FAN
GRAV GRAVESTONE OR
CREA CREASER (IRON: FARR FARRIER'S TOMBSTONE
LEATHERWORKING BUTTERIS
) GRID GRIDDLE-PLATE
FELT FELT
CROW CROWBAR GRIL GRILLE
FERR FERRULE
CRUC CRUCIBLE GTHK GARTER-HOOK
FGST FLAGSTONE OR
CUFL CUFFLINK OTHER STONE HAMM HAMMER
FLOORING HAND HANDLE
CUP CUP
FIEL FIELD-ANVIL HARN HARNESS
CUPE CUPEL
FIGU FIGURINE HASP HASP
CURH CURTAIN HOOK
FILE FILE HEAD HEAD-DRESS
CURR CURRY-COMB
FING FINGER-RING HEAR HEARTH
CURS CURSE TABLET
FINI FINIAL HELM HELMET
DAGG DAGGER
FISH FISH-HOOK HING HINGE
DECA DECANTER
FLAG FLAGON HIPP HIPPOSANDAL
DICE DICE-BOX
FLAK FLAKE HOE HOE
DIE DIE
FLAS FLASK (COPPER) HONE HONE
DIPT DIPTYCH
FLEA FLEAM HOOE HOOK-AND-EYE
DISC DISC
FLES FLESH-HOOK HOOK HOOK
DISH DISH (WOOD)

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HORS HORSEBIT LOCK LOCK NAIL NAIL

HOSH HORSESHOE LOOM LOOM-WEIGHT NECA NEEDLE-CASE
HSLD HAIRSLIDE LOOP LOOP-FASTENER NECK NECKLACE
HUBL HUB-LINING LOUV LOUVER (PRE 1983 NEED NEEDLE
SITES ONLY)
INGO INGOT NET NET
LSTA LAMP-STAND
INKS INK SANDER NETN NETTING NEEDLE
LUTI LUTING
INKW INKWELL NETS NET-SINKER
MACE MACE
INLY INLAY NETT NETTING-HOOK
MALL MALLET
JAR JAR ORE ORE
MANA MANACLE
JERK JERKIN OXGO OX-GOAD
MART MARTINGALE
JEWS JEW'S HARP OXSH OX-SHOE
MASK THEATRICAL MASK
JODO JOINERS DOG PADB BARREL-PADLOCK
MATK MATTOCK
JUG JUG PADD PADDLE
MEDS MEDICATION
KEY KEY SHEET PADL PADLOCK
KEYF KEY FINGER-RING MICR MICROLITH PALE PALETTE
KEYH KEYHOLE-PLATE MILD MILITARY PAN PAN
KILF KILN FURNITURE DIPLOMA PANP PANPIPES
KILS KILN STRUCTURE MILL MILLSTONE PAPE PAPER-CLIP
KILW KILN WASTE MINI MINIATURE (TOY PARC PARCHMENT
OR SOUVENIR ETC.)
KNIF KNIFE (INCLUDING PARP PARCHMENT-
SEAXE AND MIRC MIRROR-CASE PRICKER
SCRAMASEAXE) MIRR MIRROR PATC PATCH
LABE LABEL MLDG MOULDING PATT PATTEN
LACE LACE MOIL MOILE PEG PEG
LACH LAMP CHIMNEY MORM MORTARIUM PEN PEN
LADD LADDER (CERAMIC)
PENC PENCIL
LADL LADLE MORT MORTAR
PEND PENDANT
LAMP LAMP MORX MORTUARY-CROSS
PERS PERFORATED SLAB
LANT LANTERN MOSA MOSAIC
PEST PESTLE
LAST LAST MOUL MOULD
PHIA PHIAL
LATC LATCH-LIFTER MOUN MOUNT
PICA PICKAXE
LCHP LACECHAPE MULT MULTI-
COMPONENT PICK PICK
LID LID OBJECT PIGM PIGMENT
LIGU LIGULA MUSI MUSICAL PILE PILE
LINC LINCHPIN INSTRUMENT
PILL PILLAR
LMPH LAMP-HOLDER NACL NAIL-CLEANER

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PILS PILL-SLAB ROOF ROOF (STONE) SKI SKI

PIN PIN ROPE ROPE SKIL SKILLET
PINB PINNER'S BONE ROVE ROVE SKIM SKIMMER
PINC PINCERS RULE RULE SLAG SLAG
PINT PINTLE SADD SADDLE SLIN SLING-SHOT
PIPE TOBACCO PIPE SALT SALT-CELLAR SOLL SOLDERING LAMP
PIST PISTOL SAM SAMIAN SPAD SPADE OR SPADE
IRON
PITC PITCHFORK SAMP SAMPLE
S-PAIN SAMPLE OF PAINT
PLAN PLANE SATC SATCHEL
SPAN SPANGLE
PLAQ PLAQUE SAW SAW
SPAR SPAR HOOK
PLAT PLATE-MAIL SBOX SEAL-BOX
SPAT SPATULA
PLIE PLIERS SCAB SCABBARD
SPEA SPEAR
PLTT PLATTER SCAL SCALES OR
BALANCES SPEC SPECTACLES
PLUG PLUG
SCCH SCABBARD-CHAPE S-PIGM SAMPLE OF
PLUM PLUMB-BOB PIGMENT
SCIS SCISSORS
POCK POCKET-WATCH SPIN SPINDLE
SCRA SCRAPER
POWD POWDER MEASURE S-PITC SAMPLE OF PITCH
SCUL SCULPTURE
PRIS PRIVY SEAT SPLI SPLIT PIN
SCYT SCYTHE
PRUN PRUNING-HOOK SPOO SPOON
SEAL SEAL
PULL PULLEY SPTP SPINNING-TOP
SEMA SEAL-MATRIX
PUMP PUMP SPUR SPUR
SETT SETTING
PUNC PUNCH SPWH SPINDLE-WHORL
SHBO SHIELD BOSS
PURS PURSE STAF STAFF
SHEA SHEARS
QUER QUERN STAK STAKE
SHEL SHELL (USED AS
RAKE RAKE AMULET) STAN STAND
RATT RATTLE SHHK SHEARMAN'S-HOOK STAP STAPLE
RAZO RAZOR SHIE SHIELD-BOSS STAT STATUE
REAP REAPING-HOOK SHIN SHINGLE STCK METAL-WORKING
RELI RELIQUARY STOCK
SHOE SHOE (STRIPS/PLATE ETC)
REVE REVETMENT SHOT SHOT STEE STEELYARD
RING RING (NOT FINGER- SHOV SHOVEL
RING) STFT STRUCTURAL
SICK SICKLE FITTING
RISP RIGGING-SPACER
SIEV SIEVE STGL STRIGIL
RIVE RIVET
SKAT SKATE STIR STIRRUP
ROD STIRRING ROD
SKEW SKEWER STLI STRIKE-A-LIGHT

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STMO STAMP MOULD THRE THRESHOLD WAST WASTE

STOC STOCKING TILE TILE WATC WATCH-GLASS
STOO STOOL TNHK TENTER HOOK WBOX METAL WORKBOX
STOP STOPPER TOBACCO PIPE - WEDG WEDGE
SEE CODE NAME:
STOV STOVE TILE PIPE WEIG WEIGHT
STPE STRAP- END OR TOBR TOMBSTONE BRASS WETA WEAVING-TABLET
BELT-CHAPE
TOGG TOGGLE WETO WEAVING TOOL
STRA STRAINER
TONG TONGS WGRI WINDOW GRILL
STRC STRAP CONNECTOR
PLATE TOOB TOOLBIT WHEE WHEEL

STRH STRAP-HINGE TOOL TOOL WHIP WHIP

STRL STRAP LOOP TOOT TOOTHBRUSH WHIS WHISTLE

STRP STRAP TRAY TRAY WIGC WIG CURLER

STUD STUD TRCH TRENCHER WINC WINDOW CATCH

STWT STEELYARD TREN TRENAIL WIND WINDOW

WEIGHT WING WING-NUT
TRIA TRIAL-PIECE
STYC STYLUS CASE WIRE WIRE
TRIV TRIVET
STYL STYLUS WIRL WIRE LOOP
TROU TROUGH
SUND SUNDIAL WISH WINDOW-SHUTTER
TROW TROWEL
SURG SURGICAL WOCA WOOLCARD
INSTRUMENT TRUM TRUMPET
TRUN TRUNELL WOOC WOOLCOMB
SUSP SUSPENSER
TUBE TUBE WOOW WOODWORK
SWCH SWORD CHAPE
TUMB TUMBLER WPIP WATER-PIPE
SWOR SWORD
TUNI TUNING-PEG WRIB WRIST BRACER
SYRI SYRINGE (ARCHERS)
TABL TABLE TURF TURF-CUTTER
WRIT WRITING TABLET
TALL TALLYSTICK TWEE TWEEZERS
WSWO WEAVER'S SWORD
TANK TANKARD TYPM TYPE-METAL

TAP TAP UMBR UMBRELLA

TCLA T-CLAMP UNK UNKNOWN

TENT TENT URIN URINAL

TERR TERRET VASE VASE

TESS TESSERA (PRE 1983 VENT VENTILATOR

SITES ONLY) VESS VESSEL
THIM THIMBLE WALT WALL TILE
THPI THREAD PICKER WARP WARPING-BOARD
THRD THREAD WASH WASHER

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11 Appendix: Finds record sheets

Fig 12 Bulk finds catalogue sheet

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Fig 13 Pottery spot dating record sheet

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Fig 14 Clay tobacco pipe recording sheet

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Fig 15 Building material recording sheet

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Fig 16 Worked stone recording sheet

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Fig 17 Quern stone recording sheet

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12 Appendix: Example of a site’s finds inventory report

Enter ATC97
sitecode
here &
press enter:

Finds ATC97 Date:

Inventory 317/12/200
report for site:
Conte Material Object name Period/Centur Reg find Complete Displaya X-ray plate Description Discarde
xt no y no ble no. and comments d
0 Bone Animal bone - bulk - - -
0 Ceramic Building Roman bulk - - -
material
0 Ceramic Pottery Roman bulk - - -
6 Bone Animal bone - bulk - - -
6 Ceramic Pottery Post-medieval bulk - - -
7 Ceramic Building Medieval bulk - - -
material
7 Ceramic Pottery Medieval bulk - - -
7 Iron Nail - bulk - - -
7 Glass Window Post-medieval bulk - - -
7 Ceramic Pottery Post-medieval bulk - - -
7 Ceramic Floor Tile Medieval 22 - -
7 Ceramic Floor Tile Medieval 23 - -
7 Copper Buckle Unknown 5 W X6382
7 Copper Lacechape Unknown 8 - -
7 Copper Pin Unknown 15 W -
7 Copper Wire Unknown 14 - -
7 Iron Horseshoe Unknown 6 H X6383

Fig 18 Example of finds inventory report

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13 Appendix: The Treasure Act

The Treasure Act of 1996 defines objects that qualify as Treasure and includes any
metallic object other than coin that is made up of more than 10% gold or silver and is
over 300 years old, any group of two or more metallic objects of prehistoric date that
come from the same find, coin hoards that have been deliberately hidden, smaller groups
of coins, votive or ritual deposits, any object from the same place as Treasure. Objects
that are less than 300 years old, made mainly of gold or silver, which have been
deliberately hidden with the intention of recovery, and whose owners or heirs are
unknown would also be classed as Treasure.
A leaflet summarising the Treasure Act is available from the Department for
Culture Media and Sport, Information Centre, 2–4 Cockspur Street, London SW1Y 5DH
Tel: 020 7211 6200 and from local museums.

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