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General Engineering Knowledge:

Survey:

Authorised independent examination, investigation, and inspection, measuring or testing of

ship structure, machinery and equipment, done and supervised by Surveyors appointed by
regulatory or commercial organisations.

Classification Societies:
They are third party independent bodies.

Their functions:
» To ensure that ship is soundly constructed and the standard of construction is
maintained.
» Carried out Statutory Survey on behalf of the Administration regarding the ship
safety and prevention of pollution of marine environment.

Classed ship:

» A ship, which is built in standard and maintained under rules and regulations of
Classification
» For a ship to be entitled to a class, Classification Society issues a Classification
Certificate after carrying out Classification Surveys.
» Classification Certificate confirms that the ship has both structural and mechanical
fitness for their intended services.

Maintaining the class:

To maintain a ship in the class:
» The owner must carry out regular surveys of hull, machinery and equipment.
» Carry out repairs necessary from time to time, under the supervision of Class Surveyors.

Statutory Survey:
» Carried out by Administration regarding the safety of the ship, sea worthiness and
pollution, in accordance with national and international rules.
» Issued a certificate, this is essential to the ship’s ability to trade.
» If Statutory Survey is not certified, the ship can be detained.

Statutory Surveys are:

» International tonnage survey
» International load line survey 5 years interval
» Cargo ship safety construction survey 5 years -
» Cargo ship safety equipment survey 2 years -
» Cargo ship safety radio survey 1 year -
» Marpol IOPP survey 5 years -
» Carriage of grain cargo, etc:

Classification Survey.
» Carried out by Classification Surveyor, to ensure that the ship has both structural
and mechanical fitness, for intended voyage, in accordance with the class
requirements.
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Difference bet: Statutory Survey and Classification Survey:

» Statutory surveys are not assessing or measuring something for a client.

» Statutory survey will inspect something against a set standard or law.
» On completion of this survey, the ship is issued with a certificate, which is
essential to the ship's ability to trade.
» Class cannot go to the ship unless requested by the owner, or unless the ship is
detained by the Port State Control.

Why Classification Societies sometimes issue the Statutory Certificate?

» Sometimes Administration delegates the authority, to the Classification Society to

inspect and issue Certificates, on their behalf, regarding statutory requirements.

Port State Control:

1. Port State Inspection is a particular form of Statutory Survey.

2. Intention of Survey is to check that, ships flying the Flags of States comply with
the Requirements of the Conventions.
3. When these ships are in Ports of States, Port State Authority has control over the
ships in port, and has rights to inspect the followings, in order to avoid
Substandard Ships:

Safety Equipment.
IOPP Certificate.
Oil Record Book.
Sewage Treatment Plant.
MARPOL Equipment.

For PSC purposes, Port Authorities will apply in general, the following Instruments.
ILL 66, SOLAS 74, MARPOL 73/78, STCW 78, COLARG 72 and ILO 76.

4. A Surveyor representing the Authority of the Government carries out the Port State
Inspection.

Preparation for Port State Control Inspection: [As a CE]

» IOPP Certificate
» Load Line Certificate
» SOLAS Certificates
» STCW Certificates, kept ready.
» Safety Equipment prepared for testing and inspection.
» MARPOL Equipment prepared for testing and inspection, such as:
– OWS operation and alarm test.
– Incinerator tested and kept ready for demonstration, and alarm test.
– Sewage Treatment Plant, in good order, and dose chemicals.
– Tank top near OWS and Bilge Pumping Station kept clean.
– Bilge overboard discharge valve, tightly closed and kept under lock and key.
– Update and attach ORB, with photocopies of MARPOL Certificates, original Oil
Disposal Receipts, and Dirty Oil and Sludge Piping Diagram.
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Flag State control:

1. Flag State or Administration has responsibilities that the ships built to their flag,
comply with the Requirements of the Conventions, in construction and upkeep
afterwards.
2. Government body carried out Surveys and issued Certificates relating to safety of
the ship, sea worthiness and pollution.
3. Flag State Control is limited to ensure that valid Certificates are onboard.

a) Passenger ship safety certificate Validity 1 year.

b) Cargo ship safety construction certificate 5 years
c) Cargo ship safety equipment certificate 2 years
d) Cargo ship safety radio certificate 1 year
e) International load line certificate 5 years
f) MARPOL IOPP certificate 5 years
g) International sewage pollution prevention certificate, ISPP. etc: 5 year.

Preparation for Entering a Stringent Port:

» In Port State Control system, inspections are done at the port, in order to avoid
Substandard Ships.
» For PSC purposes, Port Authorities will apply in general the following Instruments.

1. International Convention of Load Line. ILL 66

2. International Convention for Safety of Life at Sea. SOLAS 1974.
3. International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships.
MARPOL 1973/78
4. International Convention on Standard of Training,
Certification and Watch Keeping for Seafarers. STCW 1978.
5. Convention or the International Regulation for Prevention of Collision at Sea.
COLARG 72
6. Merchant Shipping (minimum standard) Convention. ILO 1976

Before entering the port, prepare the following in general:

1. Certificates and Documents prepared.

2. ORB properly entered and updated.
3. Sludge formation should be compared with 1% of voyage fuel consumption.
4. Receipt for sludge and waste oil disposal to shore facility, attached to ORB.
5. ORBs retained for 3 years after date of last entry should be onboard.
6. IOPP Certificate has validity.
7. OWS alarm tested, discharge valve closed, spare filter onboard, tank top near OWS
cleaned.
8. ODM tested for 15ppm alarm, and automatic stopping device.
9. USCG Notice posted especially near OWS and bilge pumping station.
10. Boiler not to emit black smoke.
11. Incinerator prepared for demonstration:
a) Waste oil tank, drained-off water and heated up to 80 – 90˙C.
b) Photocell, pilot burner and waste oil burner of incinerator removed and cleaned.
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c) Flame failure, high flue gases temperature, and force draught fan failure alarms
tested.
d) Line filter for waste oil line, cleaned.
e) Incinerated ash collected to show to Surveyor, or if disposed to shore facility,
receipt attached to ORB.
12. Fire extinguishers and fire detection system, CO alarms system, tested.
13. Check Sewage plant.

Periodical Survey: Mainly consists of Annual Survey and Special Survey.

Annual Survey (machinery):

» General Inspection of conditions of the whole machinery and equipment.

» At each Annual Survey between Special Surveys, main and auxiliary machinery are
generally examined, and placed in satisfactory running condition.
» If necessary, some of the machinery or parts are to be opened-up for the surveyor to
examine.
» Survey items include steering arrangement, windlass, weather decks, watertight
bulkheads, doors, fire equipment, hatch ways, etc: (hull survey items).

Special Surveys (machinery):

» Thorough Inspection of the whole machinery and equipment

» Including open-up inspection of machinery and equipment, their performance tests
and inspection of electrical installation.
» Main and auxiliary machinery are subjected to Special Survey, at intervals similar to
those for special surveys of the hull, i.e. every 4 years, in order that both may be
recorded approximately at the same time at each Special Survey.

1. All openings to sea, including sanitary and all overboard discharges together
with cocks and valves to be examined internally and externally.
2. Fastenings to the shell plating are to be renewed, if surveyor recommends.
3. Pumps and pumping systems including valves, cocks, pipes and strainers are
to be examined.
4. Shafts, except propeller shaft, bearings and line shafts to be examined.
5. Foundations of main and auxiliary machinery to be examined.
6. Cylinders, cylinder heads, valves and gears, fuel pumps, scavenging pumps,
superchargers, pistons, crossheads, connecting rods, crankshaft, clutch,
reversing gears, air compressors, intercoolers, and such other items covered by
CMS system.

CMS/ CSM:

» A Special Survey carried out on a planned schedule, within a circle of 5 years, at the
request of the owner, and upon approval of the proposed arrangement.
» Approximately 20% of the surveyable machinery items shall be examined each year.
» Completion of circle implies that all essential machinery parts have been examined
within a previous 5 years.
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Items covered by CMS:

1. Main propulsion machinery, steam turbine.

2. Power transmission and main shafting.
3. Auxiliary engine.
4. Air compressors, air receiver and blowers.
5. CW, FO, LO, feed water, condensate, bilge, ballast and fire pumps, etc:
6. Condenser and feed water heaters, coolers, oil heaters, and evaporators.
7. Fuel tanks (more than 1 m³), cargo oil pumping installation.
8. Deck machinery.
9. Steering gear including operational test and checking of relief valve setting.
10. Reduction gears; to check the gear teeth, pinions, etc.
11. Other items of machinery and equipment, which the Society considers to be covered
by CMS.

Items not covered by CSM:

1. Propeller and shaft.

2. Sea valves below load water line.
3. Boiler, EGE.
4. Cargo handling gears
5. Measurement of crank shaft deflections for ME.
6. Measurement of clearance at the aft end of stern tube.
7. Items of machinery and equipment which are not required open-up inspection at
Periodical Surveys, e.g. foundation bolts, refer installation, electrical installation,
incinerators, etc.
8. Performance tests, pressure tests required at Periodical Surveys.
9. Machinery and equipment of small capacity or low frequency operation, e.g.
emergency air compressor, hand pump for bilge, FO tanks less than 1 m3
10. Machinery and equipment of special type or newly developed type.
11. Other items which the society considers not to be included in CMS system.

Planed Maintenance:

Planed maintenance should be flexible, and following items should be considered.

1. Weather Condition.
2. Length of voyage, trade.
3. Maintenance of Safety Equipment, and Emergency Team Training.
4. Optimum conditions for Statutory and Classification Surveys.
5. Dry Docking.
6. Manufacturer’s advises.
7. Breakdown maintenance.
8. Replacing of spares.
9. Controlling and recording of maintenance up-to-date.

Planed Maintenance should include:

1. Short term maintenance, weekly, fortnightly, and monthly.

2. Long term maintenance, 3 monthly, 6 monthly, yearly.
3. Operational maintenance, to be carried out if necessary.
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Construction of a Planed Maintenance Schedule:

1. Plan must be flexible, so that changes, orders, or cargoes do not upset it unduly.
2. Adaptable to various weather conditions.
3. Length of voyage, routes and trades, that vessel is involved must be considered.
4. Maintenance of Safety Equipment and Emergency Team Training should be
integrated with overall maintenance plan.
5. Appropriate equipment is brought-up to optimum condition for Statutory and Class
Surveys, such as ‘Safety Equipment’, ‘Load Line’, and ‘Lifting Apparatus’.
6. Dry-docking and repair period should be integrated with the plan.
7. Manufacturer’s advises, to be complied with, and all Manufacturer’s Maintenance
Logs to be completed.
8. Plan should include availability of appropriate equipment, for breakdown
maintenance, due to unforeseen circumstances.
9. Provisions made for spare part replacements for wear and tear maintenance.
10. Plan must be carefully thought-out, well controlled, and efficient recording system
must be kept up-to-date.

Classification Surveys:

- Annual Survey of hull and machinery.

- Special Survey of hull and machinery: the first special survey becomes due 4 years after
the date of built. Special Survey can be extended up to 5 years if not completed at one time.
[S/S 4+1 year.]
- Continuous Survey or running survey of hull and machinery.

Automation Survey :

Carried-out at 1 year from the date of installations and periodical Special Surveys are to be
carried out at 4 years intervals. ( 1 + 4 )

At 1 year from the date of installation, during this Survey:

1. General examination of automatic and control system.
2. Examination of ship service generator in operation and control system.
3. Random checking of function indicators, alarms and control actuators.
4. Examination of machinery records to ensure that the performance of the control
system are in good order through the period since last survey.
5. Machinery space fire detection and bilge alarms.

At interval of 4 years, during this Special Survey:

1. All requirements of Annual Survey are done.
2. Examination of control actuator,
3. Insulation resistance of all electrical equipment and circuits.
4. Control system of UMS for proper operation.
5. Automatic alarms and safety systems.

Tail shaft Survey:

» Tail shaft with water lubricated bearing, to be drawn and surveyed, every 3 years for
single screw, and every 4 years for twin screw.
» Tail shaft with oil lubricated bearings, to be drawn and surveyed once every 4 years.
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» It is a survey done by Surveyor at the request of owner or his agent, due to damage of
hull, machinery or equipment, which can effect the seaworthiness, or class of ship.
» All necessary repairs to be carried out to Surveyor’s satisfaction.

Tail shaft Survey includes:

1. Complete withdrawal of tail shaft.

2. Propeller nut and tail shaft threaded end to be checked.
3. Cone, key and keyway to be checked, and forward part of the taper to be checked for
crack with approved crack detecting method.
4. Tail shaft bearing wear, to be checked.
5. Stern bush and bearings, to be checked.
6. Shaft sealing arrangement, including oil system, to be checked.

Boiler Survey:

The Class Surveyor shall survey every boiler of working pressure 3.5 bar and heating surface
area 4.65 m² and above.

Survey interval:
DNV & LLOYDS: Every 2-years interval until 8 years old, and every 1-year interval after 8
years old.
GL: Every 2½ years interval until 10 years old and every 1-year interval after 10 years old.

Annual Boiler Survey includes:

1. Hydraulic testing ( 1.25 x approved working pressure for not more than 10
minutes ).
2. Pressure testing of main steam piping at 15% in excess of approved working
pressure for not more than 10 minutes.
3. Internal inspection, hammer test to furnace, stays bolts, fire and stay tubes,
brickwork, baffles and casing.
4. Inspection of alarm and control system, fuel system, feed system, all steam piping
and lagging arrangement, foundation and chocking system.
5. Checking of pressure gauge and water level gauges.
6. Testing of safety valves to blow off at the pressure not greater than 3% above
w.p.
7. After 10 years old or at any time, if surveyor demands, drill test near the water
line should be done to determine actual thickness of boiler shell. If found
necessary, lower working pressure may be reassigned

At 4 years interval :
In addition to above Annual inspection procedure, all valves on boiler required to open-up
and inspected, every 4 years at the time of Annual Survey, or at the next regular dry
docking period thereafter.

Preparation for survey:

1. Clean water and fire sides.

2. Gags or clamps must be prepared for safety valves.
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3. Boiler must be filled with water at a temperature not more than 38˙C for fire tube
boiler and not more than 82˙C for water tube boiler.
4. Drip pan placed under all burners.
5. Tank top and bilges cleaned.
6. Pump for pressure test to be kept ready.
7. Blanks must be installed at steam valves and water level gauge.

Damage Survey:

1. It has to do with causalities and accidents, repairs, causes and remedies.

2. Damage to hull, machinery and equipment, which effects seaworthiness or
classification, is to be submitted by owner and representative, for examination by
Surveyor.
3. All repairs to be carried out to surveyor's satisfaction.

When damage occurs:

If the vessel is classed, and the port has facilities of Classification Society, and Underwriter
Surveyors and repairs firm:
1. Invite Classification Surveyor
2. Invite Underwriter Surveyor (appointed by Insurers)
3. Both Surveyors to survey the damage
4. Repairs to be carried out as per Class Requirements.
5. Quotation of repairer and repair cost to be submitted to Underwriter Surveyor to
negotiate any reduction that may appears necessary.
6. Both Surveyors to survey the repairs when completed.
7. Repair bills must be endorsed by the Underwriter Surveyor so as to claim
insurance.
8. Underwriter Surveyor does not accept bills for transportation.
9. Class Surveyor must confirm class of machinery (Interim Certificate of Class)
10. Log Abstracts and damage reports must be submitted to the Class Surveyor and
owner.

If the vessel is classed, but the port is very small, and duly appointed Surveyor may not be
available:
1. Call the next best surveyor.
2. If no surveyor is available, Damage Survey may be carried out by two Chief
Engineers of same Flag (Port of Registry), but should not be from same company,
to avoid biased report.

Actions taken by C/E when ME breakdown, fire / explosion occurred:

1. Find out extent of damage or breakdown.

2. Find out whether the damage can be repaired or not by ship crew.
3. Consider that vessel can resume the voyage or not.
4. Inform present situation to HO and take instruction.
5. Record exact times and position of ship.
6. Take pictures of damage for evidence.
7. After temporary or proper repair, resume voyage under suitable speed.
8. Prepare detail damage report and submit to head office.
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CE damage report form:

1. Date, time, approximate ship position, voyage no.

2. Where damage occurs.
3. Causes and extent of damage.
4. HO confirmation and approval for major repair.
5. Actions taken.
6. Repaired condition, detail statement of clearances, measurements, etc.
7. Used and required spares to be ordered.
8. Training and instructions to prevent reoccurrence.
9. Take photos before and after repairs.

Insurance:

Ship owners insured their ships against unforeseen damage or loss such as:
Actual Total Loss.
Constructive Total Loss (the cost of repair being greater than the value).
Presumed Total Loss.
Partial Loss.
Third party Liabilities (collision, injury to crew)

The rate of Insurance:

It depends on size, age and engine, and a vessel with valid Certificates of Classification is
likely to attract more favourable rate than a vessel without.

Insurance claim purpose:

Following items are necessary:

1. C/E damage report

2. Log abstracts.
3. Damage report form for insurance claim.
4. Class Surveyor recommendation.
5. Repair bills endorsed by Underwriter Surveyor.

Protecting and Indemnity Association:

» This is a P&I Club or Mutual Insurance Club or Small Damage Club.

» An association formed by Ship Owners, having certain risks to insure.
» That certain risks are not covered by the Insurance Policy.
» A Mutual Insurance Company, belonging to ship owners, which insures the damages
relative to the ship, which are not covered by Insurance Policy.

Protecting:

1. Loss of life and personal injury.

2. Hospital, medical and funeral expanses arising from injury claim.
3. Sickness and repatriation.
4. Cargo damage due to improper navigation.
5. Oil pollution.
6. Collision damage, etc.
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Indemnity:
1. Claim in respect of wrong delivery of cargo.
2. Ship’s liability to cargo, after collision, not covered by policy.
3. Fine or penalty imposed as a result of custom law, health regulations, and
immigration law including smuggling.

Interim Certificate of Class:

» Class Surveyor will issue the Certificate, when repairs have been completed to the
Surveyor's satisfaction.
» This Certificate enables the vessel to remain in class, until the next full survey due.
» Validity is until next survey due.

Certificate of Seaworthiness:

» To enable to proceed to the next port, the Surveyor other than Class Surveyor issues it.
» If the Classification Surveyor does not carry out the survey, the requisite certificate that
is issued will be one of seaworthiness.
» This Certificate enables the vessel to proceed to her next port, where a further survey by
the Classification Surveyor will be conducted, so that Interim Certificate of Class can be
issued.

Seaworthiness:
1. The fitness of the vessel in all respects for carrying cargo and crew in safe
condition.
2. Important items concerned are stability, strength, freeboard, machinery and
design, and they must be entirely satisfactory.

Franchise Clauses:

~ These state certain portion of insured value, for which Insurers are not liable to pay.
~ There are two kinds of franchises:
[These state the percentage of the claim, which the Assured must bear.]

Deductible:

1. If amount of loss does not exceed the franchise amount the Insurers
(Underwriters) are not liable to pay at all.
2. But if the amount of loss exceeds the franchise amount Insurers are liable to pay
that portion which exceeds the franchise amount.
[Only claims in excess of certain percentages are paid, i.e. the Assured pays the first so much
percentage of any claim.]

Non-Deductible:

1. If amount of loss does not exceed the franchise amount the Insurers
(Underwriters) are not liable to pay at all.
2. But if the amount of loss exceeds the franchise amount Insurers are liable to pay
the whole amount.
[The Underwriter pays the whole claim if it exceeds the stipulated percentage.]
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Electrical Survey:
» Electrical equipment inspected and tested, during complete engine survey, at 4 years
interval.
» Such a survey is prescribed, under the rules and regulations for the classification of ship.

Following survey items generally apply to all ships:

1. Generators and governors.
2. Circuit breakers
3. Switchboard and fittings (main and emergency switchboard, distributor
switchboard).
4. Cables
5. Insulation resistance
6. Motors and Starters
7. Emergency power equipment
8. Parts of steering gear
9. Navigation light indicator

For UMS operation:

1. Alarms associated with ME, AE, lubricating and cooling, tested for correct
operation.
2. Electrical circuits from various sensors such as pressurestat, flow switch, level
switch, temperature switch, tested.
3. Action of auto-shut down for ME and AE, auto-starting up of stand-by units,
tested.
4. Auto-starting of emergency generator, demonstrated.
5. UMS requirements demand that a stand-by main generator should be
automatically started on loss of duty generator within 45 sec.
6. Bilge level alarm together with automatic bilge pumping, proved to correct
action.
7. Main and stand-by electric power supply to overall alarms and monitoring system
inspected and tested.
8. Complete inspection and test of fire detection and alarm system.
9. ME control will function correctly and tested from bridge position, main control
room and emergency position alongside the engine.

For Tankers / Gas Carrier:

~ Electrical equipment in hazardous area is surveyed every year, during each Docking
Survey and Annual Survey.

Alternator Survey:
Required conditions for Surveyor:
» Main and emergency generators are cleaned.
» Show stable operation when run in parallel with other generator.
» Generator windings on stator and rotor must be free of dust, rust, oil and moisture.
» Visual check made for any obvious deterioration, abrasion, and cracking of insulation
around winding coils in stator.
» The insulation test to earth and between stator phase windings is done while the machine
is still hot after running on load.
» Air gap between stator and rotor checked to ensure that pedestal bearings are in good
condition.
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Switchboard Survey:
1. Thorough cleaning internally and externally at switchboard, when all generators
are stopped and their prime movers locked off.
2. Main bus bar and their connections checked for tightness.
3. Bus bar supports, checked for damage due to insulation material.
4. Overheating signs at connection junctions, due to loose joint.
5. Internal wiring securely fixed.
6. Cable entries at switchboard bottom, sealed with non-flammable material.
7. Earth bar, securely bonded to both frame and to the ship’s hull.
8. Hinged panel door bonded with an earth strap to main switchboard frame.
9. Insulation resistance of each terminal measured.
10. Voltmeters, Watt meters and Ammeters calibrated and tested.
11. All trips tested [Safety devices].
12. Synchronising test [load sharing] demonstrated.
13. Earth lamps checked.
14. Automatic circuit breaker (ACB) and Automatic voltage regulator (AVR)
tested.

Emergency Power and Associated Equipment Survey:

1. Emergency generator started manually and automatically.

2. Electrical supplies from emergency switchboard, checked for their proper
voltage, ampere and frequency.
3. Correct functioning of emergency lighting, fire pump, and other electrical
equipment.
4. Electrical interlocking arrangement between main and emergency switchboard
checked.
5. Emergency battery installation and its charging rectifier checked.
6. Keep battery environment dry and well ventilated, battery tops cleaned,
electrolyte at proper level and have correct value of specific gravity by checking
with hydrometer.
7. Battery charging equipment checked for dirt, overheating, loose connection and
correct functioning of indicator instruments.
8. Battery locker ventilation arrangements should be checked.

Insulation Resistance Survey:

1. Survey will require a list, which shows the results of recent insulation tests on all
440V and 220V main circuits.
2. The list should also indicate the test date, weather condition, hot or humid etc.
together with any comment relevant to the test conditions such as machine is hot
or cold.

Navigation light indicator survey:

1. Surveyor will ensure that Navigation light indicator operates correctly and has
appropriate alarm.
2. Broken wire or lamp can be simulated by pulling appropriate fuse.
3. Power source for navigation lights must be duplicated [usually alternate power
supply being used from Emergency Switchboard].
4. Changeover facility for power source, to be checked.
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5. Although the actual light fitting for Navigation is part of Safety Equipment
Survey, the Electrical Survey will naturally include a check on the supply cables
to the Navigation lights.

Load Line Survey:

1. Carried out as first Survey when a new ship is completed.
2. During this survey freeboard arrangement and conditions of assignment, are
made in accordance with International Regulations and Documentation.
3. After thorough inspection, Load Line Certificate is issued, and its validity is 5
years, subjected to Annual Survey.
4. Load Line Renewal Survey held at 5 years interval from the date of build, and
whenever a periodical Special Survey is made.
5. Validity of Load Line Certificate extends to the end of next Special Survey.
6. During this survey, all freeboard items to be examined, and load line markings to
be verified. [With trammel gauge]
7. On satisfactory completion of the Survey, an International Load Line Certificate,
valid for 5 years is issued.
8. Load Line Annual Inspection carried out within 3 months ± anniversary date of
the Certificate.
9. Main purpose of Load Line Survey is, to examine that the ship construction
complies with Requirements of Convention.
Requirements can be grouped into 4 categories:
1. Structural Strength.
2. Watertight Integrity.
3. Stability.
4. Crew Quarter Protection.

Conditions of Freeboard Assignment: Why it is important?

1. Efficient means of protection must be provided for all openings to hull and
superstructure, for protection of crew in heavy weather, and for rapid freeing of water
from weather deck.
2. Condition of Assignment must be maintained, at all times in satisfactory condition.
3. Annual Inspection to be made by assigning authorities, to ensure that they have been
maintained in satisfactory condition for continued validity of Load Line Certificate.

Preparation for Load Line / Annual Survey:

Ship Officers/Engineers should ensure, the following items are in efficient condition, prior to
the Classification Society Surveyor’s arrival on board.

1. Load line marks, verified with existing Load line Certificate.

2. Coamings and closing appliances of exposed hatchways, hatchways within
superstructures, to be examined.
3. Holding-down clips/bolts are in good order; packing and seats are watertight.
4. Watertight steel hatch covers are to be hose-tested (pressure not less than 2 kg/cm²
from a distance of 1.5m with ½ " bore jet) for water-tightness.
5. Spring-loaded battening-down wedges between covers, and holding down cleats, to be
in good working condition.
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6. Exposed engine casing and their openings, fiddley openings, ER skylights and their
closing appliances, to be checked and tested. ER skylight to be able to close from
remote position.
7. Test Ventilators, check all flap levers are free, and locking pins are in place and secured
by chain to ventilation casing.
8. Check air pipes and their closing means, flame traps for fuel oil tank’s air pipes, are in
order.
9. Watertight doors and closing arrangements to be checked.
10. Scuppers and their discharge pipe and valves below the freeboard deck, checked for
corrosion/wastage.
11. Gangways and cargo ports below freeboard or superstructure deck, to be checked.
12. General condition of hull, as far as could be seen.

Load Line Certificate:

> A Certificate issued to a ship, if she is built and maintained thereafter, according to the
requirements of International Convention on Load Line (1966)
> Issued by the Administration or Classification Society.
> Validity is 5-years and subjected to Annual Survey.

FO DB Tank Survey:

Transferring, cleaning and gas freeing must be done.

Testing of atmosphere:

Toxicity
O content with Oxygen Analyser
Explosive Gases with Explosimeter
Gas free certificate from Chemist.

Survey:

1. Heating coil leak test: [1.5 times working pressure.]

2. Condition and testing of level alarm
3. Condition of sounding pipe, striker plate and flame trap
4. High temp. alarm sensor
5. Internal inspection by surveyor.

Sounding pipe requirements:

1. Used to determine the dept of liquid in a tank.

2. Should be as straight as possible.
3. If it is not possible, pipe curvature should allow easy passage of sounding rod or
chain.
4. Normally, bore of pipe must be not less than 32mm.
5. Striking pad of adequate size and thickness placed under the pipe.
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IOPP Certificate:

Issued after Survey is carried out by Administration, in accordance with International

Convention for Oil Pollution Prevention. Validity is 5 years.

Checking procedure for IOPP Certificate, When CE sign-on:

1. Check the validity of certificate.

2. Check the ORB up to date recording.
3. Visual inspection of plants in good order.
4. Check 15-ppm alarm and automatic stopping device.
5. Check spare filter element, at least one no.
6. Waste oil tank and capacity.
7. Compare fuel consumption and sludge formation.
8. Incinerator capacity and workability.

IOPP Survey preparations:

1. Validity of the IOPP Certificate checked.

2. Proper entry of ORB and, sludge disposal receipts to shore facilities attached to ORB.
3. Calculate the sludge formation, and compared with 1% of voyage fuel consumption.
4. Incinerating time, incinerated waste oil amount, remainder of waste oil in waste oil tank
should be reasonable.
5. Incinerator kept ready for demonstration, such as heating of waste oil tank, alarms,
control and functional test, done prior to survey.
6. OWS in good order, its piping free from oil leaks, overboard valve from OWS locked in
closed position. If possible, one section of discharge pipe removed and free from oil
residues.
7. ODM checked for 15-ppm alarm and automatic stopping.
8. High level alarms of sludge tank, waste oil tank and bilge holding tank checked.
9. Spare filter for OWS must be onboard.
10. USCG Notice posted near OWS and bilge pumping out station

Survey by CE:

Requirements:
~ CE must have first class competency certificate or equivalent.
~ At least 3 years service as CE on owner's vessels.
~ Should be at sea or in port with no Class Surveyor.
~ Generally cannot survey on Safety Equipment, pressure vessels, and main engine except
in unit overhaul.
~ Can survey auxiliary machinery such as, AE, pumps, and Air Compressors.
~ DNV allows half of all items covered by CMS, of which there are more than one, may be
surveyed by CE.

Confirmatory Survey:

1. When any machinery and equipment, allowed to be surveyed by CE, were opened-up
and examined by CE at sea, Confirmatory Survey of these items must be done by the
Class Surveyor at next port of call, or the first port of opportunity.
 16

2. During this survey, show the followings to Class Surveyor:

a) Relevant entries in log book.
b) Two copies of statement, signed by CE.
c) Description of items surveyed by CE.
d) Spare parts replaced.
e) All photos for evidence.
3. If the surveyor does not satisfied, he has right to open up the item for inspection. If he
satisfy, he will issue Interim Certificate of Class.

AE survey by CE:

Safe operation of propulsion must not be effected, when CE surveys AE.

1. All cylinder covers, valve gears, pistons, piston rings, liners, top and bottom end
bearings, all upper half of main bearings, gudgeon pins are to be opened up.
2. To withdraw at least two bottom half bearings for inspection.
3. Checking of all crank pin bearings, journals and gudgeon pins.
4. Cylinder liner gauging and recording.
5. L.O. cooler to be opened up for inspection.
6. Defective attached pumps such as LO pump, FW pump, etc. to be opened up.
7. Testing of all safety devices, alarm and trip.
8. Crankshaft deflection taken and recorded after reassembled.

Confirmatory survey by Class Surveyor:

» He has rights to open up at least two main bearings and two bottom end bearings, and
crankshaft deflections to be taken and checked with CE records.
» Run the engine and load-tested. All safety devices tested for alarms and trip for generator
and switchboard, and are to be witnessed by the surveyor. (DNV).

Generator load test:

1. After priming the AE, start and run under no load, low speed condition for about 3 to
5 min.
2. Then stop and checked externally for overheating. If no overheating, crankcase doors
to be opened and checked temperature of bearings and running gears.
3. If satisfactory, restart the engine at full speed, no load condition for about 30 min.,
then stopped and recheck again.
4. If satisfactory, restart and load-shared with running generator engine. Load sharing
should be gradually increased in small steps, taking about 6 to 10 hours to reach at
full load condition. While running in full load, another generator to be run in stand-
by for possible emergency use. Synchronising or load sharing steps: 25%, 50%,
75%, and 100% within 6 to 10 hrs.
5. All necessary items checked, during load increasing steps.
6. Then peak pressure indicator and other performance data, taken for each cylinder and
compare with test results.
7. Load test should be done, until preferential trip initiates.

A/E Damage Insurance Claim:

Items necessary to submit to Superintendent Engineer are:

» CE damage report.
 17

» Log abstracts.
» Damage report form for insurance claim.
» Class surveyor recommendation.
» Repair bills endorsed by Underwriter Surveyor.

If A/E damage occurred at sea:

1. Date, time, position, voyage no., where the damage occurred, extent of damage,
causes of damage, are reported to Head Office in detail.
2. Take HO confirmation and approval for major repair.
3. Take required damage photos.
4. When at nearest port, repair condition, photos before and after repair are submitted
to Surveyor for Confirmatory Survey.
5. If Surveyor does not satisfy, he has right to open-up for inspection.
6. If Surveyor is satisfied, he will issue Interim Certificate of Class, and give
recommendation.

If A/E damage occurred in Port:

1. Invite Class and Underwriter Surveyors through Master or Agent to make surveys.
2. Negotiate with shipyard repair firm, about cost and prices.
3. After completion of shipyard repair firm’s work, Surveyor will inspect the AE, and
issue Interim Certificate of Class, and Underwriter Surveyor will inspect and give
repair cost and certified endorsement.
4. Repaired condition with photos, and used spares, reported to HO and required spares
ordered.

Surveys, requested by owners, charterers, underwriters and authorities:

1. Damage Survey
2. On and Off Hire Survey
3. Lay-up Survey
4. IMCO Survey (Inter-governmental Maritime Consultative Organisation.)
5. Pre-loading Survey
6. Draught Survey
7. Ullage Survey
8. Conditional Survey: [the ships over 15 years of age may be subjected to survey,
annually, so as to ensure their seaworthiness, only upon request by owners and
underwriters.]

On and Off Hire Survey:

1. The most time-consuming survey and must be done in daylight, with the hatches fully
open, empty and clean.
2. Two Surveyors will have to carry out this Survey.
3. One representing the owner, may be the Master, and the other representing the
Charterers.

The areas of Survey include:

1. Portside Bulwark/rails and Deck. [Bulwark is the part of ship’s side, above Upper
Deck.]
2. Starboard side Bulwark/rails and Deck.
 18

3. Deck houses and cargo gears.

4. Hatch coamings and hatches.
5. Shipsides, Tank tops, Bulkheads fore and aft.
6. Bunker Survey.

In Water Survey:

1. Due to increasing in size of oil tankers and bulk carriers and consequently, small
numbers and size of docks incapable of docking these vessels, In Water Survey is
permitted by Class.
2. This survey includes visual examination of hull, rudder, propeller, sea inlets and
measuring the wearing of rudder bearings and cleaning of hull by suitable methods.

Limitation:
1. Not periodical special survey.
2. For less than 10 years old of vessels.
3. Must have Class notation to suit for in water survey.
4. Hull painted with high resistance paint and fitted with impressed current system
for hull protection.
5. Class must approve Diver Firms.
6. Ship draught not more than 10 meters.

Requirements:
1. Hand held closed circuit TV camera that can be controlled remotely from surface
monitoring system.
2. Communication between Diver Party and Surveyor.
3. Water is clean and clear.
4. Carried out in daylight.

Docking Survey:

1. The ship must be examined in dry dock preferably at 1-year intervals, but new Class
Regulations allowed intervals of up to 2 years.
2. The vessel is to be placed in dry dock or upon a slip way and the keel, stern frame post,
rudder and outside plating, propeller, exposed part of stern bearing assembly, rudder
pintle and gudgeon securing arrangements, sea chest, strainers and other fastenings are to
be cleaned and examined.
3. The stern bearing clearance and rudder bearing clearance are to be ascertained.

Underwater [Bottom] Survey on Dry Dock:

1. Shell plating washed and brushed down, checked for distortion, bulging, roughness
and corrosion.
2. Welding seams inspected for cracks.
3. Zinc anodes checked for replacement.
4. Shipside valves and cocks removed, overhauled and refitted.
5. Shell box or Sea Chest wire brushed and applied anti-fouling paint.
6. Remove drain plug of rudder to determine the present of water.
7. Measure wear down of rudder and jumping clearance.
8. Bearing metal of gudgeon pin of rudder checked and clearance
 19

must not exceed 6 mm.

9. Pintle nuts with locking device checked.
10. Propeller carefully examined especially near the tip on the driving face and fore
side for cavitation. Damaged propeller blades repaired.
11. Wear down of tail shaft measured. For oil lubricated: 2 x original clearance.
For water lubricated: maximum 10 mm.
12. Stern tube checked for tightness.
13. For CPP, checked for good working order.
14. Anchor and chain cable, lay up and measured.

Dry Docking:

Required Plans and Arrangements for Docking:

1. Docking plan.
2. General arrangement plan.
3. Capacity plan.
4. Shell expansion plan.
5. Shell painting area plan.
6. Mid ship section plan.
7. Longitudinal section plan.
8. Anode plan.
9. Shafting and propeller arrangement.
10. Rudder, to check.

Docking plan:

Provides the positions of frame spacing, watertight bulkheads, docking plugs, etc.
Determine the positioning of keel blocks, bilge blocks, bilge shore, breast shore
when the ship is on dock.

Preparation for Dry Docking: [As a CE.]

1. Take all information from HO and dockyard.

2. Sent Docking Plan to Dockyard.
3. Prepare dockyard and ship staff repair lists and survey items.
4. Prepare necessary spares and store, drawings, Manuals, Certificates, special tools and
measuring equipment.
5. 2/E should be instructed to perform the followings:

a) Label all sea valves, all shipside valves and cocks. Mark the positions of items to
be repaired, with tags or colour code.
b) Keep Emergency Fire Pump, Emergency Generator, Air Compressors,
Emergency Air Bottle, and portable Fire Extinguishers in good order.
c) Lock Fixed Fire Fighting Installation, as per shipyard rules.
d) Shut down Boiler, OWS, Sewage Plant if dockyard does not allow.
e) Lock overboard discharge valve in closed position.
f) Fill up Settling and Service Tanks.
g) Press up Air Bottles and Emergency Air Bottle, and shut the valves tightly.
h) ME crankshaft deflections to be taken and recorded.
 20

i) Hose down tank tops, and empty Bilge Holding Tank, Sludge Tank, Waste Oil
Tank.
j) Prepare for receiving of Shore Power Supply, International Shore Connection,
cooling arrangement for Air Conditioning and Provision Plants.
k) Provide fire watch in ER at all times, and follow Dockyard Fire and Safety
Regulations.
l) Adjust required trim and draught, with deck officer.
m) Take soundings of DB tanks and cofferdam.

During Docking:
1. Discuss with the superintendent and dockyard repair manager about repair jobs.
2. Assist Surveyor and record the survey items.
3. Witness all alignment works and clearance measurements.
4. Take and record propeller shaft wear down, rudder wear down and jumping
clearance.
5. Check oil tightness of stern tube.
6. Check all completed underwater jobs, done by dockyard.
7. Check all sea valves, shipside valves and cocks, after overhauling.
8. Check all repaired jobs done by ship staff, and used spares and store.
9. Make daily records.

Undocking:
1. Check all repair and underwater jobs in accordance with repair list.
2. Check all measurement data are correct and completed.
3. Make price negotiation.
4. When sea water level covers the sea chest, each sea valve should be opened and
checked for any leakage.
5. Purge air from cooling seawater pumps, run the pumps and check pressure.
6. Test run the ship generators, until satisfactory, and cut out shore supply, cut in
ship generator, disconnect the shore connection, restart seawater pump, record the
time and read watt meter.
7. All sea valves, shipside valves, repaired pipes, repaired jobs must be finally
checked, before leaving the dock.
8. Prepared for ME.
9. All DB tank soundings checked.

After Leaving the Dock.

1. Checked ME crankshaft deflection and compare with former record.
2. Prepare for Docking Report.

Cargo ship Safety Construction Certificate:

» Issued after survey to every cargo ship of 500 GRT and over, by the government of
Flag State.
» Validity is 5 years, subjected to survey at specified intervals.
» During survey, following items must be in accordance with the requirements of SOLAS
1974 Convention.

1. Ship structure, including structural fire protection.

2. External examination of ship’s bottom.
 21

3. Electrical installation.
4. Steering gear.
5. Pressure vessels and fitting.
6. Main and auxiliary machinery.

Cargo ship Safety Equipment Certificate:

» Issued after survey to every cargo ship of 500 GRT and above, by the government of flag
state.
» Validity is 2 years and annual inspection of ± 3 months.
» Safety Equipment Survey, consists of inspection and demonstration:

1. Fire fighting appliance, FFA

2. Life saving appliance, LSA
3. Navigation equipment
4. Vessel documentation
5. Alarm system.

Concerning items for CE:

1. All portable and semi-portable fire extinguishers

2. Fixed installation of fire fighting
3. Fixed fire detection and alarm system
4. Fire man’s outfit
5. Emergency fire pump, main fire pump
6. Emergency stop switches, remote quick closing valves, skylight, watertight
doors
7. Emergency generator and lighting system
8. Escape ways in ER.
9. Steering gear and communication system
10. Life boat engines and launching system.
11. All the items required by SOLAS must be prepared.

Some government administrators publish checklist for survey. This is an essential tool for
preparing for a survey, so that one surveyor should be able to complete the survey in ½ day.

Safety Equipment Survey:

» Government body carried out at every 2-year interval, and annual inspection of its
validity.
» At every port, where the ship called on, Government body concerned has a right to
inspect Safety Equipment, IOPP Certificate, Sewage treatment plant, Marpol
equipment, and ORB for Port State Control measures.

1. To inspect Fire hoses, Nozzles and container box.

2. Fireman’s outfits: Breathing apparatus.
3. All portable extinguishers.
4. Emergency and Main fire pumps.
5. Emergency generator.
 22

6. Fixed installation [gas level, cleared lines and nozzles, operating mechanism and
alarm system].
7. Audible Fire alarms, Fire detection system, Abandon ship warning, and Ship Siren
and Muster list.
8. Stop switches outside ER, for fans, fuel pumps, fuel tank valves, Skylight doors,
Watertight doors, Fire dampers.
9. Inert gas system of cargo ships, 500 tons Gross Tonnage and above.
10. Life raft Certificate.
11. Life buoys, Smoke floats, Buoyancy lines.
12. Lifeboat internally and externally.
13. Condition of Buoyancy tanks inside lifeboat.
14. Illuminating power sources, for launching of Lifeboat and Rafts
15. Latest Nautical Publications.
16. To run Lifeboat Engine, ahead and astern in water.
17. To swing out all lifeboats at least 50% lowered into the water.
18. To lower Davit span ropes and Boarding ladders.
19. To lay out and survey all lifeboat equipment.
20. To survey Life jackets.
21. To check Navigation lighting.
22. To check pilot ladder with lighting.
23. To inspect fall release mechanism [free fall or float free].

Certificates onboard:

1. Certificate of Registry
2. International Tonnage Certificate
3. International Load Line Certificate
4. International Load Line Exemption Certificate
5. Certificates for Master, Officers and Ratings
6. Derating or Derating Exemption Certificate
7. International Oil Pollution Prevention Certificate
8. International Sewage Pollution Prevention Certificate
9. International Safety Management Certificate, SMC
10. International Medical Certificate
11. Passenger Ship Safety Certificate
12. Cargo Ship Safety Construction Certificate, SAFCON
13. Cargo Ship Safety Equipment Certificate, SEC
14. Cargo Ship Safety Radio Certificate
15. Exemption Certificates for SAFCON, SEC and Radio Certificate
16. Certificate of Classification
17. Certificate of Insurance or other financial security
in respect of civil liability for oil pollution damage.

18. International Pollution Prevention Certificate

for the Carriage of Noxious Liquid Substances in Bulk. [NLS Certificate]
19. Certificate of Fitness for the Carriage of Dangerous Chemicals in Bulk
(Chemical Tanker)
20. Certificate of Fitness for the Carriage of Liquefied Gases in Bulk
(Gas Carrier)
 23

SOLAS Certificates:

1. Passenger Ship Safety Certificate

2. Cargo Ship Safety Construction Certificate, SAFCON
3. Cargo Ship Safety Equipment Certificate, SEC
4. Cargo Ship Safety Radio Certificate
5. Exemption Certificates for SAFCON, SEC and Radio Certificate

MARPOL Certificates:

1. International Oil Pollution Prevention Certificate, IOPP

2. International Sewage Pollution Prevention Certificate, ISPP
3. Certificate of Insurance or other financial security
in respect of civil liability for oil pollution damage.
4. International Pollution Prevention Certificate
for the Carriage of Noxious Liquid Substances in Bulk. [NLS Certificate]
5. Certificate of Fitness for the Carriage of Dangerous Chemicals in Bulk
(Chemical Tanker)
6. Certificate of Fitness for the Carriage of Liquefied Gases in Bulk (Gas Carrier)

Oil Record Book: I

» Operations involving oil and oily mixtures recorded in ORB.

» Dates, geographical position, quantity, tank identification, and duration of operation
entered.
» Port State Authority may take copies of entries, and if so requested, the master is
required to state that it is a true copy.
» ORB retained onboard for 3 years after date of last entry.

To be recorded:

1. Ballasting and cleaning of fuel oil tanks. (Code a.)

2. Discharge of dirty ballast or cleaning water from oil fuel tanks. ( b.)
3. Disposal of oil residues (sludge). ( c.)
4. Non-automatic discharge overboard or disposal otherwise, of bilge water
accumulated in machinery spaces ( d.)
5. Automatic discharge overboard or disposal otherwise, of bilge water accumulated in
machinery spaces ( e.) (e.g. transfer of bilge water to slop tank) (identify tank)
6. Conditions of ODM and Control System. ( f.)
7. Accidental or other exceptional discharge of oil. ( g.)
8. Bunkering of fuel or bulk of LO. (h.)
9. Additional operational procedures and general remarks. ( i.)

Oil Record Book: II

To be recorded:

1. Loading and unloading of oil cargo.

2. Internal transfer of oil cargo during voyage.
3. Cleaning of cargo tanks.
 24

4. Crude Oil Washing (COW System only)

5. Ballasting of cargo tanks.
6. Ballasting of Segregated Clean Ballast Tanks (CBT Tankers only)
7. Discharge of dirty ballast.
8. Discharge of clean ballast contained in cargo tanks.
9. Discharge of ballast from Segregated CBTs. (CBT Tankers only)
10. Discharge of water from Slop Tanks into the sea.
11. Condition of ODM and Control System.
12. Accidental or other exceptional discharge of oil.
13. Additional operational procedures and general remarks.
14. Loading of ballast water. (Tankers engaged in specific trades)
15. Re-allocation of ballast water within the ship. (do)
16. Ballast water discharged to reception facilities. (do)

CE hand over / take over:

1. Discuss with outgoing CE about machinery condition and standing order from
HO.
2. To read, hand over note / maintenance record.
3. Check logbook at least for last 3-months, CMS quarterly list, Survey items,
previous voyage report ORB up-to-date filling, garbage book, sludge formation
compared with 1% of voyage fuel consumption, sludge remaining onboard, all
certificates, documents, and validity such as IOPP, ISPP etc:
4. Take all FO, LO tank soundings, calculate ROB, based on API gravity method, and
check with log entry. Ensure fuel consumption is enough for next port or next
bunker port.
5. Check all running machinery, MARPOL equipment, OWS, incinerator, sewage
plant, FFA, emergency generator, quick closing arrangement and lifeboat engine.
6. Check standard spares and store, special tools and measuring equipment.
7. If everything is OK, sign the hand over note.

CE’s Routine Works:

i. Every morning: Round check of operating machinery and engine room,

Discuss with 2/E, about ER repair and maintenance jobs.
Discuss with master, about ship situation and company instruction.
ii. At noon: To check ER logbook, FO, LO, DO consumption and ROB,
Performance and running hours of machinery.
Prepare Noon Report.
iii. Once a month: Fuel and LO onboard.
Store and spare inventory.
Maintenance report and breakdown report.

iv. Every voyage: Voyage Report.

CE reports: includes confidential report, voyage report, LO and FO consumption report,

maintenance report, repair list, store and spare report and vouchers.
 25

Joining a vessel, which is not commissioned. (New ship delivery)

1. Check Specifications and Class Requirements thoroughly.

2. Inspect the works of shipyard staff for final acceptance. Unsatisfactory works
should be informed to company representatives and dockyard manager.
3. All alignment and clearance measurement works, witnessed by CE.
4. Before closing the tank manholes, make final inspection.
5. Before undocking, all underwater jobs must be completed and checked by CE.
6. Check the list of spares to be supplied, and inform if necessary items are missing.
7. Received spares properly stored and recorded.
8. Make familiar with all the layout of machinery, piping, cooling arrangement, etc.
9. Check fire fighting system, and location of remote stops and shut-off devices.
10. When other engineers arrived, CE must explain the layout and operations of
machinery.
11. All initial records, ideal conditions, shop test records, trial test records must be
kept for the whole life of ship.

Marpol, Annex I, II, …..V.

I. Regulation for the Prevention of Pollution by Oil.

II. Regulation for Control of Pollution by Noxious Liquid Substance in bulk
carrying by sea.
III. Regulation for Prevention of Pollution by Harmful Substance
carrying by sea in package form.
IV. Regulation for Prevention of Pollution by Sewage.
V. Regulation for Prevention of Pollution by Garbage from ship.

Shipboard Oil Pollution Emergency Plan: SOPEP.

Every oil tanker of 150GRT and above, and every ship of 400GRT and above, shall carry
onboard a Shipboard Oil Pollution Emergency Plan.

The plan shall consist at least of:

1. Procedures to be followed by Master, or other person having charged of the ship,

to report an oil pollution incident.
2. List of authorities or persons to be contacted, in the event of oil pollution incident.
3. Detailed description of actions to be taken immediately by persons onboard, to
reduce or control the discharge of oil.
4. Procedures and point of contact onboard, for co-ordinating shipboard action with
local authorities in combating the pollution.

Procedures, when accidental oil overflow occurs:

1. Notify Harbour/Terminal Authority immediately through the Master.

2. Actions immediately taken by persons onboard to stop, reduce or control the oil
discharge.
3. Co-ordinate shipboard actions with local Authorities.
 26

4. Inform owner, agent, P&I Club, Flag State Authorities, and vessels in vicinity.
5. Invite P&I (Protection and indemnity) correspondents.
6. Record in ORB, time & place of occurrence, approximate amount & type of oil,
circumstances of discharge or escape.

Oil Pollution Prevention:

Regulations of Oil or Oily Water discharge:

Any discharge into the sea of oil or oily mixtures, prohibited except when all the following
conditions are satisfied:

For oil tanker:

[ 150 gross tonnage and above.]

1. Tanker is outside Special Areas.

2. More than 50 NM from nearest land.
3. Proceeding en-route.
4. Instantaneous rate of oil discharge does not exceed 30 litres per NM.
5. Total quantity of oil discharged does not exceed;
- 1/15,000 of total quantity of particular cargo for exiting tankers, and
- 1/30,000 of total quantity of particular cargo, for new tankers.
6. Tanker has in operation, an ODM and Control system, and Slop Tank
Arrangement.

For cargo ship:

[ 400 gross tonnage and above.]

1. The ship is outside Special Areas.

2. More than 12 NM from nearest land
3. Proceeding en-route.
4. Oil content of the effluent is less than 15 PPM.
5. The ship has in operation, an ODM and Control system, Oily Water Separating
Equipment and Oil Filtering Equipment.

For within Special Areas: [ for Annex: I.]

Such as: 1) Mediterranean Sea 2) Baltic Sea 3) Black Sea 4) Red Sea
5) Persian Gulf Area 6) Gulf of Aden 7) Antarctic Area

1. Bilge water does not originate from cargo pump room. (on oil tankers)
2. Bilge water is not mixed with oil cargo residues. (on oil tankers)
3. Ship is proceeding en-route.
4. Oil content of effluent without dilution does not exceed 15 PPM.
5. The ship has in operation Oil Filtering Equipment with an automatic 15 PPM
Stopping Device.
 27

Environmental Pollution Prevention:

Sewage Regulation:

Type of Sewage Distance in Nautical Mile from nearest land

0 4 12
Sewage treated by approved Sewage Plant. Not visible, floating, nor discoloration
Sewage comminuted and disinfected by Prohibited
approved equipment.
Untreated sewage Prohibited
At moderate
Sewage stored in Holding Tanks Prohibited rate, en-oute,
4 Knots.

Emission of Black Smoke:

Black smoke from ship may lead to pollution of air space, and many countries have their
own regulations, that are not to be violated. Smoke from ship is checked for blackness, by
comparing with Ringelman Scale Chart. On this scale, white card is numbered ‘0’ and totally
black card is ‘5’.
There is specific time limit, during which black smoke emission is not penalised.

The allowable black smoke emissions are:

1. Continuous emission must not be longer than 4 minutes.

2. Short emission in every 20 minutes period, must be limited to 3 minutes.
3. Another part of ruling limits, emission must be not more than 10 minutes in any 2-hour
periods.

Garbage:
Garbage is grouped into six categories.

Plastic
Floating garbage
Paper products, rags, glass, metal, bottles, crockery, etc.
Ground-down paper products, rags, glass, metal, bottles, crockery, etc.
Food waste
Incinerator ash

Garbage Record Book:

In accordance with regulations of Annex V of MARPOL, a record to be kept of each

discharge operation or completed incineration. This include discharges at sea, to reception
facilities, or to other ship.
Garbage Record Book should be kept onboard for a period of two years after last entry.
 28

When garbage is

discharged to sea,
discharged to reception facility ashore or other ship,
incinerated,
discharged accidentally or exceptionally,
date, time, position of ship, category of garbage, estimated amount, in ( m³) should be
entered and signed by the in-charge of operation.
If discharged to shore reception facility or other vessel, a receipt or certificate, specifying
estimated amount in (m³), should be taken and kept onboard with Garbage Record Book for
two years.

Garbage Regulation:

Special Area for Garbage: [ for Annex: V.]

1) Mediterranean Sea 2) Baltic Sea 3) Black Sea 4) Red Sea 5) Persian Gulf Area
6) Gulf of Aden 7) Antarctic Area 8) North Sea 9) Wider Caribbean Sea

Type of Garbage Inside Special Area Outside Special Area

Plastic, synthetic rope, fishing net, plastic Prohibited Prohibited

garbage bag
Floating dunnage, lining and packing Prohibited > 25 miles offshore
material

Paper, rag, glass, metal, bottle, crockery prohibited > 12 miles offshore
and similar refuse
All other garbage, paper, rag, glass etc. prohibited > 3 miles offshore
comminuted or ground
Food waste not comminuted or ground > 12 miles offshore > 12 miles offshore

Food waste comminuted or ground > 12 miles offshore > 3 miles offshore

Note: Comminuted or ground garbage must be able to pass through a screen with mesh size
no larger than 25 mm².

Special Area for Annex II: [Noxious Liquid Substance]

1) Black Sea, 2) Baltic Sea, 3) Antarctic Area.

Incinerator:

Safety devices fitted on incinerator:

i. Alarms and shutdown devices:
a) Flame failure for pilot burner and main burner.
b) High flue gas temperature. [above 400°C].
 29

c) Cooling fan failure.

ii. Emergency fuel shutdown valve:
iii. Micro switch, fitted to hinged furnace door.

Burning capacity of incinerator:

It is mentioned at the supplementary of IOPP Certificate, and the incinerator should burn:
1. Waste oil
2. Oil and water mixture up to 25% of water content
3. Rag and galley waste
4. Solid matters from sewage plant.

Function of cooling fan:

1. To prevent incinerator shell from overheating
2. To create a negative pressure in combustion chamber
3. To keep flue gas temperature in safe limit.

Sludge Tank requirements:

1. Capacity must be minimum 1% of used HFO for 30 days (or)

½ % of used DO for 30 days.
2. Sufficient manholes to reach all parts of tank.
3. Adequate heating arrangement.
4. No direct connection between sludge tank discharge piping and overboard discharge
piping.
5. Fitted with designated pump, having suitable capacity and discharge head.
6. Fitted with standard discharge connection.
7. Fitted with high level alarm.

Sludge Tank Capacity and Requirements:

For ship, which does not carry ballast water in oil fuel tank, minimum sludge tank capacity
should be calculated as:

V = KCD m³

Where K = 0.01 for ship, where HO is purified for ME ( i.e. 1% )

K = 0.005 for ships using DO or HO, which does not require
purification before use ( i.e. ½ % )
C = Daily fuel oil consumption.
D = Maximum period of voyage between ports ( in days).
In absence of precise data, a figure of 30 days should be used.
Note: Sludge Tank Capacity (min) = 0.01 or 1% of used HFO for 30 days. [or]
0.005 or ½ % of used DO for 30 days.
Requirements:
1. Manhole
2. Heating coil
3. No direct connection to overboard.
4. Sludge pump.
5. International Discharge Connection.
6. High level alarm.
 30

Biological Sewage Treatment Plant:

1. The unit is divided into 3 compartments: Aeration Chamber, Settling Chamber and
Chlorinator.
2. Sewage enters Aeration Tank through soil inlet, and retained for about 24 hours and
thoroughly mixed and aerated by aerators located at the bottom of the tank.
3. Aerobic bacteria and micro-organisms breakdown the organic waste and produce
new bacteria cell.
4. Air, which provides oxygen for bacteria and micro-organisms, is supplied by Rotary
Blowers to aerators.
5. The mixture is replaced by incoming sewage into Settling Tank, after passing
through coarse screen.
6. All solids are precipitated in Settling Tank as Activated Sludge, which are then
returned to Aeration Tank by airlift, and mixed with incoming raw sewage.
7. Clean liquid is displaced into Chlorinator, where remaining bacteria are killed.
8. Discharge of harmless effluent from Collecting Tank is controlled by Float Switch
connected to Discharge Pump.

Important Equipment:

1. Two Rotary Blowers

2. Two Discharge Pumps.
3. Safety Valve at Aeration Blower.
4. High water level activating switch.
5. Low water level activating switch.
6. High water level alarm.

Biochemical Oxygen Demand, BOD:

~ Amount of Oxygen taken up by Bacteria Incubation Process, in PPM.

Coliform Count:

1. Coliform is the name given to bacteria group, found in intestine.

2. Not normally harmful, but can cause Dysentery, Typhoid, and Gastro-enteritis.
3. Coliform Count checks effectiveness of disinfection.
4. Carried-out on effluent sample and incubating it for 24 – 48 hours at 35°C.
5. Coliform Bacteria count: 200/100 mlt. [Maximum].

Welding:

Welding on Cast Iron:

Oxy-acetylene Welding:

1. Flame adjusted with slightly excess acetylene, to get a temperature of

1200°C, [Melting point of CI].
2. Welding rod: pure CI with high silicon content.
3. Part to be welded is preheated to 600 ~ 700°C, to avoid excessive stresses.
 31

4. During welding, gas bubbles are developed in molten weld pool. By striking the
pool in circular motion with welding rod, these bubbles can be removed.
5. It is necessary to use welding flux.

Arc Welding:

1. Electrode: pure nickel (or) nickel iron.

2. Weld metal, deposited in short thin beads with small electrode and low amperage,
to avoid local heat built up and expansion, around weld point.
3. Casting is allowed to cool, between each run.

Welding on Aluminium:

Gas Welding:

1. Used for thickness of plate up to 3/16".

2. Slightly excess acetylene is used, due to lower melting point, 660°C.
3. Welding rod: Pure aluminium.
4. Necessary to use flux, to dissolve oxide.
5. Avoid inhalation of smoke, produced during welding.

Arc Welding:

1. Thickness of plate ¼ " or more.

2. Electrode: 95% Aluminium, 5% Silicon: with 20°of vertical.
3. Keep arc as short as possible, low amperage and movement is in straight line.
4. Welding speed is 3 times faster than mild steel.
5. Thick plate should be preheated for smooth weld.
6. Traces of flux, removed with hot water after gas or arc welding, otherwise flux
corrosion will occur.

Inert gas welding:

1. Welds are superior in strength and pressure tightness.

2. No flux is required, so no risk of corrosion.
3. Very high speed is possible with welding machine.
4. Gas metallic arc welding GMAW or MIG is easier to use, particularly where
position welding is needed, vertical, horizontal or overhead.
5. For plate thickness of ¼ " MIG is more economical and practical.

CE’s Instruction, regarding Welding Equipment handling:

1. Leather gloves, Safety shoes, helmet, and clean clothing [not oily Boiler Suit] to be
worn.
2. Remove combustible material from vicinity.
3. Wear Safety Goggle when chipping and grinding.
4. One bucket of water and portable fire extinguisher kept near-by.
5. Cable connections, tight and well insulated.
6. To avoid Welding in confined spaces.
 32

7. Never use oxygen and acetylene without attached pressure regulator.

8. Open oxygen cylinder valve slowly, and acetylene cylinder valve not more than 1½
turns.
9. Never attempt to mix any other with oxygen cylinder, and transfer or mix
acetylene from one bottle to another.
10. Never use acetylene at a pressure higher than 15 psi [1kg/cm²].

Welding Distortion:
Depends upon:

1. Cooling rate.
2. Size of work.
3. Heat conductivity.
4. Melting point.
5. Welding speed.
6. Type of electrode.

Oxy-Acetylene Welding

» Never use Oxygen and Acetylene without pressure reducing regulators attached to
cylinders.
» Open Oxygen cylinder valve slowly and fully.
» Open Acetylene cylinder valve not more than 1 turns.
» Use Acetylene at a pressure not higher than 15 psi (1 kg/cm²).
» Pressure ranges of 20 – 39 psi for Oxygen and 1 – 12 psi for Acetylene should be
used depending on tip size, torch type and thickness of work.

Electric Arc Welding

» Electrode diameter 1/16" Ampere controlled bet: 50 – 100 Amp.

Voltage 30 Volts
Thickness of plate up to 3/16"

» Electrode diameter 1/8" Ampere controlled bet: 125 – 175 Amp.

Voltage 28 Volts
Thickness of plate above 1/2"

Electron Beam Welding:

1. A welding process directing high energy electron beam on workpiece (anode),

in a high vacuum chamber.
2. Applied to rare metal, and no electrode, no welding rod and no gases required.
3. This process can weld deeply in one pass, without overlapping.
4. Potential difference between cathode and anode is 15 kV.
Speed of electron flow, 140,000 miles/sec.

Testing of material:

1. Non- Destructive Test

2. Destructive Test.
 33

Non- Destructive Tests:

Carried-out on components and not on test pieces:

1. Visual Probe
2. Electrical eddy current
3. Liquid penetrant
4. Magnetic particles
5. Ultra-sonic
6. Radiographic inspection

Destructive Tests:

Carried-out only on specimen, which are subjected to damage during testing.

1. Harness test
2. Impact test
3. Tensile test
4. Bend test
5. Creep test
6. Proof test

Arctic D steel:

» If part of ship’s structure is liable to particularly low temperature, a special type of

steel known as Arctic D is used, as normal grade of steel is not suitable.
» Has higher tensile strength than normal mild steel.
» Has higher impact strength.
» Most important quality is its ability to absorb Impact value of 40 Joules at – 55°C,
in Charpy Impact test using standard specimen.

ISM Code:

IMO has adopted International Safety Management Code on 4th Nov 1993 for safe operation
of ships and pollution prevention, in accordance with SOLAS, MARPOL and STCW.

Objectives:

1. To cover safety and pollution

2. To provide a framework for achievement of Total Quality System ISO 9002,
and ISM Code.

Purpose:
Safe management and operation of ship, and Prevention of marine pollution:

Mainly to ensure:
1. Safety at sea
2. Prevention of human injury or loss of life
3. Avoidance of damage to marine environment and property
 34

Implementation:
Every shipping company should develop, implement and maintain Safety Management
System SMS.

SMS includes following requirements:

1. Safety and Environmental Protection policy.

2. Instruction and procedure for safe operation of ship, and protection of
environment, in compliance with International and Flag State Legislation.
3. Lines of communication between Shore-based and Shipboard personnel.
4. Procedures for reporting Accidents and Non-Conformities.
5. Procedures for preparedness and response, to emergency situations.
6. Procedures for Internal Audits and management reviews.

Documentation:

Quality/safety system should include following levels:

1. Quality/Safety Policy Manuals.
2. Quality/Safety Procedures Manuals.
3. Instruction Manuals.

Mandatory key dates:

1/7/98 applied to all passenger ships, bulk carriers, oil tankers, chemical and gas carriers.
1/7/2002 applied to all other cargo ships.

Certification:
Flag State Administration or Government or authorised body, issue Certificates
valid for 5-years, after thorough Audit.

Safety Management Certificate SMC:

» Issued to the ships, audited 2 ½ years after an Initial Audit, [within ± 6 months] and
subjected to a Renewal Audit, before 5-years period has elapsed, but not later than 3
months before expiry date.
» It verifies that the company and its shipboard management operate in accordance
with approved Safety Management System, SMS.

Interim SMC:
For ships that are taken-up into shipping company anew, and it is valid for 6 months.

Document of Compliance DOC:

» Issued to onshore organisation, which is audited annually after an Initial Audit, and
subjected to a Renewal Audit, before 5-years period has elapsed, but not later than 3
months before expiry date.

Interim DOC:
For a new company, valid for 12 months, or for an existing company if new ship-type enters
the company’s fleet, valid for 6 months.
 35

General Checklist for Audit:

1. Certificates and documents including ORB, Logbooks.

2. Safety in general.
3. Testing and drills.
4. Navigation equipment.
5. LSA.
6. FFA.
7. Radio installation including GMDSS.
8. Load Line.
9. Machinery in ER.
10. Electrical equipment.
11. Mooring equipment.
12. Cargo gears.
13. Hull construction.
14. Marine pollution.
15. Accommodation.

Main Drills in ISM:

1. Lifeboat Drill
2. Fire Drill
3. Abandon Ship Drill
4. Man Overboard Dill
5. Enclosed Space Rescue Drill
6. Oil Spill Response Drill
7. Emergency Steering Gear Drill

SMC:
Issued by;
Administration
Organization recognized by Administration.

DOC:
Issued by;
Administration
Organization recognized by Administration
Another contracting government recognized by Administration.
 36

General Engineering Knowledge:

Supplementary:

Preparation for PSC:

1. Certificates and Documents well prepared and checked for validity.
2. ORB filled to date.
3. Sludge calculation corrected with sludge balance in tank, incinerated amount and
shore disposal.
4. Incinerator and OWS tested and in good working order.
5. Approved type Sewage Plant should be in good working order.
6. ER kept clean and dry. Necessary notices, including Oil Pollution Prevention and
Bunkering Plan must be posted.
7. Boilers and AE safety systems in good working order.
8. All Safety Systems to be in good working order.
9. LSA in good working order.
10. FFA and alarming system in good working order.

Preparation for Load Line Survey:

Purpose of Survey is to check and maintain

1) Ship’s Structural Strength

2) Watertight Integrity
3) Ship’s Stability
4) Crew Protection.

Surveyor will examine the following:

1. Hatch Coaming, Hatch Way, Hatch Cover and closing appliance.

2. Ventilators, Air Pipes and closing appliance.
3. Watertight Doors, Handrails, Bulwark, Catwalk, Scuppers, Side Scuttles and Port
Lights.
4. Gangways, Exposed Engine Casing and their openings.
5. General condition of Hull as far as could be seen.
6. Load Line Markings.

IOPP Survey Preparation:

1. Check validity of Certificate

2. Check OWS, 15 PPM alarm and stopping device including piping, valves, spare
filter element, Coast Guard Notice, and Trade Mark of approved maker by IMO.
3. Check Sludge Tank and capacity.
4. Check fuel oil consumption.
5. Calculate sludge formation. (It must be at least 1% of the consumption)
6. Prepare ORB to be up to date.
7. Reception Certificates kept ready.
8. Check incinerator and its capacity.
9. Check sludge tank’s low/high level alarms.
10. Bilge overboard valve to be tight shut and kept under chain and lock.
11. Bilge connection to be blind flanged and bilge pump fuse to be removed and kept.
 37

» Sludge formation; 1 to 3 % of fuel (1 for MDO 3 for HFO)

» Oil residue; V=KCD K = 0.01 for HFO K = 0.005 for MDO
C = Consumption / day
D = Steaming Day

Port State Control and Flag State Control Comparison:

Port State Control Flag State Control

To inspect that ships flying the Flags of
1 States comply with Requirements of
Conventions, to avoid Substandard Ships
in port.
Inspect any ship in their port.
To inspect something against a set
2 standard or law and after survey, issue
Certificate, which is essential to ship’s
ability to trade.
Authorities will apply in general the
3 following Instruments; SOLAS 74,
MARPOL 73/78, and STCW 78.
A Surveyor representing the Authority of
4 the Government carries out the Port State
Inspection.
5 Has authority to detain the ships.
Has responsibilities that ships built to their
Flag, comply with Requirements in
construction and upkeep afterwards.
Only inspect the ships built to their flag.
After survey, issue Certificate relating to
safety of the ship, seaworthiness and
pollution.
FSC is limited to ensure that valid
Certificates are onboard. SOLAS,
MARPOL IOPP, ISPP, ILL, COLARG etc.
Flag State or Administration carries out
Flag State Inspection.
Has authority to detain the ships.

Flag State Control:

» Only inspect the ships built to their flag.
Port State Control:
» Inspect any ship in their port.

Machinery Survey Preparation:

1. Discuss with captain about survey items, not to effect ship’s schedule.
2. Spare parts for survey items to be ready.
3. Instruction Manuals, drawings and special tools kept ready.
4. Arrange Surveyor to visit onboard through Agent.
5. Immobilisation requested to Port Authority through Agent to dismantle ME parts.
6. Detail instructions to 2/E;

a) To dismantle as per Maker’s Instruction.

b) Parts to be marked before dismantling.
c) Clearances taken and recorded to submit to Surveyor.
d) Parts cleaned and displayed.
e) All hanging parts secured carefully before refitting.
f) To reassemble as per Maker’s Instruction.
 38

How to itemise the Survey?

1. Classification Survey.
2. Statutory Survey.
3. Survey requested by Owner, Charterer.

Air Bottle Survey:

1. As per Flag State Regulation, every compressed-gas vessels are surveyed at an
interval of 5 years.
2. Vessels to be stripped down of all fittings, so that mandatory test procedures can be
carried out in full.
3. Superficial examination internally and externally for surface condition such as
corrosion and mechanical damage.
4. After cleaning, further internal examination is done for pitting corrosion, corrosion
fatigue cracking, laminations, indentations and localised bulging.
[Cleaning is done by wire brushing, scraping, and rumbling (steel ball type) and
shot-blasting and boiling out to temperature not exceeding 300°C.
Toxic or inflammable agents must never be used.]
5. After satisfaction, mandatory Hydro-stretch Test is to be done.
6. Volumetric stretch of vessel is measured on a gauge.
7. Bottles should be surveyed and mountings to be overhauled at every 2-years, along
with the CMS, within 5 year interval.

Alternator Survey:
1. Windings.
2. End winding coils.
3. Air gap.
4. Slip ring.
5. Carbon brushes and its spring pressure checked.
6. Insulation resistance. (When taking IR, connections to AVR, instrument connection
and generator heater supply should be disconnected. Shut out the rotating shaft
diodes of brushless excitation system.)
7. Generator running test on load. (Proper operation of governor and AVR controls
with correct frequency, voltage and current values should be confirmed.)
8. Governor droop and its response to certain load change must be within specified
values of manufacturer.
9. Stable operation of load sharing between two generators must be demonstrated.

Alternator Survey
1. Insulation Resistance Test and readings
2. Air Gap Clearance ( 0.5 – 1 mm)
3. Running Test with sea load.

Electrical Survey system:

1. Alternators
2. All motors
3. Main Switch Board
4. Emergency Gen. Switch Board
5. Emergency lighting
6. Navigation lights and Alarm System
7. All Wiring IR test.
 39

As a CE Preparation for Dry-docking:

1. Study old records of rudder, propeller, and sterntube, ME, AE.

2. Study Survey due items.
3. Discuss with engineers and EO for repair and overhaul items.
4. Prepare docking plan, anode plan etc. (required plans and arrangements).
5. Prepare instruction manuals, drawings, certificates, previous records of rudder,
propeller, sterntube, tailshaft, ME, AE, latest record of crankshaft deflection taken
before entering dock, and documents such as defect list, ship staff and shore staff
repair lists, docking plan and tank plan.
6. Check special tools for TC, fuel pump timing checking, propeller nut spanner,
poker gauge for sterntube wear down measurement, etc.
7. Ask EO to study shore connection, voltage and frequency.
8. Clean tank top.
9. Summit repair lists to HO.
10. Sent Docking Plan and Tank Plan to dockyard.

Records to be made before and after Dry Docking:

1. Crank shaft Deflection.

2. Fuel tank Soundings
3. Shore Supply kWh meter reading.
4. Cooling water supply meter, if freshwater cooling.

Docking Plan:

1. Provides locations of frame spacing, watertight bulkheads, Drain Plugs.

2. Determines positioning of keel blocks, bilge blocks, bilge shore, breast shore
when the ship is on dock.

Documents prepared before Docking:

1. Repair list
2. Defect list
3. Tank Plan
4. Docking Plan

What to be sent to Dockyard prior to Docking?

1. Docking Plan
2. Tank Plan

CE duty at Maiden Voyage:

1. Run as per trial results.

2. Check all machinery working properly or not, as per specification.
3. Check FO, LO and Cyl Oil consumption, at proposed speed.
4. Test-run Bilge, Ballast pumps, FWG and OWS.
5. Check Sterntube LO consumption and leakage to be detected.
6. Test Steering Gear.
 40

7. All spare gears checked.

8. Check Safety and Emergency Arrangements (Emergency Fire Pump, Emergency
Generator, Skylight Door, Tunnel Watertight Door).
9. ME running in as per instruction. [Running-in oil (cylinder oil) contains
grinding powder].
10. Clean filters and strainers frequently.

Joining a Vessel and Taking over Duties:

1. Check Bunker requirement for next voyage and ROB of HO, DO and LO.
2. Check minimum requirement of Stores and Spares.
3. Check Machinery Conditions, Outstanding Repairs and Maintenance Program.
4. Check Survey Status, Outstanding Surveys, Documents and Certificates.
5. Check all CE’s Paper Works, completed up to date or not.
6. Check Instruction Manuals, Drawings and Special Tools.
7. Check outgoing CE’s Official Handing over Letter, describing above facts and figure.
8. Both CEs, stating above facts must sign Hand-over, Take-over Report.

Documents on board:

1. Minimum safe manning documents

2. Approved intact stability booklet (24 ML & UP)
3. ORB Part 1 Machinery Space Operation (For every ship)
4. ORB Part 2 Cargo / Ballast Operation (For Tanker)
5. Certificate of discharge
6. Account of property of Deceased Seaman
7. Return of Birth and Death
8. Order of druggist form
9. Draught of water and free board notice
10. Official Log Book
11. Deck log book
12. Radio log book
13. Chief Engineer’s Log Book
14. Ship’s Station License
15. Muster list and emergency instruction
16. Training manual for LSA
17. Maintenance Manual for LSA
18. Fire Control Plan
19. Table or Curve of residual deviation of each standard and steering magnetic
compass
20. Certificate of approval for FFA
21. Certificate of approval for LSA
22. Certificate of approval for Navigational Aids
23. Certificate of approval for Navigational Lights
24. Drawing Plans and Instruction Manual.
25. Documents of Compliance with the Special Requirements for Ships Carrying
Dangerous Goods
26. Dangerous Goods Manifest or Storage Plan
27. Documents of Authorisation for the Carriage of Grain
 41

Certificates required to be carried onboard ships:

All Ships

1. Certificate of Registry
2. International Tonnage Certificate
3. International Load Line Certificate
4. International Load Line Exemption Certificate
5. Certificates of Master, Officers or Ratings (STCW)
6. Derating or Derating Exemption Certificate
7. International Oil Pollution Prevention Certificate (IOPP)
8. International Sewage Pollution Prevention Certificate (ISPP)
9. International Safety Management Certificate (SMC)
10. International Medical Certificate
11. Certificate of Classification

Passenger Ships

In Addition to the Certificates listed above:

1. Passenger Ship Safety Certificate

2. Exemption Certificate
3. Special Trade Passenger Ship Safety Certificate

Cargo Ships

In Addition to the Certificates listed above:

1. Cargo Ship Safety Construction Certificate

2. Cargo Ship Safety Equipment Certificate
3. Cargo Ship Safety Radio Certificate
4. Certificate of Insurance or Other Financial Security in respect of Civil Liability for
Pollution Damage

Endorsement and Renewal Certificates:

1. Continuous machinery survey Certificate

2. Continuous Hull Survey Certificate
3. Continuous Tail end shaft Certificate
4. Safety Certificate
5. Safety Equipment Certificate
6. Anchor Chain and Anchor Head Certificate
7. Life raft Certificate
8. Dry docking Certificate
9. Derrick and Mast Certificate
10. Crew Accommodation Certificate
11. CO Fire Extinguishing Certificate
12. Derating Certificate
 42

GMDSS:

1. Global Maritime Distress and Safety System, forced on 1/2/92 under SOLAS
Convention.
2. All ships built after 1/2/95 must comply fully with GMDSS requirements.
3. At 1/2/99 all ships regardless of their year of built must comply.
4. Minimum carriage requirement for GMDSS 1 VHF, 2 Nav. Tex.

Insurance:

Ship owners insure their ships against unforeseen damages or losses such as;
1. Actual total losses
2. Constructive total losses (the cost of repair greater than its value)
3. Presumed total losses
4. Partial losses
5. Third party liabilities (collision, injury of crew)

Following documents must be submitted when claiming Insurance:

1. Log Abstract
2. Damage Report (extent of damage)
3. Class Surveyor’s remarks
4. Underwriter Surveyor’s remarks
5. Chief Engineer’s Report
6. Repair Bill.

When entering in ORB: a) Dated and signed by the Chief Engineer.

b) Counter signed at each complete page by Master.
c) Operational letter code and item number.
d) All facts to be entered particularly.

Bunkering; Sludge Disposal; Pumping Bilge;

Letter code Letter code Letter code

Item No. Item No. Item no.
Bunkering port Port Name Ship speed
Tank Nos. Tank No. and its capacity Position of start and stop
Total Quantity Qty. of retention Duration
Start and Stop time Method of discharge (15 ppm)

When entering Reception Certificate;

1. Port of Discharge
2. Discharge amount in m³
3. Designation of reception facility
4. Date, Name, Signature and Stamp of Port Authority Official.
 43

Sewage Disposal Area:

Treated Sewage: Can be discharged, but not visible, floating nor

Comminuted and Disinfected:
Sewage stored in Holding Tanks:
Untreated Sewage:
discoloured the surrounding water.
Can be discharged beyond 4 mile.
Can be discharged beyond 12 miles, at moderate rate,
en-route, 4 Knots.
Can be discharged beyond 12 miles.

Garbage Disposal Area:

Plastic: Prohibited (Inside and Outside Special Area)

Floating Garbage: 25 miles offshore (Outside Special Area)
Prohibited (Inside Special Area)
Paper, rags, glass, metal, bottle, crockery: 12 miles offshore (Outside Special Area)
Prohibited (Inside Special Area)
Ground-down paper, rags, glass, metal, bottle, crockery: 3 miles (Outside Special Area)
Prohibited (Inside Special Area)
Raw Food Waste: 12 miles (Inside and Outside Special Area)
Ground Food Waste: 12 miles (Inside Special Area),
3 miles (Outside Special Area)

SOPEP Requirements:

Oil spill kit inside Oil spill Locker:

Can be grouped into: Solvent Absorbent Cleaning Plugging material.

1. OSD 200 litres.

2. Chemical splash suit 10 nos.
3. Goggle 10 pairs.
4. Boots 10 pairs.
5. Nitrile gloves 10 pairs.
6. Sawdust and cotton rags.
7. Oil seals 30 nos.
8. Oil coushions 40 nos.
9. Oil scoop (non-spark) 1 no.
10. Deep pan shovel (non-spark) 1 no.
11. Disposable bags 10 nos.
12. 29 ft³ Container 2 nos.
13. Bucket (non-spark) 1 no.
14. Brooms 6 nos.
15. Scupper plugs
16. Cement for plugging
17. Submersible pump (Wilden)
18. Bilge and Ballast Piping Diagram.
19. Fuel and LO system Piping Diagram.
20. HO responsible address.
21. Port Authority Address.
22. Agent Address.
 44

Sludge content onboard is high, what to do?

1. Sludge, waste oil or oil and water mixture up to 25% of water content could be
burnt in incinerator.
2. Sludge can be disposed from ship to shore reception facility through International
Discharge Connection, provided at discharge side of Sludge Pump.
3. Transferred to another (other) tank. (Indicate tank and total content of tank)
4. Incinerated amount, total time of incinerator operation, disposal of oil residue
(sludge), quantity of retention, tank no. and its capacity, port name, item no. and
letter code are to be recorded in ORB. (See page 164)
5. Reception Certificate attached with ORB.

How to fill up in ORB?

For Accidental or Other Exceptional Discharge of Oil:

Date Letter Code Item No. Record of Operation / Signature of Officer in charge

d/m/y G 23 0800 hrs; (Time of Occurrence)

24 @ Singapore; (Place and position of ship at time of
occurrence)
25 HFO, 380 cst, 0.5 MT.
(Approximate Quantity & Type of oil)
26 Leakage from Bunker Line Flange, during Bunkering.
(Circumstances of discharge or escape
& general remarks)
Signature

For Bunkering of fuel (or) bulk of LO:

Date Letter Code Item No. Record of Operation / Signature of Officer in charge

d/m/y H 27 . 1 @ Singapore; (Place of Bunkering)

27 . 2 Start 0900 hrs; Stop 1400hrs; (Time of Bunkering)
27 . 3 HFO, 380 cst, 540 MT. (Type and Quantity)
# 3 CP Tk. Added 250 MT. Total 300 MT.
# 3 CS Tk. Added 250 MT. Total 300 MT.
(Tank Identity, Quantity Added & Total Content)
27 . 4 LO, 9000 Ltrs. CLO, 5000 Ltrs.
# 1 Tk. Added 9000 Ltrs. Total 9300 Ltrs.
(Type, Quantity, Tank Identity, Quantity Added & Total
Content)
Signature
 45

Safety Certificates:

1. Safety Construction Certificate

2. Safety Equipment Certificate
3. Safety Radio Certificate

Notation of Class:

e.g. [ 100A 1 ] of Lloyd’s Register of Shipping:

» (Cross) indicates the ship has been built under supervision of Class Surveyor.
» 100A indicates the ship’s hull has been built to highest standard,
laid down by the Rules of Class.
» 1 indicates the ship’s equipment (anchor, cables, mooring ropes etc.)
are in good and efficient condition.

LMC
» When the machinery is constructed and installed in accordance with Lloyd’s Rules, a
notation LMC is assigned, indicating the ship has Lloyd’s Machinery Certificate.

IACS:
» International Association of Classification Societies.

Classification Societies:

1. Lloyd’s Register of Shipping, London. Established 1760 Reconstituted 1834

2. Bereau Veritus, Paris. Established 1828, Antwerp, transferred to Paris 1832
3. Registro Italiano Navale, Geneva. Established 1861
4. American Bureau of Shipping, New York. Established 1862.
5. Det Norske Veritas, Oslo. Established 1864.
6. Germanischer Lloyd, Hamburg. Established 1867.
7. Nippon Kaiji Kjokai, Tokyo. Established 1890.
8. Hellenic Register of Shipping. Established 1919.

Corrosion Prevention:

By applying protective coating for ship’s structural steel and its continued maintenance.
By cathodic protection.

Cathodic protection:

» Sacrificial anode or an impressed (D.C.) current system prevents electrochemical

corrosion, in which protected metal is cathode.

Sacrificial anode system:

1. Sacrificial anodes are metals or alloys, usually fitted to hull or within the ballast
tanks.
2. Have more anodic potential than steel (hull) when immersed in seawater.
 46

3. They supply cathodic protection current but they will be consumed in doing so
hence required replacement.
4. Magnesium anodes must not be used in oil cargo tank, owing to sparks hazard.
5. Zinc anodes must be fitted in this particular tank.
Impressed current system:

1. A cathodic protection method to prevent corrosion of ship’s underwater parts.

2. System consists of:
Source of DC current
Anodes
Apparatus for measuring and controlling the current
High quality protective coating around the hull area,
nearest to the anodes.
3. Continuous control of impressed current required.
4. Adequate protection depends on immersed area, ship speed, salinity of water, and
condition of hull paintwork.
5. If too great a current flow:
destroy paint coating (epoxy resin) around the anodes.
highly alkaline condition arose near the anodes.

Marine growth protection system, MGPS:

1. Adhering of seashell, sea wood, fish, etc. can cause lower performance of cooler
and piping system.
2. To prevent this, a portion of SW, taken via cooling pump from sea chest, is
electrolysed in the electrolytic cell.
3. The electrolysed SW contains sodium hypochlorite and it is dosed again into the
sea chest, and SW cooling system, via nozzles, flow indicator and distributor
valves.

Protection of hull from marine growth and fouling:

1. By applying Developed Anti-fouling Paint, which contains poisonous material for

marine vegetable and animal growth.
2. It produces a film on immersed hull; hence adherence by marine growth is almost
impossible.
3. Mercury and Copper are the best-known poisonous materials used in Anti-fouling
Paints.
4. Marine growth will adhere to hull, if ship speed is < 4 knots.

Developed anti-fouling paint:

1. Non-toxic in operation.
2. Acrylic Polymer physically influences the film, formed on immersed hull.
3. Adherence by marine organisms is almost impossible to these films, due to altering
the critical surface tension of the film.
4. These paints have material, poisonous to marine vegetable and animal growth.
5. Marine growth will adhere to the hull, if ship speed is less than 4 knots.
 47

Zero Discharge System or Chemical Recirculating System:

1. Plant consists of Chemical Dosing Tank, Comminutor, Chemical Treatment Tank,

Settling Tank and a Recirculating Pressure Tank, together with associated pumps.
2. Sewage from water closets is led to Chemical Dosing Tank, where odour and colour
control chemicals are added. Chlorine for disinfecting and Sodium Hypochlorite to
assist flocculation.
3. Then sewage passes through comminutor, which breakdown the solid matter into
waste.
4. Sewage proceed to Chemical Treatment Tank, where sterilising, deodorising and
breakdown chemicals are added.
5. Recirculating Pump draws from this treatment tank and discharges back to dosing
tank, ensuring that incoming sewage is thoroughly broken-down and chemically
treated.
6. Sewage remains in this section for 5 minutes, then passes to Settling Tank, which is
designed to give adequate retention period to allow settlement of suspended solids.
7. Treated sewage is transferred via Mesh Filter to Pressure Tank by Sanitary Pump.
8. From here, clean effluent is again sent to various closets for flashing purpose.
9. Solids, settled in settling tanks can be drained from time to time to Soil Tank, from
where it can be eventually discharged in uncontrolled area or shore receiving
facility, or incinerated.

Advantages:

1. Acceptable in terms of smell and appearance.

2. Liquid can be used as flashing water for toilets.
3. Able to start up in very short time.
4. Can discharge acceptable effluents almost quickly.

Disadvantages:

1. Required continuous use of chemicals.

2. Sludge produced tends to require large storage tank (soil tank).
3. Test to be performed daily to check chemical dosage rate. This is to prevent odour
developing and corrosion due to high level alkalinity.

ORB:

» For Cargo ship, 300 GRT & above: ORB I.

» For Tanker, 150 GRT & above: ORB I & ORB II.

MARPOL Documents:

1. Oil Record Book.

2. SOPEP.
3. Dangerous Goods Manifest or Storage Plan.
4. Enhanced Survey Report Files. [A survey report file or supporting documents
complying with requirements of MARPOL 73/78 and SOLAS 74.]
5. Cargo Record Book.
 48

SOLAS Items:

1. General provisions
2. Construction: – Subdivision & stability, machinery & electrical installation.
3. Construction: – Fire protection, fire detection & fire extinction.
4. LSAs & arrangements.
5. Radiocommunications.
6. Safety of navigation.
7. Carriage of grain.
8. Carriage of dangerous goods.
9. Nuclear ships.
10. Management for safe operation of ship.
11. Safety measures for high-speed craft.
12. Special measures to enhance maritime safety.

MARPOL Items:
» Annex I….to…V.

ISM Items:
ISM Contents:

1. Safety & environmental protection policy.

2. Company's responsibilities & authority.
3. Designated persons.
4. Master's responsibilities & authority.
5. Resources in personnel.
6. Development of plans for shipboard operation.
7. Emergency preparedness.
8. Reports & analysis of non-conformities, accidents & hazardous occurances.
9. Maintenance of ship & equipment.
10. Documentation.
11. Company verification, review & evaluation.
12. Certification, verification & control.

IMO Conventions:

1. International Convention for Safety of Life at Sea. SOLAS 1974.

2. International Convention for Prevention of Pollution from Ships.
MARPOL 1973/78
3. International Convention on Standard of Training,
Certification and Watch Keeping for Seafarers. STCW 1978.
4. International Convention on Load Line. ILL 66
5. International Convention on Tonnage Measurement of Ship. 1969.
6. Convention or the International Regulation for Prevention of Collision at Sea.
COLARG 72
7. Merchant Shipping (minimum standard) Convention. ILO 1976

What is Garbage?
1. All kinds of victual (food supplies, provisions). [excluding fresh fish]
2. Domestic and operational waste.
 49

Fire & Safety:

Fire pumps:
Requirements:

1. Fire pumps shall be capable of giving a quantity of water, for fire fighting purpose, at
following minimum pressures of;
0.31 N/mm² for passenger ships of 4000 tons gross tonnage and upwards,
0.27 N/mm² for passenger ships of 1000 ~ 4000 tons gross tonnage, and
0.27 N/mm² for cargo ships of 6000 tons gross tonnage and upwards.
2. For passenger ships, fire pumps shall be capable of giving a quantity of water, for fire
fighting purpose, not less than 2/3rd of the quantity given by bilge pumps.
3. For cargo ships, fire pumps shall be capable of giving a quantity of water, for fire
fighting purpose, not less than 4/3rd of the quantity given by bilge pumps in a
passenger ship of same dimension, provided that total required capacity of fire pumps
need not to exceed 180 m³/hr in cargo ship.
4. At least 3 fire pumps, provided for passenger ships of 4000 tons and upward.
5. At least 2 fire pumps, provided for cargo ships of 1000 tons and upward.
6. Sanitary, ballast, bilge or GS pumps may be accepted as fire pumps, provided that
they are not normally used for pumping oil fuel, and suitable change-over
arrangements are fitted if they are subjected to occasional duties for pumping oil fuel.
7. In cargo ships of 2000 tons gross tonnage and upwards, if fire in any compartment
could put all the pumps out of action, there shall be a fixed independently driven
Emergency Fire Pump.

Emergency Fire Pump: Regulation:

1. Located outside machinery space.
2. No direct access permitted between machinery space and space containing
Emergency Fire Pump.
3. Capacity: at least 40% of total capacity of fire pumps, required by regulation, and
in no case less than 25 m³/hr.
4. Pressure: sufficient to supply water of 40 ft horizontal throw, from 2 numbers of
½ " dia. water jets, from hoses of standard size and length, which are connected to
any part of the ship.
5. Total suction head and net positive suction head shall be such that, minimum 25
m³/hr capacity, 2 water jets of 40 ft horizontal throw, shall be obtained, under all
conditions of list, trim, roll and pitch.

6. If diesel engine driven:

a) It is self-cooled.
b) Easily started in cold condition [0°C] by hand cranking.
c) Fuel service tank must have sufficient capacity for at least 3-hour operation,
full load.
d) Sufficient reserves available outside machinery space, for additional 15-hour,
full load.

7. If motor driven:
a) Two sources of power supply provided.
b) Power operated emergency fire pump, with source of power and sea
connection, must be located outside machinery space.
 50

Bilge Pump: [Capacity]

1. Sanitary, Ballast and GS pumps, accepted as independent power bilge pumps, if

fitted with connections to bilge pumping system.
2. For passenger ship, at least 3 power pumps fitted, connecting to Bilge Main.
3. For cargo ships, at least 2 power pumps fitted, connecting to Main Bilge System.
4. Each power bilge pump, shall be capable of pumping water from Main bilge
pipe, at a speed of minimum 2 m / sec.
5. Internal diameter [mm] of Bilge main pipe depends upon, length and breath of
ship and moulded depth of the ship to bulkhead deck [metres].

Fire mains, hydrants, fire hoses and nozzles:

1. Diameter of fire main and water service pipes, for cargo ships, need only be
sufficient for the discharge of 140 m³/hr.
2. Hydrants shall be positioned near the accesses to the protected spaces and fire
hoses may be easily coupled to them.
3. Standard nozzle size: 12mm, 16mm and 19mm.
4. For accommodation and service spaces, nozzle size greater than 12mm need not
be used.
5. All nozzles shall be approved, duel purpose type [jet/spray] incorporating a shut-
off.

Portable fire extinguishers:

1. Capacity of portable fluid extinguisher: 13.5 litres and 9 litres.

2. Other extinguisher: at least as portable as 13.5 litres fluid extinguisher and fire
extinguishing capability at least equivalent to that of 9 litres fluid extinguisher.
3. Ships of 1000 tons gross tonnage and upwards, shall carry at least 5 portable fire
extinguishers.

4. In boiler room:

a) At least 2 portable foam type extinguishers.

b) At least 1 foam type extinguisher of 135 litres capacity minimum, with hoses on
reels, reaching any part of boiler room.
c) A box of 10 ft³ of sand or other approved dry material with scoop.
d) One set of portable foam applicator unit with one spare 20 litre tank.

5. In space containing internal combustion machinery:

a) Sufficient no. of 45 litre capacity foam type extinguishers, to enable foam to be

directed onto fuel and LO pressure system, gearing and other fire hazards.
b) Sufficient no. of portable foam type extinguishers, so located that, there shall be
at least 2 such extinguishers within 10- meter walking distance.

6. In space containing steam turbine:

a) Sufficient no. of 45-litre capacity foam type extinguishers, to enable foam to be

directed onto LO pressure system, turbine casing, gearing and other fire hazards.
 51

b) However, such extinguishers shall be omitted, if protection is given by fixed

installation.
c) Sufficient no. of portable foam type extinguishers, so located that, there shall be
at least 2 such extinguishers within 10- meter walking distance.

Fireman’s outfit:
Consists of:

Personal equipment, comprising protective clothing, boots and gloves of rubber, a rigid
helmet, an electric safety lamp [min burning period 3 hrs.], and an axe.
A breathing apparatus. Smoke Helmet [Smoke mask] or Self-contained compressed air
BA set.

Smoke helmet [Smoke mask] BA set:

a) Provided with suitable air pump.
b) An air hose exceeding 2 m in length, but not more than 36m.

Gas Mask BA set:

Not used for fire fighting purpose.

Self-contained compressed air operated BA set:

a) Volume of air in cylinders shall be at least 1200 litres.
b) Capable of functioning for at least 30 min.
c) Fireproof lifeline of sufficient length and strength is attached.
d) 2 fireman’s outfits [2 BA sets] shall be stored in widely separated positions, and
must be easily accessible and ready for use.

ER Fire Fighting Media:

For boiler room:

1. At least 2 Portable Foam Extinguishers
2. 135 litres Foam Extinguisher
3. 1 Portable Foam Applicator with 20 litres spares tank.
4. One Sand box with a scoop.

For ER
1. At least 1 Portable Foam Applicator with 200 lb. spare container.
2. At least 45 litres Foam Extinguisher
3. At least 2 Portable Foam Extinguishers shall be placed within, not more than 10
meter walking distance.

For ER Control Room:

1. Sufficient number of CO Portable Fire Extinguishers.

Sprinkler System:

1. By Regulation, passenger ships carrying more than 36 persons shall be provided

with Automatic Sprinkler System.
2. Generally used only to protect living quarters, passageways and public spaces.
 52

Operation:

1. Each sprinkler head provided with a quartzoid valve, which seals the outlet of water
pipe.
2. Valve is partially filled with special fluid, so that a rise in room temperature will
expand the liquid and the valve will burst.
3. Water under pressure; will flow out from Sprinkler System. [ 5 – 8 bars pressure is
maintained in FW pressure tank by air pressure.]
4. Sprinkler head can cover a floor area of about 12m² with water pressure of 5 – 8
bars.
5. Pressure drop in tank activates the pumps to take over and supply water from FW
holding tank. When holding tank become empty, SW pumps come into action
automatically.

Rules:
1. No: of heads not more than 200 per section.
2. Heads are spaced not more than 4 meters apart.
3. At least 2 sources of power supply to Automatic alarm system and SW pump.

Advantages:
1. Self fire detection, and immediate and automatic operation at all time
2. Not harmful to human.
3. No need to seal the space.
4. No need to clean the media, after use.

Various sprinkler head colour: Red Yellow Green Blue Purple

Quartzoid valve will burst at: 68°C 79°C 93°C 141°C 182°C

CO Flooding System:

Advantages:

1. Can permeate throughout the space.

2. After discharging, it leaves no residues and no damage to other parts.
3. No hazard for electrical equipment.

Disadvantages:

1. Only suitable for confined space, and needs total sealing of the space.
2. Fatal to life.
3. Re-ignition can occurs after fire is completely died out.
4. No cooling effects, only extinguished by smothering and inhibition.

CO room safety arrangement:

1. Exhaust fan, and suction duct is provided at the bottom of the room. Any accumulated
CO from leakage at the bottom can be exhausted to atmosphere.
2. Cable operated Safety Valve is fitted on Pilot Cylinder discharge line.
It prevents accidental discharge of CO from Quick Release Cylinders due to action of
 53

leakage gas from Pilot Cylinder.

3. Relief Valves are fitted on each discharge line from cylinders so that leakage gas can
safely dispose to atmosphere.
4. Check Valve is fitted in connection pipe between each cylinder discharge valve and
manifold, so that leakage of one cylinder cannot effect other cylinder.
5. Each bottle has a combined Bursting Disc, which will rupture spontaneously at a
pressure of 177 bar at 63 C.
6. Pressure Gauge and pressure Alarm in the manifold.

Maintenance of CO flooding system:

1. Weekly inspection for alarm system.

2. Bottles should be weighed yearly; level checked by ultrasonic or radio active isotope
detector. Level reference mark should be provided. If 10% loss of weight, recharge
them.
3. All the pulley, wire, rope and toggle must be free from dirt, scales and well lubricated.
4. CO branch pipe and discharge nozzle should be cleared with compress air at two year
interval.
5. Bottles should not be exposed to temperature of 60 C.

Weighing of CO bottle:
1. Bottles should be weighed yearly by special weighing device designed for this purpose.
2. It has a reference mark to determine 10% loss of weight.

CO Quantity Calculation: (by Regulation):

For cargo space, CO quantity shall be sufficient to give a minimum volume of free gas,
equal to 30% of gross volume of largest cargo space so protected.
For machinery space, CO quantity shall be sufficient to give a minimum volume of free gas,
equal to 40% of gross volume of machinery space so protected excluding the casing.

Weight of CO / bottle = 45 kg / bottle.

Free gas volume of CO = 0.56 m³/ kg.
0.3 x Largest cargo space gross volume.
Required CO bottles for cargo space =
0.56 x 45

0.4 x Machinery space gross volume.

Required CO bottles for machinery space =
0.56 x 45

Inert gas:

1. The gas which does not support combustion is inert gas, such as CO , N , and
boiler flue gas containing < 11% O .
 54

2. Tankers of 20,000 DWT and above, provided with Fixed Inert Gas System.
a) To prevent accumulation of explosive mixtures in cargo tanks, during
ballast voyage and during tank operations.
b) To minimise risks of ignition by static electricity generated by the system
itself.
3. Inert gas is used only in fixed installations and large bore piping are used due to
low pressure of the gas.
4. Main function is essentially fire-preventive by providing an inert atmosphere.
5. Inert gas installation is not acceptable in machinery spaces.

Inert Gas Composition: [Flue Gas Composition]

N ~ 80% by volume: CO ~ 14%: O ~ (2 – 5)%: Water vapour at 20°C ~ 2%:

CO ~ 0.01%: SO ~ 0.005%: Nitrous gases ~ 0.02%: Soot ~ 50 mg / m³

Inert gas generator:

1. Consists of horizontal brick-lined combustion chamber, surrounded by water jacket,

and pressurised about 0.3 – 0.6 bar.
2. Burner is lit by high-tension electrodes and oil pressure is controlled by regulator with
control valve.
3. Diesel engine drives fuel pump, air blower, and electric generator which drives SW
pump.
4. Excess C and S gases are removed, and temperature reduced to 2°C above SW
temperature, in vertical washing and cooling chamber, in which water sprayers are
fitted.
5. Control panel has CO recorder, pressure gauges, and water and fuel system alarms.
6. Inert gas can be released to any space, at 125% of ship’s maximum rate of discharge
capacity, in volume.

Halon 1301: [ CBrF ] Bromotrifluoromethane:

Fixed Installation for:

1. Machinery space
2. Pump rooms
3. Cargo spaces, intended for carrying vehicles.
[ New installation shall be prohibited on all ships.]

Applications:
1. To use in Electric Fire
2. To use in Electronic system fire
3. To use in Class A fire
[ Halon used for fire fighting are: Halon 1301, 1211, 2402.]

Limitation:
1. Not to use in general cargo space.
2. Not to use in Metal Fire.
3. Not to use on Oxidising Agents.
 55

Extinguishing Media:
Water: Cooling and smothering by steam.
Foam: Combined effect of cooling and smothering.
CO : Smothering and inhibition.
Dry Power: Extinguished by inhibition ( breaking chain reaction.)
Halon: Extinguished by inhibition.
Inert Gas: Fire-preventive, by providing an inert atmosphere.

When fire breaks out:

1. Activate fire alarm or emergency alarm, as soon as noticing of breakout of fire.

2. Find the origin of fire, CE and all ER members informed.
3. Restrict it, and extinct it on the spot with portable extinguishers and by other means.
4. Verify the class of fire and decide the type of extinguishing agents, which should be
used.
5. Initial attack must be backed-up with second more substantial means of attack.
[i.e. Semi-portable or Fire main, follows after portable ones.]
6. Water must be used prudently, since ship’s stability can be affected.
7. Fixed installation is a back-up, used as a last resort. Usage of fixed installation in ER
fire can cause loss of power and steering, for a long period of times.
8. Fixed fire fighting installation system can be used as initial attack on cargo hold fire.
9. Fire must be confined to the space, in which originated; [by controlling flow of air, by
cooling adjacent bulkheads, and by directing extinguishing agents onto fire].
10. Finally after fire is out, overhauling begins, and check structural damages.
11. All fire fighting equipment replenished.
12. Cause of fire to be determined, and action taken to prevent reoccurrence of same type
of fire.

If fire is considerable and immense:

1. Sound fire alarm system.

2. Evacuate all ER staff, count them and assign them as per Muster List.
3. Remote stopping of all fuel pumps, to be done.
4. Remote closing of all quick closing valves, to be done.
5. Remote closing of all skylight doors and ER watertight doors, to be done.
6. Remote closing of all ER ventilation dampers, to be done.
7. Prime mover and all machinery to be stopped.
8. All ER entry and exit doors, to be closed perfectly.
9. All ER ventilation fans, to be stopped manually.
10. Fixed installation system, to be operated by CE or 2/E in proper manner.

Fixed fire Detection and Alarm System:

a) This system with manual call points must be able to operate immediately at all
times.
b) Must have two sources of power supply, and visual and audible alarms for power
failure.
c) Control panel should be located on Bridge.
d) Heat, smoke or other products of combustion, flame or any combination of these
may operate detector.
 56

Types of Detector:

Smoke detector:
1. Installed at stairways, corridor, escape route within Accommodation Space.
2. Also used in Cargo space and Machinery space
3. Maximum floor area per detector = 74 m².
4. Max. distance apart = 11 meters.
5. Max. distance away from bulkhead = 5.5 m.
6. Photocell or light scattering types.

Heat Detector:
1. Maximum floor area per detector = 37 m².
2. Max. Distance apart = 9 meters.
3. Max. Distance away from bulkhead = 4.5 m.
4. Used Bi-metal strip.
5. Fitted in boiler room, laundry, Control Room, Galley.

Flame Detector:
1. Ultra Violet or infrared.
2. Fitted near fuel handling equipment.

Combustible Detector:
1. Fitted in galley, ER fwd bulkhead adjacent to p/p room under floor plate.

Machinery space minimum requirement:

1. Two nos. of fire hydrants with hoses, minimum.

2. 10 ft³ of sand and sawdust with scoops.
3. One fixed installation of CO or foam or Halon.
4. Portable extinguishers of at least 2 nos. of 2 ½ gallon (11.37 litres) foam or CO ,
depending on BHP.
5. Semi-portable extinguishers of 45 kgs of CO .
6. Drip pans and trays for every F.O. and L.O. tanks.
7. Monitoring, detection and alarm system.
8. Emergency fire pump.
9. 2 nos: of main fire pumps.
10. International shore connection.
11. Inert gas system.

Machinery space fire fighting: by CO flooding system:

1. CO flooding to machinery space must be done by master’s order.

2. CO must be released by competent engineer, CE or 2/E.
3. When cabinet door is opened alarm will sound and all ER fans will be stopped.
4. Before releasing, all ER crew to be counted.
5. All openings must be shut [ventilator flaps, fire damper].
6. All fuel pumps and quick closing valves of fuel tanks and fuel transfer line must be
shut from remote control position.
 57

7. After opening the cabinet door, master valve must be opened first.
8. Pull the operating handle of pilot cylinders.
9. CO , released from pilot cylinder, operate the gang release bar so that all CO
from quick release or total flooding cylinders will be released to machinery space.
10. By regulation, 85% of the capacity must be able to be released within 2 minutes.

Cargo hold fire fighting:

1. Remote detector fitted at the bridge can detect concerned cargo space.
2. This operation must be done by master’s order.
3. After ensuring no person left in cargo space, seal off the cargo space [closing of
ventilation fan, fire damper, hatch cover].
4. Before discharging, change 3-way valve to CO discharge line so that connection to
smoke detector is isolated.
5. Open the quick opening valve so that alarm will automatically initiated.
6. Manual operation procedure and amount of CO bottle to be released is stated in
CO room.
7. By master’s order, release the correct amount to concerned cargo space.
8. Topping up procedure must be followed at port arrival.

Fire fighting for tanker:

» Machinery space: CO or foam fixed installation.
» Cargo deck area: Fixed deck foam system for cargo deck area.
» Pump room: Must be protected from fixed installation of CO or foam.
» Accommodation front: Water.

Paint Locker
» Paint and other inflammable liquid lockers must be protected by an appropriate fire
fighting equipment.
» Paint locker is usually protected by pressure water spray system for boundary
cooling, and detector should be flame detector.

Detection, Prevention and Extinguishing of fire in ER of 5000 ton vessel:

Detection:
1. Automatic fire alarm and detection system indicates presence of fire and its location.
2. Indicators are centralised in Engine CR and Bridge, and alarm signals are audible and
visual.
3. Detectors operate when rate of temperature rise of surrounding air reaches set limit of
145°F (62.8°C).
4. Human common senses such as sight, smell, hearing and feeling are also good
detection.

Prevention:
1. Fire Control Plan is set out in accessible position in CR.
2. ER personnel must have training such as to locate the fire, to inform, restrict, and
extinguish with suitable appliances.
 58

3. Fire Drill carried out once a week. Exercise for abrupt evacuation of ER before
releasing CO must also be practised.
4. Weekend testing and checking of emergency stops, quick closing valves, watertight
doors (remote and local) ventilation dampers and skylight doors.
5. Cleanliness in ER is most important.
6. Maintenance of all fire fighting appliances.

Extinguishing:
1. Two independently driven power pumps and one emergency pump driven by own
engine with delivering capacity of at least 25 m³ / hr. each.
2. Two hydrants (port and starboard) with spray nozzle fitted hose. [Minimum water
pressure 37 psi.]
3. International shore connection [outside 7" or 178 mm: inside 2 ½ " or 64 mm].

4. CO fixed installation which delivers 85% of gas within 2 minutes.

(Total weight of CO per bottle: 100 lbs. or 45 kgs.)
5. Six nos. portable extinguishers (2 gal or 9.09 litres Foam 2 nos.,
2 gal Soda Acid 2 nos., 13 lbs or 6 kgs CO 2 nos.)
6. 10 gal froth type extinguisher 1 no.
7. 10 ft³ of sand in the box.

Usage of the above mentioned equipment:

» Oil fire: sand, foam, water spray
» Combustible material: water, chemical foam, soda acid
» Electrical: CO gas and dry powder

Fire control plan:

» General arrangement plan must be permanently exhibited onboard, for the guidance of
officers.
» Positioned outside the deck house [opposite to gangway of both sides] in a permanently
watertight enclosure for assistance of shore fire brigade.
» Fire Control Plan includes:

1. Fire control stations.

2. Various fire sections, enclosed by both Class A and Class B divisions.
3. Particulars of fire detection and alarm system.
4. Sprinkler installation and fire extinguishing appliance.
5. Means of escape.
6. Ventilation system, including positions and numbers of fan controls and dampers.

Fire Fighting Appliances, FFA:

1. All portable and semi-portable extinguishers: Good working order ensured, properly
placed in ER and always made handy.
2. Fixed fire fighting installation: Alarm testing and function testing once a week,
compressed air blowing of lines and discharge nozzles, contents to be weighed and
checked periodically.
3. Emergency fire pump: Good working order ensured, weekly test run without failure.
 59

4. Fire detection, monitoring and alarm system: Tested weekly without any failure.
5. All fire hydrants and their connection, sand boxes and scoops: Kept in good working
order.
6. Fire man’s outfits: 2 numbers in good working order and handy at all times.
7. International shore connection: Placed at proper location.
8. All ER members: Properly educated about fire fighting appliances and their operation.
9. Fire drill: Carried out at least once a month.

Safety Equipment:

1. Portable fire extinguishers.

2. Semi-portable fire extinguishers.
3. Fixed installation.
4. Detection and monitoring of fire.
5. Alarm signalling of fire.
6. Fire man’s outfits:
Personnel equipment; an axe, lifeline, protective clothing, rigid helmet,
safety lamp (oxygen content meter), portable electric drill, boots and gloves.
Breathing Apparatus; at least 2 nos: to be provided.
7. Emergency fire pump: With 2 additional main fire pumps [Sanitary, Ballast, Bilge or
GS pump], not normally used for pumping oil fuel. Suitable changeover
arrangement fitted, if they are occasionally used for pumping oil.
8. Fire hoses, nozzles of 12mm/16mm/19mm diameter [spray/jet type] and their
container box.
9. Escape ways, at least two nos.
10. Emergency generator.
11. Emergency lighting system [24V DC & 220V/110V AC].
12. Inert gas system.
13. Steering gear.
14. Communication system between bridge to ER, and to steering gear room.
15. Remote closing and stopping of fuel tanks, fuel pumps, ventilation fans, skylight
door, watertight doors, and fire dampers.
16. International shore connection.
17. Lifeboat, Life raft, Life buoy and Life jacket with illuminating source.
18. Navigation lighting [port and starboard, Main mast, Fore mast, Stern, Anchor].
19. Pilot ladder and lighting.
20. Gyro compass, Echo sounder, Direction finder, Radar and its alarm system.
21. Distress signal flares at least 12 numbers.
22. First aid kit.
23. Signalling apparatus [daylight signal, light and power source, Forecastle bell, Gong
and ship whistles, Fog horn].

International Discharge Connection:

To dispose sludge and bilge, from ship to shore reception facility, a standard discharge
connection is provided at discharge side of sludge pump.

Dimension: OD 215mm, PCD 183mm, thickness 20mm,

Six 22 holes for Six 20 bolts with suitable length.
 60

International Shore Connection:

If ER is abandoned, the Emergency Fire Pump can supply the deck line, even if there is a
burst water main in ER.
Fire Main can also be pressurised, if necessary, from shore or from another ship by use of
International Shore Connection, in the event of emergency situation.
International Shore Connection is usually used when vessel is in dry docking, for
pressurising the fire main.

Dimension: 178 OD, 132 PCD, 64 ID, 14.5 thickness, Four 16 bolts with 50 mm
length for four 19mm slotted holes, with 8 washers and a gasket. (all in mm)
Location: At Fire Control Station and location is known by every crew.

Life Saving Appliances: LSA

1. Lifeboat
[Certificate, Muster list, glass reinforced plastic GRP, Buoyancy Oars, Rudder, Lifeline,
Lamp, Sea anchor, 2 painters, Oil bag, 6 red Distress Flares, 4 red Parachute Distress
Signals, 2 orange coloured Smoke Signals, a Waterproof Torch, Heliograph (daylight
signalling mirror) Whistle, 2 buoyant heaving lines, Fishing lines and hooks, Exposure
cover, Rations, Boarding ladders.]
2. Lifeboat Engine.
3. Lifeboat radio with 2-way VHF system.
4. Muster List and Emergency Instructions.
5. Fire Fighting Equipment.
6. General Emergency alarm system, and Public Address system [P.A. System].
7. Survival craft embarkation and launching arrangements.
8. Life rafts.
9. Life jackets [orange or bright colour, with reflective stickers on it, Whistle, Light].
10. Life buoys with self-igniting light, and self- activating smoke signal.
11. First aid kit.
12. Compass.
13. Line throwing appliance.
14. Food Ration.
15. Immersion suits, for every crew of rescue boat, and Thermal Protective Aids.
16. Radar responder on each side of ship, 2 numbers.
17. Rescue Boat [can be one of Lifeboat].

Emergency Signals:

~ Man overboard: 3 long blasts –– –– ––.

~ Fire: Continuous ringing of bell. ————.
~ Crew alert: 2 long blasts –– ––.
~ Emergency Station: 7 short blasts followed by 1 long blast – – – – – – – ———.
~ Abandon ship: Continuous sound of Typhan or Klaxon (motor operated).

Safety drills and tests:

Within 1 hour before departure:

» Steering gear testing:
Telemotor transmitter oil level to be checked.
 61

Oil level of actuating system tank, checked and replenished if necessary.

Rudder carrier bearing and bottom sea gland checked and greased.
Start the pumps and checked response of the system.

Within 12 hours before departure:

» Steering gear testing and checking.
Following systems subjected to functional test:
Operation of Main and Auxiliary steering gear systems.
Operation of steering gear, using Emergency power supply.
Operation of steering gear Remote control system [telemotor].
Operations of alarms, for each hydraulic tanks, provided at both Bridge and ER.
Power failure alarm for Remote steering gear control system [telemotor].
Steering gear power unit failure alarm.
Rudder angle indicator, with respect to actual rudder angle.
Communication system between Bridge and Steering room and ER.
» Periodical checking of Navigation equipment.

At weekly:
» All lifeboats, life rafts to be visually checked for immediate use.
» One of the lifeboats to be swung out at least 50% onto water.
» Lifeboat engine to be test-run for two minutes, ahead and astern.
» General alarm system tested, CO alarm, fire alarm, refer room alarm.
» All watertight doors and skylight doors to be tested.
» Emergency fire pump, emergency generator, emergency 24V lighting tested.

At monthly:
» All life saving appliances.
» Lifeboat drill. [Logbook entry to be made for all drills].
» Fire drill.

At every two months:

» Oil spill response drill
» Enclosed space rescue drill.

At every three months:

» Lowering the lifeboat and run around the vessel.
» Emergency steering drill.
In order to practice emergency steering procedures: drills include:
Direct control from within steering compartment.
Communication procedure between Bridge and steering compartment.
Operation of alternative power supplies, where applicable.
Changeover arrangement to emergency situation.
Crew education of emergency conditions.
Log entry of drill and tests.
» Line throwing demonstration.
» Emergency fuel cut-off, ventilator cut-off and fire dampers release.
» Man overboard drill.
» Abandon ship drill.
 62

Fire Drill:

1. Carried out at least once a month.

2. If more than 25% crew did not participate in last drill, it must be carried out in 24
hours after departure.
3. Each fire drill includes reporting to station and prepare the duties according to
Muster List.
4. Start a fire pump using at least two jets of water, to ensure all are in good order.
5. Fireman’s outfits [consisting Personal Equipment and BA sets] to be checked.
6. Relevant communication equipment checked.
7. Operation of watertight doors, fire doors, fire dampers, to be checked.

Boat Drill:

1. Carried out at least once a month.

2. If more than 25% crew did not participate in last drill, it must be carried out in 24
hours after departure.
3. Reporting to station and prepare the duties according to Muster List.
4. Life jacket, helmet, safety shoes and uniform or boiler suit must be worn.
5. Correct wearing of Life Jacket to be checked.
6. Testing of lifeboat engine, operation of davits used for launching.
7. Lowering of at least one lifeboat.

Lifeboat winch design consideration.

1. No mechanical assistance is allowed when lowering.

2. Only gravity takes the boat down.
3. Winch brake must be released and held off to lower the boat completely.
4. This is done manually onboard ship.
5. Centrifugal brake control the lowering speed: 20 – 40 mm / sec.
6. Brakes required inspection for wear and cleaning.

UMS safety requirements:

Every ship shall be provided with documentary evidence of its fitness, to operate with
periodically unattended machinery space.

Safety requirement of UMS can be grouped:

1. Fire precaution.
2. Protection against flooding.
3. Control of propulsion from Navigation Bridge.
4. Communication.
5. Alarm system.
6. Safety system.
7. Special requirement for machinery, boiler and electrical installation.

1) Fire Precaution:
Detection and alarm system must be provided for:
1. Boiler air supply casing and uptake.
 63

2. In scavenge space of main engine.

3. Crankcase of internal combustion engine of more than 2250 kW.

2) Protection against flooding:

1. High level alarm of bilge well.
2. Bilge pump should be automatically started. Detector and alarm provided for long
run or frequent starting of bilge pump.
3. Bilge injection system, sea inlet valves etc. should be controlled remotely.

3) Control of propulsion from Navigation Bridge:

1. Pitch of the propeller shall be controlled by bridge, in any condition, by single
controller including protection for engine overloading.
2. An emergency stopping device on bridge for ME.
3. Orders from bridge, indicated in Control Room and engine side control.
4. Engine must be locally controlled in emergency case.
5. No. of starts for ME must be limited, and alarm provided for low starting air
pressure.
6. Failure of control system, shown by indicator alarm.
7. Indicators on bridge fitted for, propeller speed, direction and pitch angle [for CPP].

4) Communication:
Reliable vocal communication provided between C/R, ME control position,
Bridge and duty engineer’s cabin.

5) Alarm system:
Alarms should be provided to indicate any fault:
1. Audible and visual alarms in ER and Control Room.
2. Connections provided to Engineers’ public room and each Engineer’s cabin
through selector switch.
3. Audible and visual alarms fitted on bridge for necessary items, which are required
Officer’s attention.
4. Alarm system shall have automatic changeover to stand-by power supply, in case
of main power failure.
5. Alarm shall be able to indicate more than one fault at the same time.
6. After an alarm is acknowledged, visual indicator must be remained until the fault is
corrected. After correction, alarm should be reset to normal automatic operation.

6) Safety system:
1. Auto-shut down of boiler and machinery if serious malfunction occurs, and alarm
must be given.
2. Shut down of propulsion machinery shall not be activated, except in very
dangerous cases.
3. If overriding system is provided for ME, protection for inadvertent operation must
be fitted. Visual indicator fitted to indicate, when overriding has been activated.

Alarm Checking:
1. Using the Simulator can check UMS alarm system, when engine is in stopped
condition.
2. Alarm system for manned ship can be checked, by checking temperature and
pressure gauge readings, at the time of alarm initiating, while engine is shutdown.
 64

What is Simulator?
1. A computerised special device, which can duplicate artificial conditions, likely to
be encountered in actual operation.
2. Modern UMS ship is provided with Adapter, to connect the Simulator, so that
alarm system can be checked, when engine is stopped.

Exhaust trunk explosion:

Causes:
1. Accumulation of unburned fuel in exhaust trunk, due to incomplete combustion
together with heat source, like leaking exhaust valve.
2. Carried-over cylinder oil due to excess cylinder lubrication.

Effects:
1. T/C over-run, bearings and casing damaged.
2. Abnormally high, scavenge air pressure.
3. Possible ER fire.

Remedies:
1. Stop ME and cool down.
2. Defective fuel v/v and exhaust v/v changed.
3. Complete combustion, maintained at all times.

Crankcase Explosion:

Primary Explosion:
When the ratio of air/ oil mixture in crankcase falls within Explosive Limits, and this mixture
is exposed to Hot Spot, primary explosion will occur.

Secondary Explosion:
Primary explosion causes a Flame Front and Negative Pressure Wave to accelerate through
crankcase. A Partial Vacuum will draw uncontrolled amount of fresh air, back into the
crankcase, where it will mix with already evaporated and burning oil, to cause Secondary
Explosion.

Crankcase Relief Door: SOLAS Regulation and Requirements:

1. An IC engine of over 200-mm bore or crankcase volume of 0.6 m³ and above,

shall be provided with crankcase relief door with sufficient relief area.(Regulation)
2. Opening pressure = 1/15 bar (0.07 bar) above Atmospheric pressure, but 3 7
bar of explosion pressure.
3. Free area of each relief valve 45 cm².
4. Combined area of relief valves 115 cm² per m³ of crankcase volume.

Prevention of Crankcase Explosion:

1. Crankcase relief valve with flame trap.
2. Breather pipe to safe space on deck with flame arrestor.
3. Crankcase monitoring systems: [Oil mist detector, Bearing temperature sensors,
L.O. return temperature sensor.]
 65

4. Routine test on used LO for Viscosity, Flash Point, and contamination.

[Contamination increases chances of overheating due to LO breakdown, and lower
the Flash Point].
5. Provision of strong crank chamber.

Oil Mist Detector:

1. Eliminate danger of Primary Explosion in crankcase.
2. Continuously measures the sample air/oil mixture in crankcase, and detect high
concentration due to hot spot, at well below explosive level.
3. When oil mist concentration reaches alarm set point, alarm will initiate, thus
prevent crankcase explosion. [Alarm set point = 2.5% ~ 5% of L.E.L].

Operation:
1. Oil mist is drawn from crankcase by electric fan through sampling tubes, connected
to top of respective crank chambers.
2. Rotating sampling valve connect each tube in turn for 4 seconds to measuring tube,
whilst reference tube has average valued sample from remaining crank chambers.
3. So can evaluate the difference in oil mist levels, between each crankcase and
remaining crank chamber.
4. At ‘0’ position of rotary sampling valve, clean air is admitted to both reference and
measuring tubes for ‘0’ calibration.
5. Two identical beams of light along the axis of parallel measuring and reference
tubes fall on light sensitive photocells, connected electrically back to back with a
circuit.
6. Photocells generate electric current directly proportional to intensity of light falling
on their surfaces.
7. Under normal condition, oil mist level is the same in both tubes, and photo cells’
output current is electrically balanced, (i.e. output is ‘0’).
8. Increase in oil mist density in any one crank chamber will unbalance the photocell’s
output and alarm is energised.
9. Out of balance current, due to rise of oil mist density indicates on Galvanometer,
connected to continuous chart recording and auto visual and audio alarms.
10. False alarms can be given, if electrical resistance increases, affecting the supply
current, when water is in LO, and detector lens are dirty.

Explosimeter:
An instrument for detecting and measuring of Flammable Gases in atmosphere.

Starting air line explosion:

Main Causes:
1. Leaky or sticky cylinder air start valve in opened position.
2. Collected oil inside start air pipe, carried over from air compressor’s faulty oil
scraper rings, through Air bottle.

Preventive measures:
1. Periodical overhauls of cylinder air start valve.
2. Before manoeuvring, cylinder air start valve is tested by isolating Air Distributor,
and escape of air through indicator cock, indicates its leakage.
 66

3. Before manoeuvring, all valves well lubricated and rotated by hand spanner, to
ensure proper working condition.
4. While manoeuvring, all air manifolds touched and sensed their temperature. Local
overheating of adjacent pipe indicates valve leakage.
5. Compressor air suction filter regular cleaning.
6. Regular draining of Air bottle drain valve, Air compressor intercooler drain valve,
and air start pipe system.
7. Regular overhauling of compressor piston rings.
8. Discharge of ER blower directed to Air compressor suction filter.

Safety devices:
1. Bursting discs: Fitted at start air manifold, at cylinder valve inlet.[ 0.75 mm thick
copper, steel or bronze and will rupture at 3 x max. start air pressure.]
2. Safety caps: Fitted at cylinder valve inlet [ steel- cadmium coated safety tube or
copper hood]. If the cap rupture, movable hood can be moved around
to blank-off the holes in fixed hood, for emergency use.
3. Lightning full bore safety valve: At start air line after Master starting valve, to
relieve excess pressure and close back automatically.
4. Spring loaded safety valve: Fitted at start air line, but not reliable.

Enclosed Space or Confined Space:

1. Any space that has been closed or unventilated for some time.
2. O content < 18% and 21%.
3. The space contains harmful and toxic gases, CO, H S.
4. Not well ventilated and has very narrow access for easy working.
5. Confined spaces are: Fore Peak, Aft Peak, FW Tanks, Ballast Tanks, Fuel Tanks,
Cofferdams, Pump rooms, Paint store, Cargo tanks, Duct Keel, any DB tanks and
any closed compartments.

Procedures for Safe Entry into Duct Keel:

1. Gas freeing is essential before entering Duct Keel.

2. Entrance doors of duct keel at ER and forward cargo hold, opened for at least 24 hours
before entry.
3. Forced ventilation with air duct, to be done with electric blower, for at least 24 hours.
4. With forced exhausting system, minimum of 2 air changes should be completed during
that time. [For every dangerous space, 10 to 20 air changes are necessary.]
5. After thorough ventilation, Duct Keel atmosphere tested with Safety Lamp before
entering. Flame will burn clearly, if free from foul gases. Faint blue cap will show
presence of explosive gases. If burning black or flame goes out, it shows presence of
CO gas, which is fatal to life.
6. When Duct Keel is gas free, following LSA to be carried or kept ready, when entering.
a) Lifeline or harness to be put on.
b) Spark proof hand torch to be brought in.
c) BA set to be kept ready.
d) Resuscitation equipment to be kept ready.
e) Have rescue team, readily available and properly led.
 67

f) Competent person, stand-by at entrance.

g) Agree a communication system, before entry.
h) Have adequate illumination.

Expected Gases formed in Duct Keel:

1. Atmosphere in Duct Keel becomes deficient in O , due to corrosion resulting
from SW leakage.
2. O may also be depleted by presence in SW of H S, which tends to oxidise.
3. H S is produced by bacteria in SW.
4. Carbon dioxide is given off by SW due to chemical changes. It does not support
life.
5. Explosive gases formed, composed of Carbon and Hydrogen in varying
proportion and may be in the form of Methane (CH ), or Ethylene, due to
evaporation of fuel leakage from fuel pipes and valves.

L.E.L. Smallest percentage of gas, that will make an ignitable air/vapour mixture.
[That is 2% of Gas and 98% of Air].

H.E.L. Largest percentage of gas, that will make an ignitable air/vapour mixture.
[That is 10% of Gas and 90% of Air].

Uptake Fire:

1. Happened when soot, carbon, and oily deposits collected at the Uptake, being
spread along a surface, where temperature is high enough to start fire.
2. Deposits may become thicker and thicker, having lowering the ignition
temperature.
3. In some cases, fire can start even at normal atmospheric temperature, as presence
of oil can reduce ignition temperature considerably.
4. Uptake fire is important, because hydrogen fire is possible, when soot blowing is
done during big uptake fire situation.

Operating Conditions that may cause Uptake Fire:

Mostly they occur in connection with manoeuvring.

1. Over-fuelling during engine starting increases soot production, due to governor
maladjustment.
2. Repeated start.
3. Engine load, lower than 30% MCR.
4. Auxiliary blower malfunction.
5. Peeling off of deposits in funnel, due to high ambient humidity (rain), during
harbour stay. When engine load increases, such deposits may catch fire, leading to
violent fire.
6. System errors: circulating pump is not started, leading to complete melting down
of boiler.
7. Bad efficiency of soot blowing equipment.
8. Very few number of soot blowing time.
 68

Protective devices:
1. Soot blowers
2. Uptake gas thermometer
3. Uptake gas back pressure gauge or manometer.

Indication:

1. Sudden increase in uptake gas temperature.

2. Flame visible in smoke indicator.
3. Overheating of external uptake casing.
4. Sparks emitted from funnel.

Prevention:

1. 2 or 3 soot blowing per 24 hours is recommended.

2. Thorough cleaning of EGE in harbour, without risks of flooding turbochargers and
engine with washing fluid.
3. Always use preheated feed water, during start-up and low load operation of boiler.
4. Water circulation and it’s control system, should be functioning properly.
5. After stopping engine, boiler circulating pump should be kept running, until boiler
temperature has been reduced to about 150°C so as to reduce risk of oil wetted soot
catch fire down to this temperature level.
6. Keep burner in good order.
7. Avoid too much excess air that may carry much heat up the exit, and supply necessary
heat for possible soot fire.
8. Optimum combustion condition maintained at all times.
9. Soot release sticks can be dosed into hot furnace, through peephole at burner front, to
reduce soot accumulation.
10. Bunkers of different origins, kept segregated whenever possible. Detergent type
chemical additives can be used to reduce formation of sludge in bunker tanks.
Sludge settled in bunker tanks would find it’s way to fuel system, tends to overload
separators, upset fuel injectors, and consequently wear of engine by abrasive particles.
Resulting incomplete combustion leads to fouling of
narrowly spaced finned tubes of EGE.

Fighting the fire:

When small inconsiderable Soot Fire occurs:

1. Slow down the engine.

2. Shut down the boiler: [ shut off oil burners, draught fans, all dampers and air
registers.]
3. Raise water level full, and blow down continuously, to maintain good flow of
water.
4. Reduce boiler pressure by easing gear.
5. Soot blow many times, if and only soot deposits are burning and temperature is less
than 700°C.
6. Spray water on external casing of uptake, to cool the effected area.
7. A few times starting and stopping of ME should be done to blow out collected soot
at the uptake.
 69

When big considerable soot fire occurs:

1. Follow all of the above steps, except Soot Blowing, which may intensify the fire
and cause explosion.
2. After the self-perpetuating fire has been died down, open up and clean the smoke
side, with fresh water pressure jetting.

Hydrogen fire or self-perpetuating fire:

1. When metal itself burning due to fire, at about 700°C, and if steam smothering
soot blowing or water jetting system have been attempted, the big hydrogen fire
may results.
2. The applied steam dissociates into Hydrogen and Oxygen, accelerating the fire,
until steam supply is exhausted, or temperature drops below 700°C.
3. Dissociation of steam into H and O , by heat alone requires temperature about
2500°C.
4. But iron will burn in steam with free H , at much lower temperature of 700°C.
5. Once such a fire has started, two kinds of fire may take place simultaneously: one
kind, iron burning in steam, and the other, H burning in air.
6. This combined fire, being self supporting and lasting until steam supply is
exhausted.
7. Primary object of dealing this nature of fire is, to cool the surface and burning
materials as quickly as possible.

Scavenge fire:

Causes: due to presence of Oxygen, Oil and Heat.

» Oxygen in scavenge space, being emerged undeniably from charge fresh air.
» Used oil, in scavenge space due to:
a) Choked scavenge drains
b) Excessive cylinder lubrication
c) Unburned fuel from combustion space
» Oily rags, left inside scavenge space after cleaning.
» Oil leakage, from piston cooling system into scavenge space, due to damaged O-rings
between piston rod and crown and/or skirt.
» Fire blow past from cylinder combustion due to:
a) Worn-out, broken, sticking piston rings
b) Excessive liner wear, scuffing or scoring
c) Too high back pressure in exhaust system, due to fouling of exhaust grids,
turbine nozzle rings and blades.
» Overheated piston due to:
a) Faulty fuel timing
b) Cooling supply failure.
» Overheated piston rod due to stuffing box malfunction.

Symptom:
1. Increase in Exhaust temperature.
2. Increase in Scavenge air temperature.
3. Increase in Jacket temperature.
 70

4. Decrease in engine RPM.

5. Overheating of particular scavenge space.
6. Smokes or sparks from scavenge drains.
7. Turbocharger surging.
8. Heavy smokes from funnel.

If fire is not too great:

1. Slow down ME.

2. Stop auxiliary blower.
3. Cut out fuel to cylinder concerned.
4. Increase cylinder lubrication, and coolant supply to that cylinder.
5. Shut scavenge drain valve, to prevent sparks blown out in ER.
6. Find the cause of fire and correct it.

If fire is too great:

1. Stop ME gradually and inform Bridge.

2. Stop auxiliary blower.
3. Maintain normal cooling system and lubrication system.
4. Turn engine by turning gear, and supply cylinder lubrication manually to prevent
seizure.
5. CO or steams applied into scavenge spaces.
6. Find the cause of fire and correct it.

Precaution:
1. Stay away from vicinity of fire, flame may burst out behind safety doors if violent.
2. Do not open scavenge trunk, while still hot, and also the crankcase.

After fire has been extinguished:

1. All scavenge spaces cleaned thoroughly.

2. Scavenge relief door cleaned, inspected and tested.
3. Inspect cylinder liner, piston, piston rod, diaphragm, stuffing box and tie rods near
that cylinder, for cracks and deformation.
4. Turn engine by turning gear, and observe ampere consumption, to know whether
there is seizure or not.
5. Piston rings have to be renewed, let the cylinder run at reduced speed for at least
24 hours, with cylinder lubrication at maximum during that time, and reduce the
feed gradually, while engine speed also increase gradually.

Prevention:

1. Keep piston rings and liner in good order.

2. Keep correct cylinder lubrication.
3. Regular cleaning of scavenge trunk and exhaust ports.
4. Scavenge drain valves, drained at every watch. No chances of scavenge fire, if wet
oil is flowing.
5. Avoid overloading on one cylinder.
6. Fuel valves regularly overhauled. [No dripping].
 71

Grounding:

Actions to be taken:
1. Sea chest to be changed over to unaffected side.
2. Frequent sounding at all DB tanks and cofferdam.
3. Thorough inspection at affected area.
4. Check steering gear, rudder to be tested, after getting permission from bridge.
5. Turn engine by turning gear, to ensure that propeller is clear or not.
6. Check crank shaft deflection and compare with former record.
7. Check all sea water pumps are free from sand, mud etc.
8. Check tunnel bearing.
9. Check engine vibration, and if not satisfactory, it is due to damage of propeller.
 72

Fire & Safety:

Supplementary:

Personal Life Saving Appliances:

1. Life buoys
2. Life jackets
3. Immersion suits
4. Thermal protective aids.

Closing Arrangements in ER:

1. Entrance Doors
2. Shaft Tunnel Watertight Door
3. Skylight Doors
4. Ventilator Flaps

Fire Detectors:

1. Heat Detector
2. Flame Detector
3. Smoke Detector
4. Combustion Gas Detector.

Heat Detector:

» There may be 3 types; fixed temperature, rate of temperature rise, or a combination.

» Rate of rise detector do not respond and give alarm if temperature gradually
increases, e.g. moving into tropical regions or heating switched on.
» Tested by portable electric hot air blower.

Rate of temperature rise Detector:

a) Pneumatic Type:
1. Increase in temperature increases the air pressure inside thin copper hemi-spherical
bulb, if the airs bled through two-way bleed valve is sufficient, diaphragm will not
move up and close the contacts.
2. If rate of temperature rise causes sufficient pressure build-up inside the bulb to
close the contact, alarm will be given.
3. Temperature adjustment screw is provided to close the contacts at a predetermined
temperature, giving alarm. (Temperature setting vary from 55 C to 70 C.)

b) Bi-metal Coil Type:

1. Two bi-metal coils are attached to a vertical support bracket and upper coil is better
insulated from heat than lower coil.
2. When temperature increases lower coil will move to close the gap (between two
contacts) at faster rate than upper coil moves to maintain the gap.
3. If rate of temperature rise is sufficient, the gap will close and alarm given.
4. A fixed temperature stopgap is provided at upper coil to close the contact giving
alarm.
 73

Fixed Temperature Detector:

» Quartzoid Bulbs fitted into Sprinkler System are fixed temperature detectors, used
for spaces other than engine and boiler rooms.

Flame Detector: (Infra-red)

1. Flame has a characteristic flicker frequency of about 25 Hz, and this fact is used to
trigger an alarm.
2. Flickering radiation from flames reaches detector lens/filter unit, which only allows
infra-red rays to pass and be focused upon cell.
3. Signal from cell goes into amplifier, which is tuned to 25Hz, then into time delay
unit and alarm circuit.
4. To minimize false alarms, fire has to be present for predetermined period.
5. Suitable for machinery spaces, but not in boiler room.
6. Obscuration by smoke renders it inoperative.
7. Tested by means of a naked flame.

Smoke Detectors:
1. Light Scatter
2. Light Obscuration
3. Scatter and obscuration combined.

Light Scatter Type:

1. Photo-cell is separated by a barrier from a semi-conductor, intermittently flashing

light source, are housed in an enclosure, allowing smoke but not light inside.
2. When smoke is present in the container light is scattered around the barrier onto
photocell and an alarm is triggered.
3. Could give early warning of fire.
4. Photocell and light sources are vulnerable to vibration and dirt.
5. Tested by means of cigarette smoke.

Crankcase Explosion:

Primary Explosion:

1. Mainly caused by Hot Spot, an overheating part in crankcase while running.

2. Air is normally present in crankcase.
3. Bearings and moving parts form oil particles, and when they meet with Hot Spot,
vaporised and condensed as Oil Mist in colder region in crankcase.
4. With continued generation of heat from Hot Spot, Air and Oil Mist mixture ratio
become within inflammable limits.
5. If this mixture comes in contact with Hot Spot, Primary Explosion will occur.

Secondary Explosion.

1. If there is permanent opening, uncontrolled amount of outside air will be drawn into
crankcase and this air will mixed with already evaporated and burning oil to cause
Secondary Explosion.
 74

Hot Spot happens due to;

1. Insufficient LO supply to moving parts.

2. Incorrect LO properties.
3. Insufficient Bearing Clearance.
4. Insufficient Clearances for moving parts.
5. Blow pass in 4 Stroke Engine.

Prevention of Crankcase Explosion:

1. Oil Mist Detector frequently tested.

2. Crankcase Relief Valve checked in routine.
3. Breather Pipe to safe space on deck with flame arrester, checked.
4. Routine Crankcase Inspection, including Timing Chain.
5. Routine Test on used LO for viscosity, flash point and contamination.

How as a CE prevents Crankcase Explosion?

1. Correct adjustment and maintenance of all bearings.
2. Regular chain casing inspection.
3. Regular Crankcase inspection by running hour.
4. Maintain crankcase extractor fan.
5. Maintain power balancing.
6. Prevent abrasive elements entering the bearings.
7. Maintain cooling temperatures.
8. Maintain correct cylinder oil feed.

Oil Mist Detector:

Type:
1. Level type
2. Comparator type

For calibration:

» Once during each scanning cycle, rotary valve (rotating sampling valve) passes the
average valued sample from crank chambers, through Reference Tube and
compares with clean air sample drawn through Measuring Tube.
(Comparator type)

For zero calibration:

» At ‘0’ position of rotary sampling valve, clean air is admitted to both reference
and measuring tubes for ‘0’ calibration.
» During operation, the meter should be tested for ‘0’ point and its Sensitivity every
day.

Checking Sensitivity:
1. Graviner MK4 Detector meter is graduated from ‘0’ to ‘18’ at the right hand of the
scale.
2. Press check button and the meter should move to ‘18’.
3. Red indicator warning light should come and audible alarm system should sound.
 75

Safety Devices on Scavenge Trunk (for prevention of Scavenge Fire)

1. Relief Doors.
2. Scavenge Drain Valves.
3. Temperature Sensors and Alarms.
4. Fixed Installation, CO , Steam or Dry Powder.

Start Air Line Explosion:

» Mostly occurred at Arrival first start for manoeuvring.

» Hot gas or flame may enter into Air Line Manifold, vaporised and set fire the oil and
greasy matters in air line.

Causes:
1. Defective cylinder starting valve, leaking or jammed at open position.
2. Oil accumulation in start air line from improper maintenance of Air Compressor,
such as;
a) Excess LO level in crankcase
b) Excess cylinder lubrication
c) Defective oil scrapper rings
d) Inhaling of oil fumes from oily ER.

Safety Devices for Start Air Line:

1. Bursting Disc
2. Safety Caps
3. Lightning full bore safety valve
4. Spring loaded safety valve.
5. Drain valve fitting for air line.

Soda-Acid Portable Fire Extinguisher:

1. Body is riveted or welded mild steel, lead or zinc coated internally.
2. Threaded brass neck ring is riveted to top of the body.
3. Brass cap has small hole in threads, so that internal pressure can be released before
the cap is fully removed.
4. Brass cap contains plunger and acid bottle carrying cage and is screwed into brass
neck ring.
5. Acid bottle is filled with 2 ounces of Sulphuric or Hydrochloric Acid.
6. Body is filled with 2 gallons of Sodium Bicarbonate solution and is fitted with a
nozzle at top end.
7. When plunger is depressed, acid bottle is shattered and acid is released.
8. Sulphuric acid reacts with sodium bicarbonate solution and CO is released.
9. CO builds up pressure and solution is driven out of the extinguisher through nozzle.
10. Length of jet is 30 – 50 ft. Duration of discharge is 1.5 min.

Fire Hose:
1. At least one for each hydrant. (Passenger Ship)
2. One for each 30m length of ship and one spare, but not less than 5 in all.
(Cargo Ship)
3. 2 ½" diameter and 30ft or 60ft. length.
 76

4. Nozzle for ER 12mm, 16mm and 19mm size and shall be approved for duel
purpose (jet/spray) incorporating shut-off valve.

Pressure of Hydrant:

Two pumps simultaneously delivering through nozzles;

1. Passenger ship above 4000 GRT, 0.31 N/mm².

2. Passenger ships 1000 – 4000 GRT 0.27 N/mm².
3. Cargo ship above 6000 GRT 0.27 N/mm².
4. Cargo ship below 6000 GRT 0.25 N/mm².

Diameter of and Pressure in Fire Main:

» Diameter of Fire Main and Water Service Pipe need only be sufficient for the
discharge of 140 m³/ hr. from 2 Fire Pumps operating simultaneously.

Emergency Fire Pump Requirements:

1. Suction lift of at least 6.0 mtr. from water level at light draft.
2. Operating pressure of 2–5 bar.
3. Capacity of 25 m³/hr.
4. Horizontal throw of 40 ft.
5. Velocity of 65 ft/sec.
6. Two numbers of water jets of ½" dia.
7. Own suction and discharge valves.
8. Isolating valve from Fire Main line, in case of failure.
9. Fuel tank capacity of 3 hours operation.
10. Reserved fuel outside E/R for at least 15 hours non-stop operation.
11. Diesel Engine starting is by own power source from 24V battery and Emergency
Generator and by manual hand cranking. [In cold condition down to 0°C or
heating system provided for cold starting.]
12. Emergency Fire Pump’s space boundaries shall be insulated to a standard of
Regulation.
13. Ventilation arrangement provided in pump space.
14. No direct access permitted between machinery space and pump space.
15. Test once a week.

Emergency Fire Pump Regulation:

1. Separate and no direct access from ER.

2. Separate Sea Suction and Suction Valve can be opened remotely.
3. Capacity; 25 m³ / hr Minimum and able to supply 2 hydrants.
4. Pressure; 4 bar, connecting with main fire line.
5. Drive; Hand crank Diesel Engine: It could be started even at 0°C condition.
Fuel tank capacity; 3 hours full load
consumption and 15 hrs reserve.
Battery start: Able to start at least 6 times within 30 minutes.
At least 2 times for first 10 minutes.
 77

Fire Pump Regulation:

1. Passenger ship 4000 GRT and above at least 3 nos.

2. Passenger ship 4000 GRT below at least 2 nos.
3. Cargo ship 1000 GRT and above at least 2 nos.
4. Cargo ship 1000 GRT below at least as required by Administration.
5. Each pump capacity must be at least 25 m³/ hr.

Capacity of Fire Pumps:

» Not less than 2/3 rd of the quantity given by Bilge Pumps. (For Passenger Ship).
» Not less than 4/3 rd of the quantity given by Bilge Pumps. (For Cargo Ship).

Capacity of Bilge Pumps:

» Not less than 3/2 of the quantity given by Fire Pumps. (For Passenger Ship).
» Not less than 3/4 of the quantity given by Fire Pumps. (For Cargo Ship).

Fire Pump Minimum Pressure:

» 0.31 N/mm² for Passenger Ship of 4000 tons and upwards.

» 0.27 N/mm² for Cargo Ships of 6000 tons and upwards.

CO Fix Installation Requirements:

1. CO quantity shall be sufficient to give a minimum volume of free gas;

For cargo space, equal to 30% of gross volume of largest cargo space.
For machinery space, equal to 40% of gross volume, excluding casing.
Equal to 35% of gross volume, including casing.
If vessel is less than 2000 GRT, reduce 35% and 30% respectively.
2. Volume of free gas in a bottle shall be 0.56 m³/ kg. (45 kg CO / bottle)
3. 85% of the gas can be discharged within 2 min, for machinery space.
4. Two separate controls shall be provided for releasing CO and one control releases
from Quick Release Cylinders and second control releases by opening the valve of
piping.
5. Two controls shall be located inside a release box under lock and key. Key is kept
inside a break-glass box.

Furnace Blowback:

1. Furnace explosion occurs when lighting up with explosive gases inside, without
pre-purging sufficiently.
2. Large increase in flue gas volume due to ignition inside furnace with limited exit
passage.
3. Gas blows out with increased pressure through furnace opening.
 78

Causes:
1. Insufficient air temperature.
2. Leaky burner.
3. Too little air.
4. Boiler tubes or uptake, full of soot deposits.
5. Air control not operating for high flame mode.

Precaution:
1. Stand towards the side of burner and furnace.
2. Open air supply to purge gases.
3. Shut air supply.
4. Light a fire.
5. Open air supply and oil supply.

What to be checked after grounding?

1. Crank shaft Deflection

2. Fuel tank Soundings.
3. Check and clean strainers.
4. Test Steering.
5. Check Tunnel Bearing.

Safety Devices on Exhaust Gas Boiler:

1. Soot Blower Unit
2. Uptake gas Thermometer.
3. Pressure Gauge
4. High Temperature Sensor and Alarm (300°C)
5. CO Fixed Installation.
6. 2 Safety Valves with Easing Gear.

Explosimeter and Davy Safety Lamp:

Explosimeter Davy Safety Lamp

1 Can measure and detect Explosive Level
2 Used on Tankers
3 Can detect from outside of tank
4 Detect and measure % of LEL.(Above
60% of LEL, it is unsafe to enter).
5 ‘0’ calibration must be done.
Can detect O deficiency in confined
spaces
Used on Cargo ships
Necessary to bring into the tank.
The lamp cannot burn if O is < 16%
Flame adjusting is necessary.

Breathing Apparatus:

Types:
1. Self-contained compressed air operated BA set
2. Smoke Helmet or Smoke Mask BA set
3. Gas Mask (not fit for fire fighting purpose)
 79

Self-contained compressed air operated BA set:

1. Essential outfit for fire fighting.

2. Can be used in machinery space, but cannot be used in cofferdam (containing
flammable gases and liquid).
3. Consists of 4 main parts;
a) Face mask with inhaling tube, exhaling valve, harness and visor.
b) Regulator with pressure gauge and alarm.
c) Air cylinder with valves and pressure gauge.
d) Backpack with adjustable harness.
4. Regulator supplies air on user’s demand with quantity that his respiratory system
needed.
5. Air volume in cylinder being about 1600 litres with 138-bar pressure, for 20 min at
hard work and 40 min at rest.
6. Pressure is reduced to 6 bar in Reducing Valve and further reduced to a pressure
suitable for the user in Admission Valve.
7. Alarm will operate when 80% of the cylinder content has been utilised.

HFCs: Hydrofluorocarbon Refrigerant:

Hydrofluorocarbon Refrigerant includes: HFC 134a: (replacement for CFC12)
HCFC 123: (replacement for CFC11)
Halon:

1. They are Hydrocarbon based extinguishing agents.

2. One or several halogen atoms have substituted the hydrogen atom in a
Hydrocarbon molecule.
3. Halogens used in extinguishing agents are mainly Fluorine, Bromine and Chlorine.
4. Most common Halons used for fire extinguishing are;
Halon 1301 [CBrF ] Bromotrifluoromethane (for Fixed System)
Halon 1211 [CCLBrF ] (for Portable Extinguishers)
Halon 2402

IGS, Inert Gas System:

» Tankers of 20,000 DWT and above shall be provided with a fixed inert gas system.

Purpose of IGS:

1. To prevent dangerous accumulation of explosive gases in cargo tanks

during 1) normal service, 2) ballast voyage, and 3) necessary tank operation.
2. To minimise risk of ignition from generation of Static Electricity.

Method of Production:

1. By Inert Gas Generator; where diesel oil is burned completely.

2. By Boiler Flue Gas; washed in cooling chamber.
 80

SOLAS Regulation: (Inert Gas System)

1. Every new oil tanker of 20,000 DWT and above should be fitted with IGS.
2. During inerting, O content in cargo tank 8 % by volume.
3. In gas supply main, O content < 5 % by volume.
4. Inert gas delivery to cargo tanks, must be at a rate of at least 125 % of maximum
discharge rate of the ship, expressed as volume.
5. IGS must have indicator to show 1) inert gas pressure and 2) O percent in gas
supply main line.
6. At least one Pressure Vacuum Valve provided on supply main.
(To prevent cargo tank from +ve and –ve pressure.)
7. At least two Non-return devices, one of which shall be a water seal, provided on
supply main.
(To prevent Hydrocarbon Vapour returns to machinery space uptakes.)
8. Audible and visual alarms for both Flue gas type and Inert Gas Generator type to
indicate:
a) O content > 8 %
b) High inert gas temperature.
c) High inert gas pressure.
d) Low water pressure to flue gas scrubber.
e) High water level in flue gas scrubber.
f) Low water level in water seal.
g) Inert gas blowers failure.
h) Power failure.
i) Vacuum gas pressure.

Additional alarms for Inert Gas Generator Type:

a) Insufficient fuel supply.
b) Failure of power supply to generator.
c) Failure of power supply to automatic control system.

O Content in Inert Gas:

» Inert Gas in Tank: O Content is < 8%.
» Inert Gas produced from Inert Gas Generator: O Content is < 5%

Inert gas composition: O 1% CO 14 % N 85 %

Funnel gas composition: H O5% CO 12 % N 80 % SO 3%
Fuel composition: C 85 % H 10 % O , N , S, 5 % each

Threshold Limit Value: TLV:

1. TLV is a guideline and when exposed to vapour concentration below TLV, it will
not be harmful and above TLV, it may be risky.
2. Requirement: the space should be safe for 5 days with working rate of 8 hrs/day.
3. TLV must be taken as standard, when testing the tank content by Chemist, and
these limits should not be more than mentioned below for the gases:
 81

a) H S = 10 ppm
b) Benzene = 25 ppm
c) Methanol = 200 ppm
d) Petrol & Paraffin = 500 ppm
e) Carbon tetrachloride = 10 ppm

L.E.L. Smallest percentage of hydrocarbon gas, that will make an ignitable air/vapour
mixture. [i.e. 2% of Gas and 98% of Air by volume].
[OR]
Concentration of hydrocarbon gas in air, 1–2% by volume, below which there is
insufficient hydrocarbon gases to support and propagate combustion.

H.E.L. Largest percentage of hydrocarbon gas, that will make an ignitable air/vapour
mixture. [i.e. 10% of Gas and 90% of Air by volume].
[OR]
Concentration of hydrocarbon gas in air, 10% by volume, above which there is
insufficient air to support and propagate combustion.

Precautions before Entry into Empty Tank:

1. Gas freeing is essential before entering empty tank.

2. Manhole doors to be opened for at least 24 hours before entry.
3. Forced ventilation with air duct, to be done with electric blower, for at least 24 hours.
4. With forced exhausting system, minimum of 2 air changes should be completed during
that time. [For every dangerous space, 10 to 20 air changes are necessary.]
5. After thorough ventilation, tank atmosphere tested for any toxic or explosive gases, by
invited Chemist or with Safety Lamp before entering. [Flame will burn clearly, if free
from foul gases. Faint blue cap will show presence of explosive gases. If burning black
or flame goes out, it shows presence of CO gas, which is fatal to life].
When tested by Chemist, TLV must be taken as a standard.
6. When the tank is gas free, following LSA to be carried or kept ready, when entering.

a) Lifeline or harness to be put on.

b) Spark proof hand torch to be brought in.
c) BA set to be kept ready.
d) Resuscitation equipment to be kept ready.
e) Have rescue team, readily available and properly led.
f) Competent person, stand-by at entrance.
g) Agree a communication system, before entry.
h) Have adequate illumination.
 82

Motor Engineering Knowledge:

Miscellaneous:

Cylinder liner wears:

1) Normal frictional wear: Due to metal to metal contact with high surface asperities under
marginal lubrication condition.
2) Abrasive wear: Due to presence of hard foreign particles from fuel, LO, and air.
3) Corrosive wear: Due to H SO acid attack owing to sulphur within fuel. Only 0.1% of
sulphur content causes corrosive wear, like hot and cold corrosion, and
the rest carried away by exhaust gas.
Sulphuric acid dew point = 120 C to 160 C.
Hot corrosion occurs at 460 – 570 C.
Due to HCl acid attack, because of salts in air, charge air cooler leakage,
sea water in fuel and LO.

Other related causes:

1. Unsuitable liner material.
2. Incorrect ring clearance.
3. Misalignment of piston and liner.
4. Insufficient LO or improper arrangement of cylinder lubrication.
5. Cylinder oil having too low viscosity or alkalinity.
6. Cylinder oil containing abrasive particles.
7. Using of low sulphur fuel, in conjunction with high TBN cylinder oil.
8. Improper grade of fuel, and improper combustion.
9. Improper running-in, without high cylinder oil feed rate.
10. Overloading of engine.
11. Too low scavenge air temperature, leading to dew point corrosion.

Types of wear:

Scratching: Develop in the region of ring travel, due to small particles entrapped between
the bore and rings.

Scoring: Confined to the region of ring travels and may extend to the region, swept by
piston. Origin is similar to scratching.

Scuffing: Develop in ring travel, on thrust side of liner, depending on lubrication

efficiency, speed and loading.

Clover Leaf Pattern: Irregular, oval or elliptical pattern of longitudinal corrosive wear, at
several points around liner, concentrated between lubrication orifices or the points of LO
quills. It is due to incorrect cylinder oil feed rate and acidic effect of combustion products or
too low TBN cylinder oil.

» In actual practice, wear never takes place concentrically, and it depends on heel
and trim of the ship in service, and effective guide clearance.
 83

» In tankers and bulk carriers, where long ballast passage are made with the trim aft,
maximum wear will be in the fore and aft plane, and especially on aft side of the
liner.

Wear rate:
1. Liner wear rate is high during running-in period, after which it becomes uniform
within most of its service life.
2. Finally, wear rate increases rapidly as wear becomes excessive, and due to
difficulties in maintaining the rings, gas tight.
3. Wear rate can be high about 0.75 mm / 1000 hrs. in large slow speed engines,
using residual fuel containing 1.5% of sulphur, in excess.
4. Wear rate being lower about 0.02 mm / 1000 hrs. in medium speed engines, due to
burning low sulphur fuel oil.
5. When Vanadium is added during manufacturing, wear rate significantly reduced to
the range, 0.025 mm / 1000 hrs. ~ 0.5 mm / 1000 hrs.
6. Maximum allowable wear: = 0.7 % to 1.0% of original bore, for large output
engine.

Wear pattern:
» Maximum wear is at upper limit of top ring travel, at the top of piston stroke.
» This reduces towards the lower end of the stroke, but will increase in way of
exhaust and scavenge ports.

Reasons of maximum wear at top of the stroke:

1. Maximum gas load behind the top ring.
2. It is a hottest region.
3. Oil film viscosity is low, and liable to breakdown under high load and high
temperature.
4. Abrupt change in direction of piston rings, at dead ends of reciprocating motion.
5. More liable to be attacked by acids.

Reason of maximum wear around the ports:

» Due to leakage of hot gases, past the top ring into the ports, and these gases tend to
burn off oil film.

Results of proper well-run ship:

» Good liner wear rate: < 0.1 mm / 1000 hrs. after running-in period.
» Good ring wear rate: < 0.4 mm / 1000 hrs.
» Economical level of cylinder oil feed rate: < 1.0 gm/Bhp/hr. after running-in
period.

Timed lubrication:
1. Lubricators of each cylinder are synchronised with engine to provide timed
lubrication.
2. Cylinder oil is fed, at the time when top two piston rings pass the oil feed points, in
the cylinder during piston upstroke. [4/s and 2/s Uniflow engines]
3. Loop scavenge Sulzer RND engine use accumulator system of timed lubrication.
4. Accumulator provides constant oil pressure, which is greater than scavenge air
pressure, with uniform supply at every period, around TDC and BDC positions.
 84

5. In this way, oil is delivered to quills, only when low pressure and temperature
prevails on running surface of cylinder liner.
6. 8 supply points at top, and 1 point for scavenge and 1 point for exhaust ports at
bottom.

Timed lubrication has little merits, because:

1. It requires very rapid injection of oil at correct time, with correct amount, and
pressure.
2. It is discharging through very small bore, with long pipes to various oil feed points.
3. Having a non-return valve at the top of lubricator, hence it complicates the timed
injection.
4. The hot combustion gases tend to carbonise the oil, and block the orifices.

Reduced lubrication effects:

1. Promote wear of liner and rings.
2. Over-heating of local area causes microseizure, due to lack of boundary
lubrication.
3. Consequently, major damage to liner and piston.

Excess lubrication effects:

1. Fouling of ring grooves and resulting ring zone deposits.
2. Leading to breakage of piston rings.
3. Consequently, loss of gas sealing effects and blow-by follows.
4. Scavenge space fouling and scavenge fire follows.
5. Also affecting combustion process.
6. Exhaust system and turbocharger fouling.

Cracks on cylinder liner: Causes:

1. Over-tightening of cylinder cover nuts.
2. Insufficient cooling.
3. Effects of scavenge fire.
4. High difference of working temperature.
5. Increasing of hoop stress in liner, due to slack tie bolts.
6. Misalignment of worn-out liner and piston.
7. Due to thermal stresses of metal, between exhaust ports and scavenge ports.
8. Improper fitting of liner.
9. Design failure.

Removing and refitting the liner:

Before removing:
1. Immobilisation permit taken from port authority.
2. Vessel in upright position.
3. Lifting gears and tools in good working order.
4. All spares are ready.
5. Persons grouped for assigned jobs.

Removing the liner:

1. Drain CW from cylinder jacket.
2. All lubricator quills removed.
3. Cylinder cover, piston and stuffing box removed in usual way.
 85

4. Cover the piston rod stuffing box seating with special cover.
5. If liner is to be reused, liner wear should be measured and recorded.
6. Position of liner, relative to cylinder jacket, properly marked.
7. CW outlet pieces to cylinder cover removed.
8. Attach the liner-withdrawing tool as per instruction, and tighten the upper nut until
liner comes in contact with upper supporting bar [strong back bar].
9. With overhead crane and sling arrangement, liner is drawn out.

Before refitting:
1. If old liner is to be reused, clean thoroughly.
2. Landing surface of quills checked for damage and carbon deposits in oil holes
cleaned.
3. Rubber sealing ring grooves, cleaned with old round file until to bare metal.
4. Surface inside jacket, coated with anti-corrosive paint, and sitting surfaces cleaned.
5. Sharp edges inside jacket, chamfered slightly to prevent cutting rubber sealing
rings.
6. If new liner is to be fitted, gauged before fitting.
7. New liner is to be lowered down into position, without sealing rings fitted, to
ensure it is correct size. Liner should not only drop freely by its own weight, but
there should be slight radial clearance between liner and jacket to allow for
expansion.
8. Radial clearance at lower end, 0.2 mm for 750 mm bore liner.
9. Radial clearance at top, 0.001 mm / mm of liner bore.
10. Rubber sealing rings should grip firmly around liner, and a 10% stretch would be
adequate.
11. If there is no original reference mark on liner, quills should be fitted and mark the
correct position of liner relative to cylinder jacket.
12. Remove the liner again and sealing rings fitted.

Refitting the liner:

1. Soft soap or similar lubricant to be applied to rubber sealing rings for easy fitting.
2. Fit in correct position as per instruction.
3. New liner re-gauged after final landing to check any distortion and recorded.
4. Refit quills and test lubrication. All parts refitted in usual way.
5. Fill cylinder jacket and check water-tightness under pressure.

Running-in: During the first 10 ~ 20 hours:

1. Cylinder oil feed rate at maximum.
2. Engine load reduced.
3. Reduce oil feed rate to normal and increase the load stepwise.
4. Liner checked from inspection door and scavenge space, at first opportunity.

Safety devices on Cylinder Cover

1. Indicator cock.
2. Cylinder head relief valve. [Setting 20 ~30% above normal working pressure.]
3. Safety Cap.
4. Flame Trap.
5. Exhaust gas thermometer.
 86

Fuel Valve:

Injector: Requirements:

1. Spray must be in atomised state, at all times, regardless of engine speed.

2. Pressure should be set at required value. [Too high – late injection: Too low – early
injection].
3. Valve seat should not pass more than stated quantity of fuel, when testing, for a given
period of time.
4. Valve lift should not be excessive. [Excessive valve lift can cause hammer action to
valve seat, leading to permanent damage.]
5. There should be sufficient leak-off for lubrication.
6. Should be snap-seated and no dribbling.

Excessive Atomisation:
1. Smaller oil particles have insufficient KE, to go through combustion chamber.
2. Dense compressed air has high resistance to the motion of oil particles.
3. Smaller particles tend to cluster around injector tip, and oxygen-starved during
combustion.
4. Can cause after-burning.

Insufficient Atomisation:
1. Oil particles become larger and will have more KE and travel further into
combustion chamber, and some may rest on cylinder liner and piston crown.
2. Carbon built-up around the top of cylinder and piston crown.
3. Lower rate of combustion and after burning.

Low Penetration:
1. Less intimate mixing of air and fuel particles in combustion chamber.
2. Fuel cluster around injector tip causing after burning.

High Penetration:
1. Fuel particles travel further into the combustion chamber and some may rest on the
cylinder liner and piston crown.
2. Lower rate of combustion and after burning.

Needle Scores:
Causes:
1. Due to excessive valve lift. Normal valve lift is about 1.00mm.
2. Catfines carried over from purifier and filters can cause abrasion, and needle scores.

Effects:
1. Due to needle score, fuel leakage across the seat will occur during the cut-off period.
(Originally, the angle of needle valve and its seat is cut in difference of about
1°~ 2° to achieve point contact, thus preventing dribbling.)
2. Carbon formation at nozzle tip interferes the spray pattern causing poor combustion,
high exhaust temperature, and increased fuel consumption.
3. In excessive case, surface burning of piston crown, too much carbon deposits in
combustion space will occur.
 87

Leak-off of a fuel valve:

1. Amount of fuel oil, which seep past the needle valve and nozzle body and it is used
for lubrication.
2. Little Leak- off may seize needle in nozzle body.
3. Too high Leak-off reduce quantity of atomised fuel into combustion chamber.

Overspeed Governor:

1. Speed of ME is primarily controlled by fuel lever setting.

2. Fuel lever controls fuel pump settings, which in turn control the amount of
fuel injected / working cycle, into cylinder.
3. Speed of engine would remains constant for any fuel lever setting, provided the load
on engine did not change.
4. Overspeed Governor is fitted to ME, in order to keep engine speed within reasonable
limits, in the events of load change, like in heavy weather, propeller shaft fractured or
propeller is lost.
5. Governor is connected with fuel pumps or fuel pump suction valves.
6. When the speed of engine rises, governor reduces quantity of fuel injected, and when
the speed returns to normal, it restores the fuel pumps to the setting given by fuel lever.
7. Overspeed governor operates within ME speed limits of 5 ~ 10% below and 10%
above normal speed.
8. Hand adjusting gear is fitted, so that governor setting can be altered, while engine is
running.

Three types of Overspeed Governor:

1. Inertia Type. (Fitted on older slow speed engine)

2. Centrifugal mechanical Type [with spring-loaded sleeves and flyweights].
3. Mechanical hydraulic Type.

Sensitivity: Ability to control the engine speed, within narrow limits.

Stability: Governor is stable, when there is only one radius of rotation of flywheel for
each speed, at which governor operates within the speed range.
Droop: Reduction or change in speed, which occurs from no-load to full load,
is ‘governor droop’.
Hunting: When engine load changed, governor tends to over-control and under-control,
and this causes fluctuation in rotational speed, which is referred to as ‘hunting’.

Overspeed Trip:

1. Overspeed trip is fitted on engine, where governor may not be safe.

2. Its function is to shut-off fuel supply and stop the engine, when engine speed rises to
dangerous level.
3. It protects the engine, when governor becomes inoperative, or shaft fractured or
propeller is lost.
4. Mechanism has to be manually reset, before engine can be started again.
 88

Trunk engine piston seizure:

Causes:
1. Blocked coolant supply to piston.
2. Overheating of the unit.
3. Exhaust valve damaged.
4. Rings damaged.

Burning away of piston crown:

Causes:
1. Piston’s inside cooling gallery, fouled with deposits.
2. Incorrect spray angle of fuel valve.
3. Injection viscosity too high.
4. Fuel containing excess amount of water. [Maintain separation temperature 98°C and
minimum throughput.]

Corrosion of crank pin:

Causes:
1. L.O. contaminated with SW or FW, due to leakage. [ When combustion products,

SO , enter crankcase, through blow pass ( trunk type) or defective diaphragm

(crosshead type), they react with water and form H SO and attack crankshaft.]
2. By galvanic action, when crankcase LO is contaminated with SW.
3. Faulty purification system cause LO contaminated with FW.
4. Piston cooling system, leaking into crankcase.

White metal bearing failure:

Causes:
1. Edge carrying wear [Due to out of true of bearing bore, or deviation from journal
geometry]
2. Striations wear [Striation and embedding of foreign particles on running surfaces.]
3. Overheating of layer [Due to lack of lubrication and contamination of LO.]
4. Erosion wears [Some abrasive particles carried along with LO.]
5. Electro erosion [If crankshaft is inadequately grounded.]
6. Corrosion [Contamination of LO with SW.]

Broken piston ring:

Causes:
1. Insufficient ring and groove clearance [Vertical clearance: 0.4 mm for top ring: 0.2
mm for lower rings.]
2. Insufficient ring gap. [Butt clearance: 0.5% of cylinder bore, for moderate rating and
1.0% for higher rating. Over 500 mm bore.]
3. Excessive liner wears.
4. Excessive relieving at ring edge. [Oil wedge action cannot be attained.]
5. Insufficient lubrication.
6. Excessive lubrication. [Excessive ring zone deposits and fouling of grooves and
microseizure may occur.]
7. Improper ring material.
8. Misalignment of piston.
9. Improper fitting.
10. After burning.
 89

Indicator Diagrams:

Taken at every month and every major O/H.

Power card: In phase with piston movement, with fuel on, to determine:
IP (Indicated Power)
Pmax (Between Atmospheric line and highest point)
Operational faults.

Draw card: 90° out of phase with piston movement, with fuel on, to determine:
Pmax
Pcom (more accurately)
Nature of expansion curve.
To evaluate injection, ignition delay, fuel quality, combustion, loss of
compression, expansion process, fuel pump timing, and after-burning.

Compression card: In phase and fuel cut-off, to determine:

Compression pressure
Cylinder tightness.

Light spring : In phase, using light spring, with fuel on, to determine:
Pressure variation during Exhausting and Scavenging periods.

How to maintain good Performance:

1. Maintain good power output per cylinder.

2. Take Power Card, to check Power Output / Cylinder.
3. Take Compression Card, to check for cylinder tightness.
4. Check ratio of Absolute Compression Pressure to Absolute Scavenging Pressure.
5. If the ratio is same as that during Sea Trial, Piston rings and exhaust valves are
sufficiently tight. (With B&W engine, this ratio is about 30.)
6. If Absolute Pressure Ratio is less, check for cylinder tightness, charge air cooler,
scavenge air ports, scavenge valves, piston rings, exhaust valves, TC, etc.
7. Light Spring Diagram is taken if necessary.
8. Check Exhaust Temperatures, exhaust smoke, Load Indicator and engine running
parameters.
9. Check fuel, CLO & LO consumption.
10. Regular maintenance works and repairs.

Absolute Pressure = Gauge Pressure (of Manometer) + Atmospheric Pressure (15 psi or 30"
Mercury)

If Compression Pressure is low:

1. Carry out Unit O/H and renew liner, piston and rings.
2. TC checked, clean and overhauled, to have efficient operation.
3. Check Scavenge air line, charge air cooler, for insufficient scavenge air condition.
4. Check Inlet and Exhaust valves may be leaking.
5. Clean Scavenge Ports, Scavenge Valves, if 2/S engine.
 90

Early combustion:
Causes:
1. Cetane no: of fuel higher than normal.
2. Fuel pump plunger set too high.
3. Incorrect adjustment of fuel cam on camshaft. Fuel valve low-pressure setting.
Effects:
1. High Pmax.
2. Low expansion line.
3. Less S.F.O.C.
4. Low exhaust temperature.
5. Heavy shock load to bearings.
6. Knocking.

Late combustion:
Causes:
1. Cetane no. of fuel lower than normal.
2. Plunger set too low.
3. Incorrect adjustment of fuel cam on camshaft.
4. Leaky fuel valves or high-pressure setting.
Effects:
1. Loss of power.
2. High expansion line.
3. Increased S.F.O.C.
4. High exhaust temperature.
5. Overheating
6. Lubrication difficulty.

Cetane Number:
1. A measure of ignition quality of fuel.
2. The higher the Cetane Number the shorter the time between fuel injection and
rapid combustion.
3. The higher the Cetane No. the better the ignition quality.
4. Considered as poor fuel, if C 37 . Usual range is 30 – 45.

High Cetane no: Effects:

1. Shorter delay period
2. Early combustion
3. Increased power
4. Knocking

Low Cetane no: Effects:

1. Longer delay period
2. Late combustion
3. Decreased power
4. After burning
5. High exhaust temperature and smoke.

Diesel Knock:
» Violent knocks produced by high rate of pressure rise, RPR, during combustion, as
delay period is longer than normal.
Causes:
1. Too low working temperature.
2. Cold start.
3. Too early fuel injection.
2 Stroke Crosshead Type and 4 Stroke Trunk Engine Comparison:
2/S Cross-head Engine
Advantages:
1 More power output at same swept volume.
2 Better starting efficiency as every
revolution has power stroke.
3 Early detection of abnormal conditions,
due to slow speed running.
4 Governor required no special care, due to
slow speed.
5 Simple reversing mechanism.
6 No reduction gear.
7 Lower mean temperature of working parts.
8 Less crankcase oil contamination problem.
9 Lighter flywheel.
10 Low LO consumption.
11 Lower noise level.
12 Less side thrust on cylinder liner, due to
crosshead effect.
13 Easier cylinder head maintenance.
Disadvantages:
1 Lower MEP for same SFOC.
2 Poor scavenging efficiency, since no
separate stroke for scavenging.
3 More chances of scavenge fire.
4 More air consumption and longer Air
Compressor running time during
manoeuvring.
5 Vibration problem due to long stroke.
6 More weight / power ratio.
7 Less cargo space.
8 Separate cylinder lubrication.
9 More overhauling time.
91
4/S Trunk piston Engine
Disadvantages:
Less power output as one power stroke per every
two revolutions.
Inefficient starting.
Abnormal conditions cannot be detected easily.
Extra care for governor, since running speed being
medium to high [300 to 800 rpm.]
Reversing is not so simple since it has two valves
and one fuel pump to reverse.
Reduction gears required.
Higher mean temperature and exhaust temperature.
Pronounced crankcase oil contamination problem,
due to open crankcase trunk type.
Heavier flywheel.
Higher LO consumption.
Higher noise level
Complicated cylinder head maintenance
Advantages:
Higher MEP for same SFOC.
Better scavenging efficiency, since it has one
separate stroke for scavenging.
Almost no scavenge fire.
Reduced air consumption and Air Compressor
running time, if reversible reduction gear is used.
Vibration not considerable.
Reduction in size for same power gives less
overhauling time.
More cargo space.
 92

Crash Stop or Crash Manoeuvring:

1. Emergency reversing of engine when ship speed is high.
2. After fuel is cut off, engine revolution is waited until reversible rpm is reached.
3. Shift reversing lever to Astern position.
4. When engine rpm drops to about 45 rpm, at least one impulsive application of
starting air must be applied.
5. Then engine can be started in Astern direction, as usual way.

Super Long Stroke Engine:

Advantages:

1. Increased stroke / bore ratio: 3:1

2. Reduced SFOC about 6 %.
3. Improved propeller efficiency about 2 %.
4. Simple liner construction, and low cost.
5. Thin walled liner and improved jacket cooling efficiency.
6. Simple cooling water sealing.
7. No temperature gradients across scavenge ports and exhaust valve.
8. Shorter piston skirt.
9. With uniflow scavenging, improved scavenge efficiency.

First Start Arrangement:

Emergency Air Compressor is:

a) Battery started b) Hand crank type
Note: [ If prime mover is motor, it is associated with Emergency Generator and not a first
start arrangement]

1. Emergency air bottle is filled by Emergency hand air compressor.

2. During this time, one of the generators should be standing-by such as priming the
LO, fuel oil, turning the flywheel, etc.
3. Start this generator and check running condition. If satisfactory, close the Main
Circuit Breaker of concerned Switchboard.
4. Run cooling service pump for generator.
5. Run main Air Compressor and fill-up Air Reservoir.
6. Prepare the remaining generator, and start, equalised and load-shared.
7. Auxiliary boiler should be started.
8. ME warmed-up for operation.

Why Centrifugal Pump is used in JCW system?

1. Continuous flow.
2. Larger volume of water can be circulated.
3. Driving power can be AC or DC.
4. Self-priming obtained from Header Tank.

Standard Spares:
» Spares of the machinery, which must be provided onboard by Class Requirement.
» For ME, one unit spare, 6 links of chain for chain-drive engine, one complete set of
gears for gear-drive engine, one set of thrust pad for each side.
» For AE, spares for half of the total units.
 93

Ship Trial Results:

» It is important for future reference.

» When the ship is on maiden voyage, speeds, load, SFOC, etc. should be compared
with ship trial results and any deviation must be claimed.

Log Book:

» Log Book is a lawful and valuable record book.

» All entries are to be made accurately.
» All records are required for troubleshooting and preventive maintenance.
» They form part of an insurance claim.

Log Book is inspected:

» To determine conditions of ME and Auxiliary machinery performances.

» To know ROB of fuel oil and LO.
» To know running hours of main and auxiliary machinery.
» To check records concerning with SOLAS and MARPOL requirements.

Pyrometer:

1. An instrument used to measure temperature, higher than that can be measured by

thermometers.
2. Platinum resistance thermometer, makes use of increased resistance of platinum
wire, when rise in temperature. [ Used up to 600°C ].
3. Pyrometers’ temperature range: 600°C to 1500°C.

Thermometer:

1. Liquid in glass.
2. Liquid in metal.
3. Electrical thermometer.
4. Bi-metal strip.

Liquid in glass:
1. Thin walled glass bulb and capillary tube, completely filled with Mercury (boiling
point 357°C at atmospheric pressure), at high temperature, to exclude the air.
2. The space above Mercury is filled with high pressure CO gas, to extend the
temperature range to about 550°C.
Mercury: Thermometer range: – 37°C to + 510°C
Alcohol: Thermometer range: – 79°C to + 71°C

Manometer:

1. Used for measuring of very small pressure.

2. Simplest form is glass ‘U’ tube containing water, and one end is open to
atmosphere while other end is connected to the medium to be measured.
3. Difference in height of water records gauge pressure of medium.
{ Absolute Pressure = Gauge Pressure + Atmospheric Pressure }
 94

Barometer:

1. Instrument for measuring atmospheric pressure.

2. As the pressure is around 15 psi Mercury fluid is used.
3. Approximately 1 psi = 2" column of Mercury, hence 15 psi = 30" Mercury
( Average Atmospheric Pressure).
4. One end of the tube is sealed and vacuum, and other end is open to atmosphere.

Pneumercator tank gauge:

1. Operates on ‘U’ tube principle.

2. Difference in head pressures between oil in tank and equal column of air, is
transmitted by air pressure to mercury Manometer, which is graduated to read
tons of oil in tank.
3. Fitted in tanks, which are not convenient to use gauge glass or sounding tape.

Compound Gauge:

1. Designed to register either vacuum or pressure.

2. Used on suction side of refrigerating plant and on evaporator.

CO Recorder:

1. Electrical (type) recorder operates on Whetstone Bridge principle.

2. Two resistance on opposite sides of the Bridge are exposed to Exhaust Gases.
3. In the gas line between these two resistance is a container filled with CO
absorbing chemical, Caustic Potash.
4. First resistance is in contact with normal exhaust gas with CO content, and after
absorber, second resistance is in contact with exhaust gas without CO .
5. The Bridge is now unbalanced due to difference in thermal conductivity, set up by
gases with and without CO .
6. Galvanometer is calibrated in CO %.

Materials of major parts:

1. Cylinder head Chrome molybdenum steel.

2. Cylinder liner Vanadium cast iron.
3. Piston ring Chromium nickel alloys.
4. Piston Chrome molybdenum steel / Silicon Aluminium Alloy (Pielstick)
5. Piston rod Forged steel.
6. Crosshead pin Highly polished, flame hardened forged steel.
7. Bearings Thin walled bearing of tri-layer, steel backing lined with
copper-lead interlayer and lead-tin overlay.
8. Crankshaft Cast steel (cast in nodular iron).
9. Bed plate Fabricated steel / Cast steel.
10. Frame Cast steel, Fabricated mild steel.
 95

Hanging-up an engine unit:

Circumstances in which it would be necessary to hang-up an engine unit, are:

1. Piston is seized and no spare, and if serious grooving were found on cylinder liner.
2. Cylinder liner is damaged and no spare onboard.
3. The ship is cruising in heavy sea and changing the liner is a risky problem.
4. Engine cannot be operated without removing the piston; even the defective
cylinder has been cut-off.
5. Cross head bearing or bottom end bearing or guide shoe damaged and no spare.
6. Push rod and rocker arm damaged and no spare.
7. It is impossible to continue long navigation with the engine unbalanced and severe
vibration due to one unit cut-off.
8. It is necessary to enter the nearest port ( port of refuge ) for repair.

Hanging-up procedure: ( Mitsubishi UEC 52 HA )

1. Cylinder cover is removed, piston is drawn out with stuffing box.

2. Blind cover is fitted to oil outlet, on top of cross-head pin.
3. Blind flange is fitted to piston rod stuffing box seating.
4. Push rod and exhaust valve driving gear removed and blank plate fitted.
5. Blind plug fitted at lubricating pipe for exhaust valve driving gear.
6. Starting air branch pipe for corresponding unit, removed at cylinder cover and
blank flange fitted.
7. Plugged the starting air control valve outlet of corresponding unit.
8. Then the cylinder cover is reinstalled in regular manner.
9. Fuel injection pump of concerning unit, cut-off and shut the fuel inlet and return
valves.
10. Cylinder feed rate is adjusted to zero to that unit by means of adjusting knob.

Precautions:
1. For easy starting, one of the undamaged pistons, placed at TDC by means of
turning gear.
2. Severe vibration may occur within the operating range, thus appropriate engine
speed should be decided by observing engine condition.
3. Pmax and exhaust gas temperatures, not to exceed the limited values at MCR.

Port of refuge:
A port to where a vessel sails in order to seek a safe place, for necessary repair, when a
vessel suffers from stresses of weather or other unforeseen hazards of the sea, to its cargo or
hull, or machinery.

Critical Speed: When engine is revolving at such a speed, when working stroke of the
various pistons synchronises with one of the natural frequency of crankshaft, that speed is
called Critical Speed. It can cause resonance condition and severe vibration.

Economy Speed: It is a speed within the range of maker’s recommended speeds, which is
reasonable and effective with less specific fuel oil consumption.
 96

Maximum continuous rating, MCR: Practical limit of diesel engine output, which is to be
run continuously. (Practical output limit of diesel engine, for continuous operation).

Continuous service rating, CSR: Power output of an engine, which will be obtained during
normal sea service condition, on a continuous basic.

Barr Speed: A few revolutions before and after critical speed, where it is unsafe for
continuous operation of an engine due to severe vibration. [74 ~ 96 rpm]

Scavenging:

» Process of exchanging the gases in cylinder, after expansion, with a fresh air charge.
» In general Scavenge period has 3 phases:
1) Exhausting begins, when Exhaust valve or ports are opened.
2) Scavenging begins, when Scavenge ports are opened.
3) Recharging.
[ It is required that: 14.4 lb. of fresh air / lb. of fuel burnt.]

Method of Scavenging:
1. Uniflow Scavenging
2. Loop Flow Scavenging
3. Cross Flow Scavenging

Uniflow Principle:

1. Air enters cylinder through the ports, located at underside of cylinder.

2. Ports are arranged tangential to one another, and ensure controlled and
predetermined scavenge air swirl.
3. Exhaust gases leave through centrally located exhaust valve, at upper end of
cylinder.
4. Inflowing scavenge air swirl acts like ‘piston’ of fresh air, scavenging and refilling
the cylinder with fresh air.
5. Used in Sulzer RT, B&W, Mitsubishi UE and Doxford engines.

It is the best scavenging method:

a. Scavenging Efficiency of Uniflow above 90%
Loop flow 80 ~ 90%
Cross flow 75 ~ 80%
b. Low cylinder liner wear
c. Low flow resistance
d. Low heat load
e. Effective fuel distribution
f. Safe low load operation.

Disadvantages:

a. Some fresh air charge is lost in exhaust gas, during overlapping time of exhaust
valve opening.
b. Additional driving gear for exhaust valve required.
 97

Pulse pressure system:

1. Makes full use of high pressure and temperature of exhaust gases during blow down
period.
2. Exhaust gases leave the cylinders at high velocity, as pressure energy is effectively
converted to kinetic energy to create pressure pulse in exhaust pipe.
3. Exhaust pipe, so constructed in small diameter, is quickly pressurised and boosted up to
form pressure pulse or wave.
4. Pressure waves reach to turbine nozzles and further expansion takes place.

TC arrangement:
1. Interference exists between exhausting and scavenging among cylinders.
2. To prevent this, cylinders are grouped relatively with connections to two or more exhaust
pipes.
3. Pipes are arranged, in small diameter to boost up pressure pulse and in short, straight
length to prevent energy loss.
4. Number of exhaust branch depends upon firing order, no: of cylinders and TC design.

Advantages:
1. High available energy at turbine.
2. Good engine performance at low speed and part load.
[ Still efficient when Bmep is < 8 bar]
3. Good TC acceleration.
4. Good response to any load change.
5. Required no scavenge assistance at any load change.

Constant pressure system:

1. Exhaust gases enter into large common manifold, where pulse energy is largely lost,
because receiver tends to dampen out the pulse.
2. But gas flow will be steady rather than intermittent, and at constant pressure.

TC arrangement:
1. No exhaust grouping.
2. Exhaust gases enter into large common manifold and then to turbine.
3. Firing order not considered.

Advantages:
1. High turbine efficiency due to steady flow.
2. Good engine performance at high load. [ Efficient when Bmep is above 8 bar.]
3. No exhaust grouping.
4. Reduction in SFOC of 5% – 7%.

Under piston pressure:

1. It is a type of constant pressure charging system.
2. Air charged by T/C is passed through CAC into first stage manifold, and then
through non-return valves into second stage and under piston space.
3. In down stroke, piston underside compress further the scavenge air.
4. Differential pressure shuts the inlet non-return valves as scavenge ports are
uncovered, and a pulse effect is given to cylinder.
 98

Advantages:
1. Assist tangential swirl and ensure complete evacuation of remaining exhaust gas.
2. No auxiliary blower may be required, during manoeuvring.

Turbocharger cutting-off procedures:

» When it is necessary to cut-off T/C due to heavy vibration, bearing failure, etc. cutting
procedure should be done as per engine maker’s instruction.
» Cutting-off operation depends on number of T/C installed and number of T/C damaged.

Following procedures are in accordance with Sulzer RT engine practice:

Case I: Failure of one T/C, with Exhaust by-pass piping:

1. Lock rotor as per T/C manual.
2. Remove blank flange in by-pass exhaust piping.
3. Open covers of scavenge air trunk.
4. Auxiliary blowers must be running during operation.
5. If casing is cracked, stop T/C cooling.
6. If T/C is supplied with external lubrication, shut L.O. supply.
Output 25%: RPM 60% at MCR.

Case II: Failure of one T/C, of two T/C engine:

1. Lock rotor of damaged T/C.
2. Remove expansion joints of both exhaust inlet and air outlet of damaged T/C,
and put blank flanges.
3. If casing is cracked, stop T/C cooling.
4. If T/C is supplied with external lubrication shut L.O. supply.
Output 50%: RPM 80% : Running T/C rpm must not exceed normal rpm:

Case III: Failure of all T/C of an engine, without Exhaust by-pass piping:
1. Lock rotors of all T/Cs.
2. Open all covers of scavenge air trunk.
3. Auxiliary blowers must be running during operation.
4. If casing is cracked, stop T/C cooling.
5. If T/C is supplied with external lubrication shut L.O. supply.
Output 15%: RPM 50%:

Turbocharger Washing:

1. In Slow Speed Large Output Engines, running on HFO, only Turbine Side Cleaning
is necessary, owing to poor quality fuel (but some engines use Compressor
cleaning.)
2. In Medium Speed Engines, running on Distillate Fuel, Turbine Side Cleaning is not
essential but Compressor Side Cleaning must be done daily, under full steaming
condition.
Purpose:
1. To ensure efficient running of TC.
2. To prevent Compressor and Turbine from deposits.
3. Carried out periodically at 250 ~ 1000 Running Hours, depending on running
condition.
 99

Blower side Washing:

1. Cleaning effects by mechanical breakaway of deposits, when small drops of water
strike the surface.
2. ME at normal full load speed.
3. Fixed quantity of FW is injected into air stream by compressed air, before
compressor.
4. Fixed quantity used depends upon blower size, to prevent water ingress into
engine.
5. Open air cooler drain and scavenge drains.

Turbine side Washing:

1. Cleaning effects by mechanical breakaway of deposits, when small drops of water
strike the surface.
2. Normally carried out when the sea is calm.
3. ME speed to be reduced, with permission from Bridge.
4. Reduce ME speed avoiding critical speed.

5. Exhaust gas temperature at turbine inlet < 300°C: TC speed 2000 rpm.
6. Warm FW is supplied slowly, and pressure depends on exhaust gas temperature and
volume, not to vaporise all the water.
7. Open TC casing drain and can be stopped, when clean water comes out.
8. After washing TC kept running at same reduced speed for 3 ~ 5 minutes until all parts
are dry.
9. Then increase ME rpm slowly, to normal rpm.

Cereal Grains or Activated Charcoal Particles Cleaning of Turbine: [Dry Cleaning]

1. Turbine side cleaning is superseded by Coconut Charcoal particles, with grain size
of 12 to 34 mesh.
2. No speed reduction required and cleaning can be done at full speed, once every 240
hours
3. Compressed air of (3 – 5 bars) is used to help the grains strike the deposited
Turbine Blades and Nozzles, giving effective cleaning of hard particles.
4. Air supply pipe is fitted to solid grain container, and grains are injected into
Exhaust System by air pressure, at the same point (as in Water washing) just after
Exhaust Grids.
5. Turbine casing drain kept open during cleaning time of (about 2 minutes only),
until drains become clear.

Advantages of Solid Cleaning:

1. No reduction in RPM, thus no effect on scheduled voyage.
2. No water required, thus no corrosion and thermal stresses.
3. Cleaning time, shortened to about 2 minutes only.
4. Charcoal does not wear down the Turbine Blades.
5. Combustion residues and hard particles, effectively removed.

Turbocharger surging:
1. Pumping of air back to compressor, due to sudden pressure drop in compressor,
below delivery pressure.
2. Prolonged surging may cause damage to compressor, thus engine speed should be
lowered down until surging vanished.
3. Then faults corrected before running again full speed.
 100

Causes:
1. One or two cylinders stop firing.
2. Faulty fuel pump or fuel valve.
3. Scavenge fire or exhaust trunk fire.
4. Sudden load change, when pitching in bad weather.
5. Dirty nozzle rings, turbine blades, impeller blades.
6. Weight loss of turbine blades due to impingement attack by Catfines.
7. Dirty blower air suction filter.
8. Incorrect matching of T/C to engine.

TC Over-run:

Causes:
1. Happened in constant pressure turbo-charged engine.
2. Caused due to fire and/or detonation of scavenge space.
3. Exhaust trunk fire due to accumulation of leaked or excess LO and unburned fuel.
Effects:
1. TC bearings, casing damaged.
2. ER fire.
Prevention:
1. Scavenge space regular cleaning.
2. Exhaust gas pipe regular cleaning.
3. Maintain complete combustion of fuel.
4. Liner, piston and rings, fuel valves, cylinder lubrication, maintained in good order.
5. Avoid operating ME under reduced load for long term.

Turbocharger Overhauling: [VTR 161, 201, 251, 321]

1. Drain bearing LO.

2. Remove bearing cover, oil suction pipe, as per Maker’s Instruction.
3. Take ‘K’ value, and compare the value with stamped one on bearing cover.
4. Take out locknuts (hexagonal screws), lubricating disc, and bearings from both
sides.
After removing Rotor shaft:
1. Decarbonize Turbine and Blower blades, and check the blade condition.
2. Check Labyrinth seals.
3. Check bearing clearances: 0.2 ~ 0.3 mm for Axial: 0.15 ~ 0.2 mm for Radial:
4. Check Nozzle Ring condition.
After refitting Rotor assembly:
1. Push Rotor from Turbine side to Blower side, and measure ‘K ’ at Blower side.
[‘L’ = 0, at this time]
2. Push Rotor from Blower side to Turbine side, and measure ‘K ’ at Blower side.
[‘M’ = 0, at this time]
After adjusting Rotor’s smooth optimum rotation:
1. Secure the locknut (hexagonal screw) of Blower side bearing.
2. Measure ‘K’ value at Blower end. [By Depth Micrometer or Calliper and Straight
Edge].
3. Calculate ‘L’ and ‘M’ values.
[L = K – K ] and [M = K – K] and compare them with actual values.
 101

Safety Devices in Machinery Space:

Safety devices on ME:

1. Crosshead bearing temperature sensor and alarm. (Slow down)
2. Main bearing temperature sensor and alarm. (Slow down)
3. LO return line temperature sensor and alarm. (Slow down)
4. Oil mist detector, for crankcase. (ME stopped)
5. Scavenge air temperature sensor and alarm. (Slow down)
6. High exhaust temperature sensor and alarm. (Slow down)
7. High FW temperature sensor and alarm. ( Slow down / ME stopped)
8. Low LO pressure alarm. (Slow down)
9. Low FW pressure alarm. (Slow down)
10. Turning Gear interlock.
11. Overspeed trip.
12. Emergency Manual Stop.
13. Micro computerised Safety Panel for Auto Slow down and Shut down
arrangements.
14. Relief Valves on:
a) Cylinder head.
b) Scavenge trunk
c) Crankcase
d) Fuel pump and system
e) Start air line
15. Cylinder Lubricator failure alarm and Cylinder oil no-flow alarm.

Safety devices on Electrical Heaters: FO, LO.

1. HT cut-out switch, which switch off the supply.
2. Temperature sensor and auto switching device.

Safety devices on AC Main Switchboard:

1. Over current relay.
2. Reverse power relay
3. Short circuit relay
4. Preferential trip.

Windlass safety devices:

1. Overload [thermal switch]
2. Over speed trip
3. Slipping clutch.

Winches brake adjustment: Adjust the distance between friction plate and pressure plate.

Lifeboat safety devices:

1. Limit Switch [while lifting]
2. Centrifugal Brake [while lowering]

Safety devices on Steering Gear:

1. Low oil level alarms on each power unit reservoir tanks.
2. Overload alarm.
3. Power failure alarm.
 102

4. Relief Valves in power unit hydraulic system and telemotor unit hydraulic system.
(Set pressure 20 – 30% above Normal Working Pressure.)
5. Double shock valves. (Set to lift at about 100 bar, 10% above NWP: allowed rudder
to give way when subjected to severe shock from heavy sea.)
6. Suitable working access to Steering Gear Room and Control, with guardrails and
non-slip surface.
7. Quick response in 30 sec. from hard over to hard over, at full speed.
8. A fixed oil storage system.

Safety devices on Main Air Compressor:

1. Bursting Disc on Intercooler: (At waterside)
2. Bursting Disc and Fusible Plug (121 C) on Aftercooler
3. Automatic Moisture Drain Valve.
4. Relief valves on LP and HP stages. (Set to lift at 10% rise above normal stage pressure.)
5. Cooling water supply failure alarm.
6. Low LO pressure alarm.
7. Relief valve on crankcase LO pump.
8. Delivery air HT alarm on Aftercooler outlet. (Max. 93 C)
{LP discharge pressure 4 bars: HP discharge pressure 30 bars:
Intercooler inlet air 130°C: Intercooler outlet air 35°C:
Aftercooler inlet air 130°C: Aftercooler outlet air 35°C:
Intercooler is single pass type: Aftercooler, double pass U-tube type:}

Safety devices on Main Air Bottle:

1. Fusible plug.
2. Pressure Relief Valve
3. Low Air Pressure alarm.
4. Atmospheric Relief Valve.
5. Automatic or remote control Moisture Drain Valve.

Safety devices on Boiler:

1. Two nos. of Safety Valves.
2. Low and high Water Level alarms with transmitter.
3. Low and high FO Temperature alarms.
4. Low FO Pressure alarm.
5. Low Steam Pressure alarm.
6. Easing Gears on Safety Valves.
7. Fusible Plugs.
8. 2 Water Level Gauge Glasses.
9. Remote Water Level Indicators.
10. Flame Failure alarm.
11. Smoke Density alarm.
12. Air/fuel Ratio alarm.

Safety devices on Fridge Plant and Compressor:

1. Liquid Shock Valve on Cylinder Head.
2. Busting Disc on Cylinder Head, between Suction and Discharge manifold.
3. Gas LP cut-out.
4. Gas HP cut-out.
5. LO LP cut-out.
 103

6. CW LP cut-out.
7. Relief Valve on Condenser.
8. Bursting Disc on Condenser. (if fitted)
9. Non-return Check Valves on each gas return line to Compressor.

Miscellaneous Calculations:

Specific Fuel Oil Consumption, SFOC.

SGc = Corrected specific gravity of fuel at measuring point temperature;

SGb = Specific gravity of bunker;

(Should be taken from lab report, if not taken from bunker note at 15°C )

T = Fuel oil temperature at measuring point.

SGc = SGb – [ 0.00064 (T– 15) ]

kW = Output of engine in kW.

Let daily fuel consumption is = C litres/day (obtained from Flow Meter reading)
= C/10³ m³/day
= C/10³ x SGc MT/day
= C/10³ x SGc x 10³ kg/day
= C x SGc x 10³ gm/day

C x SGc x 10 ³
SFOC = gm / kW hr
24 x kW

C x SGc x 10 ³
SFOC = gm / bhp hr
24 x BHP

This initial specific fuel consumption should be corrected for 3 factors:

i. Difference between actual scavenge air temperature and system standard of 45°C.
ii. Difference between actual turbo blower air inlet temperature and
system standard of 27°C.
iii. The net specific energy of fuel .

If daily fuel consumption is = C MT/day

C x SGc x 10
SFOC = gm / kW hr
24 x kW
 104

Specific Cylinder Lubricating Oil Consumption:

qa = Actual feed rate, gm / kW-hr.

Q = Measured value, litre / day
r = SGc, Corrected specific gravity of oil at measuring point temperature.
Le = Engine output, in kW

Q x 1000 x r
qa = gm / bhp hr
24 x Le

Slip Calculation:

P = Pitch in meter
N = Total revolutions/ day ( N = 60 x 24 x r.p.m. )
Theoretical distance = ( P x N ) / 1852 Nautical miles per day.

Theoretical Distance Actual Distance (Noon to Noon)

Slip % = x 100
Theoretical Distance

What is API scale of measurement? [FPS system]

Bunker Specific Gravity my be converted to degree API by the formula:

141.5
Degree API = – 131.5
Sp.Gr.

Degree API may be converted to Specific Gravity by:

141.5
Sp.Gr. =
at 15°C(59°F) 131.5 + degree API

Use Volume Correction Factor as per API gravity with exact oil temperature
at bunkering time.
 105

Motor Engineering Knowledge:

Miscellaneous:
Supplementary:
Hanging-up Procedure: (S.EMT. PIELSTICK PC 2 Type)

1. Remove Rocker Arm and Push Rod.

2. Remove Cylinder Head.
3. Remove Piston Connecting Rod as usual manner.
4. Shut LO feed hole for Crank Pin, with special tool supplied by the maker.
5. Box back Cylinder Head.
6. Remove Starting Air Inlet Branch Pipe and put blank flange.
7. Plug Control Air Line from Distributor.
8. Remove Roller Guides for Push Rods and put blank flanges.
9. Shut-off LO for Rocker Arms.
10. Concerned Fuel Pump cut-off by lifting gear.
11. Engine speed maintained between 180–400 rpm depending on actual running
condition. (MCR is 500)

When you will change liner?

1. Wear down: 1% of original diameter for slow speed.
0.4 – 0.5 mm for medium speed
0.25 mm for high speed.
2. When scuffing, scoring, scratching or cracks occur.

Methods of Supercharging:

1. Turbocharger.
2. Underpiston space.
3. Auxiliary Blower (motor driven).

Pulse Pressure system:

1. Exhaust gases enter into 2 or more small diameter exhaust pipes, with short,
straight length, where pressure energy is effectively converted into kinetic energy
to create pressure pulse or pressure waves.
2. Pressure waves reach to turbine nozzles and further expansion takes place.

Governor:

Speed governor:
» Varying fuel according to load.
» Maintain to get constant speed.

Overspeed governor:

» Only function automatically over 110% of speed cut-off fuel and speed
reduced to 95% cut-in fuel again.
 106

Overspeed trip:
» At above 15% over normal speed fuel is cut-off and stops the engine.
» Reset before restarting.

Four types of Overspeed Governor:

1. Inertia
2. Centrifugal Mechanical
3. Mechanical Hydraulic
4. Inertia and Centrifugal combined

Inertia Type Governor:

1. Governor is fitted onto a swinging arm, with link connection to some reciprocating
part of the engine, such as crosshead pin.
2. Governor then moves up and down through an arc of a circle with approximately
45°angle.
3. Consists of a weight normally held down by a spring in lower position.
4. When the speed of engine rises, the inertia of the weight is such that it overcomes
the spring force, and the weight moves from normal position, and the upper pawl is
retracted and lower pawl is extended outwards.
5. Lower pawl engages with a lever and lifts it and this movement reduces the amount
of fuel injected.
6. Lever is connected with fuel pumps or fuel pump suction valves.
7. When speed returns to normal, weight returns to its normal position and reverses
the pawls.
8. Upper pawl then pushes the lever downwards and restores the fuel pumps to the
setting given by fuel lever.
9. Lever has its fulcrum pin in same centre line position as the axis of swinging arm.
10. Inertia type governor operates when engine speed increases 5% or more above
normal speed.
11. Only fitted on slow-speed directly coupled engines and found mainly on older
engines.
12. Has been superseded by centrifugal mechanical and mechanical hydraulic
governors.
13. Inertia Type Governor is one type of Overspeed Governor.

Why Inertia type Governor is not used nowadays?

1. Although very simple type, it requires an engine speed increase of 5% or more to
make it operate.
2. In some cases, increase of engine speed will bring into or near to critical speed, that
can cause severe vibration.

Hydraulic Governors:

1. For large Engine that requires powerful governor with quick response.
2. Centrifugal ball head may be used as speed sensing mechanism.
3. Its output signal is multiplied to a value, which will actuate fuel control racks by
means of a servo system, usually hydraulic.
4. Built-in feed back system from fuel rack positioning piston is provided to give the
stability of governor.
 107

Constant Speed (Isochronous) Governors:

1. Able to maintain exactly constant speed, without hunting.

2. Speed droop is employed to give stability while fuel is being corrected, and then
gradually removing the droop as the engine responds to fuel changes and returns to
its original speed.
3. Thus, speed droop for isochronous governor is temporary.

Compensation System:
» The use of temporary speed droop to prevent over-correction of fuel supply is called
compensation and it has two functions:
a) Droop application as fuel supply is changed.
b) Droop removal as engine responds to fuel change and returns to original
speed.

Causes of Hot Bearings:

1. Lower oil viscosity.
2. Insufficient LO.
3. Foreign matter entered.
4. Incorrect oil clearance.
5. Misalignment of shaft and bearing.
6. Scored journal.
7. Poorly fitted bearing.

Ship’s speed slowdown;

Cause:
» Improper combustion of ME.
Remedies:
1. Take all Indicator Cards.
2. To consider the developed power.
3. Evaluate combustion and expansion process, Pmax and Pcomp from out of phase
diagram.
4. Check cylinder tightness.
5. Evaluate exhausting and scavenging process from light spring diagram.
6. Defects found should be rectified as soon as possible.

What is the balancing of engine, and what are the forces?

1. Minimizing and eliminating of vibration.
2. Overall summation of out of balance forces and couples are cancelled out or
reduced to a more acceptable amount.

Forces which causes vibration are:

1. Inertia force.
2. Gas force.
3. Spring force.
4. Damping force

Static Balance:
» When CG of the shaft coincides with polar axis of its journal, the system is in Static
Balance.
 108

Dynamic Balance:
» In static balance condition, when the shaft is revolved in bearings, load on each
bearing must remain constant throughout 360° rotation.

Couples:
» Pairs of forces of equal magnitude acting in parallel but opposite in direction.

Ship Vibration:
1. Synchronous or Resonance Vibration due to main and auxiliary machinery.
(Critical Speed)
2. Local Vibration. (Small portion of hull structure such as bulkhead, brackets, etc. set
into a state of vibration.)
3. Vibration due to external sources, such as unbalanced propeller or ship’s
environment.

What is Axial Vibration?

1. Crank throw is likely to move axially when firing pressure turns it.
2. This axial movement of crank creates Axial Vibration.
3. Since Thrust Block absorbs backward movement of crankshaft, it is free to move to
forward direction only.

Why Vibration Damper fitted on forward?

» Thrust Block at aft side can absorb vibration, so Damper is fitted on forward only.

Detuner:
» Reduce vibration 60 – 80%.
(Floating members increase unstable frequency, which is the cause of resonance
condition.)

How to measure TC axial and radial clearances:

» Axial Clearance: Push the shaft and measure by Depth Gauge.
» Radial Clearance: Lift the shaft and measure by Dial Gauge.

TC Vibration:
1. Unbalanced.
2. Bearing defects.
3. Deposits in nozzle ring.
4. Impingement.
5. Surging, Scavenge Fire, Overloading.

TC Balancing:
1. Static balance.
2. Dynamic balance.

Checking during TC Overhauling:

1. Blade condition.
2. Labyrinth Seal.
3. Bearing Clearance; { 0.2 – 0.3 mm Axial. }
{ 0.15 – 0.2 mm Radial.}
4. Nozzle Ring.
 109

After reassembled:
1. Check Static Balance.
2. Check Impeller and Casing clearance.

When you will change TC Bearings?

1. As per Running Hour.
2. As per clearance.
3. When damaged.
4. When vibration is heavy.

TC Deflection:
0.15 – 0.20 mm Axial. ( K value: if K value is not correct, rotor and casing may touch.)
0.20 – 0.30 mm Radial. ( Measured at only plain bearings, not on roller bearings.)

What clearances to be taken when overhauling TC?

1. Axial and radial clearances. (K value & radial clearance)
2. Rotor and Casing clearance (for new casing or new rotor). (L & M values.)

TC Surging:

1. Occur when discharge volute pressure exceed pressure build up in Diffuser and
Impeller.
2. It produces backflow of air from discharge to suction.

Causes:
1. Scavenge fire, Exhaust trunk fire.
2. Poor power balance.
3. Poor Scavenging or leaky Exhaust valve.
4. Dirty Nozzle, Blades and Grids.
5. Individual unit misfire.
6. TC not matching with engine.
7. Pitching in heavy weather.

Function of Diffuser:

1. To direct the air smoothly into Volute Casing.

2. Convert KE to PE of Inlet Air.

Function of Inducer:
» To guide the Air smoothly into the eye of Impeller.

What will you do in case of TC failure?

1. Rotor to be locked.
2. Exhaust gas to be by-passed the TC.
3. Run engine with reduced speed with remaining TC.
4. Use Auxiliary Blower.
5. Maintain all temperature and pressure of fuel, cooling water and lubrication within
limit.
6. Discuss with Captain for manoeuvring difficulties.
 110

Weight / Power Ratio:

» 4/S Engine – 50 LB / Bhp.

» 2/S Engine – 150 LB / Bhp.

ME all units Exhaust Temperatures are high.

Causes:
1. High Scavenge Air temperature.
2. Fouling of air and gas passages.
3. Wrong Camshaft position. (Incomplete combustion, after burning)
4. Wear of Fuel Cam and Exhaust Cam.
5. Bad fuel quality.
6. Inadequate FO purification.
7. Overloading.

ME one unit Exhaust Temperature is high.

Causes:
1. Scavenge fire at that unit.
2. Leaky Exhaust Valve.
3. Faulty fuel valve & fuel pump ( poor atomization, late injection, after burning)
4. Blow pass.
5. Wrong adjustment and damaged cam.

Diesel Engine Knocking:

1. Ignition too early or too late.

2. Injection pressure too high.
3. Poor atomisation.
4. Uneven distribution of fuel to different cylinder.
5. Leaky or sticky Exhaust Valve.
6. Excessive play in oscillating parts.
7. Engine overload.

Smoky Exhaust:

1. Overload
2. Defective fuel valve
3. Scavenge fire
4. After burning
5. Unstable fuel
6. Insufficient air supply.
7. TC rpm not corresponding with Engine rpm.

Engine overload indication:

1. Speed drop
2. High Exhaust Temperature at same r.p.m.
3. More fuel consumption.
 111

Causes of engine overload:

1. Hull fouling (caused by marine growth)

2. Propeller damaged
3. Shallow water
4. Heavy weather

How do you check Engine Performance?

1. Take Indicator Cards.

2. Calculate rpm, Power Output, fuel and LO consumption.
3. Check Exhaust Temperatures and smoke.

Log book:
To check Performance; (Exhaust Temperatures, Load Indicator, Consumption etc….)

Hull Fouling: (high Load Indicator, high Exhaust Temperatures and Speed drop)

Fishing Net on Propeller: (high Load Indicator, high Exhaust Temperatures and Speed
drop, good weather, just came out from docking)

To check Machinery Performance from daily basic:

» To determine conditions of ME and Auxiliary machinery performances from daily basic,

Log Book is checked daily.

1. Temperatures & pressures of CW & LO.

2. Scavenge air temperature & pressure.
3. TC & CAC conditions.
4. Exhaust temperatures & smoke.
5. Load indicator
6. Engine RPM
7. Fuel, CLO & LO consumption.
8. KW, Voltage and frequency, engine running parameters for AE, etc.

Colour of smoke:

» Blue – Excess cylinder oil, leak of oil cooled piston.

» White – Excess water and air, one unit misfire.
» Black – More fuel, fuel valve leak, ignition too late.
» Yellow – High Sulphur content ( Normal 1 – 1.5 % )
» Colourless – Good.

Engine cannot start, why?

1. Insufficient air
2. Air starting valve sticking
3. Defective distributor
4. Fuel line air locked.
5. Defective nozzle
 112

6. Too late fuel timing

7. Fuel line filter choked
8. Water in fuel
9. Poor compression
10. Lack of scavenge air
11. LO low temperature
12. System air locked.
13. Safety Interlock (failure when manoeuvring).

Differences of Slow and Medium Speed Engine:

» Reduction Gear Box

» Flexible Coupling
» Clutch

Flexible Coupling:

» To prevent or absorb torsional vibration which may cause damage to Reduction

Gear teeth.
» Radial and circumferential cracks may occur when using long time.
» Circumferential crack is dangerous.
» Renew coupling.

How to select temperature of fuel inlet at purifier?

» Selection of temperature depends on gravity disc size and as recommended by
purifier maker.

Temperature at Viscotherm unit:

» Calculated from temperature viscosity graph.

Viscosity Meter: Show Viscosity value.

Viscotherm unit: Automatic (thermostatic) Viscosity Controller.

Advantages of CAC:

1. Increased air density more fuel burnt more power obtained.

2. Increased Scavenge Efficiency.
3. Reduced Exhaust Temperature. (Air 1°C rise Exhaust 2°C rise)
4. Reduced engine thermal load.

Winch Safety Devices:

1. Overload trip.
2. Centrifugal Brake.
3. Magnetic Brake.
4. Limit Switch.
5. Hydraulic oil high temperature alarm and cutout
6. Hydraulic oil low level alarm.
 113

Safety Device on Winches: Over speed

No Load
Overload Trip

What you will know from Indicator Card?

1. To know engine power.
2. To calculate fuel consumption.
3. To know roughly the condition of compression and combustion.

How you will check B&W fuel pump timing?

» To find the moment of port closure by using trammel.

How you will adjust B&W fuel pump timing?

» By lifting or lowering the plunger.

Labyrinth seal: To isolate and prevent oil and gas by pressurized air from blower side.

What is automation?
» Self-acting or self-moving of a machine.
» Able to work or be worked without attention.

Type of Control in Automatic System:

1) Electronic 2) Electro Hydraulic 3) Electro Pneumatic 4) Pneumatic

Automation Advantages:
1. Staff reduced.
2. Reduce physical stress for responsible person.
3. Less engine damage caused by human error.
4. Safe and easy to locate faults.
5. Reduction in overall running cost.
6. Less maintenance due to close supervision.

Safety System for UMS vessel:

Alarm and Auto Slow Down

1. Low JK pressure
2. High JK temperature.
3. High LO temperature.
4. Difference in Exhaust Temperature.
5. EGB temperature alarm.

Auto Stop:
1. Low LO pressure.
2. Oil Mist Alarm.
3. Emergency Stop.

For what unit overhauling is done?

» To get maximum combustion efficiency.
 114

Pitting corrosion:
» If corrosion is localized, it is pitting corrosion.
» Caused by large cathodic area and small anodic area, hence intensity of attack at
anode is high.

Clearance for Gear Pump (backlash): 0.2 to 0.5 mm.

Clearance for Centrifugal Pump: 0.2 to 0.5 mm

0.4 to 0.6 mm (for wear ring and
impeller sealing surface)

Device fitted on Centrifugal Pump for Bilging: Self priming pump.

Minimum Requirements for Spare Gear:

1. For ME; 1 unit set of Head, Liner, Piston and Rings, Connecting Rod, Cross-
head Bearing, Main Bearing, Crank Pin Bearing, Cam Gear, Chain Link 6 Nos. and
set of Telescopic Pipes.
2. 2 Fuel Valves complete and sufficient parts.
3. 1 set complete Lubricator.
4. 1 set complete Fuel Pump
5. 4 Nos. High Pressure Pipes.
6. 1 set complete Rotor for TC and Bearings.
7. 1 set complete Reduction Gear and Bearing.
8. For Generator; If 2 Generators – ½ set of Spares.
If 3 Generators – 1 set of Spares.
9. For Compressor; 1 set of Piston Rings.
½ set of Suction and Delivery Valves.

Jacket Cooling Water Test:

1. To know the water condition and give treatment.

2. To prevent corrosion and scale formation.

Engine Load Test:

» Shop Trial; Measured by water dynamometer.

» Sea Trial; Measured by Torsional Meter.

Tail end shaft Load Test:

» By means of Turning Gear and Ampere reading.

Piston’s function:

» To transmit Gas load to Connecting Rod and Crankshaft for rotational load.

Piston Ring’s function:

1. To provide effective sealing.

2. To prevent excessive built up of pressure in crankcase.
 115

What is Scuffing?

1. Scuffing is a form of micro-seizure of Piston Ring when LO breaks down.

2. Scuffing is caused due to;
a) Bad Cylinder Lubricant
b) Defective Cyl. Lubricator
c) Insufficient LO Points
d) No oil groove in liner
e) Absence or wrong Scraper Rings.

Causes of Piston Ring Failure

1. Insufficient ring & groove clearance

2. Insufficient lubrication
3. Insufficient ring gap
4. Excess liner wear
5. Excess radial clearance between piston & liner
6. Excess wear on piston ring landing face in groove

Piston material

» 2 stroke – Crown; Heat resistance Chrome Molybdenum steel.

– Skirt; Special Pearlitic steel.
» 4 stroke – Both Crown and Skirt; Silicon Aluminium alloy.

Piston Cooling

» Required when piston bore is greater than 12"

For 2/S – 10" For 4/S – 15"
» To reduce thermal stress to prevent piston overheating.

Causes of Piston crack

1. Material fault
2. Design Fault
3. Insufficient Cooling
4. High cooling temperature
5. Scale in cooling space
6. Local overheating
7. Local impingement
8. High water content level

» Max Crown Temp 300°C

» Ring Zone Temp 130°C
» Axial Clearance 0.17 mm for Compression ring
0.06 mm for Oil ring
» Gap Clearance 2 mm for up to 500 mm bore.
 116

Stuffing Box

» To prevent contamination of crankcase and LO reaching to combustion chamber.

Scraper Rings and Sealing Rings; Upper section – Bronze
Lower section – Cast Iron and Bronze.
Total Gap Clearance: 18 mm for 3 Segments
24 mm for 4 Segments
Groove Clearance: 0.07 to 1.20 mm

Stuffing Box:

1. Gap clearance: 4 mm at each joint.

2. Vertical clearance 0.08 – 0.14 mm for Scraper rings.
0.12 – 0.16 mm for Sealing rings.

Compare Conventional Exhaust Valve and Hydraulic Exhaust Valve:

Conventional Hydraulic

1 Used in 4/S Engine ( Pielstick PC 2–6 ) 2/S Engine ( B&W, L–MC/MC E )

Valve is opened by Cam peak, push rod
2 and rocking lever, which bears the valve
spindle, pushing downwards.
3 Valve is normally kept closed by Spring
force, pushing the Spindle upwards.
Rotocap is rotated by increased Spring
4 force during valve opening, together with
steel ball, spring and spring plate.
5 No Safety Valve fitted.
6 Valve opening stroke depends on Tappet
Clearance.
7 Lubrication system required.
8 Higher noise level.
9 Regular maintenance required and tappet
clearance to be checked
10 More wears and tears.
Valve is opened by oil pressure (160 bar)
created, when Cam pushes Actuator Pump
piston up and displaces specific volume of
oil, and Hydraulic Piston push down the
valve spindle.
Normally kept closed by compressed air
(5–7 bar) under Air Spring Piston.
Valve Rotator is rotated by small vanes,
made possible by Pneumatic Spring.
Safety Valve on hydraulic oil line opens
when pressure reaches 300 bars.
Opening stroke adjusted by oil volume
discharged by Actuator Pump.
Separate Lubrication System not required.
Low noise level.
Less maintenance.
Less wears and tears.
 117

Gear Drive (Medium Speed) & Direct Drive (Slow Speed) Engine Comparison:

» To compare both types with same power output:

Advantages of Gear Drive Engine;

1. Higher propulsive efficiency due to flexible coupling drive with reduction gear.
2. No scavenge fire.
3. Reduction in no. of engine starts hence lesser compressor running time.
4. No sudden injection of cold start air into hot cylinder, hence lesser thermal stress
and liner failure.
5. Able to test engine full speed while vessel being alongside.
6. Increased reliability by having more than one engine per screw.
7. One engine can be shut down and overhauled at sea.
8. Reduction in engine size reduces unit-overhauling time.
9. Smaller engine size allows smaller ER, hence more cargo space available.
10. Low initial cost.
11. Simple bridge control with better manoeuvrability and less staff.

Disadvantages:

1. Working parts greatly increased.

2. Extra care for governor due to higher speed, and one complete spare set must be
onboard.
3. Complex piping arrangement.
4. Higher fuel consumption rate and higher LO losses.

IHP Calculation:

1. To determine IHP, a set of diagram is taken consisting of one diagram for each
cylinder.
2. Area of diagrams and MEP is determined by Planimeter.
3. Planimeter has a Needle Point pressed into the board, and held in position by a
weight.
4. A Tracing Point (needle or magnifying glass) is moved over the diagram outline.
5. The Rollers in contact with the board, revolts as diagram outline is traced.
6. Area of diagram is read off from Counter and Vernier scale.
(Calibration of the Instrument is checked by measuring a known area.)
7. MEP is obtained by dividing the Area by Length of diagram, and multiplied by the
scale of the spring used.
8. MEP is one of the factors used for calculation of IHP.
 118

Power Calculation:

IP = PLAN x No. of Cyls. (kW)

P = MEP ( KN/m²) = (Area of diagram / Length of diagram) x Spring scale.

L = Stroke Length ( m )
A = Cylinder bore area ( m² )
N = N for 2/S single acting: (rps)
= N/2 for 4/S single acting:
= 2N for 2/S double acting:
[ 1 HP = 0.746 kW ]

Power Calculation from Power Card:

1. Take area of indicator diagram by the use of Planimeter.

2. Then divided by Length of diagram.
3. The result is Mean height of the card.
4. Then multiplied by Spring Scale.
5. MEP will be obtained.
6. Substitute the IP formula, IP = PLAN x no. of cylinders.

Functions of Fuel Valve:

1. Atomisation
2. Penetration
3. Turbulence (swirl)
 119

LO & Fuel Oil:

Lubricating Oil
Viscosity:
1. A measure of internal resistance to flow.
2. Viscosity of an oil changes with temperature, falling when temperature rises and vice
versa.
3. For crankcase oil, viscosity is between 130 – 240 Sec. Redwood No. 1 at 60°C.
4. For cylinder oil, viscosity is 12.5 – 22 Cst.

Viscosity Index, VI:

1. The rate of change of viscosity of an oil, in relation to change of temperature.
2. Oil of low VI has greater change of viscosity with change in temperature,
than the oil of high VI.
3. For crankcase oil, VI is between 75 – 85; For cylinder oil, VI is 85.
4. Highest VI of mineral oils is about 115 and with special additives, this may be raised
to about 160.
5. Hydraulic oils, used in remote control hydraulic circuits must have very high VI;
otherwise erratic response to the controls can be troublesome. (Telemotor hydraulic
system oil has VI of 110.)

Pour Point:
» Lowest temperature at which an oil will barely flow.
» Pour point indicates that oil is suitable for cold weather or not.
» For crankcase oil, Pour Point is, – 18°C.

TAN and TBN:

1. TAN is the ability of an oil, to react with basic reagent, which indicates the acidity
expressed as TAN.
2. TBN is the ability of an oil, to react with acidic reagent, which gives an Alkali figure,
the TBN.
3. Expressed in milligrams of KOH required to neutralise one gram of sample oil, for both
TAN and TBN.
4. For crosshead type engine crankcase oil: TBN is 8 mg KOH/gm of oil.
5. For Trunk type engine using HO, crankcase oil: TBN is 30 mg KOH/gm of oil.

Detergency/Dispersancy:
1. Deposits occur in engine crankcase or ring zone, due to semi-solid precipitation
from LO.
2. High temperature effect accelerates the rate of such deposition.
3. To reduce formation of such deposits, oil is treated with Detergent/Dispersant
Additives, for keeping the system clean and trouble-free.
4. When using conventional mineral oils, these deposits block exhaust passage and
prevent free movement of piston rings.
5. Addition of Detergent Additive prevents deposition of such deposits and washes
them away with LO.
6. By addition of Dispersant Additive, tiny particles are carried in colloidal suspension,
and dispersed evenly throughout the bulk of oil.
7. Detergent/Dispersant Additives are complex chemical compounds, such as metallic
based Sulphonates, Phosphonates, Phenates and Salicylates.
 120

Function of Lubricant:

1. Reduce friction.
2. Remove heat.
3. Flush away contaminants.
4. Protect corrosion.
5. Dampen noise.
6. In some case, act as sealant.

Types of Lubrication:

1. Hydrodynamic lubrication.
2. Boundary lubrication.
3. Hydrostatic lubrication.
4. Elasto hydrodynamic lubrication.

Hydrodynamic lubrication: [full fluid film]

1. Moving surfaces are completely separated by continuous unbroken film.
2. Lubricant, because of its viscosity, is drawn between the surfaces and builds up a
film, by the action of moving parts.
3. Thickness of film: 0.025 – 0.10 mm.
4. Essential requirement is formation of oil wedge between the surfaces.
5. Lubrication for Journal Bearing, Bottom End Bearing, Tilting Pad Thrust Bearing.

Boundary lubrication.
1. It exists when full fluid film lubrication is not possible.
2. High friction between surfaces, and a degree of metal to metal contact occurs.
3. Lubricant oil film decreases, until asperities of mating surfaces touch.

Hydrostatic lubrication:
1. A form of Hydrodynamic lubrication, but instead of being self-generated, it is
supplied from external source of oil under pressure, from a pump.
2. Lubrication for Crosshead Bearings, with attached pump.

Elasto-hydrodynamic lubrication:
1. Applied to line contact or nominal point between rolling or sliding surfaces, as in
ball bearings, roller bearings and gear trains.
2. Thin film lubrication limits metal to metal contact.
3. Elastic deformation of metals occurs, and there is high-pressure effect on the
lubricant.

Contaminants in LO:

(1) Water:
1. Owing to condensation of water vapour in crankcase.
2. Leakage from cooling water system for cylinder or piston.
3. Combined with oil in the form of emulsion.
4. Combined with sulphurous products of combustion to form Sulphuric Acid, in trunk
engine.
 121

(2) Fuel Dilution:

1. Presence of fuel oil in crankcase oil is indicated by reduction in viscosity and flash
point.
2. Result from poor atomisation of fuel injectors.

(3) Oxidation Products:

1. Mineral oils react with oxygen in air and form oil-soluble organic acid, lacquers,
resin and sludge, depending upon temperature and degree of contact with air.
2. Accelerated by contact with copper and iron, which act as catalyst.

(4) Fuel Combustion Products:

1. Mainly acids and incompletely burnt fuel form sludge and deposits.
2. Inorganic acids from combustion of high-sulphur residual fuel.

(5) Foreign Mineral Matters:

1. Rust and scales from storage tanks and pipes, etc.
2. Dust from surrounding atmosphere.
3. Wear debris from lubricated surface [not entirely hydrodynamic], and from
corrosion of cylinder liner.

(6) Biological contamination:

1. Associated with ‘wet oil’ caused by leakage from cooling system.
2. It causes formation of organic acids, sludge and additive depletion, corrosion of
shaft and bearings.
3. If happened, complete oil change may be necessary, thorough sterilisation and
cleaning out of cooling system, and leakage to be stopped.
4. Addition of biocides to both oil and water, helps.

Symptoms of LO Contamination:

1. Increased Sump sounding (severe SW contamination).

2. Change in pressure and colour (Emulsification of oil, with water and residues of
treated cylinder oil from diaphragm or scrapper box leakage).
3. Change in pressure (Reduction in viscosity and flash point, due to fuel oils.)
4. Frequent choking of filters due to sludge formation and Additive depletion, due to
biological contamination.
5. Darkened oil colour and yellowish colour film on surface, pungent smell & sludge
formation, due to microbial degradation.
6. Particles of rust and scales, mostly ferrous, trapped in magnetic filter (Corrosion of
shaft and bearings, due to water, fuel combustion products.)
7. Wear debris, and welding spatter trapped at magnetic filter (Contamination of foreign
mineral matters.

How to remove contaminants:

1. Filtering - removed large oil insoluble matter.
2. Gravity separation – heavy matters, sludge and water.
3. Adding special additives - reduce acids, sludge, finer oil insoluble matter.
4. Centrifuging - Sludge, foreign matter and water.
5. Water washing – only for straight mineral oil or oil without additives, can
remove acids.
 122

Water washing:
1. It can be carried out on straight mineral oil but not for detergent / dispersant type oil
2. The purpose is to remove acids, salts and other impurities from the oil.
3. Water should be injected before purification at a rate of 3% to 5% of oil flow.
4. Oil temperature should be around 75C and water temperature about 5C higher than
oil temperature.

Batch purification:
1. If oil is contaminated with strong acids, high insoluble contents or water, batch
purification of the entire charge oil should be done.
2. In port, the entire charge oil is pumped by purifier or circulating pump into
Renovating Tank, fitted with steam heating coils.
3. Allowed to settle for at least 24 hours at about 60C.
4. Water and sludge must be periodically drained out.
5. Then oil is passed through the purifier at its optimum throughput and pumped back to
Sump Tank.
6. During the time when the sump tank is empty, its interior should be cleaned and
examined.
7. This should be done at least once a year.

Throughput of a purifier: The best purification result is obtained if oil is kept inside the
bowl as long as possible, i.e. throughput should be as low as possible and also more frequent
desludging once every hour.

If LO is contaminated with SW:

1. When sump oil is contaminated with SW, find sources of leakage [may be from
LO cooler during ME stoppage] and rectified.
2. In port or while ME is stopped, transfer contaminated oil through purifier or
transfer pump into Renovating Tank, settled for at least 24 hours at about 60°C,
and water and sludge drained out periodically.
3. Oil passed through purifier at 78°C with optimum efficiency, and pump back to
Renovating Tank.
4. When Sump Tank is empty, interior cleaned and examined.
5. Purified oil sent to Laboratory and tested.
6. During this time, new oil should be used.
7. Oil should be reused, if Lab results recommended that it is fit for further use.
[Straight mineral oil: 3% water washed. Additive oil: 1% water washed.]

L.O. for Crankcase Viscosity 130 – 240 Sec. Redwood No. 1 at 60'C.
VI 75 – 85 Pour pt. – 18'C Closed flash pt.220'C
TBN (trunk type) 30 mgKOH/gm of oil
TBN ( X-Head Type ) 8 mgKOH/gm of oil.

Water in LO
Effects:
1. Can form Acids.
2. Can cause corrosion on m/c parts.
3. Microbial degradation. [Reduce centrifuging efficiency; promote local pitting and
corrosion].
 123

4. Reduce load carrying capacity.

5. Reduce L.O. properties, and TBN of oil.
6. Form sludge due to emulsification.
Remedies:
1. Proper purification with minimum throughput.
2. Batch purification if heavy contamination.

Maximum Allowable % of water in LO

1. For crosshead engine, < 0.2% is satisfactory.
2. If water content exceed 0.5 ~ 1.0%, immediate action should be taken.
If > 1%, engine can be damaged.
3. For trunk type engine, < 0.1% is satisfactory.
If > 0.5%, immediate action should be taken and
it is maximum permissible content.

LO tests onboard:

Tests carried out on used diesel crankcase oil:

1. Viscosity {changes caused by dilution with fuel oil}.
2. Closed flash point {changes caused by dilution with fuel oil}.
3. Insoluble
4. Water content
5. Acidity.

(1) Viscosity determination:

» Viscosity and closed flash point will fall by fuel oil contamination.
» Changes in these values are a measure of dilution, and up to 8% contamination can be
tolerated.
Three Tubes Rolling Ball Viscometer:
1. Assume that system oil is SAE 30.
2. One tube filled with minimum safe viscosity, SAE 20.
3. One tube filled with maximum safe viscosity, SAE 40.
4. Last tube filled with test sample.
5. All tubes placed in warm water, until at same temperature.
6. All tubes placed on tilted board and inverted, so that internal hollow balls rise to
surface, with different time taken.
7. If time taken for test sample is between upper and lower limit oils, this sample oil
is fit for further use.

(2) Insoluble Content:

» Insoluble are soot, dust, metallic particles, asphaltene, oxidation products, and
products of deterioration.
Blotter Test:
1. Single drop of sample oil is released from a given height onto a sheet of Special
Filter Paper.
2. The result is compared with Standard Test Paper, of similar oil with known varying
insoluble content.
3. Test oil should be below the upper limit:
Upper limits of insoluble are: 1.00% to 1.5% for Straight Mineral Oil,
5% for Detergent/Dispersant type Oil.
 124

(3) Water and other contaminants by:

Crackle Test:
1. Pour a known amount of sample oil into a test tube.
2. Hold the test tube over small spirit lamp, shaking it while doing so.
3. If there is no crackling, the oil is dry.
A slight crackle indicates a trace of water.

(4) Acidity Determination:

1. Tested by extracting the acids from sample oil, by means of shaking with known
amount of distilled water, in a test tube.
2. Acidic extract is placed on a watch glass, with Indicator Solution of known
strength.
3. The mixture is drawn into a glass tube, and compared with Colour Standards, each
representing a known pH value. Sample can be determined quite accurately.

Microbial Degradation:

» If free water is present in crankcase, micro-organisms may grow, at oil water interface,
by consuming hydrocarbons in oil.
» Infestation at early stage may not be harmful but in case of severe infestation, corrosion
within machinery parts may arise.
» Complete oil change is necessary.

Indication:

1) Darkened oil colour and yellowish colour film on surface.

2) Pungent smell
3) Sludge formation.

Poor quality fuel:

High pour pt.: Needs extra heating for storage tank.

High density: Causes purification difficulties.
High viscosity: Pumping difficulties and more heat required getting suitable injection
viscosity at injector.
Low cetane no. Late injection and after burning. It is considered as poor fuel, if C 37 .
Abrasive group: (ash, silica, nickel, catfines): Cause wear on cylinder liner, piston rings, ring
grooves and fuel injection equipment.
Corrosion group: (Sulphur, Vanadium, Sodium): Low temperature corrosion due to sulphur.
Acid dew point is 120 – 160°C
High temperature corrosion due to Vanadium, Sodium and Sulphur
at 460 – 570°C
Corrosion or vapour locking at fuel injection equipment, due to water.
Fouling group: (catfines, CCR): Slow burning due to Asphaltine, combustion space fouling
and T/C fouling due to CCR.
 125

Flash Point:
1. Lowest temperature at which an oil will give off sufficient flammable vapour, to
produce a flash when a small flame is brought to the surface of the oil.
2. Minimum flash point for on-board use is 60°C.
3. Fuel storage temperature must be kept at least 14°C lower than its flash point.
4. Average closed flash points: Petrol – 20°C: Paraffin 40°C: Diesel Oil 65°C:
LO 220°C: 70 cst Fuel Oil 71°C: Heavy Oil 100°C:

Pour Point:
1. Lowest temperature at which the oil barely flow.
2. It is just above the lowest temperature at which liquid flows under its own weight.
3. It must be low, otherwise fuel tends to solidify and due to poor heat transfer
property, fuel cannot be returned to its original state by heating.
4. Fuel storage temperature must be kept at least 10°C higher than its pour point.
5. At least 40 – 50°C higher than its pour point, for cold weather condition.

Homogenizer:
1. It is a device to create stable oil and water emulsion, which can be bunt in boilers
and diesel engines.
2. This emulsion can burn more efficiently and reduce solid emission in exhaust gas.
3. It can reduce catfines into finely ground particles, which do not harm.

How to order bunker:

1. Take essential data from master, such as distance to go with average speed, river
passage, pilotage, port stay, etc. To check ROB.
2. Estimate HO and DO consumption based on weather, wind and current condition,
running hours of AEs auxiliary boiler and ME.
3. Estimate the 3 days reserve, considering unpumpable quantity, bunker allowance
or bunker margin.
4. Calculate the capacity to receive, bunker amount, type of bunker, HO, DO or LO.
5. Bunker should be allowed 85% of tank capacity.
6. Arrange not to mix with remaining onboard fuel.

Total required bunker from port to port = {Distance to go with average speed + River
Passage + Pilotage + Port Stay + 3 Days Reserve }

Bunker to be ordered: = { Total required – ROB }

CE’s Responsibility during Bunkering:

CE is overall in charge of bunkering.

Responsibilities are:

1. Fire prevention
2. Oil pollution prevention
3. Calculation
4. Recording and informing.

Discuss at Bunkering Meeting about: Quantity / Bunkering Sequence / Distribution Plan.

 126

Make preparations for both Deck and Engine Department, in accordance with pre-bunkering
checklist.
Prepare all necessary papers as per local regulations.

Fire Prevention:

1. Prohibit naked light and smoking around bunker area.

2. Place portable fire extinguisher at bunker point.
3. Bunker oil flash point 65°C, as a rule.
4. Ensure no oil leakage.

Pollution Prevention:

1. Clear overflow tank and top up settling and service tank.

2. Clean System filters, sight glass, and pressure gauge in good order.
3. Ensure bunker system valves in good order, and the correct valves have been opened.
4. Take all soundings of fuel tanks, and calculate the amount to be put into each tank.
( 85% of tank capacity is maximum. )
5. Explain bunkering sequence to all engineers.
6. Check security of hose coupling, and one responsible engineer to be stand-by at
bunker station to watch break or spill at hose connection.
7. Agree the pumping rate or pressure with pump man or barge master, remembering that
a burst hose can cause pollution. Discuss slow down operation and emergency stop
procedure.
8. Make good communication between bunker point, barge or shore supply, and tank
control station.
9. Leakage or overflow of oil to deck strictly prevented. Saw dust, OSD, and rags, ready
at bunker point.
10. Duty officer to be informed, the amount to be bunkered and expected time of the work.
11. Plugged all deck scuppers.
12. Maintain the upright position as possible as.

For Calculations:

1. Take all soundings of fuel tanks, before and after bunkering.

2. Take fore and aft draughts, before and after bunkering.
3. Take soundings of barge or to check flow meter reading, before and after bunkering.
4. Record the oil temperature.
5. Calculate corrected sp.gr. at measuring point temperature, SGc.
6. By multiplying SGc with total volume, obtained from sounding table, total amount of
bunker in tons will be obtained.

Bunker Barge Arrival:

1. Record exact time of barge arrival and departure.

2. Check local supplier's paperwork, to ensure that specification and quantity ordered is
correct.
3. Check for correct specification, and compatibility tested, by using a test kit.
4. Check water content of bunker is at acceptable level.
5. Ensure that onboard fuel handling equipment is adequate and serviceable at all times.
 127

Bunkering:

1. Start bunkering at slow rate, and then raise the pumping rate.
2. Always check and witness the flow meters, tank gauges and tank dips, before and
after delivery, to ensure that the right quantity has in fact been supplied.
3. Random checks to ensure correct specification of oil being supplied during
bunkering.
4. Take a continuous drip sample. Compatibility test of bunker carried out.
5. Always insist on being given a sealed sample of bunkers delivered, which should
be witnessed and signed by both parties.
6. When 80% of total capacity reaches, pumping rate slow down and final topping up
done.

After Bunkering:

1. Record the time and read flow meter on bunker boat or on shore.
2. All filling valves kept open, until final air blowing is completed.
3. Remain hose connections until correct quantity of oil has been received after
calculation.
4. Then close bunker main valve, system valves and individual tank valves.
5. Take final soundings and bunker temperature from both ship and barge to calculate
actual amount.
6. When calculating the bunker received, the ship's trim and temperature of the oil
must be taken into account.
7. Both party signed on sample bottles and sent to laboratory.
8. Inform duty officer, starting and stopping time, amount of bunker received and
tank soundings, for stability calculation and custom claiming purposes.
9. Make entries into ORB and Logbook.
10. Prepare Bunker Report and sent to HO.

FO Overflow while Bunkering: [Action taken by CE.]

1. Stop pumping of fuel immediately.

2. Report to Master and contact Port Authority or persons concerned, about oil
pollution incident.
3. Detail description of actions taken immediately by crew, using equipment from Oil
Spill Locker to reduce and control the oil flow.
4. Arrange point of contact onboard, for co-ordinating shipboard action with local
authorities, in combating pollution.
5. Make entry into ORB, date, time, place and amount of overflow.

Bad fuel:

1. Bunker should be received in empty tank and made segregated.

2. During bunkering, compatibility test should be done.
3. Sealed sample sent to laboratory for analysis.
4. Maintain storage temperature well above pour point. (About 40'/50'C under coldest
climate condition.)
5. Settling tank temperature maintained about 14'C below flash point to improve
gravitational separation. Regular drain out of water and impurities.
 128

6. Fuel transfer lines steam traced, and transfer pump suction filter cleaned.
7. If necessary, dose chemicals, e.g. Gamma Break- Unitor, into storage tanks ( DB
tanks) by using dosage pump for chemical.
8. Regular cleaning of coarse filters.
9. Two purifiers run in parallel, to get enough fuel for engine, with optimum
throughput and correct heating temperature (98'C). Gravity disc, carefully chosen.
If necessary, double stage centrifuging will be done with purification and
clarification in series.
10. Maintain correct service tank temperature. Dose some chemicals, to improve
combustion efficiency. (Duel Purpose Plus, Unitor)
11. Maintain correct oil temperature, to get suitable viscosity at injectors,
( 10 ~ 18 Cst.). Fuel outlet from heater, controlled by Viscotherm Unit.
12. Steam tracer lines correctly heated, up to injector.
13. Maintain correct working temperature of engine, to prevent hot and cold corrosion
due to Vanadium and Sulphur attacks.
14. Check engine performance by taking indicator diagram.
15. If damage occurred due to bad fuel, prepare for insurance claim.

Compatibility:
1. Ability of two fuel to be blended together without precipitation of sediments, such
as asphaltine and sludge, etc.
2. Due to asphaltine and sludge, it can cause choking of filters, overloading of
purifier and immobilisation of vessel in severe case.

Remedies: For Incompatibility:

1. Keep fuels in empty tank and segregated.
2. Always carry out compatibility test when bunkering.
3. Incorporate homogenisation system to completely mix incompatible fuel
components prior to injectors.

Compatibility Test:
1. Pour 40 ml of sample into test tube. (20 ml for each fuel)
2. Add reagent of white spirit up to 80 ml. ( 40 ml white sprit)
3. Then the mixture is mixed well.
4. One drop of mixture is deposited on chromatographic paper and allowed to dry at
room temperature.
5. Then test drop is compared with five standard spots.
Spot 1 ~ 2 indicate compatible fuel.
Spot 3 ~ 5 indicate incompatible fuel.

Requirements for the use of high viscosity fuel:

1. Bunker tank-heating systems capable of maintaining fuel temperature about

40-50'C higher than Pour Point under the coldest climate condition.
2. Exposed bunker transfer pipes insulated and trace heated.
3. Treatment plant capable of purifying/clarifying high density fuels.
4. Engine preheaters designed to achieve recommended injection viscosity.
5. Trace heated and pressurised engine fuel system, allowing manoeuvring on
residual fuel.
6. Main and auxiliary engine designed to burn high viscosity fuel oil.
 129

Effects of Bad Fuel Oil:

1. Too much sludge formation in DB tank.

2. Frequent fuel line filter blockage.
3. Upsetting purifier.
4. Premature wears of fuel pump.
5. Carbon trumpet formation and leaky FV.
6. Excessive wears and cold corrosion of cylinder liner.
7. Excessive carbon deposits in piston rings.
8. Hot corrosion attack on Exhaust valve.
9. Choked turbine nozzle rings and broken blades.
10. Excessive carbon deposits on EGE.

Bunker Specifications:
Includes: Name of vessel, Port of bunker, Date of delivery, Product name, Temperature of
product.
Quality:
1. SG at 15°C
2. Viscosity at 50°C
3. Sulphur content % by weight
4. CCR % by weight
5. Flash Point [closed] °C
6. Pour Point °C
7. Water content % by volume
8. Sludge / Sediment % by weight
9. Cetane No.
10. Vanadium in ppm.

Bunkering:
1. Slow rate and record.
2. Take soundings.
3. Random check
4. Continuous drip sample.
5. Compatibility test
6. Slow down when 80% is reached.
7. Remain v/vs opened until after air blow.
8. Remain hose connection until after calculation.
9. Take sealed sample.
10. Close all valves.

Viscotherm Unit:
A device to adjust the viscosity of oil to get desired value, which is essential for correct
atomisation and combustion of engine.

Operation:
1. Constant quantity of oil is taken from the flow and fed into capillary tube by means
of motor operated gear pump through reduction gear.
2. Oil flows through capillary tube under laminar condition and pressure drop across
the tube is measured by DP cell and its signal is directly proportional to oil
viscosity. A transducer is incorporated with DP cell.
 130

3. Signal given by DP cell is compared with a set value and any deviation can cause
drive signal to adjust pneumatic control steam inlet valve to oil heater.
4. Normally the required injection viscosity is 10 ~ 18 Centistrokes and required
value is set at transducer.

VIT:

1. Load-dependent start of fuel injection control system.

2. VIT mechanism automatically change the fuel injection timing, according to load,
to get maximum combustion pressure (Pmax) at engine load between 85% ~ 100%.
3. Reduction in SFOC is about 2.0 gm / bhp / hr at 85% engine load.
4. VIT fuel pump incorporates variable injection timing with optimised fuel economy,
at part load.
5. Expansion Ratio is increased.
Maximum Pressure
Expansion Ratio =
Pressure at the start of Exhaust Blow-down

6. Required fuel viscosity at engine inlet is 10 ~ 20 Cst.

In other words:
1. If an engine running at prolong period at reduced load, lower air temperature after
compression, will cause increase in ignition delay of injected fuel, subsequently
causing knocks and poor combustion.
2. This problem can be reduced by adoption of VIT system, to advance the start of
injection, then allowing the same Pmax, at part load.

Operation of VIT: [ Valve control type: Sulzer RTA ]

1. Fuel Quality Setting [FQS] lever is used for manual adjustment of VIT mechanism
to alter valves timing, according to ignition quality of fuel used. [If poorer quality
fuel is used at same valve timing, Pmax will drop, and with better ignition quality
fuel, Pmax will rise.]
2. VIT mechanism is linked to Governor Load Setting Shaft and built-in cam system,
which is positioned by FQS lever.
3. This mechanism controls the timings of Suction Valve closure (beginning of
delivery) and Spill Valve opening (end of delivery) through linkages simultaneously.
4. Hence, fuel injection timing, Pmax, and fuel delivery to injectors, are controlled
load-dependently.

Thermal Cracking:

1. Atoms within hydrocarbon molecule are excited by heating, thus lighter fraction of
molecule breaks-off and condensed.
2. Remaining portions of original molecule then unite to form more heavier
molecule.
3. Thermal cracking produces Asphaltene, which has heavy hydrocarbon molecules,
causing slow burning in fuel combustion.
 131

LO & Fuel Oil:

Supplementary:

Fuel oil blending system.

» Heavy oil changed to intermediate fuel oil mixing with certain amount of DO to get
viscosity 10 Cst.
» Roughly 380 Cst HO mixed with 10 % DO to get viscosity 10 Cst.
» HO and DO are drawn with metering pump through line blender into the tank.
» Ratio may be 60/40 or 70/30 also.
» Used for A/E and not for ME.

Cylinder LO Requirements:

1. Must reduce sliding friction to minimum.

2. Possess adequate viscosity at high temperature, and still be sufficiently fluid to form
good absorbed oil film.
3. Form an effective seal preventing gas blow-by, lack of compression and burning
away of oil film.
4. Burn cleanly, leaving as little and as soft a deposit as possible.
5. Prevent deposit built-up in ring zones and exhaust ports.
6. Effectively neutralize corrosive effects of mineral acids formed during fuel
combustion.

Functions of CLO:

1. Reduce friction.
2. Reduce wear.
3. Prevent seizure.
4. Prevent corrosion.
5. Prevent oxidation.
6. Prevent deposit formation.
7. Prevent emulsification with water.
8. Reduce foaming.
9. Lessen change in viscosity with temperature.
10. Lower the freezing point.
11. Remove and carry away heat.
12. Neutralise acidic products of combustion.
13. Dampen noise.
14. Act as sealant.

Purifier: Clarifier:

1. Two outlets (oil and water). Oil outlet only.

2. Gravity disc on top. No gravity disc
3. Blind disc on top. Blind disc at bottom.
4. Hole at bottom. No hole at bottom
5. Water sealing space required. No water sealing space required.
 132

Purifier sealing water flow rate:

1. When flow rate is low, water discharges only through water outlet.
2. If flow rate is high, water discharges from both water and oil outlets, so
arrangements are made to reduce flow rate.

Change Purifier to Clarifier:

WESTFALIA: Put Blind disc to bottom.

Put rubber ring.
Remove gravity disc.
Close water outlet.

What will you do in case of HO Purifier out of order?

1. Use DO Purifier to purify HO.

2. Change Gravity Disc (small size)
3. Change sump oil grade used for HO purifier.
4. Use Heater.

Ordering of Bunker:

1. Take essential data from Captain; Distance to go, Average Speed, Steaming Time,
River Passage, Pilotage, Anchorage, Port Stay etc.
2. Calculate HO, DO and LO consumption.
3. Put on 3 days reserve.
4. Calculate ROB on arrival Bunker available Port.
5. Calculate tank capacity and check maximum 85% acceptable amount to order.
6. State clearly; Bunker amount
Type of Fuel required (HO or DO)
Viscosity (30, 180 or 380 Cst etc.)
In Bulks or Drums.

Bunkering:

Preparation:
1. Draw Bunker Plan and tank distribution not to effect ship list.
2. Bunker line damage to be rectified and filter cleaned.
3. Drain Tank, Overflow Tank to be cleared and Sett & Serv. Tanks to be filled up full.
4. Fire and Pollution prevention to be made and organise Emergency Team.
5. Inform Bridge for Scupper Plug and Bunker Signal.
6. Allocate individual duty and responsibility to each Engineer and Crew for Bunkering,
and their assignment list to be clearly posted in ER and at Bunker Point.
7. Take Tank Sounding, Draught, Trim and List, calculate ROB before Bunker.

Check on Receipt:

1. Check Type of Supply Oil, Viscosity, Flash Point, Water Content, and Amount to be
the same as ordered.
 133

Before Bunker Starts:

1. Take Barge Tank Soundings, Draught, Trim and List, water content measured.
2. Check Scupper Plug.
3. Check Bunker Connection including blanked side.

During Bunker:

1. Check supply pressure.

2. Both side bunker connections leakage.
3. Frequent Soundings.

To Prevent Shortage:

1. Check bunker oil with water finding paste.

2. Take soundings before and after of bunker barge and calculate the quantity supplied.
3. Take specification of supplied oil, temperature and sample.
4. Record times of starting and stopping.
5. Take final soundings of total bunker received and calculate the amount.
6. Use volume correction factor as per API gravity with exact oil temperature at time of
bunkering. Take barge sounding after supply.
7. Take oil sample, one for ship, one for supplier and one for analysis and all of them
sealed and signed by both CE and Bunker Supplier.
8. Enter total quantity to CE Logbook and inform Captain.

Content of Bunker Note (Bunker Specification)

Bunker barge temperature (temperature of product).

1. SG at 15°C
2. Viscosity, Cst at 50°C.
3. Water content.
4. Sulphur content.
5. CCR/Sludge/Sediment % by weight.
6. Flash Pt.
7. Pour Pt.
8. Cetane No.
9. Vanadium in PPM.
10. Total quantity.
11. Type of fuel (product name).
12. Date of delivery.
13. Port of Bunker
14. Name of vessel

How to calculate Bunker Receipt?

» SG of fuel oil changes in relation with change in temperature, so bunker barge
temperature must be considered to correct the Actual SG, for calculation of correct
amount of fuel.

1. Take bunker SG and Bunker barge temperature from Bunker Note.

2. Bunker SG is converted to degree API by the formula.
 134

141.5
Degree API = – 131.5
Bunker SG.

3. Volume Correction Factor VCF, is obtained from API and temperature.

(From table)
4. Take Soundings, and relative Volume is obtained from Sounding Table.
5. Actual Specific Gravity = Bunker m³ x VCF x Bunker SG

After Bunker Instructions: (After Bunker boat leaves)

1. Maintain storage temperature well above pour point.

2. Settling tank temperature maintained about 14°C below flash point to improve
gravitational separation.
3. Regular drain out of water and impurities.
4. Fuel transfer lines steam traced.
5. Transfer pump suction filter cleaned.
6. Regular cleaning of coarse filters.
7. If necessary, 2 purifiers run in parallel, to get enough fuel for engine, with optimum
throughput and correct heating temperature (98°C).
8. Or double stage centrifuging will be done with purifier and clarifier in series.
9. Gravity disc, carefully chosen.
10. Maintain correct Service Tank temperature.
11. Maintain correct oil temperature, to get suitable viscosity at injectors (10 ~ 18 Cst.).
12. Steam tracer lines correctly heated, up to injector.
13. Maintain correct working temperature of engine, to prevent hot and cold corrosion.
14. Check engine performance by taking indicator diagrams.

Preparation for safety (Before Bunkering)

1. Prohibit naked light and smoking around bunker area.

2. Place portable fire extinguisher at bunker point.
3. Ensure no oil leakage.
4. Bunker oil flash point 65°C, as a rule.
5. Plugged all deck scuppers.
6. Saw dust, OSD, and rags, ready at bunker point.
7. Sight glass, thermometer and pressure gauge in good order, clean system filters.
8. Explain bunkering sequence to all engineers.
9. Check security of hose coupling.
10. Make good communication.
11. Clear overflow tank and top up settling and service tank.
12. Ensure bunker system valves in good order, and the correct valves have been
opened.
13. Agree the pumping rate or pressure with pump man or barge master.
14. Remember the amount to be put into each tank is maximum 85% of tank capacity.
15. Maintain upright position as possible as.
 135

Difference in Cylinder oil and System oil:

» Cylinder oil is detergent/dispersant oil.

» System oil is straight mineral oil.

LO Contamination:

1. Contamination of FW (JW leaking).

2. Contamination of SW (Cooler leakage).
3. Contamination of Fuel (Poor Atomisation, Unburned Fuel).
4. Oxidation Product (High Exhaust Temperature, Burned Cyl Oil,
Carbon from incomplete combustion).
5. Foreign Minerals (Scale formation, Wear and Tare).

LO Contaminants that can cause corrosion:

1. Water, FW, SW
2. Fuel dilution
3. Oxidation products
4. Fuel combustion products
5. Biological contamination.

What will you do if LO is contaminated with FW or SW?

1. Batch Purification must be done.

2. Renovating Tank heating and regular draining.
3. For SW contamination, Water Washing is required.
4. Sump to be opened and thoroughly wipe out.

Maintenance of LO.

1. Purification
2. Filtering
3. Testing frequently (Acidity, Contamination, Viscosity, Detergency/Dispersency)

Filling LO to Sump:

» Minimum requirement 0.8 Ltr / HP

» With Piston Cooling 1.5 Ltr / HP
» Without Piston Cooling 1.0 Ltr / HP

Settling Tank purpose:

1. Storage
2. Settling
3. Heating
4. Gravitational separation.
 136

Low Temperature Corrosion:

1. Sulphur in fuel is the cause of cold corrosion.

2. Sulphur oxides reacts with moisture, during combustion, to form Sulphurous Acid
vapours.
3. When metal temperature falls below Acid Dew Point (bet: 120°C and 160°C),
vapours condensed as Sulphuric Acid, resulting in corrosion.
4. To avoid Cold Corrosion, working components’ temperatures be maintained above
Acid Dew Point by controlling the cooling water and good heat distribution.
5. But increasing the temperature to avoid Cold Corrosion may leads to increasing the
chances of Hot Corrosion also.

Cold Corrosion occurs in:

1. Gas duct of Exhaust Valve housing, around Spindle Guide and opposite the cooling
water inlet.
2. Cylinder liners and Piston Rings (due to high Sulphur content in HFO).

High Temperature Corrosion:

1. Vanadium in fuel influences Hot Corrosion.

2. It combines with Sulphur and Sodium, during combustion, to form Eutectic
Compounds with melting points between 460°C and 530°C, (depending on ratio of
the Compounds).
3. Such molten Compounds are highly corrosive and attack protective oxide layers on
Steel, exposing it to corrosion.
4. To avoid Hot Corrosion, running engine components’ temperatures be maintained
below melting points of Vanadium Compounds.

Hot Corrosion occurs in:

1. Exhaust Valves
2. Piston Crown.

Prevention of Microbial degradation:

1. Water leakage to be stopped immediately.

2. Drain valve to be fitted at lowest part of the crank case and drain frequently.
3. Maintain LO temperature of 82.5°C purifier.

Symptoms:

1. Colour: darkened oil colour and yellowish colour film on surface.

2. Smell: pungent smell.
3. Sludge formation.

VI values:

1. Fridge compressor crank case oil: 65–66

2. Air compressor crank case oil: 105
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3. CLO: 95
4. AE crank case LO 98
5. ME crank case LO 98
6. Steering gear system oil: 110
7. Telemotor hydraulic fluid: 110
8. Turbine oil: 105

CLO Feed Rate:

1. Uniflow: 0.3–0.5 gm/bhp/hr.

2. Loop / Cross Flow 0.5–0.8 gm/bhp/hr.
3. Sulzer RTA Super Long Stroke 1–1.2 gm/bhp/hr.

Effects on T/C, due to bad fuel:

1. Choked turbine nozzle ring and broken blades.

2. Excessive carbon deposits on turbine side require frequent water washing.
3. T/C fouling due to Catfines and CCR.
4. Cold corrosion.
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Motor Engineering Knowledge:

Bottom Section:

Crank Shaft:
1. Device for converting reciprocating motion of piston, driven by expansion of
gases, to rotating motion.
2. Power produced by engine is taken off the crankshaft by transmission.

Stresses in Crankshaft:
1. Bending of crank pin, causes tensile, compressive and shear stresses. (Due to gas
load)
2. Twisting moment of journal, causes shear stress.
3. Compressive stresses set up in journals and pins. ( Due to shrink-fit)
4. Tensile stresses set up in webs. ( Due to shrink-fit)
5. Torsional stresses due to power transmission fluctuate widely. ( In heavy sea)
6. Shock loading on crank pin. ( Sudden fluctuation of engine speed )

Types of crankshaft:
1. Solid forged
2. Semi-built
3. Fully-built
4. Welded crankshaft.

In large marine engine which type is used and why?

Usually, Semi-built is used because:

1. Only one shrink-fit between web and journal. [ less chance of slippage.]
2. Can get grain flow in way of web and pin.
3. Webs are smaller. [ no shrink-fit. ]
4. Can be repaired section by section when damage occurred.

Welded Crankshaft:
Die-forged crankthrow, consisting of thin webs and crankpin in one piece, having half a
main journal on each side.
Welds are placed and welded at the middle of all main journals, to make complete
crankshaft.
High technology Narrow gap welding process applied.

Fully-built Crankshaft manufacturing:

1. Raw material melted in Cupola Furnace.
2. Refined to remove impurities, by decarburising, controlling carbon amount and
soaking time.
3. Degassed in Vacuum Furnace, to remove H and N .
4. Molten metal is then poured into prepared mould.
5. Removed from mould, after slow cooling, and casting is rough-machined.
6. Normalised to improve grain structure, and tempered to remove stresses.
7. Rough-machined to final dimensions.
8. Cold roll the crank pin fillets, to increase bending and corrosion fatigue
resistance.
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9. Finish machining.
10. Shrink-fitting process follows. [Shrinkage allowance: 1/570 to 1/660 of journal
diameter.]
11. Set upon a large lathe, and journals checked for throw, and throw errors
machined out.

Material:
Cast Steel: Carbon 0.2% Maganese 0.7% Silicon 0.32% Sulphur 0.015%
Phosphorous 0.01% Remainder is Iron.

When to take Crankshaft Deflection:

1. At initial installation and after 1000 running hours.
2. At subsequent annual intervals if normal, ( 6000-8000 hrs. )
3. At the time of main bearing overhaul or removal for survey.
4. At foundation chock repair or renewal.
5. Damage on bearing bracket, holding down bolt, chock.
6. When major structure has been disturbed, such as: after fire breakout, propeller
bending or impounding with something, ship grounding, before and after docking.

Causes of misalignment:

1. Wear of main bearing lower shell.

2. Wear and ovality of main journal pin.
3. Main bearing damage.
4. Main bearing pocket cracked.
5. Bedplate deformed, transverse girder damaged.
6. Foundation bolts loose or fractured.
7. Foundation chocks broken, cracked or fretted.
8. Slacked or broken tie bolts.
9. Distortion of supporting ship's structure.
10. Defective structure due to corrosion.
11. Defective propeller shaft bearing
12. Lifting of flywheel side.
13. Hull deformation due to: Improper loaded condition of vessel, grounding and fire.

Results of misalignment:

1. Bending of crankshaft.
2. Fatigue failure owing to cyclic stresses.
3. Undue vibration within the engine.
4. Damage to main bearing.

Why you measure crankshaft deflection?

1. To ascertain whether or not, the axis of crankshaft journals deviates from

theoretical shaft axis.
2. Measuring is by a dial gauge, inserted between crank webs, and altered
distances can be read, when turning the crankshaft.
How to know the amount?
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1. Difference between the values at TDC and BDC indicates the amount of
crankshaft deflection, during one revolution.
2. Interpretation of crankshaft deflections gives an indication of high and low
bearings.

What will happen if a bearing is high or low?

1. When a bearing between 2 cranks is higher than those on either side of it, both
sets of crankwebs will tends to open out, when the cranks are on BDC, and close
in when on TDC.
2. Vice versa, if there is a low bearing between 2 cranks.

Requirements when taking crankshaft deflection:

1. Hull deflection not excessive.

2. Bed plate not distorted or bearing pockets not worn.

Foundation Chock:
Purpose:
1. To avoid misalignment on tank top surface.
2. To carry out adjustments on individual chock.
3. To correct any distortion.
4. To absorb collision load by end chocks.
5. To absorb side load, due to unbalanced reciprocating forces, by side chocks.

Advantages of Chockfast System: [Eposy Chock]

1. Reliable and permanent alignment of machinery foundation.

2. Resist degradation by fuel, LO and eliminate chock area corrosion.
3. Give uniform and precise mounting.
4. Non-fretting permanently.
5. Reduce noise level.
6. Can be used on all sizes and types of engines.
7. Maintain C/S deflection, machinery alignment and even Hull fouling.
8. Installation time is measured in hours, not in days.
9. Withstand temperature up to 80°C.
10. Give chock thickness up to 44 mm.

Chain Drive System: [B&W, KL – GF]

1. Used for camshaft driving, on any length between shaft centres with very small friction
loss.
2. Fuel Pumps and Exhaust Valves are operated by Camshaft, driven from Crankshaft, by
a roller chain [main] running over each sprocket wheel, being bolted to both shafts.
3. Chain should wrap around at least 120°on both sprockets.
4. Upward-running-side chain passes over an intermediate wheel, on which Tensioning
Device is fitted.
5. On another intermediate wheel’s shaft, there is another chain wheel and chain
[smaller], to drive Start Air Distributor, Governor and Lubricators.
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6. Chain is lubricated by oil sprayer jets, with continuous stream of oil onto the chain.
7. A roller chain consisting of side plates, bushing and rollers, and pin joints, which mesh
with tooted sprockets.
8. Shock-absorbing rubber clad guide bars, are provided to support the long chain, and to
prevent transverse vibration.
9. Renew cam chain after 15 years life.
10. Factor of safety of chain: Never less than 25.

Slack chain:

Symptoms:
1. Excessive chain vibration and noise.
2. Power loss in all units, indicated [by Power Card].
3. Late injection, low Pmax, [by Draw Card].
4. Late closing of Exhaust Valve, [by Light Spring Diagram].
5. High exhaust temperature and smoke.

Effects:
1. Impose heavy mechanical load, resulting fatigue failure.
2. Damage to chain system and engine frame.
3. Retardation of Fuel Pump and Exhaust Valve timings, resulting:
a) Reduced Scavenge Efficiency, due to late closing of Exht: V/v.
b) High exhaust temperature and smoke, due to after burning.
c) Low Pmax, due to late injection.
d) Reduced engine power.

Chain Casing Inspection:

1. Before 4000 running hrs and after lengthy voyage, chain tension is checked at
mid span of slack side, in transverse direction.
Limited transverse movement is ½ to one link pitch on slack side.
Excessive tension may cause chain breakage.
Excessive slackness may cause vibration and eventual failure.
2. Elongation [chain wear] is checked between 3000–5000 running hours.
Total length of 10 links drawn tight and measured, and chain-stretch calculated
in % by comparing with original length of 10 links.
Maximum elongation: 2%. Over 2%, the whole chain must be renewed.
Due attention given when elongation reaches 1.5%.
Stretching is the results of pin and bushing surface wearing out.
Chain length is measured in terms of number of links.
3. Nozzle sprayers, LO pipes and oil flow and direction, checked.
4. Loose bolts and pipe connections, checked.
5. Every link checked for blemish, and bright marks due to misalignment of wheels.
6. Sprocket teeth and wheel bearings checked for wear.
7. Rubber clad guide bars, rollers and side plates, checked for crack or damage.

How to adjust chain tension:

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1. Tensioning device [chain tightener] is used, and adjusting is limited to removing a

maximum 2 chain links.
2. Limited transverse movement is ½ to one link pitch on slack side.
3. When tightening, engine is to be turned ahead, that the slackness of chain is on tightening
side.

Advantages of Chain Drive over Gear Train:

1. Unaffected by foreign particles as gear trains.

2. Class requires only a few links [6 links] for spares. The whole set required for gear
train.
3. Even if the chain breaks, engine can still be operated after repair.
4. Accuracy of camshaft drive is very high, because chain tightener can adjust and
compensate for inevitable mechanical wear. Gear train is non-adjustable.
5. Enable camshaft position to be placed higher, thus shorten the hydraulic connections
of fuel pumps and exhaust valves, and minimise timing error.

Camshaft Timing Adjustment: [By Pin Gauge]

» As the chain stretches and re-tensioned camshaft is gradually retarded.

» Thus camshaft must be repositioned relative to crankshaft to correct the timings of Fuel
Pumps and Exhaust Valves.

1. Engine must be in Ahead position.

2. Bring cylinder no: 1 to TDC, and ‘0’ on flywheel.
3. Check that cylinder no: 1 crank throw is in TDC; (with D-1 pin gauge)
4. Check that camshaft position deviates from original marking; (with D-2 pin
gauge)

If camshaft deviates:

5. Connect high-pressure hydraulic pump oil connections to flanges next to chain

drive, and pressurised until oil seep along the camshaft.
6. Turn the whole camshaft using tackle until D-2 pin gauge mark is in line with
original marking. Fixed markings are on roller guide housing [after removing
cover] and on camshaft.
7. D-3 pin gauge is for Lubricator Unit.

Methods of reversing:

1. Direct reversal of engine: Propeller turns in opposite direction.

2. CPP: Blade angle changes, as engine rotates in same direction.
3. Diesel electric system: Engine and electric generator run in constant direction,
supplying power to reversible electric motor.
4. Reverse gears and clutches: Propeller turns in opposite direction.

Reversing Interlocks:
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1. Safety cut-out devices for JCW, Piston CW, and LO.

2. Reversing direction interlock.
3. Hydraulic blocking device and mechanical blocking device for start air handle.
4. Reversing Servomotor.
5. Telegraph.
6. Turning Gear.
7. Overspeed Trip.

Advantages of single cam and double cam:

1. Single cam on camshaft is suitable for reversing of 2/S, large bore engine. But not
suitable for 4/S engine, because reversing of 4/S engine requires turning of Inlet
Valve cam, Exhaust Valve cam, Fuel cam and arrangement for Starting air
Distributor, with their correct timings.
2. Double cam on camshaft, is moved axially by means of servo system or manual
system, so that all cams get their correct timings, in 4/S engine. (Used also for 2/S).

Lost motion:

Angular period between TDC points for Ahead and Astern running will be the “lost motion”
required for Astern running.
1. When reversing 2/S, exhaust ported engine, both Fuel Injection timing and
Air Starting timing must be changed.
2. Retiming is carried out by altering camshaft position radially, relative to crankshaft.
3. This is called “lost motion” of camshaft.

Why ‘lost motion’ necessary on some engine?

1. Some 2/S, large bore, exhaust ported engines are Direct Reversing.
2. Both Fuel Injection timing and Air Starting timing must be changed.
3. Camshaft has single cam design.
4. Retiming is carried out by altering camshaft position radially, (not axially), relative
to crankshaft, by means of servo system.

Why ‘lost motion’ not necessary on some engine?

1. Some 2/S and 4/S engines are Direct Reversing.

2. Inlet Valve cam, Exhaust Valve cam, Fuel cam and arrangement for Starting air
Distributor, with their correct timings, must be changed.
3. Camshaft has double cam design.
4. Retiming is carried out by altering camshaft position axially, from Ahead cams to
Astern cams, by means of servo and manual systems.

4 Stroke Engine Reversing Systems:

1. By means of camshaft, shifting axially. (Direct Reversing)

2. By CPP.
3. By gearing and clutch.
Tacho Generator:
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» AC or DC generator that provides an output voltage proportional to rotational speed,

to remote rpm counter (tachometer).
» It may be used to measure speed, or as part of automatic control system, to regulate
speed.
» In Sulzer RTA, also used for overspeed trip, using output current.
» Fitted on ME intermediate shaft, for remote rpm counter.
» Fitted on housing of Reversing Servomotor, and driven by gear wheel on Cam Shaft
for overspeed cut-out.

V-Type Connecting Rod:

1) Side by side 2) Articulated 3) Fork and Blade.

Cross-head bearing is prone to failure, because of:

1. High sudden load: Full effect of combustion, directly to the bearing.

2. High bearing pressure: Bearing is placed high and the whole assembly reciprocates
full length of stroke. So, limited bearing area results in high specific load.
3. Distortion: Bending moment and deflection are maximum at centre, where pin is often
bored to carry piston rod.
4. Poor lubrication: Due to following factors:
a) Slow oscillating movement: Connecting rod swings through 25~30°, hence
it is difficult to build up full fluid film.
b) Reciprocating movement: Vertical movement of pin and bearing disturbs oil
supply. It is difficult to get smooth, uninterrupted oil flow.
5. Two-stroke engine: No load reversal takes place, which does not help the oil flow into
loaded part of bearing.

Different approaches adopted to overcome cross-head bearing problems:

1. Conjugate deflection: Bearing deflection follows that of crosshead pin. Natural

deflections of pin and bearing remain in line, resulting in lower specific load.
2. Crosshead mounted LO pump: Attached high-pressure pump, operated by connecting
rod movement, press oil into bearing gap when bearing load is lowest.
3. Large diameter stiff crosshead pin: Reduced Length/Diameter ratio, but pin deflection
is minimum for uniform distribution of oil films over the whole bearing
width.
4. Continuous full length bearing face under pin: Low specific load on bearing.
Load is transmitted directly downwards.
5. Large diameter pin and smaller “Connecting rod : Crank throw” ratio: Obtained
higher sliding velocity of the bearing, with better LO oil film, to carry high loads.
6. Hardened crosshead pin with high degree of surface finish: Surface finish is preferably
better than 0.1 µm.
7. Eccentric bored bearing: One of the finest designs for crosshead, which gives the
same effect of load reversal. [GMT engines]
8. Thin shell bearing: Bearing is renewable and pin is detachable. Produces high load
carrying capacity, and better resistance against fatigue failure.
Thin shell gives true circular shape, which improves lubrication characteristics.
Thrust block:
To prevent axial movement of crankshaft, resulting from propeller thrust.
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Axial clearance of thrust pads: [measurement]

1. Thrust block is cleaned by draining oil. And lift the top cover up.
2. Place screw jack between casing and the back of the coupling, and push the thrust
shaft aft until the collar is hard up on the pads.
3. Check alignment of shaft and take feeler gauge reading of open pads by using long
feeler. It is inserted at one corner and ease diagonally across to the other.
4. Repeat this operation, moving the shaft forward.
5. Difference between two readings is total axial clearance.
6. Axial clearance is 1 ~ 2 mm. [0.5 ~ 1.0 mm for new engine and for engine in service,
it must not exceed 2.0 mm.]

Alternative method:

– Bear the thrust collar on foremost thrust bearing segment, by pressing the crankshaft
forward.
– Set dial gauge [zero position] to flywheel.
– Bear the thrust collar on aftmost thrust bearing segment, by pressing the crankshaft aft.
– Check clearance by reading the indication of dial gauge.

Radial clearance of journal bearing:

1. Remove end cover with oil seal.
2. Radial clearance measured, by taking lead reading, or roughly by means of feeler
gauge.
3. Radial Clearance is 0.5 ~ 0.8 mm for 440 mm dia.shaft.

Advantages of Tilting Pad Bearing:

1. Have ability to absorb, change in direction of load, more readily.

2. Have greater flexibility to absorb shaft deflection or misalignment.
3. Tilting of pads, allow oil to form wedge shaped film, between faces of collar and
pads.
4. Wedge shaped oil film prevents metallic friction and enables the thrust pads to carry
loads.

Disadvantages:
» Each pad in a set must be exactly the same thickness, and even a ‘thou’ difference
might result in a single pad carrying the entire load, thus increasing the risks of
failure.

Plumber block renewal: (during heavy weather)

Practically it should be done in calm weather, but following ways can reduce overheating of
plumber block bearing.
1. By applying maximum lubrication.
2. By applying maximum cooling after opening out the cooling coil out into bilge.
3. By reducing to suitable speed.
4. Then the ship proceeds to the sheltered sea and renew the plumber block bearing.
Removal of plumber block bearing.
 146

1. Take immobilisation permit.

2. Mark the relative positions between each bearing halves and between the lower
bearing halve and the stool.
3. Remove the upper bearing halve.
4. Lift the shaft at the place close to bearing by jackscrew.
5. Remove the lower bearing halve with chocks from the stool.
6. Sent both bearing halves for repair.

Refitting Procedure:

1. After repairing, place back the lower halve with chocks on the stool. But
foundation bolts should not be placed.
2. Remove the shaft-lifting device.
3. Boxed back upper half.
4. Remove all coupling bolts of intermediate shaft flange close to the bearing.
5. Alignment checked by gap and sag method.
6. After ensuring that the alignment is satisfactory, tightened foundation bolts.
7. Refit and tighten the coupling flange bolts.

Allowances:

Gap method: Equal to or less than 0.10 mm per meter for 1 to 2 pieces of shafts.
0.15 mm / m for 3 to 4 pieces of shafts.
0.2 mm/m for > 5 pieces.
Checked with a feeler gauge between the two coupling flange faces, at least at four
places to check whether the bearing is in line with shaft or not.

Sag method: 0.10 mm for 1 to 4 pieces of shafts.

0.15 mm for more than 4 pieces shafts.
Place a straight edge over the two flanges, at least four places around, to check whether
the bearing is in line with shaft or not , or out of the shafting vertically and horizontally.

CPP:

Two main types: Hub Servo and External Servo.

Hub Servo Type:

1. Pitch altering mechanism, enclosed in propeller hub is most popular type, and used
for higher power above 1000-Bhp.
2. Propeller mechanism consists of 4 main parts:
a) Propeller hub incorporating servomotor, crank pin ring for turning blades, and
necessary seals.
b) Oil distribution box (transfer box), mounted at forward end of tailshaft.
c) Control system; either pneumatic or electric.
d) Hydraulic system; motor or shaft driven pumps, cooler, filter, and tank. etc.
Functioning Principle:
How movements of piston effect blade pitch?
 147

1. Servomotor in propeller hub consists of a piston rod with piston, which moves
axially fore and aft when pressure oil is led to either side of piston.
2. Piston rod is equipped with 4 or 5 “ears”, depending on number of propeller blades.
3. Each ‘ear’ has a transverse slot in which a shoe slides.
4. Eccentric crank pin fits into the hole of sliding shoe.
5. Crank pin ring is supported on a bearing, which is built-in into hub body.

6. When piston rod moves axially by pressure oil, crank pin ring rotates in circular
motion, transmitted via piston, piston rod, slot, sliding shoe, and crank pin.
7. Propeller blades, which are bolted to crank pin rings, turn.

Failure Arrangements:

1. Hydraulic system failure.

Safety springs, fitted in main servo, push the servo piston forward, to allow
propeller pitch to full ahead position, in the event of hydraulic system failure.
The springs are powerful enough to overcome friction, but RPM of 70%
maximum should not be exceeded.

2. Telemotor system failure.

Hand-operated control valve is used, in the event of telemotor failure.

3. Main hub servo failure.

If main servo fails, the system has either Emergency Servo or
Mechanical Link.

CPP Bridge Control:

1. CPP in large vessels are usually fitted with Combinator Control on the Bridge.
2. A single lever controlling both propeller pitch and engine speed, either through
pneumatic or electronic means.
3. In either case, closed loop circuits are employed, so that feedback of propeller
position and engine speed, balance off the control signal.
4. In electronic control system, ME load is kept at desired value, by automatically
changing the propeller pitch, irrespective of variation in external conditions; e.g.
change in resistance in propulsion caused by wind and sea.
5. Main panel receives, converts and transmits signals, and a potentiometer for
adjusting ME load, and an instrument showing fuel pump setting, is provided.
6. Control panel on Bridge contains instrumentation corresponding to that of Main
panel.

Pilgrim Nut:

1. Pilgrim nut is a threaded hydraulic jack, screwed onto tailshaft, provided with
hydraulic oil connection, steel jacking ring and nitrile rubber tyre.
2. It gives predetermined frictional grip between tailshaft and propeller boss.
3. Spherical graphite cast iron tapered sleeve is bedded onto shaft cone, before mounting
the boss, to achieve better fit.
4. When combined with Pilgrim Nut pushing up, it ensures a good frictional grip.
 148

5. No key is required; friction is sufficient to prevent slip.

Propeller mounting procedure:

1. Tapered sleeve is bedded onto shaft cone, propeller boss is mounted, and pilgrim nut
is run-down the shaft threads.
2. Steel jacking ring on landing face of the nut, is loaded with hydraulic pump to
predetermined pressure, and this forces the propeller hard on its cone.
3. Pressure is released on jacking ring and air release plug opened.
4. Nut is hardened-up with spanner, and locked in normal way.

Propeller removing procedure:

1. Pilgrim nut is taken-off the end of the shaft, reversed so that jacking ring is facing
outward, and screw back the nut onto shaft, leaving some clearance between it and
propeller boss.
2. Studs are screwed into aft face of the boss and a “strong back” plate is fitted over the
studs.
3. Stud nuts are fitted so that the plate contacts with jacking ring.
4. When hydraulic pressure is applied to jacking ring, propeller is pulled-off the conical
end of the shaft.

Steering Gear:
Regulations on Steering Gear:
1. All ships must have Main and Auxiliary steering gear. [Failure of one will not
render the other inoperative].
2. Main steering gear shall be powerful enough to put the rudder from 35°to 35°at
maximum ahead speed at its deepest sea going draught.
Time taken to get 35°to 30°must not exceed 28 sec.
3. Auxiliary gear shall be of adequate strength, to steer at navigable speed [10 knots]
and should be capable of being brought into action speedily in emergency.
Capable of putting the rudder over 15°to 15°in not more than 60 sec., with the
ship at its deepest sea going draught, and running ahead at half of maximum ahead
service speed or 7 knots, whichever is greater.
4. Relief valves shall be fitted to any part of hydraulic system, and setting not to
exceed design pressure. [Design pressure is 1.25 times maximum working
pressure].
5. Steering room must be readily accessible and separate from machinery space.
6. Means of communication between Bridge and steering compartment provided.
7. Rudder angle indicator shall be independent of steering gear control system.
8. Electrical leads and fuses must be sized to accept 100% overload.
9. Fluid for hydraulic system must be of non-freezing type.
10. Alternative power supply, capable of providing power within 45 sec. automatically
must be provided, when rudder stock diameter is over 230 mm.
Its capacity at least 30 minutes for ships [every tanker, chemical tanker or gas
carrier] of 10,000 GRT and above, and 10 minutes for other ships [70,000 GRT and
above].
Essential Requirements for Steering Gear:

1. To move the rudder in either direction instantly when required.

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2. Should come to rest immediately, in the position corresponding to that shown on

indicator on the Bridge.
3. Provisions made to protect Steering Gear from damage, should a heavy sea strikes
the rudder. (Double Shock Valve, Buffer Spring and Jumping Bar)
4. Design should be simple; construction robust and its performance reliable at all
time.

Follow-up system:
1. Angle through which rudder turns is dependent upon amount of steering wheel’s
turning.
2. System comprises of “Hunting Gear” arrangement.
3. Auto Pilot is one of the follow-up steering systems, where feedback unit
functions as hunting gear.

Non Follow-up system:

1. Steering gear and hence the rudder will move as long as the control is held in
actuating position.
2. Rudder will only stop when control is moved back to off position or until the gear
has reached hard over position.
3. Also termed as “ Time dependent Steering system.”

Surveys:
» Steering gear system is subjected to Annual survey, Intermediate survey and Special
survey under machinery items by requirement of Classification Societies.
» At least following parts are to be surveyed, at not exceeding 2-year intervals.
1. Fastenings, quadrants, tillers, and rudder brake [external limit at 39°].
2. Auxiliary steering gears.
3. Motors with starters, control gears, and electrical cables.
4. Electrical IR values, to be measured.
5. Function test of whole gears, Alarms and Indicators.
6. To open-up Hydraulic system and power pumps, at Surveyor’s discretion.

Hunting Gear arrangement:

1. Linkage through Floating Lever of Telemotor, pump control rod, and Rudder Stock
forms the Hunting Gear.
2. Any movement of Rudder Stock transmits an opposite motion, through spring link
and Floating Lever of Hunting Gear.
3. Hunting Gear [feed back] returns pump control rod to mid point [no flow of oil,
thus no movement of ram] as soon as Bridge Wheel is stopped.
4. Rudder will remain there until Wheel and Telemotor are moved again.
5. If rudder is replaced by heavy sea, through lifting the shock valve, Hunting Gear is
moved by Tiller, thus pump will work again and rudder restored to its previous
position.
6. Buffer Spring is fitted between Tiller Arm and Floating Lever. It prevents damage
of control mechanism.

Precaution under Emergency Operation:

 150

When steering gear is being operated on only 2 cylinders, following precautions should be
taken.
1. Use only one pump at any time, and use of 2 pumps supplying only 2 cylinders
may generate an overload and damage the gear, which is already weak.
2. Ship’s speed should be reduced to 70% of normal, if large rudder angles are
expected e.g. in heavy weather or enclosed waters etc.
3. Preferably watches should be kept in steering compartment.
4. Locking arrangement should be ensured on all valves, which have been altered.
5. Bridge informed on limitations of steering system.

Single Failure Concept:

1. It is a single failure of any part of hydraulic system, comprising the pumps and piping
system.
2. It should not impair the steering capability of the ship.
3. Detected automatically and isolate the faulty system to regain steering capability.

Total Failure Concept:

» This means those actuating cylinders and rams have broken.

How the Rudder can be actuated in case of Total Failure of Steering Gear?
1. First of all engine is stopped and steering gear damage assessed, and all debris
carefully cleared.
2. In some ships, Tiller is provided with arrangement where chain and tackle could be
fitted.
3. Where as in other ships, a special spare Tiller, which has these arrangements, is
supplied.
4. Two most heavy-duty Chain Blocks, which are for tailshaft, are brought and
rigged-up from suitable deep frames using jaw clamps.
5. It is better if two more could be rigged-up for safety purposes to take up shocks
etc.
6. Tiller could then be connected to these Chain Blocks using wire ropes and
shackles.
7. If there is any provision to take these ropes through steering compartment deck
head via loose sheaves to Aft Capstan, this procedure should be adopted, as it is
safer and smoother.
8. Chain Blocks should be operated from a safe and distant position and men should
stay clear of the blocks, chains and ropes. Safety helmets and leather gloves should
be worn.
Another method, which can also be in conjunction with chain block arrangement, is as
follows:
1. All rudders have a hole at the top trailing edge.
2. A person should be sent down into the water to pass a heave line through this hole.
3. With the help of this line 2 steel wire ropes with shackles are attached to the
rudder.
4. Wires should then be taken one from port side and other from starboard side
through fairleads and around rollers to two drums of Aft Windlass.
5. The ship can then be steered at reduced speed and rudder operated by heaving and
lowering the wires.
[Total Failure]:
 151

1. Stop the Engine

2. Disconnect faulty sections, and remove debris.
3. Connect Tiller with 2 heavy-duty chain blocks on each side, using wire ropes and
shackles.
4. Operate the chain blocks at safe place.
5. Run the engine at reduced speed.

Steering Gear Test:

Prior to Departure:
1. Should be checked at least one hour prior departure from port.
2. Duty Officer and senior Duty Engineer carryout the test together.
3. Telemotor transmitter oil level to be checked.
4. Actuating system tank oil levels checked and replenished if necessary.
5. Rudder carrier bearing and bottom sea gland checked and greased.
6. All links on steering gear checked to be in order.
7. First one pump is started from Bridge and the Wheel turned from Port to Starboard
to check telemotor response.
8. Next with both the Officers in steering flat, the Wheel is turned from hard-a-port
to hard-a-starboard and running condition checked.
9. Check if the Bridge helm angle indicator and local mechanical indicator
correspond correctly to each other for all position.
10. The first pump is shut off and the second pump started and check likewise.
11. Then both pumps started in parallel and check likewise again.

Before Arrival Port:

1. One hour before picking-up Pilot, ME speed reduced and engine manoeuvring,
astern running, and all steering gear actuation checked.
2. Both pumps are started and movements on either side checked.
3. Bridge angle indicator and local indicator checked for correct and matching
response on either side.

Telemotor hydraulic fluid:

Sp. gr. (0.88 at 15°C) Low Pour point ( 50°C) Low viscosity, 30 sec Redwood at 60°C
High VI, (110) High Flash point (150°C closed) Good lubricating properties
Non corrosive Non sludge forming Density about 880 kg/m³ at 15.5°C.

Leak test of Steering Gear:

1. Tested by lashing the Wheel over on one side at a pressure of 40 bar for about ½
hour.
2. Observe the pressure gauge.
3. If pressure is maintained for a few minutes, this side of the system is pressure-
tight.
4. Test the other side.
5. If pressure falls rapidly, leakage rectified by careful examination of glands, pipe
connections, etc.
Air in the system:
Effects:
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1. Defective steering: Excessive movement of steering wheel before Telemotor

moves. No initial pressure and wheel slack on turning.
2. Jerky operation.
3. Jumping pressure gauge.
Remedy:
1. Air purged out from air vent valves.
2. If there is considerable air inside the system, system oil should be totally
emptied and recharged completely.

Vertical clearance of Rotary Vane Steering Gear:

1. Measured between the insides of Stator Flanges and top and bottom of Anchor
Bracket.
2. Approximately 38 mm to all for vertical movement of Rudder Stock.
3. It is essential that Rudder Carrier Bearing should be capable of resisting the
vertical movement of Rudder Stock, to less than this amount.
[Clearance at Rudder Carrier < Vertical movement of Rudder Stock].

General:

1. All steering gear spare parts kept in safe place, preferably in steering gear flat and
well protected.
2. Special hydraulic oil used for steering gear hydraulic systems, kept in drums in
covered area where sun and water cannot reach. Never kept on exposed deck.
3. Steering gear flat should never be used as stand-by store, unless proper racks are
provided and stores kept properly lashed.
4. It is of utmost importance for watch keeping Engineer, to inspect steering gear
thoroughly for good function, leakage etc., before even entering ER to take over
watch.

Rudder:
Turning action largely depends on area of rudder. Rudder area is also related to area of
immersed middle plane. e.g. for cargo vessel: rudder area is ( L x H ) / 50.
for tug: ( L x H ) / 30 to ( L x H ) / 40
L = length between perpendiculars
H = mean load draught
The ratio of depth to width of rudder is called aspect ratio,
and it is usually in the region of 2.

Types of rudder:
There are 3 major types:

1. Unbalanced Rudder:
Rudder with all of its area, aft of the turning axis is known as unbalanced rudder.

2. Semi balanced rudder:

Rudder with < 20% of its area, forward of the turning axis is known as semi balanced
rudder.
3. Balanced rudder:
 153

Rudder with 25 – 30% of its area, forward of the turning axis is a balanced rudder. In this
rudder, there is no torque on rudder stock, at certain angle.

Why rudder angle is limited to 35°on each side?

Rudder angle is limited to 35°on each side of the centre line, because if this angle is
exceeded, the diameter of the turning circle is increased.

Turning circle:
A circle moved through by a ship, when the rudder is placed in its extreme position.

Water tightness of a rudder

Tested under a head of water, 2.45m above the top of the rudder.

Why a drain plug is fitted?

A drain plug is provided at the bottom of the rudder, to check for water entry, when the ship
is examined in dry dock.

How rudder weight is carried?

The weight of rudder is carried by rudder carrier bearing within the hull, and partly by lower
pintle, a case hardened steel disc being fitted into the gudgeon on stern frame. If excessive
wear down of bottom pintle (bearing pintle) occurs, most of the weight may come onto
rudder carrier bearing.

Locking pintle: Pintle which has a shoulder of increased thickness, at its lower end, that
prevent excessive lifting of rudder.
Pintle: The pins or bolts that hinge the rudder to the gudgeons on rudder post

Note:
1. Locking pintle and bearing pintle are used in unbalanced rudder.
2. Rudder weight is carried by bearing ring in balanced rudder, and vertical
movement is limited by jumping bar, instead of locking pintle.
3. The clearance between rudder and welded flat plate (jumping bar)
is limited to 19 mm.
4. Any vertical force on the rudder, will hence be transmitted to stern frame and not
to steering gear.

Protections against steering gear damage, due to rudder effect:

1. Double shock valve: hydraulic system protection.

2. Buffer spring: hunting arrangement protection.
3. Jumping bar: protection against vertical forces.

Rudder Wear Down Measurement: ( Ram type Steering Gear )

At sea :
1. Jumping Clearance or Bouncing Clearance, measured between swivel block and
upper ram fork end. [ Limit is 19 mm.]
2. Wear down Clearance, measured between swivel block and bottom ram fork end.
[ Limit is 12 – 19 mm.]
At docking :
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1. Bouncing clearance: measured between top of rudder and jumping bar.

2. Wear down clearance: between the bottom of rudder and reference mark.

Removal of rudder:
1. Remove the locking pintle, bearing pintle must not be removed at this time.
2. Turn the rudder to hard over position.
3. Attached the chains to rudder.
4. Remove the coupling bolts.
5. Raise the rudder stock to get small clearance on the palms of rudder.
6. Turn the rudder to opposite side.
7. Remove the bearing pintle and remove the rudder.

Stern Tube:
Water Lubricated Type:

This design is now superseded by oil lubricated type.

1. SW is used for cooling and lubricating this bearing. Open aft end allows SW to flow
in with supplementary SW connection, piped into stern tube from ship’s main.
2. A soft packing gland fitted at forward end and slight leakage is allowed to ensure
cooling of packing.
3. Tail shaft is protected by corrosion resistance bronze liner, shrunk or pressed on tail
shaft, extending from propeller hub to forward of forward gland seal. (continuous or
single piece)
4. Liner may be continuous or in two pieces.
5. Liner thickness, dictated by Classification rules, is 23 mm for 500 mm shaft.

Advantages:
1. Very hard and wear resistant.
2. Natural lubrication assisted by SW.
3. Low swelling due to SW absorption.
4. Predictable wear rate allows scheduling of docking in advance.
5. No sophisticated ford/aft seals required.

Disadvantages:
1. Higher wear rate due to large clearance and use of SW as lubricant.
2. Less load carrying capacity due to staved surface.
3. Shaft needs extra liner for SW corrosion protection.
4. Fatigue crack generating from corrosion pits could be the outcome, as galvanic action
between shaft and sleeve (liner) is possible.
5. More shaft movement and vibration due to larger clearance.
6. More shaft movement may cause fretting at shaft coupling bolts.
7. Packing grips at forward end wears out liner unevenly.
8. Oil is better vibration damper than water.
9. Abrasives enter the bearing.

Normal clearance: 0.003 to 0.004 of shaft diameter.

Maximum Clearance: Varies between 6 – 10 mm.
 155

Checking clearance (or) Wear Measurement is by inserting small wooden wedge or feeler
gauge, between the shaft liner and lignum vitae, once the rope guard has been removed,
when ship is in dry-dock.

Wear rate: Cargo ship with engine amidship = 0.5 mm to 4 mm / year.

Tanker or Ship with engine aft = 1 mm to 13 mm / year.
Lignum vitae size: typical length 9" x 2" width x ¾ " thick
Clearance at which re-wooding required varies between 6 – 10 mm.

Survey interval of tail end shaft:

» Single liner tail shaft to be exposed for examination every 3 years.
» Double liner tail shaft to be exposed for examination every 2 years.

Oil Lubricated Type:

» Two bushes of white metal lined, grey or nodular cast iron, are pressed into stern
tube.
» Mechanical seals are provided at both ends and stern tube space is filled with oil.
» Oil pressure is maintained slightly above seawater pressure by means of static
header tank, keeping the static head pressure, 0.30 bar higher than seawater pressure.

Advantages:
1. Less wear is experienced.
2. Very less power loss at bearing.
3. Less heat is generated
4. hydrodynamic lubrication can be established.
5. No bronze liner required in way of bearing.
6. No abrasives enter the bearing
7. Oil is superior lubricant and good vibration damper.
8. Low clearance reduces shaft movement and vibration.

Disadvantages:
1. White metal debris may choke and restrict oil supply, speeding up failure.
2. Contaminated oil supply, causes abrasive wear.
3. Prolonged low speed operation may allow only boundary lubrication.
4. Poor bonding of white metal to bush may exist.
5. Bearing metal failure due to fatigue.
6. Lack of oil supply, due to low level in header tank, obstructed flow, damaged
pipework.

Continuous length of bearing metal = 1.5 to 2.0 x shaft diameter, for aft end bearing.
= 0.6 to 1.25 x shaft diameter, for forward bearing.

Thickness of bearing bush: Varies according to Classification Society: 3.8 mm thickness

for 300 mm diameter shaft and 7.4 mm thickness for 900 mm shaft.

Oil clearance: Depends upon Class and LR recommends 0.0015 – 0.002 of shaft diameter.

Maximum clearance: 2 times original clearance.

 156

Stern Bearing Wear Measurement:

1. Measured at every dry-dock and always should be measured at the same radial
position with usually 4 readings taken at 90°intervals.
2. ‘0’ marks are stamped on the periphery of aft chrome steel liner flange. (Ideally
chisel or similar marks should be left on the propeller boss. Alternatively the
readings can coincide with the propeller blades.)
3. Measurement is taken at plugged oiling hole (top Check Plug) and drain hole
(bottom Check Plug) of aft seal intermediate ring, through the seal housing. (To
give max. accuracy it is recommended that readings be taken at top and bottom if
possible, so that any eccentricity of the shaft is taken into account.)
4. Mating marks are curved at top and bottom Check Plugs.
5. In measuring, bring the ‘0’ mark on chrome steel liner to fixed position at all times.
6. Screws down the wear down depth gauge into the hole tightly and align the mating
mark and ‘0’ mark.
7. Measurement is recorded in record sheet.

Survey interval of tail end shaft: Special Survey at 4-years interval.

3 types of sealing arrangements: Simple stuffing box Lip seal type Radial face seals.

Lip seal type:

1. Aft seal consists of three portions, 3 pieces of sealing rings, a metal housing holding
the rings inside, and a liner which rotates along with propeller shaft.
2. Lip-type seals of ‘viton’ or ‘nitrile’ rubber seal rings, supported by garter springs and
bear on stainless steel or bronze liner, which rotates along with propeller shaft.
3. Typical Aft seal uses 3 pieces of seal rings, outboard ring keep out dirt and SW,
inner-ring to retain bearing LO, while central ring provides oil space.
4. Check plugs are fitted on top and bottom of aft seal intermediate ring, to check wear
down of stern tube.
5. Forward seal consists of four portions, 2 pieces of rubber sealing rings, a metal
housing holding the rings inside, a liner which rotates along with propeller shaft, and
a clamp ring holding the liner.
6. Sealing rings can withstand both tearing and maximum oil temperature of 110C.

Prevention of oil leakage outboard at port:

Shut down stern tube LO system.
Close header tank valve.
SW pressure become greater than oil head pressure.
SW comes into the system.
Notice: Prior to starting ME:
Open stern tube LO system drain valve.
Drain out any water present.
Fill the stern tube space with oil completely.

Minimising the amount of leakage at sea:

Rate of leakage depends upon:
Relative pressure head bet: header tank oil level and SW level above aft oil seal.
Effective area of leakage.
Viscosity of oil.
 157

Procedure to minimise leakage:

1. Tip the vessel to allowable trim.

2. Use more viscous oil.
3. Place a temporary header tank of about 200-litre drum with flexible hose, at lower
head. Position the drum in such a vertical height, that only a slight head pressure is
exerted.
4. Use lower header tank if provided.

Stern tube oil: Oil is a compound type with sp. gr. 0.95 and viscosity 300 RW No.1 at 60C.

Safety devices:
1. Temperature sensor and pressure gauges are usually fitted.
2. Oil pressure fluctuation with respect to ship draught, means leaking of oil seal.

Shaft Generator:

Shaft Generators are fitted on diesel engine propulsion ships, especially those sailing for long
period at a constant ship speed.

Lloyd’s Requirements:
1. Lloyd’s register would regard a shaft generator as a service main generator, if ME
is intended to operate at constant speed. [CPP].
2. If ME does not operate at constant speed, shaft generator would be disregarded as
a service main generator, and at least 2 other independent generators would be
required.

Running condition:
1. Full generator capacity is available at within 60~100% of normal speed.
2. More suitable for shaft with CPP, [constant shaft speed and variable blade pitch].

Advantages of shaft generator:

1. Saving in fuel cost is main advantage.
2. Saving in LO consumption, repair and maintenance cost due to reduced main
generators’ running hours.
3. Reduction in noise, space and weight, capital saving by reduction of numbers and
ratings of main generators.
Disadvantages:
1. Reduction in ship speed.
2. Problems can arise to maintain electrical supply, during emergency manoeuvring
astern.
3. Increase in capital cost.

ME driven Generator:
1. Fuel consumption is saved.
2. Lower running and maintenance cost.
3. Lower noise level in ER.
4. Simple and most compact installation.
Varying speed of ME, driving a fixed pitch propeller, can be converted by variable gear
ratio, to provide constant Generator speed.
 158

Motor Engineering Knowledge:

Bottom Section:
Supplementary:
How to check Foundation Chock?
1. Check according to running hour.
2. Regular retightening done or not.
3. Check for crack, fretting, piece or rust, scale etc.
4. Check for slackness by hammer testing.

Crosshead bearing is prone to failure, because;

1. No load reversal.
2. Oscillating motion only.
3. At end of oscillating motion, only boundary lubrication exits.
4. Highly stressed element.
5. Limited space.

Stern Bearing Wear-down Measurement:

1. Use Poker Gauge or Wear down Gauge or Vernier Caliper.

2. Remove Rope Guard.
3. Take out Check Plug and Drain Plug.
4. Turn Tailshaft until ‘0’ marks on periphery of aft chrome steel liner flange and
mating marks on Simplex seal and Sterntube are in line.
5. Measure at measuring plug (top) and drain plug (bottom) through 180°at same
radial position as previous docking.
6. Compare with previous readings.

Stern Bearing Wear Measurement:

1. Measured at same radial position at every dry dock.

2. Look for reference mark left usually on propeller boss when measured during last
docking.
3. The same mark should be used again, so that reading can be taken at same radial
position.
4. Sometimes measurement had been taken when No. 1 Unit was at TDC, and
important thing is that it should be at same radial position as last docking.
5. Measuring at top telltale hole or check plug is enough and bottom check plug is
only used for counter check.
6. As a CE, witness the measuring procedure when vessel is on dock

How to check Sterntube wear down? (Lignum Vitae)

1. Measurement can be taken by Wedge Gauge or Feeler.

2. If Wedge Gauge is used, the side of the Wedge contacting the bearing is chalked
and inserted into the clearance space between top of the screw shaft and bearing.
3. Gauge is pressed home and withdrawn.
4. Clearance is measured on the Wedge at the point where the chalk marking is
scrapped-of by bearing.
 159

For Oil Lubrication bearing

1. 2 mm clearance.
2. When the ship is on Dry Dock, release system oil and remove plug on the end of the
stern tube, and insert Poker Gauge to measure the distance from the datum to the
top of the shaft.
3. The difference between new reading and original measurement is bearing wear
down value.

All types of Stern Bearing:

1. Fit a Dial Gauge on the Rope Guard or Sterntube Nut so that the Gauge spindle is
vertical and touching the Propeller Boss.
2. A hydraulic jack is placed on the Stern Frame Skeg at same point over a Keel Block
so that the Skeg is supported.
3. A wood shoe is placed between the jack and the Propeller Boss.
4. The jack is then used to lift the Propeller until the Screw Shaft contact the upper
parts of its Stern Bearing.
5. The lift recorded in Dial Gauge gives the bearing clearance.

Skeg: An arm extending to the rear of the Keel to support Rudder and protect Propeller.

Tail end shaft taper: ¾" to 1" per foot length.

Stern tube bearing length:

Aft bearing 4 D Forward Bearing 1–2D (Water-cooled)

Aft bearing 1.5 – 3 D Forward Bearing 0.6 – 1.25 D (Oil cooled)

How you check Stern tube Sealing in Dry dock?

» LO header tank is topped-up and checked for leakage for 24 hours.

What action to be taken when SW leaks into Sterntube oil system?

» Higher up the Sterntube oil tank level to counteract SW force.

Stern tube Leakage Test:

1. Oil to be used must not attack sealing Rings. Generally oil used for main propulsion
unit is SAE 30.
2. Remove screw plug and fill up the stern tube oil. Oil pressure must amount to only
0.2 – 0.3 Kg/cm² more than SW pressure.
3. Preheated to 60 – 70°C when viscose oil is used or low temperature prevails.
4. Remain in this condition for several hours (says overnight) and turn engine by
Turning Gear to change the shaft position 3 – 4 times.
5. Check oil leakage from Drain Plug and if it is all right, fit back Drain Plug and fill
oil from venting and Filling Plug and close.
6. Forward Seal is fitted.
 160

How to make oil hole ? (Crankshaft)

» Oil hole is made, with edges, rounded at same diameter of oil hole, to remove
stress raiser.
» Holed at low stress area of journal & pin at the middle, vertically.

In welded type crankshaft, why welded on mid of journal?

» There is a low load area on mid of journal, where it is welded.

More crankshaft deflection in Doxford engine, why?

» Long span crankshaft and spherical bearings.

How do you know Telemotor System is free of air when charging?

» Continuous flow of liquid from return line, with every stroke of hand pump.
» If there is no air bleeding cock at transmitting side, air can be purged at highest
point, such as slackening the pressure gauge connection to release air.

Usual method of testing Telemotor System for leakage.

» Lash the wheel to hard over position on one side, wait ½ hour, if no pressure drop, it
is OK. Then test other side.

Equalizing Arrangement:

» A lever to by-pass and make both sides common, or keep steering wheel in mid
position.

How to prevent foaming in hydraulic system?

» The fluid returned to reservoir must be led to its bottom.

Difference between Plumber Block and Tunnel Bearing:

» Plumber block has upper half bearing to prevent propeller-whipping action.

» Tunnel Bearing is the last bearing aft of shaft tunnel, which has no upper half.

Rudder wear down measurement:

a) At Dry Dock: Measured between Sole Piece reference mark and Rudder reference
mark. Then compare with original measurement.
b) At Sea: Measure the top and bottom bearings for Trunnion Arm on Swivel Block.
 161

Removal of Unbalance Rudder:

1. Remove Guard Plate
2. Remove Locking Pintle
3. Turn hard a Port or Starboard
4. Remove Coupling Bolts.
5. Raise the Rudder Stock sufficient to clear the shoulder on the palm.
6. Turn the Stock max. angle to opposite side.
7. Remove Rudder by chain blocks when two parts of coupling are clear enough.

Tailshaft Withdrawal:

1. Prepare drawings for reference and handling tools.

2. ME crankshaft deflection taken.
3. Wear down of sterntube measured for reference.
4. Drain LO after closing high tank valve.
5. Remove propeller rope guard.
6. Dismantle intermediate shaft next to tail end shaft and remove it together with
tunnel bearings. By doing so bearings are undisturbed and time and energy saved.
7. Tie propeller and slacken propeller nut by hydraulic, pneumatic, or manually
operated spanner.
8. Extract propeller by hydraulic or manually operated extractor.
9. Propeller is first hung-on, then lower down slowly, remove, and store in proper
place. ( It can be hung if it does not disturb removal of liner or if liner is not
removing.)
10. Remove aft oil seal.
11. Now tailshaft can be withdrawn inside tunnel and put on the carriage.
12. It is important to lift the shaft from outside of the ship; to avoid the shaft dragging
along the liner, for it can cause unexpected damage to liner and shaft.

Lost Motion Camshaft:

1. When reversing 2/S Exhaust Ported Engine, both Fuel Injection and Air Starting
timings must be changed.
2. Lost Motion Clutch cam design can be used to alter reversing direction.
3. Camshaft position is altered radially relative to crankshaft.
4. Same cam is used for ahead and astern running.
5. Reversing Servomotor, operated by Engine Reversing Controls, is fitted to camshaft
drive mechanism to do this.
6. Camshaft will lose motion or be retarded, through required angle (about 98°) by oil
operated Lost Motion Clutch, causing the Reversing Servomotor to rotate the camshaft.
7. Fuel Pump cam and Air Start cam will now operate the Engine in reversed direction.
8. Lost motion is carried out while the Engine is at rest.
9. For Uniflow Scavenge Engine, the second Servomotor is fitted to Exhaust Valve drive.

How Vessel gets Astern Thrust?

» CPP Change the pitch.

» Direct Reversible Propeller direction changed.
» Unidirectional Gear Drive Gear direction changed.
 162

Checking of fuel injection pump timing:

Recommended method:

1. Turn No. 1 piston to TDC at the beginning of firing stroke.

2. Turn backward to a point, a little earlier than fuel injection point.
3. Shut fuel supply to engine, remove No. 1 fuel pump delivery valve assembly and put
a bent pipe.
4. Open fuel supply and when fuel lever is put to running position, oil will flow out at
bent pipe.
5. Turn engine towards TDC in its running direction slowly until fuel cease to flow.
6. Check the marks on flywheel whether timing position is correct or not.

Slight difference can be adjusted by:

For large engine:

» Timing can be altered by shifting the camshaft to the position relative to

crankshaft, after removing the idler gear between crankshaft and camshaft.
» Timing can be altered by individual fuel pump cam for adjustable cam type engine.

For small engine:

» Adding or reducing shims on pump base.

» Turning the plunger up & down adjustment screw on pump roller guide.
» Shifting the coupling flanges between pump and drive side of the engine.
 163

Boiler:
Waste heat recovery unit:

1. Exhaust gas boiler.

2. Economiser.
3. FW generator.
4. Feed water heater.

Advanced waste heat recovery system:

In main engine, 40% of fuel consumed is converted into useful work,

and 30% – 34% of remaining energy contain in Exhaust Gas.
The system uses an EGE with 3 sections, and a separate oil fired boiler for port operations.

The uppermost section is a feed heater, where exhaust gas is coolest, about 170°C.
[To avoid Sulphur dew point corrosion: min.160°C and max. 180°C]
Sulphur dew point = 138°C.

The centre steam generating section gives steam for following purposes:
Heating FO [storage tanks, settling, service tanks, pre-heaters for purifiers and ME end
heater]
Heating LO [sump tank, pre-heaters for purifiers]
Heating water [domestic hot water service, ME warming system]
Heating steam [galley, air conditioning, OWS]
Exhaust gas temperature of Center Section being about 200°C.

The lowest section is Superheater, providing Superheated Steam for running TG at sea.
Exhaust gas temperature of this section being about, 300°C.

» Overall thermal efficiency of ship’s system, can be further improved by using waste heat
from ME JC and Charge Air cooling, as supplementary means of feed water heating.

Exhaust Gas Boilers:

~ About 30% – 34% of Fuel Energy input to engine are discharged to Exhaust Gas, as
Thermal Energy.
~ This thermal energy is converted into useful work in Exhaust Gas Boiler.

Types:
1. Cochran Exhaust Gas Boiler.
2. Composite Boiler.
3. Alternative Boiler.
4. Economiser as an Exhaust Gas Boiler.

Cochran Exhaust Gas Boiler:

1. A double-pass, vertical type, in which Exhaust gases from ME pass through 2 banks
of tube.
2. Served as an efficient silencer, when the boiler is in use.
 164

3. A separate Silencer, always fitted along with exhaust gas boiler, to be used when the
boiler is generating more steam than required.
4. All or part of exhaust gases can be directed to the Silencer and atmosphere, without
going through the boiler.
5. Working Pressure is around 7 bars.

Composite Boiler: [Composite type Cochran boiler.]

1. If Exhaust Gases and Oil fire can be used at the same time, it is termed Composite
Boiler.
2. In double-pass, composite type Cochran Boiler, it provides a separate tube nest for
exhaust gas passage, situated immediately above the return tube nest from Oil-fired
Furnace.
3. Exhaust gases from Oil-fired Furnace and ME; pass through the tubes, which are
surrounded by boiler water.
4. Separate Uptakes provided for Exhaust Gases and Oil-fired Smoke.
5. Heavy Changeover Valves are fitted, to divert the gases straight to the funnel, when
desired.

Alternative Boiler: [Alternative type Cochran boiler.]

1. If Exhaust Gases and Oil fire can be used only one at a time, it is termed Alternative
Boiler.
2. Double-pass, Alternative Cochran Boiler, can be oil fired and heated by exhaust
gases alternatively.
3. Since both systems use the same Combustion Chamber, one system required being
blank, while the other is in operation.
4. Only one Uptake required.

Economiser as Exhaust Gas Boiler:

1. In this system, a separate Exhaust Gas Economiser EGE is connected to an Oil-fired

Auxiliary Boiler (or an Accumulator) by means of piping and a set of Circulating
Pumps.
2. Heat absorbed from exhaust gas in EGE is transmitted by working fluid, to Auxiliary
Boiler or Accumulator, from which steam is drawn for use.
3. Economiser unit cannot deliver steam, directly to steam range.
4. Straight gas lead from ME Exhaust Manifold, pass through EGE under the Funnel,
and this arrangement permits the Auxiliary Boiler or Accumulator, to be placed in
any convenient position in ER.
5. Inlets and outlets of piping coils are connected to External Headers [Distributing and
Collecting], that are simply inserted in Exhaust Trunk way.
6. Water from Auxiliary Boiler or Accumulator is fed by Circulating Pump through
a Non-Return Valve into Distributing Chest or header and from it, water passes into
Coils.
7. Water and steam from outlets of these Coils pass into Collecting Header, and then to
the steam space of Auxiliary Boiler or Accumulator.
8. EGE Safety Valve is adjusted at slightly higher pressure than Safety Valves of
Auxiliary Boiler; in order to ensure that Economiser operates in flooded condition at
all times.
 165

EGE out of order:

1. Isolate the EGE.

2. Wash down the economiser tubes and completely dried.
3. Drain all water content.
4. Start the auxiliary boiler.
5. Maintain low steam consumption.
6. Proceed to next port with suitable speed.
7. Write down damage report.

Exhaust Gas Boiler Safety Valve setting:

1. EGE safety valves to be set under full load steaming condition, if Surveyor
delegates the responsibility to CE.
2. Setting pressure 3% above max: working pressure.
3. In doing so, EGE steam pressure control is done as follows:

EGE steam pressure controls:

1) Steam control: By providing Dumping Valve in by-pass system, to Condenser.

Excess steam can be discharged into Condenser.
2) Water control: By shutting the inlet valve to boiler coils.
3) Exhaust gas control: By controlling the Exhaust Gas Damper.

Boiler Safety Devices as for UMS status:

1. Flame failure: (Photocell shut down combustion system and gives alarm.)
2. Low and high water level: (Level is maintained by feed pump, controlled by float
operated on/off switch.)
3. Low and high Steam pressure: (If steam demand drops, high steam pressure will
shut down burner and/or ME speed reduced. Low steam pressure
alarm, will be given if there is fault in combustion condition)
4. Fuel temperature: (Deviation from set temperature range, cause burner to be shut
off and alarms given for both low and high temperature.)
5. Fuel pressure: (Low fuel pressure cause automatic controller to shut down
burner and alarms given.)
6. Smoke density: (Emitted smoke through uptake, being monitored and if deviate
from normal limit, shut down the system and alarm given.)
7. Air / fuel ratio: (Air register damper controller keeps correct ratio, and shut down
the system and alarm given on deviation.)
8. Draught fan failure: (Air supply fan failure operate audible and visual alarms.)
9. Very low water level: (Burner stopped and alarms given.)
10. Very high water level: (Burner stopped or ME slow down and alarms given to
avoid foaming and carry over.)
11. High flue gas temperature: (Burner stopped and alarms given.)
 166

Safety Devices on Boiler:

1. Flame failure alarm

2. Low water level alarm.
3. Very low water level alarm and cut-off.
4. High water level alarm
5. Low steam pressure alarm
6. Low oil temperature alarm and cut-off
7. High oil temperature alarm and cut-off
8. Low oil pressure alarm and cut-off.
9. Force Draught Fan failure alarm and cut-off.
10. Power failure alarm.
11. Safety Valves.
12. Gauge Glass.
13. Easing Gear.

Mountings on Boiler:
1. Safety Valves
2. Easing Gear.
3. Gauge Glass.
4. Pressure Gauge.
5. Feed Check Valve.
6. Flame Eye.

Open-up Procedure:

1. Stop firing and cool down.

2. All steam valves tight shut.
3. Blow down until empty. [ Ship-side Cock opened first, then gradually open Blow-down
Valve. When loud noise dies down and blow-down pipe becomes cold, boiler is about
empty. Blow-down Valve shut and then shut Ship-side Cock.]
4. Easing Gear lifted.
5. Open Air Vent Cock, Salinometer Cock and Drain Cock of water Gauge Glass, to let
air enter. Ensure no vacuum and only atmospheric pressure inside, before knocking in
the manholes.
6. Slacken dog-holding nut of Top Manhole door, break the joint, from the place safe
from blast as a safeguard against scalding, and then nut removed and door taken out.
7. When knocking in the Bottom Manhole door, use crowbar and stand back when
breaking the joint, as there may be hot water left.
8. Mud holes and all other doors open-up for cleaning, both smoke side and waterside.
9. Allow the boiler to be ventilated before entry.

Boiler Internal Inspection: [For Survey]

1. After normal open-up procedure, allow the boiler to ventilate.
2. Initial internal inspection is done before cleaning, for general condition and
any special deposited area.
3. Plugged Blow-down hole to prevent choking.
4. Cover Manhole door’s landing surface to prevent damage.
5. Final internal inspection done after thorough cleaning:
a) Check level gauge connections for blockage.
 167

b) Check securing system of internal pipes and fitting.

c) Hammer-test furnace, fire and stay tubes.
d) Check firebrick, casing, baffles and welding seams.
e) Tubes checked for leak, crack, distortion and bulging
f) Check fireside is clean, without soot.
g) Cleaning and inspection of Manhole doors, joint landing surfaces.
h) Use new joints.

Refitting Procedure:
After Internal Survey:
1. Remove plug at blow-down pipe.
2. Box back all manholes and mud doors with new joints, and refit all mountings.
3. Open Air Vent Cock, and boiler filled-up with water up to ¼ of Gauge Glass
level. ( If hydraulic test is required, fill-up completely.)
4. Normal flash-up procedure follows.
5. Pressure setting of Safety Valves, under steaming condition, with Surveyor’s
presence.

Safety Valves:
Function:

1. Must open fully at definite pressure, without preliminary simmering.

2. Must be still opening until pressure in boiler has dropped to a certain definite
value, not more than 4% under set value.
3. Must close tight without chattering.
4. Must close tightly without leaking.

Setting of Safety Valves:

1. Take Standard Pressure Gauge for accuracy.

2. Fill up water up to ¼ of Gauge Glass level, and shut Main Stop Valve, Feed Check
Valve.
3. Without Compression Rings, Hoods and Easing Gears, reassembled the Safety Valves
with spring compression less than previous setting.
4. Raise boiler pressure to desired blow-off pressure.
5. Screw-down Spring Compression Nuts of any lifting valves, until all are quiet.
6. Adjust each valve in turn:
a) Slacken Compression Nut until valve lifts.
b) Screw-down Compression Nut sufficiently enough, so that when valve spindle is
lightly tapped, valve returns to its seat and remain seated.
c) Measure gap between Compression Nut and spring casing.
d) Make a Compression Ring equal to this gap, and insert under Compression Nut.
e) Gag the Spindle of this Safety Valve, to prevent opening, while remaining valve is
being set.
7. Remaining valve is again set and insert Compression Ring.
8. Remove gag and retest both valves to lift and close together.
9. Caps and Cotter Pins padlocked.
10. When the Surveyor satisfied the setting pressure, Easing Gear should be tested.
11. All Safety Valves set to lift at 3% above approved working pressure (design
pressure).
 168

Accumulation of Pressure:

1. Pressure is liable to rise after Safety Valves have lifted, caused by increased
spring load due to increased compression.
2. This rise in pressure is known as “Accumulation of Pressure”. {OR}
3. Pressure rise in excess of Working Pressure is termed, “Accumulation of
Pressure”.
4. Accumulation of pressure test is carried out to see whether this safety valve is
suitable or not for this boiler. Pressure rise after safety valves have lifted, must
not exceed 10% of working pressure.
5. Tested when safety valves are new or boiler is new or safety valves and boiler
are new ones.

Safety Valve on EGE and Economiser:

1. Slightly higher set pressure than drum Safety Valves.

2. It is to ensure operation under flooded condition at all times.

Hydraulic Testing of Boiler:

Necessary condition:
1. Boiler internal inspection is not satisfactory.
2. Surveyor demanded.
3. After structural repairs of boiler.

Requirement:
1. Surveyor must be present.
2. Gag the Safety Valves.
3. Close all opening.
4. Blanks inserted at Main Steam Stop Valve and Gauge Glass.
5. Measuring tape placed around boiler to check bulging.
6. Deflection gauge placed in the furnace.
7. Remove lagging to check leak points.

Procedure:
1. Open vent cock, fill boiler with warm water completely, until water overflows
from vent cock, and close the vent cock.
2. Attach force pump and test pressure gauge.
3. Apply water pressure, 1.25 times of approved working pressure, for not more
than 10 minutes.
4. If satisfied, Surveyor will stamp on bottom front plate near the furnace.

Chemical Treatment:

Two ways of treating the water for boiler use:

1. External Feed Water treatments.

2. Internal Boiler Water treatment.
 169

External Feed Water Treatment:

Purpose:
1. To reduce TDS in feed water.
2. To arrest Suspended Solid Particles.
3. To reduce Dissolved Gases.
4. To prevent feed water system corrosion, by maintaining correct pH value of feed
water.

Treatments:
1. To reduce TDS, the best way is to use evaporated feed water.
2. To arrest Suspended Solids, use feed line filters.
3. To reduce Dissolved Gases, inject Hydrazine and maintain Hot Well temperature

between 60~70°C to promote O deaeration through hot well vent.

4. To prevent feed water system corrosion, use Salinometers on feed line or
Evaporator outlet. Maintain pH value by dosing Hydrazine or Amine.

Internal Boiler Water Treatment:

Advantages:
1. Precipitate Calcium and Magnesium salts, into non-adherent, harmless sludge.
2. Prevent these salts, from baking on boiler heating surfaces.
3. Sludge is blown-down from boiler.
4. Treatments also remove Dissolved Oxygen, Dissolved Gases, and CO , to avoid
their corrosive actions.

Treatments for Moderately Rated Auxiliary Boiler:

[Medium and Low Pressure Boilers]
(1) Phosphate Treatment:
1. AGK 100 or Adjunct B is used.
2. Combat scale-forming salts to form non-adherent sludge.
3. Give Alkalinity to reduce corrosion.
4. Form Iron Phosphate Film on internal surfaces, as protection against corrosion.

(2) Caustic Soda Treatment: [NaOH]

1. Maintain correct pH value and required Alkalinity.
2. Precipitate scale-forming Permanent Hardness Salts. [Chlorides and Sulphates of
Calcium and Magnesium: They are in Acid nature. ]
3. Remove Temporary Hardness Salts. [Bicarbonates of Calcium and Magnesium:
They are slightly in Alkaline nature.]
4. Excess concentration of NaOH may cause Caustic Cracking of metal.

(3) Soda Ash Treatment: [Na CO ]

1. Precipitate scale-forming Permanent Hardness Salts, (Non-Alkaline Hardness
Salts) as Calcium Carbonate, CaCO .
2. Produce NaOH, to give required Alkalinity.

(4) Dissolved Oxygen Treatment:

1. Two chemicals, Hydrazine N H , and Sodium Sulphite Na SO are used to
remove dissolve O .
 170

(5) Liquid Coagulant Treatment:

1. High molecular weight, colourless solution, likes Sodium Aluminate or Starch is
used.
2. Coagulate oil droplets and Suspended Solids, and settle them at low points.
3. They can be Blown-down.

(6) Blow-Down Treatment:

1. Integral part of water treatment program, as it removes solids, which are results of
chemical conversion of salts and impurities in water.
2. Surface Blow-down or Scumming is quick removal of solids, without wasting feed
water.
3. Bottom Blow-down is vital, when solids become dense, heavy and remain at boiler
bottom, despite circulation.
4. Daily short blows of top and bottom are necessary.

One Shot Water Treatment: [AGK 100]

~ Most Low Pressure Boiler needs less control of chemicals and TDS.
~ A combination of chemicals can be used for operator’s convenience.
~ This chemical is AGK 100, produced by Drew Company.

Boiler Laying up Procedure:

Boiler may be laid up wet or dry.

Wet Method:
1. When laid up in warm climate, boiler is filled with water until it comes out from air
vent.
2. Then the boiler is sealed off.

Dry Method:
1. Boiler is emptied and cleaned thoroughly on both fire and waterside.
2. Corroded parts, wire brushed and coated with anti-corrosive paint.
3. Shallow metal trays filled with quicklime should be placed in both water and fire space.
4. Then boiler is closed up airtight.

Proper Maintenance of Boiler:

Water Side:

» Daily boiler water test.

» Boiler water treatment.

Gas Side:

» Regular cleaning.

Combustion System:

» Fuel pressure, temperature and viscosity correct values maintained.

» Burner maintenance.
» Air register, Air damper and forced draught fan.
 171

Caustic Cracking or Embrittlement of metal:

1. Caused by excess concentration of Sodium Hydroxide, NaOH [Caustic Soda] in

boiler water, and the material under stresses.
2. Ratio of Na SO to NaOH should be maintained 2 : 5.
3. Caustic Soda is used for boiler water treatment, to maintain correct pH value and
required alkalinity, so excess concentration should be avoided.
4. Excess concentration of NaOH may be from Overdosed Chemical and Leakage.
5. Damage occurs to riveted seams, tube ends and bolted flanges.

To prevent Caustic Embrittlement:

1. Sodium Sulphate, Na SO should be dosed, to give protective layer.

2. Ratio of Na SO : NaOH should be maintained at 2 : 5

Turn Down Ratio of Burner:

1. The ratio of maximum to minimum oil throughput of the burner.

2. In case of pressure jet burner, this can be stated in terms of square root of the
ratio of maximum to minimum oil supply pressure.
3. Large Turn Down Ratio of up to (20: 1) is available with blast jet burner,
without having resort to unduly high pressure.

Foaming: Formation of thick layer of steam bubbles, on top of water surface inside boiler.
Priming: Rapid carry-over of large amount of water, in steam as it leaves the boiler.
Carry-over: Carry-over of small amount of water, in steam as it leaves the boiler.

Causes:
1. Higher water level than normal
2. High amount of TDS, total dissolved solids
3. High amount of suspended solids
4. Contamination by oil and other organic substances
5. Forcing the boiler

Effects:
1. Water hammer
2. Contamination and scaling
3. Fluctuation of working water level
 172

Boiler :
Supplementary:

Boiler Automatic Burning System:

1. With correct water level, steam pressure transmitter initiates cut-in at about 1.0 bar
below working pressure.
2. Steam pressure transmitter initiates Master Relay to allow ‘Air On’ signal to force
draught fan.
3. Air feedback signal confirms ‘Air On’ and allows 30-sec. delay for purge period.
4. Then Master Relay allows Electrode to strike ‘Arc’.
5. Arc striking feedback signal confirms through electrode relay and allows 3-sec. delay.
6. Then Master Relay allows burner solenoid valve for ‘Fuel On’ operation.
7. Fuel On feedback signal allows 5-sec. delay to proceed.
8. As soon as receiving Fuel On feedback signal, Master Relay checks ‘Photocell’,
which is electrically balanced when light scatter continuously on it.
9. Result is OK and cycle is completed.
10. If not, fuel is shut-off, Alarm rings and cycle is repeated.
11. Steam pressure transmitter initiates cut out automatically at about 1/15 bar above
W.P.

Accumulation Pressure Test:

1. Required for new boiler or new safety valve.

2. Tested under full firing condition.
3. Feed Check valve and Main Stop valve shut.
4. Test is to be continued as long as water in the boiler permits, but 7 minutes for
Water tube Boiler and 15 minutes for Cylindrical Boiler.
5. With Safety Valve opening, Boiler pressure must not accumulate to exceed 10% of
Working Pressure.

Difference Between Safety Valve and Relief Valve:

Safety Valve Relief Valve

1 Fully open at set pressure. Start open at set pressure.
Fully open at 15 – 20% above set pressure.
2 Close at set pressure. Close below set pressure.
3 Relieve excess mass. Relieve excess pressure.
4 Can open manually Cannot open manually.
5 Set to open 3 % above WP Set to open 10 % above WP

Waste Heat Recovery System

» The use of exhaust gas from main engine to generate steam is means of heat energy
recovery and improved plant efficiency.
» In ME 40 % of fuel consumed is converted into useful work, and 30 – 34 % of
remaining energy contain in Exhaust Gas.
 173

Waste Heat Recovery System is employed as:

1. Composite boiler system.

2. Two separate boiler system ( One oil fire and one ordinary coil type exhaust gas boiler)
3. Tubular type heat exchanger system ( One oil fire and one tubular economizer)
4. Separate steam receiver system ( Two duel pressure boiler and one economizer)
5. Advanced waste heat system (Exhaust gas economizer with 3 separate sections).

Why boiler water test carried out?

1. To know boiler water condition.

2. To control chemical treatment and blow down.

Why boiler water treatment carried out?

1. To prevent scale formation, corrosion and impurities.

2. To prevent damage to steam operated equipment and condensate line.
3. To maintain alkaline condition.
4. To improve boiler efficiency.

Boiler Water Test:

1. Chloride Test.
2. Excess Phosphate Test.
3. Total Dissolved Solid Test (Conductivity Test).
4. pH value Test.
5. Hydrazine Test.
6. Alkalinity Test: [‘P’ Alkalinity (Phenolphthalein), ‘M’ Alkalinity (Methyl-orange)
and Total Alkalinity]

Proper Sample:

1. Sample line is usually located in steam drum, just above the tubes and as far as
possible from chemical feed line.
2. Sample water is taken at water surface, since highest concentration is at this point.
3. Sample water is cooled down to about 25°C.
4. Flush out sample stream for 5 minutes before taking.
5. Test apparatus should be cleaned with sample water.
6. Sample water is tested as soon as possible after drawing.

Alkalinity Tests:

1. ‘P’ Alkalinity finds presence of Hydroxyl, Phosphate and half of Carbonates,

excluding Bicarbonates.
2. ‘T’ Alkalinity gives total quantity of all Alkaline Dissolved Salts in boiler water.
3. ‘M’ Alkalinity finds presence of remaining Carbonates and Bicarbonates.
4. Total Alkalinity is < 2 x ‘P’ Alkalinity.
5. Desired value is 150 – 300 ppm for ‘P’ Alkalinity.
 174

Increase of Alkalinity Level:

Causes:
1. Alkalinity treatment has been done recently.
2. Using of Alkaline rich makeup feed water.
3. Incorrect strength of reagent used.
Effect: Caustic Embrittlement.

Decrease of Alkaline Level:

Causes:
1. Feed water is contaminated with acid.
2. Direct water loss from boiler.
3. Incorrect strength of reagent used.
Effect: Corrosion.

Chloride Test:

1. Gives quickest indication of any salt-water leakage into boiler.

2. Must be carried out daily.
3. Chlorides of Calcium, Magnesium and Sodium are extremely soluble.
4. Chloride level is proportional to TDS level in boiler water.
5. Rate of blow-down is governed by chloride level.
6. Chloride Level should be 0 – 300 ppm, and blow-down if > 300 ppm.

Increase of Chloride Level:

Causes:
1. SW leaking into system.
2. Incorrect strength of reagent used. (Silver Nitrite and Potassium Chromate).
3. Due to treatment chemical and hardness salt reaction.

Effects:
1. Increase in TDS level causes Foaming/Priming.
2. Drop in Alkalinity causes Corrosion.

Phosphate Test:

1. Presence of Phosphate in sample means no hardness salts.

2. Na PO added to boiler water, precipitate all scale forming hardness salts of
Calcium and Magnesium.
3. With Phosphate Test done, no need to do Hardness Test.
4. Phosphate ppm of 20 – 40 is satisfactory, and blow-down if > 40 ppm.

pH value Test:

1. Once Alkalinity Test is done, no need to check pH value, since Alkalinity and pH
value are proportional.
2. Litmus Strip is used for quick reference however.
3. pH value maintained at 10.5 – 11.5.
 175

Condensate pH:

1. Condensate pH is measured at Condenser outlet.

2. By theory, it should not be acidic, i.e. (9.5 – 11.5) but practically it is always less
than 9.5.
3. (8.3 – 8.6) is satisfactory.
4. If < 8.3, increase dosage by 25% Condensate Corrosion Inhibitor.
5. If > 8.6, decrease dosage by 25% Condensate Corrosion Inhibitor.

Hydrazine Test: (for Dissolved Oxygen)

1. Hydrazine ppm maintained at 0.1 – 0.2 ppm.

2. If < 0.1 ppm, increase dosage by 25% hydrazine.
3. If > 0.2 ppm, decrease dosage by 25% hydrazine.

Types of Boiler Gauge Glass:

1. Fitted directly.
2. Fitted to a large bored bent pipe.
3. Mounted on a hollow column.
4. Fitted to a column with its centre part solid.

Types of Safety Valve:

Type Construction Valve Lift

1 Ordinary spring loaded safety valve Wing valve, no waste steam piston, D/24
no floating ring.
2 High lift safety valve Wing valve, has waste steam piston, D/12
no floating ring
3 Improved high lift safety valve Wing valve, has waste steam piston D/12
and floating ring.
4 Full lift safety valve For high-pressure boiler, no waste D/4
steam piston.
5 Full bore safety valve For high-pressure boiler up to D/4
21 bar, operated by relay.

Boiler Corrosion:

(1) Electro-chemical Corrosion:

1. Hydrogen ions (H ) are generated by acid concentration under hard dense deposits
and can penetrate grain boundaries of tube metal.
2. Hydrogen attack can occur very rapidly, causing the tubes cracked, failed and
ruptured.
3. General wastage occurs when pH value is < 6.5.
4. Pitting (Air Bubble pitting and Scab pitting) occur when pH value is between 6–10
in the presence of dissolved Oxygen.
 176

(2) Caustic Cracking corrosion:

1. Inter-crystalline cracking occurs when excess concentration of Caustic Soda

(NaOH) in boiler water, comes in contact with steel, under stresses and high
temperature.
2. Metal becomes brittle and weak.
3. Damage occurs to riveted seams, tube ends and bolted flanges.
4. Prevented by dosing Sodium Sulphate (Na SO ) to give protective layer.
5. Ratio of Na SO to NaOH should be maintained 2 : 5.

(3) Corrosion by Oil:

1. Animal or vegetable oil decomposed to fatty acid and causes corrosion.

2. Causes are over lubrication of machinery, leakage of heating coils & inefficient
filtering of feed water.
3. Prevented by Liquid Coagulant Treatment, which coagulates oil droplets &
suspended solids and settle them at low points, and they can be blown-down.

(4) Corrosion by Galvanic Action:

1. With dissimilar metals in a saline solution, galvanic action results and more anodic
metal corrodes.
2. Corrosion occurs when feed water is contaminated with salt-water.
3. Prevented by carrying out Chloride Test daily.
4. Chloride Level should be 0 – 300 ppm, and blow-down if > 300 ppm.
5. The best way is to use evaporated feed water.
6. To use Salinometers on feed line or Evaporator outlet.
7. In Scotch boilers zinc plates are sometimes secured to furnaces, and suspended
between tube nests, these act as sacrificial anodes giving "cathodic protection" to
steel plating, etc., of the boiler.

(5) Gaseous Corrosion:

O :
1. Dissolved Oxygen attack depends on pH value, temperature & O concentration.
2. Localised pitting corrosion.
3. Prevented by maintaining Hot Well temperature between 60°–70°C,
to promote O deaeration through hot well vent.
4. Inject Hydrazine.

CO :
1. Reacts with H O to form Carbonic Acid (H CO ) which reduces pH value
(Alkalinity) of feed water and accelerates general type of corrosion.
2. Groovings along the pipe's bottom, bends & threaded section.

NH :
1. Attacks Copper based Alloy, in the presence of O .
 EXECUTIVE SHIP MANAGEMENT
ENGINE ROOM PROCEDURES

Section: 9 Page: 1 of 11
EMERGENCIES IN ENGINE ROOM
Revision: 0 Date: 01-04-2011

9. EMERGENCIES IN ENGINE ROOM

Various emergencies are possible in the engine room out of which fire and flooding can
cause one of the worst consequences. All emergencies have been dealt with in the
Emergency and Contingency Planning Manual. Scavenge fire; crankcase explosion and
black out situations have been elaborated in this section.

9.1 Scavenge fire

Scavenge fires occur when oil and carbon particles from the engine cylinder accumulates
in the scavenge space.

For a fire to begin there must be combustible material, air to support combustion and
source of heat at a temperature high enough to start combustion.

A) In case of scavenge fires, combustible material is oil. This oil can be

Cylinder oil which has drained down from the cylinder spaces.
Crank case oil carried upwards on the piston rod because of faulty stuffing box.
Fuel oil which may be contained in the cylinder oil residues due to defective
injectors or injectors with incorrect pressure setting.

B) Oxygen necessary for combustion comes from the scavenge air which is in abundant
supply for the operation of the engines.

C) The source of heat for ignition comes from

Prolonged piston blow by
Slow combustion in the cylinder due to incorrect atomization or misaligned fuel jets.
Blow back through the scavenge air ports due to incorrectly adjusted exhaust cam
disc or large resistance in the exhaust which causes back pressure in the exhaust
system.

9.1.1 Causes of scavenge fire

1) Blow past of combustion products caused by leaky, sticky or broken piston rings, worn
out liner, faulty cylinder lubrication, or insufficient axial clearance of the piston rings.
2) Overheated piston dissipates heat to the under piston area caused by faulty
atomization and injection pressure, faulty fuel pump timing, loss of compression,
engine overload, failure of coolant circulation or insufficient cooling due to formation of
scale.
3) Blow back of exhaust gases caused by exhaust back pressure or deposits on exhaust
ports, fouling of grid before turbine inlet, fouling of turbine blades, choking of Exhaust
Gas Boiler or economizer gas outlet.
4) Presence of fuel oil in the scavenge spaces due to defective fuel injectors, incorrect
pressure setting of injectors or fuel particles landing on the cylinder liner due to
excessive penetration.
5) Excessive cylinder lubrication which is drained down to scavenge spaces.
6) Fouled scavenge manifold.
7) Defects in cylinder liner.
 EXECUTIVE SHIP MANAGEMENT
ENGINE ROOM PROCEDURES

Section: 9 Page: 2 of 11
EMERGENCIES IN ENGINE ROOM
Revision: 0 Date: 01-04-2011

9.1.2 Indication of scavenge fire

Scavenge fire can lead to grave consequences hence it is better to read the signs earlier.
It is difficult to tell about a scavenge fire from outside unless it has reached serious
proportions. Following are some signs of a possible scavenge fire. These symptoms can
be noticed if the watch keeper is alert all the time.

A sudden loss of power and high exhaust temperatures

High scavenge air temperatures
Irregularity in the running of the engine or excessive gases in the exhaust
Scavenge fires also leads to heavy surging of turbochargers and sparks from the
scavenge drains.

If the above signs are noticed, appropriate action must be taken and chief engineer is to
be informed immediately. Bridge watch keepers are also likely to observe such signs.
They should also be briefed that in case they notice unusual smoke from the exhaust or
sparks from funnel they should inform the engine room.

9.1.3 Actions to be taken

If any of the above is noticed or there is a suspicion that a scavenge fire might have
started, the first thing is to inform Master / Chief Engineer and not to panic about the
situation. While taking corrective actions two objectives must be kept in mind:

1. To contain the fire within the scavenge space

2. To prevent or minimize damage to the main engine

A minor fire may burn out shortly without damage and conditions will return to normal. The
affected units must be run at reduced power until inspection of the scavenge trunk and
overhaul of the piston and cylinder can be carried out at the earliest opportunity. Any oil
residues found under cylinders during scavenge space inspection must be cleared.

In case of a major fire following are the steps to be taken:

1. Inform bridge and reduce the speed of the engine
2. Cut off fuel supply to the affected unit and shut off valves.
3. Cylinder lubrication must be increased.
4. Coolant flow through jacket and piston to be maintained.
5. The scavenge drains should be tightly shut to prevent flow of spark in engine room.
6. Once engine is stopped open indicator cocks, engage turning gear and turn engine to
prevent engine seizure.
7. Scavenge air duct flap valve before engine to be shut. The turbocharger air suction
can be covered to prevent air ingress into the engine.
8. Monitor temperature of the scavenge spaces.
9. Boundary cooling of scavenge spaces may be carried out.
10. In order to extinguish the fire carbon dioxide, dry powder, steam or CO2 smothering
etc. (as applicable to the vessel) may be supplied to the trunking.
11. It should be kept in mind that no attempts are made to open the scavenge trunk as it
may lead to a severe explosion
12. Keep clear of scavenge space relief valve (if fitted) to prevent injury to personnel.

Please use the checklist EMCL 7E in case of scavenge fire in engine room.
 EXECUTIVE SHIP MANAGEMENT
ENGINE ROOM PROCEDURES

Section: 9 Page: 3 of 11
EMERGENCIES IN ENGINE ROOM
Revision: 0 Date: 01-04-2011

9.1.4 Inspection after scavenge fire

Following inspections to be done after the scavenge fire has been confirmed extinguished
and scavenge spaces cleaned:

1) Check by turning the engine and watch movement of piston in the liner, check for
any occurrence of binding at part of stroke (Binding indicates misalignment of piston).
2) Check spring on scavenge space relief device (if fitted), if the device was near the seat
of fire.
3) Piston rod packing spring also should be checked, as it may have become weakened
by overheating.
4) Check piston rings and liner for any distortion or reddish burning mark.
5) Check diaphragm and frame near affected part for distortion or cracks.
6) Check guides and guide shoes.
7) Check tension of tie bolts.

9.1.5 Prevention of scavenge fire

Since prevention is always better than cure, a few simple steps would help to ensure that
a scavenge fire never occurs on the ship or at least minimizes the chances of its
development. Here are these simple tips on avoiding scavenge fires.

1) Scavenge trunking and scavenge ports should be kept clean

2) Piston rings, cylinder liner, piston skirt and the water seals should be inspected for any
defect.
3) Vibration of the engine should be prevented by tightening the tie bolts properly.
4) Excess cylinder lubrication must be avoided
5) In case of timed lubrication, the time has to be checked as per PMS.
6) Piston rings must be properly maintained and lubricated adequately.
7) Piston rod stuffing box must be maintained to prevent oil ingress in the scavenge
space.
8) Prolonged engine or any cylinder over loading to be avoided
9) Cylinder liner wear must be within admissible limits
10) Routine inspection and maintenance of the trunk should be carried out
11) The unburned oil and carbon particles should be removed from the trunk
12) Scavenge drains should be drained and cleaned periodically to prevent choke up
13) High temperature alarm system should be fitted to provide an indication of rise in
temperature above the normal limit
14) Pressure relief valves (if fitted) should also be tested on regular basis
15) To keep the exhaust resistance low, heavy deposit must not be allowed to collect on
the protective grating, nozzle rings, and turbine blades. Back pressure after turbo
charger must not exceed 3.5 kPa.
16) If auxiliary blower does not start during low load running, un-burnt fuel may accumulate
on top of pistons, which will involve risk of scavenge air box fire.
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9.2 Crankcase explosions

The initiation of a crankcase explosion is a 'hot spot' or overheated part within or adjacent
to the crank case of an operating engine. Due to the 'hot spot', the lube oil coming in
contact with it gets evaporated. The evaporated oil circulates to the cooler parts of the
crankcase and there it condenses forming a mist of finely divided oil particles well mixed
with air. If this mist having right proportion of air circulates back to the hot spot, it will be
ignited and a primary explosion occurs. The explosion may cause considerable pressure
rise in the crankcase causing secondary explosion and blow off the crankcase doors if
crankcase relief valves are not fitted and the vacuum which follows the primary explosion
will draw the atmospheric air into the crankcase where it will mix with evaporated and
burning oil to cause a catastrophic secondary explosion. The explosion will rupture the
crankcase doors and even cause heavy damage to the inside of the engine.

Hot spots are created in the crankcase as a result of the following:

1) Hot combustion gas or sparks from piston blow past entering crankcase
2) Fires in the adjacent scavenge trunks resulting in heating of diaphragm, piston rod,
etc.
3) In crease in temperature of parts due to frictional heat generated at the crankcase
bearings, piston rod glands, timing chain, etc. due to inadequate or failure of L.O.
supply.
4) Inadequate clearance between bearings and other moving parts.
5) Prolonged overloading of engine.
6) Reduction of flash point of crankcase oil due to contamination with fuel.

9.2.1 Indication of crankcase explosion

It is difficult to read the early signs of crankcase explosions but there are few pre-explosion
signs that can be read by an alert watch keeper in engine room. Crankcase explosion will
lead to:

Sudden increase in the exhaust temperature

Sudden increase in the load on the engine
Irregular running of the engine
Incongruous noise of the engine
Smell of the white mist.

In case of indication, the crankcase doors should never be opened till the time the system
has totally cooled down. Once the system has cooled down, proper inspection and
maintenance should be carried out.

Emergency Checklist EMCL 7G must be used in case any alarm for Oil mist Detector is
received.

9.2.2 Actions after detecting hot spot

1. Reduce the engine speed to reduce heat generation.

2. Increase lubrication to the running surfaces.
3. Keep clear off crankcase doors to prevent personnel injury, keep fire extinguisher
ready and open skylight.
4. Inform bridge, stop engine, open indicator cocks, engage turning gear and turn the
engine with lube oil circulation continuing to prevent engine seizure.
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5. After about 30 minutes or more, when the engine is sufficiently cooled down, stop lube
oil pumps and open crank case door.
6. Try to locate the hot spot by observation and feeling over.
7. Once the hot spot is located, permanent repair must be carried out in order to prevent
recurrence.
8. Inspect crankcase thoroughly and record crankshaft deflection.
9. Start lube oil pump and check for proper lubrication of all parts.
10. If everything is normal, inform bridge, start the engine, and gradually increase the
speed.

9.2.3 Prevention

Prevention of crankcase explosion can be done by preventing the generation of hot spots
and other checks as stated below:

1. By providing proper lubrication to the reciprocating parts, thus avoiding high

temperatures.
2. Avoiding overloading of the engine.
3. Using bearings with white metal material which prevents rise in temperature.
4. Ensure adequate cooling of the engine
5. Ensure proper purification and analysis of lube oil
6. Lube oil filter should be changed over and cleaned as per schedule
7. Ensure proper cylinder lubrication by checking the condition of piston, piston rings and
liner through scavenge or exhaust ports
8. Clean scavenge spaces as per schedule and drain scavenge space regularly
9. Maintain stuffing box gland in good condition
10. Using oil mist detector in the crankcase with proper visual and audible alarm. Oil mist
detectors raise an alarm if the concentration of oil mist rises above the permissible
limit.
11. Pressure relief valves should be fixed on the crankcase for the instant release of
pressure. They should be periodically pressure tested.
12. Pressure relief valves should be provided with wire mesh to prevent the release of
flames inside the engine room.
13. Crankcase doors should be made of strong and durable material. Vent pipes shouldn't
be too large and should be checked for any choke up
14. Safe distance should be kept from the crankcase and the relief valves in case the
indications are sighted.
15. Fire extinguishing medium should be kept standby. In many systems, inert gas
flooding system is directly connected to the crankcase.
16. Be alert and rectify for any abnormal noise in crankcase
17. All safety alarms and trips fitted on engine to be tried out satisfactorily
18. Proper watch on all running gears temperature and pressures to be maintained
19. Blow through all sampling tubes of Oil Mist Detector (OMD) regularly as per maker’s
instructions.
20. Zero adjustment and sensitivity of OMD to be checked regularly
21. Check for any oil leakage at crankcase relief doors and check for the operation by
hand or tool (if provided)
22. Check flame trap for cleanliness
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9.3 Economiser fires

Soot-fire accidents in exhaust gas economizers represent a major risk due to the potential
damage. Various factors such as inadequate heat transfer, soot deposit, soot calorific
value, spark load, and flue gas velocity contribute to the start of a soot-fire.

1) The increased number of soot fires in recent times is related to the general poorer fuel
quality and often linked to a specific low-grade bunker.
2) The increasing use of low-grade fuel results in higher soot levels. The growing number
of long-stroke diesel engines, which calls for larger quantities of lubrication oil, also
adds to the soot build-up.
3) Another cause may be that the circulating pump is not operated sufficiently after M/E
operation stop.
4) Inadequate combustion of fuel in the engine can lead to fuel carry over, thus
increasing the calorific value of soot.
5) If the cleaning intervals are not adjusted accordingly this will increase the soot fire risk.

Such a fire may develop in three steps:

Soot burning and heat accumulation

Steam build-up, steam blockage, and loss of heat exchange
High temperature oxidation of surfaces and meltdown of the EGE

When fire in the economiser is suspected, following should be done to prevent further
damage (Fire level 1):

1) Reduce RPM or stop the main engine (If navigation circumstances permit) to stop
oxygen supply to the fire.

2) Do NOT stop the circulating pumps or you might melt the whole economizer.

3) Arrange for boundary cooling.

4) Never use soot blowers for fire fighting, as air will feed the fire with oxygen, and steam
will involve a risk of high temperature fire. Injecting steam might result in a secondary
hydrogen fire.

5) Stop the air circulation through the engine, and thereby the air supply to the fire, i.e.
keep air pressure on the diesel engine’s exhaust valve closing mechanism (closed
valves), cover the air filter of the turbocharger, stop the auxiliary blower, and any other
appropriate action.

6) Water washing, if fitted, may be used to extinguish the fire. This is normally connected
to the ship’s fire fighting water system.

In a well-run plant any fire that starts will be small, and if the above emergency action
is taken immediately, the fire will be damped down quickly, and water circulated by the
pump will help keep the tubes cool and reduce any heat damage caused by the fire.

If the soot fire has turned into an iron fire, this can be indicated by a loss of water, for
example, if the feed water consumption increases very much and/ or if a low level
alarm in the steam drum is activated. A temperature sensor (normally max. 400°C) will
not normally be able to measure the high temperatures.
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For Fire level 2, where boiler tubes have melted down:

1) Stop the main engine, if it is not stopped already.

2) Stop the circulating water pump.
3) Close valves on the water circulation line.
4) Discharge the (remaining) water from the exhaust gas boiler sections.
5) Cool down with plenty of splash water directly on the heart of the fire.

DNV warns that, if a soot fire has turned into a high-temperature fire (hydrogen/ iron fire),
care should be taken when using water for extinguishing, otherwise, the fire may become
worse unless large amounts of water are applied directly to the heart of the fire. The main
aim, when one discovers an initial small fire, is to prevent it turning into a high-temperature
fire.

Checks as per Emergency Checklist EMCL 7F must be carried out in case of any
economiser fire in engine room.

9.3.1 Prevention of economiser fires

1. Operate the circulating pump sufficiently after M/E operation stops to cool down the
heating tubes. Please refer ERP sec 2.7.17
2. To prevent the soot from adhering and growing up on the tubes, soot blowing must be
carried out two to three times in a day. Soot blowing should be done in proper way to
ensure tubes are being cleaned properly and most of the soot is being removed.
3. Periodic water washing of economizers must be carried out with copious amounts of
water. Normally the quantity of water to be used is specified by the maker. A hose with
a sufficient diameter must be used so that the water quantity is enough and can be
seen reaching the bottom tubes. A high pressure jet is not effective as water flow will
be very small and will not reach and clean the bottom tubes. If the water cleaning is
insufficient, the unburned soot is easily exposed which can catch fire. Further sulphur
in the residual soot reacts to water, and then may cause sulphate corrosion.
4. For soot fire prevention, the most effective measure is to prevent formation of soot.
This means optimum M/E combustion.
However, soot cannot be prevented considering the quality of the fuel used in the
marine diesel engines. Therefore, it is important to remove the adhered soot in the
best possible manner.

9.4 Black Out in Engine Room

Each ship must prepare the contingency plan (ship specific) for the actions to be taken in
case of black out in engine room. All ship staff after joining must familiarise themselves
with the same. Please refer to ECPM Sec 8.5.3 for general guidance.

The emergency checklist EMCL 6B is to be used in engine room after a black out.

9.5 Dead ship condition

Dead ship condition is a condition in which the entire machinery installation, including the
power supply, is out of operation and the auxiliary services such as compressed air,
starting current from batteries etc., for bringing the main propulsion into operation and for
the restoration of the main power supply are not available. Every ship must establish
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procedures for reviving the vessel from a dead ship condition. Following are guidelines for
your perusal:

9.5.1 Brushless Excitation alternator

The figure (1) below shows the schema of an alternator with a brushless excitation
system.

Figure (1)

Figure (2)
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9.5.2 Normal Working, Figure (1)

When the alternator is running at rated voltage and frequency, the excitation system
receives three voltage signals and three current signals from the alternator output. These
are processed and result in a DC output voltage at terminals F1-F2. An AVR is fitted in the
excitation system which regulates this voltage across F1-F2.

F1-F2 is connected to the 1 phase exciter stator. This magnetizes the poles and thus
induces EMF in the 3 phase exciter rotor. This output is rectified in a 3 phase bridge
rectifier and a DC voltage is input to the 1 phase main rotor. A varistor is fitted across the
rectifier output for protection of the alternator from high voltage. The main rotor poles are
magnetized and induce an EMF in the 3 phase main stator. This forms the output of the
alternator.

At the time of starting, there is no voltage at F1-F2. Hence the residual magnetism in the
exciter stator induces EMF in the exciter rotor. Once some voltage is available at
alternator output, voltage starts at F1-F2 which adds to the magnetizing of the exciter
stator poles increasing the EMF in the exciter rotor. This cycle repeats until rated voltage
is obtained at alternator output.

9.5.3 Troubleshooting

When the alternator is started and running at rated rpm but there is no voltage at the
output, the alternator must be stopped and trouble shooting must be carried out as
follows:-

1) The windings of the following must be checked for continuity and insulation:-
a. Exciter stator
b. Exciter rotor
c. Main rotor
d. Main stator
e. Windings and wiring of the excitation system components

2) The bridge rectifier diodes must be checked.

3) The varistor must be checked. Normally it should be in open condition and should not
show any shorting.
4) If there is no problem with any of the components, then it is possible that the residual
magnetism has been wiped out. In such a case, external flashing of the terminals F1-
F2 by battery power will be required.

9.5.4 External flashing by battery, Figure (2)

When the alternator is running at no load at rated voltage and frequency, the voltage at
F1-F2 is normally about 18 volts DC. (This will depend on alternator design and will be
available in test records).

Hence only 12 volts should be applied.

With the alternator stopped, the following preparations should be carried out:-

The excitation system may be mounted on the alternator itself or it may be external. In
either case the excitation system cover should be opened.
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Care should be taken as high voltages will be generated in the windings when the
alternator is started. As the atmosphere will be hot and sweat may be generated, care
should be taken to prevent sweat from falling on the wiring.

As F1-F2 has DC voltage, the + and – terminals should be identified.

The voltage signals coming from the alternator output to the excitation system should be
identified. A voltmeter set to 500 V AC should be connected across R & S phases. The
voltmeter should be located such that it can be seen from the location where F1-F2
terminals are located.

A 12 volt battery should be brought and kept at a convenient location near the alternator.
Two long wires should be connected to the battery terminals taking care not to short them.
The + and – wires should be identified.

The alternator should now be started and allowed to reach rated rpm.
The two wires from the battery should be just touched to the F1-F2 terminals taking care to
touch the +ve wire with the +ve terminal. At the same time the voltmeter should be
observed. The moment some voltage (about 20-30 V ac) shows across the voltmeter, the
wires should be removed from the F1-F2 terminals. The voltmeter should be checked to
see whether the voltage is building up or it is dying down.

In case the voltage is dying down, the procedure of flashing should be repeated, this time
allowing the voltage build up to about 50-60 V ac before removing the wires.

Under no circumstance should the battery wires be fixed to the F1-F2 terminals as there
may be a sudden backflow of charging current back to the battery causing damage.

Once voltage has built up, jobs such as removing the voltmeter or putting the cover should
not be carried out as a single slip or dropping of items can cause shorting resulting in
injury and damage.

The alternator should be allowed to run for about 5 minutes and then stopped. This will
allow residual voltage to be rebuilt.

Once the alternator is stopped, the voltmeter should be removed and covers set back to
normal.

The alternator should then be started to see whether voltage is building up as before.
Usually this should be sufficient. If not, the procedure must be repeated to build up the
residual voltage.
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9.6 Engine Room Fires

The actions to be carried out in case of fire in engine room are given in ECPM sec 4.3.
Necessary actions must be taken immediately for safety of life and property.

Emergency Checklist EMCL 7C to be filled in case of any fire in engine room.

In case the fire is very big and fixed fire fighting system is to be used. Emergency
checklist EMCL 7D (Fixed fire fighting medium discharge in Engine Room) must be filled
before discharging.

9.7 Grounding incident

In case of any grounding incident engine room staff must carry out and take precautions
as per the checklist EMCL 8B.

9.8 Flooding incident

Please refer to ECPM sec 8.1.

Note: These are general guidance regarding the various emergencies in engine room.
Kindly use these to prepare ship specific procedures for taking immediate actions once
any of such emergencies are experienced.
 177

Air Bottle, Air Compressor, Refrigeration, Air Cond. & Evaporator:

Air receiver:

» Total capacity of air receivers must be sufficient to give at least 12 starts for reversible
engine, and at least 6 starts for non-reversible engine, without refilling the receivers.
» There must be two identical main air receivers and one emergency bottle for every
vessel.

Mountings:

1. Fusible plug; composition – Bismuth 50%, Tin 30%, Lead 20%,

Melting point: 220 F (104.4 C). Fitted at the reservoir's bottom or on reservoir
at ship side, when relief valve (safety valve) is not directly fitted on the reservoir.
2. Atmospheric relief valve; provided for back-up of fusible plug. In case of ER fire when
CO flooding is required, this valve is opened before evacuating ER.
3. Spring loaded safety valve; Setting pressure: 32 bar (for 30 bar working pressure),
with 10% rise in accumulation of pressure. May be fitted directly or with extension.
4. Compensation ring; When a hole is cut or machined in pressure vessel, higher stresses
will subject to the material around the hole, and to reduce this, compensation rings are
fitted. It is a flange on which a valve or fitting is usually mounted.
5. Manual Drain valve or Automatic Drain valve.
6. Pressure gauges.
7. Access doors.
8. Main starting air valve, auxiliary starting air valve, filling valve, service air or whistle
air valve.

Internal surface coating:

Graphite suspension in water, Linseed oil, Copal vanish or Epoxy coating having basic
properties of anti-corrosive, anti-toxic or anti-oxidation.

Safety devices on Main Air Bottle:

1. Fusible plug.
2. Pressure Relief Valve
3. Atmospheric Relief Valve.
4. Low Air Pressure alarm.
5. Automatic or remote control Moisture Drain Valve.

Air Compressor:

LP Relief Valve opening:

Causes:
1. HP suction valve leaking.
2. Intercooler choked.
3. Relief valve, jammed by foreign particles, in open position.
 178

HP Relief Valve opening:

Causes:
1. HP discharge valve, in closed position.
2. After cooler choked.
3. Relief valve, jammed by foreign particles, or spring sticking in open position.
[Relief Valves opening pressure are set at 10% above stage pressure.]

Why Intercooler is fitted?

1. Reduce air temperature and volume, and increase air density for next stage.
2. Increase Compressor Capacity and Volumetric Efficiency.
3. Better lubrication for cylinder and rings.
4. Water and excess oil can be drained out, preventing fouling of Intercooler and
pipes, Air Bottle corrosion, and starting airline explosion.
5. Work done is saved.
6. Metal stresses reduced, due to control of temperature.

Volumetric Efficiency:
Volume of Air drawn into Cylinder
VE =
Stroke Volume of LP Piston

Volume of Air discharged as ‘free air’

VE =
Stroke Volume of LP Piston

Where ‘free air’ is, air at atmospheric pressure and temperature of 15 C.

Why Multistage Air Compressor is built?

1. To obtain near to ideal isothermal compression, compressor is to be constructed of

multistage with inter-stage cooling.
st
2. Inter-stage cooling reduces air temperature and volume after 1 stage compression,
nd
thus increase mass of air for 2 stage.
3. Workdone is saved and air compressor efficiency increased.
Other advantages are:
1. Easy to get high final air pressure.
2. Easy to control air temperature.
3. Easy to maintain correct lubrication.
4. Better compressor balancing.
5. Reduction in size.
6. reduction in clearance volume loss.

Capacity of air compressor:

1. Capacity is checked upon how much filling time is lowered.
2. Compressor should have enough filling capacity so that sufficient stopping time
should be provided between fillings.
12 consecutive starts: reversible engine.
6 consecutive starts: non-reversible engine.
 179

What is Free Air Delivery, FAD?

1. Capacity of Air Compressor is stated in terms of [ m³/ hr ].

2. Volume of air actually discharged in 1 hour, that would occupy if expanded down to
atmospheric pressure and cooled to atmospheric temperature.

Safety devices on Main Air Compressor:

1. Bursting Disc on Intercooler: (At water side)

2. Bursting Disc and Fusible Plug (121°C) on Aftercooler
3. Relief valves on LP and HP stages. (Set to lift at 10% rise above normal stage
pressure.)
4. Automatic Moisture Drain Valve.
5. Cooling water supply failure alarm.
6. Low LO pressure alarm.
7. Relief valve on crankcase LO pump.
8. Delivery air HT cut out and alarm on Aftercooler outlet. (Max. 93°C)

{LP discharge pressure 4 bars: HP discharge pressure 30 bars: Intercooler inlet air 130°C
Intercooler outlet air 35°C: Aftercooler inlet air 130°C: Aftercooler outlet air 35°C:
Intercooler is single pass type: Aftercooler, double pass U-tube type:}

Uses of Compressed Air:

» Engine Starting 20 to 25 bar

» Boiler Soot Blowing 20 to 25 bar
» General Service (Whistle, Pneumatic Tools, Lifeboat and Pilot ladder) 7 to 10 bar
» Instrumentation and Control 1.5 bar

Air Filter:

1. Material: Felt, Metal gauze or Nylon strands

2. Removes contaminants from air. Dirt and dust act as abrasives and increase wear.
3. Contaminant deposits on valves can become hot and source of ignition.

Hazard of Dirty Filter:

1. Very dirty filter or muffling a filter results in large pressure drop.

2. Air has to be compressed over higher range.
3. In extreme case, discharge air temperature may exceed flash point, or auto-ignition
temperature resulting in an explosion.
4. As a safety against explosion, air temperature is limited to 93°C. Fusible Plug
(121 C) or a High Temperature cut out (93 C) is provided on Compressor.

Pressure Test on Air Compressor:

» Cylinders, cylinder cover, Inter & After coolers are hydraulically tested to:

Air Side: 1.5 x max. Working Pressure.

Water Side: 4 bar or 1.5 x max. WP (whichever is greater)
 180

Refrigeration:

What is Primary Refrigerants?

1. Mostly volatile liquids and employed inside direct expansion closed system.
2. Evaporate at low temperature and at reasonable pressure.
3. Condense at SW temperature at reasonable pressure.

What is Secondary Refrigerants?

1. Non-volatile and employed at large, complex installation, to avoid circulation of
expansive Primary Refrigerant in large quantities.
2. Cooled inside Refrigeration Machinery Room and pumped around the ship to
batteries in each cargo space.

Thermostatic Expansion Valve: TEV:

Main Functions:
1. Automatic and prompt response of Refrigerant Flow to match Evaporator Load.
2. Prevention of Liquid flow into Compressor.
3. Appropriate amount of Refrigerant, maintained at HP and LP sides.

TEV construction:

1. Small quantity of Vapour Refrigerant is sealed in a bulb or phial, and attached to

Compressor suction pipe, just coming out from Evaporator.
2. Other end is connected by Capillary Tube to the chamber above Flexible Bellow in
valve body.
3. The space below the Bellow is in communication with Evaporator outlet pressure.
[This is called Equalising Line.]
4. If no further action is taken, pressure above and below the Bellow will be equalised
and hence no superheat is obtained.
5. This is overcome by providing adjustable Bias Spring under the Bellow, and Bias
Spring pressure is proportional to required superheat.

Operation:

1. Refrigerant Liquid from Condenser enters into TEV via Dryer, it expands to
Evaporation Pressure, and some flash gas is formed.
2. Flash Gas amount varies between 25 – 35%, depending on refrigerant type, plant
capacity and ambient temperature.
3. Mixture of this expanded gases and some part of liquid, passed into Evaporator,
where complete Evaporation takes place.
4. Evaporator outlet pressure plus Spring pressure tends to close the valve, and is
opposed by the pressure above the Bellow, trying to open it.
5. This pressure above the Bellow is in relation to temperature in Compressor suction
pipe.
6. Equilibrium condition is reached, when Superheat is correct at phial attachment
point.
7. Starved condition in Evaporator will result greater Superheat, so expansion of
Vapour Refrigerant in phial will tend to open the valve further, to increase the flow.
 181

8. Flooded condition in Evaporator will result lower Superheat, so contraction of

Vapour Refrigerant in phial will tend to close the valve further, so decrease the flow.
9. Superheat Temperature adjusted at: 3 – 6°C, by Bias Spring pressure.

Why Equalising Connection is fitted?

1. In some plant having large Evaporator or Multi-circuit Evaporator, excessive pressure

drop across Evaporator occurs, and always tend to starve the Evaporator and increase
the Superheat.
2. To counteract this, if pressure drop across Evaporator, exceeds 0.3 bar, an Equalising
Connection must be provided at TEV.
3. A direct connection between underside of Bellow and suction piping of Compressor,
preferably between phial and Compressor.

Safety devices on Refrigeration Plant:

1. LP cut-out switch: Set at a pressure corresponding to 5°C below the lowest
expected evaporating gauge reading.
2. HP cut-out switch: Set at a pressure corresponding to 5°C above the highest
expected condensing gauge reading.
3. LO LP cut-out: Oil pressure usually set at 2 bar above crankcase pressure.
4. Condenser cooling water LP cut-out.
5. Liquid shock valve on Compressor cylinder head.
6. Bursting disc on cylinder head, between inlet and discharge manifold.
7. Bursting disc on Condenser, [if fitted].
8. Relief valve on Condenser.
9. Master solenoid valve: To prevent liquid being entered into Compressor, when
the plant is standstill, especially in Large Plant.

Refer plant survey:

1. General examination of machinery and testing under working condition.
2. The log examined, to ascertain successful operation during voyages.
3. Compressor and prime mover to be open-up and examined.
4. Primary system to be leak-tested to their w. p. and brine cooling coils are to be
hydraulically tested to 6.3 kg/cm².
5. Survey is done at 1 year from the date of installation, and special periodical
surveys are to be carried out at 5 years intervals. ( 1+ 5 )

System errors:
1. Air in the system:
Indication:
1. Abnormal and shaking of Compressor discharge pressure gauge reading.
2. Sight glass shows small air bubbles.
Remedy:
1. Close liquid stop valve at Condenser outlet.
2. Pump down the entire charge into Condenser, until suction pressure is just above
zero, and then stop Compressor.
3. Shut Compressor discharge valve.
4. Cool down the Condenser content, by running cooling water for some period.
5. Then purge air at the top of Condenser, through purging valve until refrigerant gas
appear at the valve.
 182

2. Moisture in the system:

Indication:
1. Blockage at Expansion Valve.
2. Compressor tends to stop by H.P. cut-out.
Remedy:
1. By renewing Drying agents.
Common drying agents are Silica gel, Activated Alumina,
Calcium oxide, Calcium chloride. If for reincarnation of Silica gel and
Activated Alumina, they must be baked at 140°C and can be used again.

3. Oil in the system:

Indication:
1. Incorrect Condenser and Evaporator temperature differentials.
2. Compressor will be running longer than normal.
3. Very difficult to cool-down the room temperature due to excessive oil in piping
system.
Remedy:
1. Pump down the system charges into reservoir and totally shutdown the whole
system.
2. Then blow out the collected oils inside piping and evaporator. [If necessary, renew
Compressor piston rings or Oil separator, and replenishment of oil].

4. Overcharge:
Indication:
1. Very high Condenser pressure gauge reading, and full sight glass.
2. Liquid may flow back to Compressor suction.
Remedy:
1. Pump down system charges into reservoir and purge out excessive refrigerant from
vent valve.

5. Undercharge:
Indication:
1. Low Condenser pressure gauge reading.
2. Appearance of large bubbles in sight glass.
3. Hot Compressor discharge pipe.
Remedy:
1. Test leak points by: Halide torch, Soap bubble solution, Dye refrigerant,
Electronic detector, Sulphur candles, which gives off white dense smokes
when contact with Ammonia.
2. After rectification of leak points, recharging is necessary.

6. Short cycling:
Repeated running and stopping of Compressor due to L.P. cut-out. There may be high
leak points in the system.

7. Excessive icing up at Compressor suction:

Causes:
1. Abnormal operation of TEV.
2. Overcharge of the system.
3. Moisture in the system owing to dirty Dryer.
 183

8. Defective Suction valve:

Indication:
1. Continuous running of Compressor.
2. Insufficient cooling effects.
3. Noisy operation.
4. High suction pressure.

9. Defective Discharge valve:

Indication:
1. Continuous running of Compressor.
2. Insufficient cooling effects.
3. Noisy operation.
4. High suction pressure during running.
5. Low discharge pressure during running.
6. Suction pressure rises faster after Compressor is shut-down.
7. Warm cylinder head.

10. Choked Expansion valve:

Causes:
Due to dirt and freeze-up of water present in system.
Effects:
1. Starved Evaporator
2. High superheat temperature.
3. Rapid Condenser pressure rise can cause stopping of Compressor,
Remedy:
1. Clean Expansion valve and filter
2. Renew Dehydrator.

CFC: Chlorofluorocarbon
~ Due to damaging effects on OZONE layer and causing Global Warming, most CFCs are
now replaced by HFCs, Hydrofluorocarbon.
~ HFC 134a has Ozone Depletion Potential, ODP ‘0’ and
Global Warming Potential, GWP ‘0.28’.

Defrosting:
A method of removal of frost, built-up on Evaporator coils. Defrosting should be done before
snow thickness exceeds ¼".

Reasons for defrosting:

1. Affecting heat transfer properties.
2. Affecting air flow and circulation.
3. Liquid back to Compressor.

Defrosting Systems:
1. Water wash defrosting
2. Hot gas defrosting
3. Electric defrosting
4. Manual shut down defrosting
5. Warm brine defrosting
 184

Various methods to defrost Brine System:

1. Hot brine thawing: Best and fastest method, used powerful brine heater with separate
thawing system. Watertight trays under the pipes, collected the dripping water.
2. Hot air from atmosphere: It is important that isolating doors in air trunks are perfectly
tight, so as to prevent hot air going into cargo spaces.
3. By shutting off brine : Allow the snows to be melted by the heat of the air in circulation.
Very slow operation and tends to throw back great deal of moisture into cargo space.

Notes:
Direct expansion grid system: Hot gas defrosting.
Battery cooling system: Water spray, electrical or steam heater.
Brine cooling: Hot brine thawing.

Refrigerant Charging:

1. Normally refrigerant in liquid state is charged at high-pressure side.

2. Weigh the bottle with spring scale.
3. Connect the charging pipe between liquid valve of bottle and charging valve. This
pipe must be tightened after purging out air until refrigerant comes out.
4. Fully open the bottle liquid valve, charging valve still closed.
5. Close main liquid stop valve from condenser and run the Compressor.
6. Slowly open the charging valve ensuring that the frost must not be formed on
suction pipe.
7. After filling Compressor is shutdown and cooling water kept for some hour.
8. Then air can be purged out from air vent valve of condenser.

Prevention of Liquid Flow Back:

1. Liquid shock valve (on cylinder head).

2. TEV.
3. Master solenoid valve (when the plant is standstill, especially in Large Plant).
4. Defrosting.
5. Bursting disc (on cylinder head, between inlet and discharge manifold).

Air Conditioning:

Objectives:

To extract excess heat.

To raise air temperature when required.
To add or reduce moisture when required.
To maintain sufficient Oxygen and air flow.
To remove dust.

Relative Humidity:

Ratio of amount of water vapour in given volume of air, to maximum amount of water
vapour that can be present before precipitation occurs.
 185

Control of temperature:
Comfortable temperature range is about 22°C and RH about 60%, (usually 40 ~ 70%).

All zone temperature:

1. Controlled by Compressor suction pressure, via solenoid valve as step controlling.
Thermostat, placed at some accommodation space actuates the Master Solenoid
Valve of the plant, which will stop the Compressor, when pre-set temperature
is reached.
2. Capacity Unloader of Compressor units, does last step controlling, as required.

Particular zone temperature:

1. Controlled by flap valve fitted in each zone loop.
2. Local cabin temperature can be adjusted by volume control at delivery point of air
duct controller.

Evaporator:

Fresh Water Generation:

1. Main object is to produce FW, essentially free of salts [for boiler feed water and domestic
use] by bringing SW to its boiling point under vacuum and drawing off the vapour,
leaving the salts and other solids in the liquid.
2. Principle types onboard are Single effect and Double effect plants.
Single effect: Evaporation takes place at one pressure system only. Performance ratio: 0.9
Double effect: Evaporation takes place at two pressure system. Performance ratio: 1.5
3. Salinity of distillate < 4.0 ppm. [ Salinity of good boiler feed water is 2.5 ppm.]
4. Seawater contains 30,000 – 42,000 ppm of TDS.

Operating principle: Single Effect Plant:

1. Waste heat from ME JC system at 65°C and flow rate of about 40 kg/hr is used to
partially evaporate feed SW, at about 48°C boiling temperature, and at 0.11 bar [over
90%] vacuum .
2. SW feed is filtered and controlled by fixed orifice plate, before entering evaporator.
3. Feed enters evaporation section under vacuum, ascends through battery of horizontal
plates, surrounded by jacket hot water, vaporising as it goes to condensing section,
through demister.
4. Vapour pass through baffles onto SW cooled condenser plates, and fall as FW.
5. FW is discharged by condensate pump via Salinometer to FW tanks.

6. Salinity of distillate < 4.0 ppm.

7. Demister [monel wire-mesh] ensures no droplets of salt water entering condenser.
8. Orifice size is such that feed quantity is about 4 times the rated distillate output, to avoid
too high brine density.
9. While the feed is heated up to evaporation temperature, only 1 part is evaporated, passed
demister and enters condenser. 3 parts of the feed immediately discharged overboard by
brine ejector.
10. Temperature difference between cooling SW in/out 7°C, to protect condenser tubes
against damage, due to excessive water velocity.
 186

Single Effect Plant:

1. Improve heat transfer.

2. Best control over scale formation.
3. Heating medium supplied can be at low temperature.
4. Simple maintenance.
5. Compact, space saving and economy design.

Performance Ratio:

1. A measure of plant economy of an evaporator.

2. Scale formation and frequency of blowing down adversely affect this ratio.
3. If scale formation is rapid, heat transfer is reduced and performance ratio will
fall.
Distillate Output
Performance Ratio = 0.9 [ Single effect ]
Heat Input 1.5 [ Double effect ]

Improving Palatability (pleasant taste):

1. Since distillate water contains no dissolved solids and very little dissolved air, it
remains flat and tasteless.
2. Palatability of distilled water and hardness can be improved by injecting little
CO into the water from a cylinder, before passing the water through limestone
bed ( CaCO ).

Salinometer:

1. If 2 electrodes are placed, some distance apart in FW, the water will offer
sufficient electrical resistance to prevent current flow between electrodes.
2. If salt (Sodium Chloride) is added to the water, sufficient current will flow.
3. Strength of current depends on amount of salt added.
4. Salinometer instrument measures the degree of salinity, by measuring the current
flow across electrodes and marking the galvanometer in grains of chloride per
gallon of water with an orange glow of a lamp, or in ppm.
5. Most instruments have temperature correction circuits, due to water temperature
effecting the resistance.
6. Used in pipe lines of condensate and feed circuits to boiler, and in any pipe lines,
where there is danger of saltwater contaminating fresh or distilled water.
 187

Sterilisation of distillate:

1. If an evaporator runs remote from coastal water and at a minimum distillation

temperature of 72°C, produced water is usually free from micro-organisms.
2. If this condition can not be met, sterilisation must be done.
3. Method is by Chlorinating or by Ultra Violet Light.
4. Most common method is Ultra Violet Light unit, fitted at discharge side of
portable water storage tank or hydrophore.
5. These lights kill micro-organisms in water, without any change in physical and
chemical properties of produced water.

Reverse Osmosis:

1. When two solutions of differing concentration are separated by a semi-permeable

membrane, water from less concentrated solution tends to pass through the membrane, so
as to equalise the concentrations of two solutions.
2. Hydraulic pressure gradient is created, across the membrane, as volume and level of
weaker solution fall and those of stronger solution rise.
This process is known as ‘Osmosis’.
3. If a pressure greater than osmosis pressure is applied to stronger side, the process is
reversed.
4. Water from stronger side is forced back through semi-permeable membrane to dilute
initially weak solution on other side, and increase further the concentration of strong
solution.
This process is known as ‘Reverse Osmosis’.

Types of Membrane:

1. Hollow fine fibre (Cellulose Acetate).

2. Spirally wound ( Cellulose Acetate for Brackish Water )
( Polyamide or Polysulphonate for SW )
 188

Air Bottle, Air Compressor, Refrigeration, Air Cond. & Evaporator:

Supplementary:

Difference between Air Compressor and Refer Compressor:

Air Compressor Refer Compressor

1 Reciprocating compressor. Reciprocating, centrifugal, screw or rotary

2 Ordinary oil seal.
3 Cooling is very important.
4 Crankcase relief valve provided; breather
pipe for large machine. Shows direct oil
pressure.
5 Open circuit system. Air is compressed in
1st stage, cooled and compressed again in
next stage and cooled again. No. of stages
governed by final pressure required.
6 If cooler drain is opened m/c is unloaded
and no compressed air is produced.
When starting and stopping, drain is
opened to reduce starting torque and to
remove oil/moisture accumulation.
7 Bursting discs on coolers, at waterside to
relief pressure if cooling tube burst.
Relief valves on LP and HP stages, set to
lift at 10% rise above normal stage
pressure.
8 Start/Stop depends upon air pressure, and
auto or manual.
9 No need Dryer.
10 Required more air to increase efficiency.
compressor.
Bellow type special oil seal.
Jacket cooling not necessary.
Enclosed pressurized crankcase. Shows
differential oil pressure.
Closed circuit system. Vapor compression
refrigeration cycle.
Unloader solenoid valve open suction valve
by gas pressure, to relief the load if suction
pressure drops below set value.
LP Cut-off.
HP Cut-off.
Oil LP Cut-off.
Cylinder head Safety Valve Spring.
Start/Stop depends upon working
temperature, and automatically.
Dryer is required.
Air in system reduces efficiency.

Difference between Air Cond. and Fridge.

» Air Cond. controls Humidity, Temperature and Flow Rate of fresh air.
» Fridge cools down the provisions.

Air Reducing Valve:

1. Fitted on compressed Air Bottle outlet.

2. Reduced compressed air is used for control of Reversing Mechanism in
unidirectional gear drive engines, ship whistle, automatic controls and air motors.
3. High-pressure air enters under the valve.
4. The spring, acting on the valve spindle, opens the valve and the air passes to the
reduced pressure side.
 189

5. Compression given to the spring controls the amount of opening of the valve.
6. If the opening increases, the higher pressure obtained on other side, acts to close
down the valve to normal lift, and hence correct reduced pressure maintained.
7. A Relief Valve is fitted on low-pressure side to prevent excessive pressure rise on
reduced air system.

Where fitted Dehumidifier and its function.

1. Fitted at discharge side of Reducing Valve on control air line.
2. Main function is to prevent oil and condensate water passes through control air line.

Air Compressor:
Effects of leaking valves:

First Stage Suction:

1. Reduce air delivery

2. Reduce 2nd stage suction pressure
3. Unload the compressor
4. Increase running time.

First Stage Delivery:

1. Reduce air delivery

2. Increase discharge temperature
3. Less air drawn in, due to high-pressure air leaking back into cylinder.

Second Stage Suction:

1. Reduce air delivery

2. High temperature & pressure in 2nd stage suction line
3. Increase running time

Second Stage Delivery:

1. Reduce air delivery

2. Increase suction pressure in 2nd stage
3. Increase delivery pressure from 1st stage. Back pressure from air bottle.

How to check Air Compressor Efficiency?

1. Regular overhauling of valves done or not.

2. Check Air Bottle filling time.
3. Compare test results and records.

How to check Air Compressor capacity is sufficient?

» Total no. of Air Compressors must be sufficient to fill the empty Air Bottle to
maximum pressure within 1 hour.
» Must be sufficient to start at least 12 times for Reversible Engine, and at least 6
times for Non-Reversible Engine.
 190

Intercooler for air compressor:

1. To increase volumetric efficiency. (more air weight)

2. To save compressor work done during cycle.
3. To drain oil and water vapour.

Bursting Disc:

1. Fitted on the shell of Intercooler at waterside.

2. Relieves pressure if the tubes burst.
3. Rolled Copper Alloy and relief pressure is set while the disc is at softest condition.
4. Material tends to hardened due to time and surrounding temperature, and set
pressure also increased.
5. Bursting Disc needed to be annealed, to regain correct relief pressure.

Compound Valves, why used in Air Compressor?

1. Give large area of opening and small amount of valve lift.

2. Improve Volumetric Efficiency, as valve open and close in minimum time.
3. Reduce bumping clearance.
4. Reduce wear and tear.

Cargo Fridge Defrosting:

1. In Battery System, hot brine passing brine heater is used.

2. Steam is released to brine heater and brine flow is restricted by brine inlet valve,
until brine temperature has risen above 0°C.
3. Brine temperature of 43°C is suitable for defrosting.

Why Cold Room is defrosted and how many methods of defrosting?

» Coil Room is required to defrost to gain more Heat Transfer Efficiency.

» Methods of Defrosting are: Plant stopped and manual watering
Hot gas circulating
Electric Heater.

Secondary Refrigerant:

» Calcium Chloride Brine ( 3 ½ lb. of Ca Cl + 1 gal. of water ) with density of

1.25 is widely used. Sodium Dichromate or lime added to maintain
pH values of 8.0 – 8.5.
» Sodium Chloride Brine.

Why LP Cut-off fitted?

Fitted as safety control and it protect against;

1. Extreme compression ratio.
2. Freezing up of Evaporator.
3. Entrance of air and water vapor resulting from LP side leakage.
 191

Fridge compressor sump oil filling:

1. Stop condition; Tight shut both inlet and outlet valves of compressor.
Open filling plug and fill to required level.
Air purge to be done when plant resume.
2. During running; Make vacuum pressure in crankcase and suck oil itself.
Ensure oil pipe immersed in oil to prevent air ingress.

What is made of fridge filter dryer? Activated Alumina (Aluminium Oxide)

Silica Gel (Thorzone)

Safety Devices fitted on Fridge Compressor:

1. Safety Head or Unloader.

2. Bursting Disc in Compressor.
3. LP and HP Gauges and Cut-out.
4. LO Low Pressure Cut-out.
5. Condenser cooling water Low Pressure Cut-out

Ozone Depletion:

1. Ozone gas layer is a region of the atmosphere, 12 – 30 miles above Earth’s surface.
2. This layer moderates the climate, and protects life on Earth from ultraviolet
radiation.
3. Release of industrial waste and other process breakdown ozone layer and so disturb
natural balance.
4. Chlorofluorocarbons, CFCs, at ground level, rise and broken down by sunlight,
whereupon chlorine reacts with and destroys ozone molecules.
5. Single chlorine atom may destroy 10 – 100,0000 ozone molecules.

Ozone Depletion Potential:

CFC 11 1.0 Halon1211 3.0 (Used in portable extinguishers)

CFC 12 1.0 Halon1301 10.0 ( Used in fixed installation)
CFC 115 0.6 HCFC 22 0.05

CFCs: Chlorofluorocarbon Refrigerant:

Chlorofluorocarbon Refrigerants includes:

CFC11, CFC12, CFC22, CFC 115, CFC500, CFC502, CFC 503 and CFC 504. ( 8 types )
 192

Naval Architecture:
Camber: A curvature given to a deck transversely. A difference between the heights of deck
at side and centre. Camber amidship = 1/50 of breadth of ship. Purpose is to drive water to
sides of the ship.

Rise of floor: (Dead rise) Bottom shell, sloping up from keel to bilge, to facilitate drainage
of bilge. Rise of floor is usually 150mm.

Bilge radius: Radius of the curve, connecting the side of ship to bottom, at midship portion.

Tumble home: The slant inward, from vertical of transverse section of hull, above the
designated water line. Purpose is to improve the ship’s appearance.

Floor: They are transverse vertical plate, across the bottom of the ship from the centre
girder to bilge. Watertight floors or oil tight floors are used to divide the bottom spaces into
suitable tank.

Margin Plate:
1. The outboard strake of the inner bottom.
2. Knuckle down to the shell by means of Margin Plate at angle of 45 to tank top, meeting
the shell almost at right angle.
3. It can form a bilge space.

Keel plate: Keel is a horizontal plating of increased thickness, which runs along
the centre line, for complete length of bottom shell plating.

Types of keel: (1) Bar keel (2) Flat plate keel (3) Duct keel.

Bar keel: The first type, used from wood to iron ship building.
Do not provide sufficient strength for larger ship.
No direct connection between the keel and floor.

Flat plate keel: A keel of welded ship. The centre girder is attached to the keel and
inner bottom plating by continuous welds.
Keel plate width is about 1 to 2 meter.
It must be full thickness, for 3/5 of length amidship and then thickness may
reduce towards the ends of ship.

Duct keel:
1. An internal passage of watertight construction, running same distance along the
length of ship, often from fore peak to forward machinery space bulkhead.
2. It is to carry pipeworks, and entrance is at forward machinery space bulkhead
through a watertight manhole.

Class A bulkhead:
1. Constructed to prevent passage of flame for 1 hour standard fire test at 927°C.
2. It must be insulated so that the unexposed sides will not rise more than 139°C
above the original temperature within the time, as follows.
Class A- 60 , 1 hour: Class A- 30 , 30 minutes.
 193

Class B bulkhead:

1. Constructed to prevent passage of flame for ½ hour standard fire test.

2. It must be insulated so that the unexposed sides will not rise more than 139°C
above the original temperature within the time, as follows.
Class B- 15 , 15 minutes: Class B- 0 , 0 minute.

Class C bulkhead:
1. They are constructed of non-combustible material.

Standard fire test:

The exposure of a material specimen in a test furnace, to a particular temperature for a
certain period of time.

Collision Bulkhead:

2. Foremost major watertight bulkhead, which extends from bottom to main deck
(upper deck).
3. It is at a distance of L/20 from forward perpendicular.

Corrugated bulkhead: Used on transverse bulkhead, thus improves transverse strength.

Non-watertight bulkhead: Any bulkhead, which does not form, part of a tank or part of a
watertight subdivision of a ship, may be non-watertight.

Wash bulkhead: A perforated bulkhead fitted into a cargo tank or deep tank, to reduce
sloshing or movement of liquid through the tank.

After peak bulkhead:

1. Provided to enclose the stern tube in watertight compartment.

2. Aft peak bulkhead needs only to extend to first deck above load water line.
3. Plating must be doubled to resist vibration around stern tube.

Minimum required bulkhead:

1. One collision bulkhead.

2. An after peak bulkhead.
3. One bulkhead at each end of machinery space.
4. Total no: of bulkheads depends upon the ship and position of machinery space
amidship or aft.

Functions of bulkhead:

1. To increase transverse strength of ship, particularly against racking stresses.

2. To divide the ship into watertight compartments.
3. To give protection against fire.
4. To prevent undue distortion of side shell.
5. To restrict volume of water, which may enter the ship, if shell plating is damaged.
 194

Construction of bulkhead:

1. Collision bulkhead must extend from bottom to upper deck.

2. Aft peak bulkhead needs only extend to first deck above load water line.
3. All others must extend to uppermost continuous deck.
4. Plating usually fitted vertically, and thickness gradually increases from the top
downward.
5. Stiffeners are fitted at 750mm apart, but collision bulkhead and deep tanks have
600mm spacing.

Why Collision Bulkhead kept at L/20 of the ship?

1. In the events of collision and grounding, standard of subdivision has to give good
chance, that the ship remains afloat under such emergencies.
2. Longitudinal Bulkheads are avoided, as far as possible, as they might cause dangerous
angles of heel, in the event of flooding of large compartment through damage.
3. Transverse Bulkheads are reliable in this case, and Classification Society requires a
watertight Collision Bulkhead within reasonable distance from forward.
4. If the ship is supposed to have wave trough amidships, there will be excess weight
amidships and excess buoyancy at the ends, hence the ship will be sagging. (Assuming
wave length = length of ship)
5. If the ship is supposed to have wave crest amidships, there will be excess weight at the
ends, and excess buoyancy amidships; hence the ship will be hogging.
6. By “Trochoidal Theory”, wave height from trough to crest is 1/20 of the wave length,
therefore maximum shearing force usually occurs at about L/20 of ship from each end.
7. For this reason, Collision Bulkhead is located at L/20 of the ship, so that it is not so far
forward, as to be damaged on impact. Neither should it be too far aft, so that the
compartment flooded forward causes excessive trim by bow.

Panting:
1. As wave passes along the ship, they cause water pressure fluctuation, which tends
to create in and out movement of the shell plating, especially at forward end.
2. This in and out movement is called panting.
3. Resisting structures against panting are beams, brackets, stringer plates, etc.

Racking:
1. When a ship rolls, there is a tendency for the ship to distort transversely.
2. This is known as racking.
3. Resisting structures are beam knee, tank side bracket, and especially transverse
bulkhead.

Slamming or Pounding:
1. When ship is heaving and pitching, the fore end emerges from water and re-enter
with a slamming effect.
2. It is called pounding.
3. Resisting structure: extra stiffening at the fore end.

Hogging:
» When buoyancy amidships exceeds the weight due to loading, or when the wave
crest is amidships, the ship will hog.
 195

Sagging:
» When the weight amidships exceeds the buoyancy, or when the wave trough is
amidships the ship will sag.

Heel: Amount of temporary inclination of the ship, in transverse direction,

due to turning or centrifugal force. It is measured in degree.

List: Amount of permanent inclination of the ship, in transverse direction,

due to distribution of cargoes, ballast or any other storage condition.
It is measured in degree.

Function of port hole: 1) For light 2) For ventilation 3) For escape for emergency.

Transverse stresses:
1. Transverse section of a ship is subjected to transverse stresses, i.e. static pressure
due to surrounding water, as well as internal loading due to weight of structure,
cargo, etc.
2. Structures or parts, that resist transverse stresses:
a) Transverse bulkhead
b) Floors in double bottom
c) Brackets between deck beams and side frame
d) Brackets between side frame and tank top plating
e) Margin plates
f) Pillars in holds and tween deck.

Local stresses:
Causes:
1. Heavy concentrated loads like engine, boiler.
2. Deck cargo such as timber.
3. Hull vibration.
4. Ship, resting on blocks in dry dock.

Dynamic forces:

» Caused by the motion of the ship itself

» A ship among waves has three linear motions:
1. Vertical movement: heaving
2. Horizontal transverse movement: swaying
3. Fore and aft movement: surging
» And three rotational motions:
1. Rolling about longitudinal axis
2. Pitching about transverse axis
3. Yawing about vertical axis.

The difference between Timber Load Line and Load Line:

» When ship is carrying timber, the deck cargo gives additional buoyancy and a
greater degree of protection against the sea.
» The ship has smaller freeboard than normal (type-B) vessel.
Type A : Ship carrying liquid cargo in bulk.
Type B : Ship, which does not include in type A.
 196

Bulbous Bow:
It is a bulb shaped underwater bow.
1. Reduce wave making resistance, and pitching motion of the ship
2. Increase buoyancy forward, and hence reduce pitching of the ship
3. Outer plating of bulbous bow is thicker than normal shell plating, to resist
high water pressure and possible damage cause by anchor and cables.
4. Due to reduction in wave making resistance, it can reduce SFOC under full
speed and loaded condition.

Bow Thruster:
1. Lateral Bow Thrusters are particularly useful, for manoeuvring in confined water at
low speed.
2. For large vessel, used at channel crossing, and docking.
3. For research vessels and drilling platform, etc. very accurate positioning maintained.
4. Bow Thruster consists of: (As a Rule)
a) A controllable pitch or reversible impeller, in athwartship watertight tunnels.
b) Bridge controlled and driven by motor.
c) Thrust provided is a low thrust, about 16 tons.
d) Greatest thrust is obtained, when ship speed is zero.
e) Less effective, when ship gets underway.
f) Athwartship tunnels appreciably increases hull resistance.
g) Close the tunnels at either end, when not in use, by butterfly valve or hydraulic
valve.

Cofferdam:
1. A narrow void space between two bulkheads or floors that prevents leakage
between the adjoining compartments.
2. In tankers, between cargo tanks: In ER, between DB LO tank (sump tank) and
adjacent tanks. Maximum width = 760 mm.

Double Bottom:
The double bottom consists of outer shell and inner skin, 1m and 1.5 m above the
keel and internally supported by floors.

Double Bottom Tank:

Double bottom space is subdivided longitudinally and transversely, into large tank,
by means of watertight structures. Its functions are:
1. Protection of shell in the events of damage to bottom shell.
2. Tank top being continuous increases the longitudinal strength.
3. To act as platform for cargo and machinery.
4. Can be used for storage of fuel, fresh water, ballast, etc. and for correcting
list, trim and draught.
5. Diminish oil pollution, in the event of collision.

Wing Tank:
Purpose:
1. To carry water ballast or liquid cargo.
2. Protection of shell in the events of damage to side shell.
3. To locate oil cargo tank inboard.
4. To correct list of the ship.
 197

Deep Tank:
1. When ship is underway in light condition, it is necessary to carry certain amount of water
ballast.
2. If DB tanks alone are used for this purpose, the ship might be unduly “stiff”.
3. So it becomes a practice to arrange one of the lower holds, so that it can be filled with
water when necessary.
4. This permits a large amount of ballast to be carried without unduly lowering
the Centre of Gravity of the ship.
5. Such a hold is called a Deep Tank.
6. This tank is usually designed to carry dry cargo, and in some cases may carry vegetable
oil or oil fuel as cargo.
7. If the tank extends full breadth of the ship, a middle line bulkhead, called Wash Plate
must be fitted to reduce free surface effect.
8. Strength of Deep Tank structure is greater than that required for dry cargo hold bulkhead.

Freeboard:
1. Vertical distance from water load line, up to the main deck [freeboard deck],
measured at the shipside amidships.
2. Main deck is the highest deck that is water sealed. Water falling on upper decks
may run down companion ways, but it cannot go any further down into the ship
than the main deck.
3. Freeboard has considerable influence on seaworthiness of the ship. The greater the
freeboard, the larger is the above water volume of the ship and this provides
reserved buoyancy, assisting the ship to remain afloat in the event of damage.

Freeboard deck: (Superstructure deck): The uppermost complete deck, exposed to weather.
It must have permanent means of closure of all opening on and below it.

Reserved buoyancy:

» Watertight volume of a ship above the water line is called the reserved buoyancy.
» It can be defined as the buoyancy, a ship can call upon, to meet losses of buoyancy in
case of damage to main hull. [Water plane area, multiplied by freeboard.]

Purpose:
1. To meet loss of buoyancy, in case of hull damage.
2. To provide sufficiency of freeboard, to make the vessel seaworthy.

Marking of freeboard:

Marking of minimum allowable freeboard, in conjunction with an overall seaworthiness

evaluation, is to ascertain that the vessel:
1. is structurally adequate for its intended voyages,
2. has adequate stability for its intended voyages,
3. has a hull that is essentially watertight from keel to freeboard deck, and watertight
above these decks,
4. has a working platform that is high enough from water surface, to allow safe
movement on exposed deck, in the heavy seas,
5. has enough reserved buoyancy above the water line, so that vessel will not be in
danger of foundering and plunging when in heavy seas.
 198

Hatchways: These constructions must be in accordance with standards, such as heights of

coamings, covers, and fittings exposed. They have standard of strength and protection.

Machinery Casing: Machinery space openings on exposed portion of freeboard deck

(superstructure deck), must be provided with Steel Casing, with any opening fitted with Steel
Doors. Fiddley Opening is to have permanently attached Steel Covers.

Tonnage: Tonnage is a measure of cubic capacity, where one ton represents 100 ft³
or 2.83 m³. It is a measure of the ship’s internal capacity.

Gross Tonnage:

» Gross tonnage is the total of the Underdeck tonnage & the tonnage of the following
spaces:
1. Any Tweendeck space , between second and upper deck.

2. Any excess of hatchways over ½ % of vessel’s Gross Tonnage.

3. Any permanently closed-in spaces, on or above the upper deck.
4. Any engine light and air space on or above upper deck, at shipowner's option and
with Surveyor's approval.

Certain closed-in spaces, on or above the upper deck are not included in gross tonnage, and
these are known as Exempted Spaces.

Exempted spaces:
Dry cargo space.
Space fitted with machinery or condensers.
Wheelhouse, chartroom and radio room.
Galley and bakery.
Washing and sanitary spaces in crew accommodation.
Light and air spaces.
Water ballast tanks not appropriated for any other use.

Net or Registered Tonnage:

It is obtained by making “deductions” from the Gross Tonnage.

Principal “Deducted Space”, which already have been included in Gross Tonnage
are:
1. Master’s and crew accommodation.
2. Chain lockers and space for working anchor and steering gear.
3. Propelling Power Allowance.
4. Ballast tank, capacity 90%.
Port and Harbour dues are assessed on Net Tonnage.

Where Tonnage value is used?

1. To determine port and canal dues.

2. To determine Safety Equipment.
3. To measure the size of fleet.
Propelling Power Allowance:
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The largest “Deduction” and is determined according to certain criteria, as follow:

1. If machinery space tonnage is between 13% and 20% of gross tonnage, PPA is 32%
of gross tonnage.
2. If machinery space tonnage is less than 13% of gross tonnage, PPA is the amount
expressed as a proportion of 32% of gross tonnage.
3. If machinery space tonnage is more than 20% of gross tonnage, PPA is 1.75 times
the machinery space tonnage.
4. There is a maximum deduction for propelling power of 55% of gross tonnage,
remaining after all other deductions have been made.

Tonnage Deck: The tonnage deck is the second deck, except in single deck ships.

Light displacement: It is the weight of hull, engine, spare parts, boiler and condenser with
working water level.

Loaded displacement: It is the weight of hull, and everything onboard, when floating at the
designed summer draught.

Dead weight: A difference between light and loaded displacements, and is the weight of
cargo, stores, ballast, fresh water, fuel oil, crew, passengers and personal effects onboard.

Displacement: A ship floating freely, displaces a mass of water, equal to its own mass and it
is called displacement.

Water tightness of steel hatch cover:

Rubber jointing is used, and the hatch being pulled down by cleats and cross joint wedges.
Cleats are placed about 2 m apart with minimum of two cleats per panel. Cross joint wedges
should be 1.5 m apart.

Hose test and chalk test:

To check the water tightness of hatch covers and watertight doors:

By using water jet pressure of 2 kg/cm² and a distance of 1.5 m, and jet diameter ½ ".
If hose test cannot carried out, chalk test can be done.
Cover or door seals, painted with chalk powder, and close the cover or door tightly.
Open the cover or door, and check whether the chalk painted is cut off or not.
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Naval Architecture:
Supplementary:

DB Tank
» Being double hull, prevent SW ingress when grounding.
» Can be used as storage tank for FO and Ballasting.

Why DB tanks are constructed?

1. To gain more transverse strength.
2. Being double hull, in event of SW ingress.
3. Can store oil and water.

DB tank pressure test: 8-ft head above tank top.

Anchor Chain Cable Wear Down:

» 20 % Limit.

Displacement:
» The Mass of ship and everything it contains.
» Has different value at different Draught

Bilge strake
» Course of shell plating at Bilge.

Garboard strake
» Bottom shell plating adjacent to keel plate.

Docking plug
» Brass plug fitted in garboard strake for DB Tank drain.

Margin Line
» An imaginary line 75 mm below the Bulkhead Deck at shipside.
» It is highest permissible location for any damaged water plane in the final condition
of sinking, trim and heel.

Margin Plate
» The outboard strake of inner bottom, connecting to bilge with shell plating.

Solid Floor:
1. In ship less than 120 meters in length, bottom shell and tank top are supported at
intervals of not more than 3 meters, with transverse plate known as solid floors.
2. Solid floors have manholes, air release and drain holes are cut at top and bottom,
for access and ventilation.
3. Solid floor is usually fitted as continuous plate, from centre girder to margin plate.
4. The side girder is therefore broken on each side of the floor plate and it is said to be
intercoastal.
5. Vessel of up to 20 meters in breadth, must have one intercoastal side girder on each
side.
6. Vessel of over 20 meters in breadth, must have two such girders on each side.
 201

Load Line:

» Load line marks are located amidships on both side of the ship, showing maximum
draught to which the vessel may be loaded in summer and winter and in salt and fresh
water.

Purposes:
1. Storage of cargo, ballast etc. are such as to assure sufficient stability.
2. To avoid excessive structural stresses.

Note 1: Oil Tanker is well divided into oil-tight compartments. So it is reasonable to allow
smaller volume of Reserved Buoyancy and thus smaller minimum freeboard.

Note 2: The grid 540mm (21in) aft of the load line mark is used only by Timber Deck Cargo
Carriers; it is omitted on General Cargo and Oil Carriers. All lines are 25 mm wide.

Deck Line

12 in
Minimum Summer Freeboard TF 9 in

F T

L R S

W
18 in WNA
9 in
21 in Forward

» S, Summer Load Line: Upper edge passes through the centre of the ring and indicated
by letter S. This line marks the maximum draught to which a ship maybe loaded during
recognised summer period for that region, in sea water for voyages.
The freeboard to the centre of the ring, gives the base line from which the other marks
are measured.
» W, Winter Load line: Placed below Summer Line at a distance, according to the
Rules, equal to 1/48th of Summer Draught of the ship. This line marks the draught to
which a ship maybe loaded during recognised winter period for that region, in sea water
for voyages.
» WNA, Winter North Atlantic Load Line: Marked only on ships 100 metres and above
in length, providing additional safety in ships of moderate dimensions. Placed 50 mm
below Winter Line.
» T, Tropical Load Line: Show maximum draught in sea water for voyages during fine
weather season, in certain zones of the tropics. Tropical Load Line allows a deduction of
freeboard from summer freeboard and placed at same distance above the centre of the
ring, as the Winter Line is below.
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» F, Fresh Water Line: To allow for the rise of ship, when passing from fresh to salt
water. Distance above Summer Load Line to Fresh Water Line may be calculated by
dividing the displacement (metric tons) in sea water at Summer Load Line, by 4 times the
metric tons per centimetre immersion. ( / 4 TPC )
» TF, Tropical Fresh Water Line: The Fresh Water Freeboard, placed above Fresh
Water Line, at a distance equal to 1/48th of Summer Draught of the ship.

Deck Line:
» A horizontal line marked at amidships on each side of the ship, and its upper edge passes
through the point where the continuation outwards of the ship of upper surface of
freeboard deck intersects the outer surface of the shell.

Tonnage Mark:

L R

21 in Aft

9 in
12 in

15 in

THIS DISTANCE IS 1/48 MOULDED DRAUGHT

TO TONNAGE MARK

» Tonnage Mark is an inverted triangle and must be cut in on each side of the ship
whenever modified or alternative tonnage have been assigned.
» Marked at 540 mm aft the centre of Load Line Disc, which is the same distance away as
Timber Load Line.
» But a vessel which is assigned Timber Load Lines is not permitted to have a modified
tonnage.

Freeboard:
» Minimum Summer Freeboard may be defined as the height of the freeboard deck at side
at midships above normal Summer Load Water Line.

Every ship needs adequate amount of freeboard for the following reasons:

1. Safety of the ship:

a) Large freeboard means greater amount of Reserved Buoyancy and therefore
greater the chance of remaining afloat when damaged.
b) Large freeboard means greater stability of the ship and therefore the ship
can be inclined to large angle before the deck edge becomes submerged.
2. Safety of the crew:
a) Inadequate freeboard means wave would be too close to weather and other
decks, which could be easily swamped, thus reducing safety and comfort of
the crew. Safety is one of the essential factors of seaworthiness.
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Free Board
» Vertical distance from Summer Load Line to the top of Freeboard Deck measured at
shipside amidships.

Purpose of Freeboard

1. To ensure that, she can not be loaded beyond her strength.

2. To provide her with adequate Reserved Buoyancy.
3. To keep the deck high enough from water, to enable the crew to navigate and
handle her in all weather conditions.

Slop Tank Capacity:

» More than 3% of total carrying capacity of the ship.

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Electro-technology:
Switch Board Safety Devices:

1. Preferential trip.
2. Low frequency trip.
3. Over voltage trip.
4. Under voltage trip.
5. No voltage trip.
6. Reverse current trip.
7. Over current trip.
8. Fuses.
9. Automatic circuit breaker, ACB.
10. Earth lamp.
11. Meters.
12. Synchroscope.
13. Emergency synchronising lamp.
14. Ebonite handrail and Rubber footstep.

Preferential trip:

1. Operate after a fixed time delay, causing non-essential loads to be shed.

2. Usual setting for overload trip is 150% load [50% overload].
3. When generator load reaches 110%, Preferential Trip comes into operation as
follows.

First tripping at 5 sec:

Shut down non-essential loads [air condition, entertainment, accommodation fans,
cargo hold fans, amplifiers, etc.] to reduce the generator load.

Second tripping at 10 sec:

Shut down essential loads [services required for running the ship properly, leaving
the loads of top priority services to maintain Propulsion and Navigation]
if generator load is still high.

Third tripping at 15 sec:

Shut down the main generator as last action, if the load is still too high, it may be
due to short circuit or insulation breaking.

Earth lamps:
A set of lamps, which show the presence of earth fault in distribution system.

Earth lamps of 3 phase, 3 wire system, AC.

Each lamp is connected to secondary connections of each single phase step-down

transformer, and primary connections are common to star point, which is earthed to
ship structure.
Normally 3 earth lamps burn with equal brightness if there is no fault.
If phase A is earth fault, lamp A becomes dark while the other two lamps burn with
extra brightness.
 205

Location of fault can be traced, by switching off the branch circuit, one at a time.
When branch circuit with fault is switched off, dark lamp will become normal glow
and all 3 lamps burn with equal brightness.

Synchroscope:
1. An instrument, which indicates that, two electrical supplies are in synchronism
and can be paralleled. [OR]
2. An instrument, which indicates that, voltages, frequencies and phase angle of two
electrical supplies of running machine and incoming machine, are in synchronism
and can be paralleled.
3. Synchroscope should not be left in circuit for more than 20 minutes, as it cannot
continuously rotate.

Synchronising method:
~ Synchroscope is the main method.
~ Back-up methods are: 1) Lamp dark method 2) Lamp bright method
3) Rotating lamp method or Sequence method [preferable].

Sequence method:
1. One of the lamps known as key lamp is connected in one phase.
2. Other two lamps are cross-connected.
3. If two frequencies differ, lamps will bright up in rotation. Clockwise indicates
incoming machine is fast, and counter-clockwise indicates it is slow.
4. Synchronising moment is when key lamp is dark and other two lamps equally
bright.
5. If phase rotation is wrong, all lamps will become bright and dark together.
Remedy is to interchange any two phase-connections.

Reverse current protection:

Fitted in main switchboard to trip and disconnect main circuit breaker, in the event of a
reverse current flow. It prevents the generator against running as a motor.

Intrinsically Safe:
1. An electrical circuit or part of a circuit is intrinsically safe, if any spark or thermal
effect produced normally (e.g. by breaking or closing the circuit) or accidentally
(e.g. by short circuit or earth fault), is incapable of igniting a prescribed gas
mixture, under prescribed test condition.
2. An equipment, which cannot released sufficient electrical or thermal energy, under
any condition to ignite a particular flammable vapour in its vicinity.

Emergency Power Sources:

All passenger and cargo vessels shall be provided with emergency sources of
electrical power, for essential services under emergency conditions.
Emergency source may be generator or batteries, but must be complied with the
rules.
Emergency sources must be installed in position such that they are unlikely to be
damaged or affected by any incident, which has caused to main power.
Emergency source of power should be capable of operating with a list of up to
22 ½ and a trim of up to 10 .
 206

Emergency generator with its switchboard, is located in a compartment which is:

Outside and away from main and auxiliary machinery space.
Above the uppermost continuous deck, and
Not forward of collision bulkhead.

Batteries: The above same rules applied, but must not be fitted in the same place as
emergency switchboard.

Rules for Emergency Power Sources:

Passenger Ship:
» Emergency Generator shall be automatically started and connected within 45 sec.
» Capable of supplying simultaneously at least the following services
for the period of 36 hours.
1. Emergency lighting [at alleyways, stairways and exits, muster and embarkation
stations, machinery space, control room, main and emergency switchboard,
firemen’s outfits storage positions, steering gear room, fire pump, emergency bilge
pump starting positions]
2. Navigation lights,
3. Internal communication equipment,
4. Fire detection and fire alarm system,
5. Daylight signalling lamp, Ship’s whistle,
6. Navigation equipment,
7. Radio installations, [VHF, MF, MF/HF]
8. One of the fire pump, Emergency bilge pump.

» A set of automatically connected Emergency Batteries must be capable of carrying

certain essential services for the period of 30 min.
1. Emergency lighting,
2. Navigation lights,
3. Internal communication equipment,
4. Fire detection and fire alarm,
5. Daylight signalling lamp, ship’s whistle.

Cargo Ship:
» Emergency power source, Emergency generator must be sufficient to operate certain
essential services at least for the period of 18 hours.
1. Emergency lighting [at alleyways, stairways and exits, muster and embarkation
stations, machinery space, control room, main and emergency switchboard,
firemen’s outfits storage positions, steering gear room, fire pump, emergency bilge
pump starting positions]
2. Navigation lights,
3. Internal communication equipment,
4. Fire detection and fire alarm system,
5. Daylight signalling lamp, Ship’s whistle,
6. Navigation equipment,
7. Radio installations, [VHF, MF, MF/HF].
8. One of the fire pump, Emergency bilge pump.
 207

» Where emergency source of electrical power is an accumulator battery, it shall be

capable of carrying loads without recharging and battery voltage throughout discharge
period must be maintained within 12% above or below its nominal voltage.
» Battery system is automatically connected upon loss of main power.
» Batteries are required as transitional power source for 30 min. for following items:
1. Emergency lighting
2. Navigation lights
3. Internal communication equipment
4. Fire detection and fire alarm.

Essential Services from Emergency Power Source:

1. Emergency Lighting.
2. Navigation Lights.
3. Communication Equipment.
4. Fire Detection and Fire Alarm.
5. Daylight Signalling Lamp and Ship’s Whistle.
6. Navigation Aids.
7. Emergency Fire Pump.
8. General Alarm.
9. Manual Fire Alarm.
10. Steering Gear.
11. Watertight Doors.

Emergency Switchboard Distribution:

1. There are 2 sections: 440V and 220V.

2. Under normal condition, 440V Supply is taken from ER Main Switchboard, through a
Circuit Breaker.
3. When main power is lost, this Circuit Breaker is tripped [opened].
4. Emergency Generator comes into action, and supplies power through another Circuit
Breaker.
5. An interlock is provided, to prevent simultaneous closing of both Breakers; [both Main
and Emergency Generator may be running, simultaneously].
6. From 440V section:
a) Emergency Bilge pump,
b) Sprinkler System,
c) One of two Steering gears.

7. From 220V section:

a) Navigation Equipment,
b) Radio Communication,
c) Transformed and rectified supply to Battery Systems.

Transitional Emergency Power Battery: [Emergency Lights for 30 minutes.]

Low power DC system Battery: [Alarms and Control system.]
Emergency Generator and its maintenance:
 208

1. Provided with independent means of automatic starting, [compressed air, batteries

or hydraulic] and repeated starts of at least 3 times, and further attempt can be
made within the 30 minutes temporary battery life.
2. Adequate and independent supply of fuel with a flash point of
not less than 43°C [109.4°F].
3. Must be able to be started in cold condition, up to 0°C [32°F].
4. For cold weather, JCW system must be treated with anti-freeze agent, and heating
arrangement provided.

Maintenance:
1. Every Saturday, Emergency generator must be tested-run.
2. Air bottle pressed-up or starter battery fully charged, at all times.
3. Changeover the selector switch to local position before starting.
4. Make sure breaker switch at ‘off’ position before starting [an interlock between ER
Main Switchboard breaker and Emergency Switchboard breaker is provided to
prevent simultaneous closure of both breakers].
5. During testing, check frequency, voltage and ampere.
6. Fuel tank, always checked to ensure adequate level.
7. Air filter of generator, regularly cleaned.
8. Required tools and spares kept in a container.
9. Emergency light for this room should be always checked.

Emergency Generator Starting, when Black-out:

1. Normally cut-in automatically when main power fails.
2. Starting is initiated by Start-up relay.
3. Falling of frequency or voltage of Main Power, cause the Start-up relay to operate
generator-starting equipment.
4. If this system fails, after switching the MODE selector to Manual (Local) position,
generator can be started manually by means of Back-up Starting Equipment within
30 minutes of Transitional Emergency Power Battery lighting.

Battery room inspection and maintenance:

1. Battery installation and its charging rectifier checked.
2. Battery room environment must be dry and well ventilated.
3. Battery tops shall be clean and dry, and terminal nuts must be tight and a smear of
petroleum jelly applied to prevent corrosion.
4. Electrolyte at proper level, and shall have correct value of specific gravity by
checking with a hydrometer.
5. Rubber gloves and goggles used when handling electrolyte.
6. Charging equipment checked for dirt, overheating, loose connection and correct
functioning of indicators.
7. Ventilation arrangement for battery locker checked. Battery installation of both lead
acid and alkaline needs good ventilation.
8. Since both type generates hydrogen gas during charging, no smoking and naked light
allowed.
9. Steel works and decks adjacent to lead acid battery, should be painted with acid proof
paint.
[For Cad-Ni cell, alkaline resistance paints.]
Battery Room Safety Arrangement:
Safety is provided by:
 209

Proper ventilation
Prevention of heat source for ignition.

Ventilation:
1. Independent exhaust fan provided.
2. Inlet duct should be below battery level, and outlet at top of the compartment.

Prevention of heat source for ignition:

1. No naked light and no smoking.
2. Uses of externally fitted light or flameproof light.
3. Cables of adequate size and they are well connected.
4. Never placed Emergency Switchboard in this room.
5. Use insulated spanner and plastic jug for distilled water, to prevent short-circuit.
6. Room temperature, maintained at 15 ~ 25 C.

Emergency Lights Maintenance:

» Every Saturday, routine testing of emergency lights, carried out by E/E.
» Ensure that batteries are fully charged and ready for use.
» Burnt-out bulbs replaced at once.

Requirements for Navigation Light panel:

1. Navigation lights should be connected to a distribution board, which does not
supply other services.
2. There should be a changeover switch, so that it can be transferred to another source
of power supply.
3. Visual and audible alarms required for individual Navigation Light failure.
4. Fuse protection provided.

Secondary Cells:
» Secondary cell or accumulator is an apparatus, which utilises chemical action to
store up electrical energy.
» Secondary cells are: 1) Nickel Cadmium storage battery. 2) Lead-acid battery.

Nickel Cadmium battery [alkaline battery]

» + ve plate: Nickel hydroxide + graphite.
» – ve plate: Cadmium + Iron.
» Electrolyte: Potassium hydroxide solution [strong alkaline].
Normal Sp.Gr.[1.21] does not change with charging or recharging.
But Sp.Gr. of Electrolyte gradually decrease, and Electrolyte should be renewed
when Sp.Gr. becomes [1.160]
» It is a sealed battery, thus no gassing during charging.
» Very low open-circuit losses, but requires 67% more cells than Lead Acid battery.
[1.2 V per cell: when fully charged 1.7 V per cell.]
» Not harmful when overcharged.
» Left for long period, either fully charged or fully discharged, without deterioration.
» Better mechanical strength and durability than lead acid battery.
» High initial cost but longer life.
Lead Acid Battery:
» + ve plate: Lead Peroxide [chocolate brown].
 210

» – ve plate: Spongy Lead [slate gray color].

» Electrolyte: fully charged H SO , SG 1.28, Renew when SG is 1.110.
[1.8 V per cell: when fully charged 2 V per cell.]
When undercharged, + ve plates are pale brown or yellowish instead of deep chocolate
and very difficult to convert back to normal form.
» Efficiency [watt hour efficiency] is higher than Alkaline Cells.

When Battery is Overcharged: [Lead Acid battery]

1. Overheating cause buckling of plates.
2. Internal short-circuit.
3. Sludge formed at the bottom of cells [lead peroxide].
4. Battery may be ruined.
5. Lower the capacity.

When Battery is Undercharged: [Lead Acid battery]

1. Over discharging.
2. + ve plates are pale brown or yellowish, instead of deep chocolate.
3. – ve plates, almost white colour.
4. Falling of voltage: 1.8 V / cell, and SG of H SO 1.15

Depolarisation:
Liberation of H at – ve electrode [cathode] and that will decrease the current flow.

Why AC is popular onboard ship?

1. Smaller, lighter and compact machine size, for a given kW.
2. High power and high voltage AC generator can be easily manufactured.
3. Voltage can be raised or lowered by transformer.
4. AC can be easily converted to DC.

Electrical repair job hazard: Electric shock prevention:

1. Switch off the main switch
2. Put mechanical lock on
3. Take out fuse
4. Put a signboard “Man Working on Line”.

Squirrel cage induction motor:

1. Most widely used of all types of AC motors, due to simplicity, strength of
construction and ease of maintenance.
2. Made up of two main parts, rotor and stator and no direct electrical connection
between them. No wire winding or slip rings.
3. Rotor has a series of plain bars ( copper or Al ) running in slots the length of the
iron core.
4. Each end of the bar is brazed into 2 heavy copper rings, one at each end. Those
bars form a cage, that looks like squirrel cage.
5. Stator has 3 separate windings supplied from a 3-phase AC supply.
6. Phase difference 120°and number of poles 2,4,6 or more, depending on speed
required.
Difference between Synchronous Motor and Induction Motor:
Synchronous motor is almost exactly the same as an alternator.
 211

Induction motor cannot run normally at synchronous speed. It has slip.

AC motor overload protections:

1. Magnetic overload relay.
2. Thermal overload relay.
3. Built-in protective device.

Difference between Circuit Breaker and Fuse:

Circuit breaker:
1. Has switching actions to close the circuit or to open the circuit, and
has a trip circuit if load current exceeds the set value.
2. After tripping, circuit breaker can be reused without replacing any part.
Fuses:
1. Have only breaking function, and fitted in the circuit to protect the circuit from
damaging effect of high current flow.
2. It breaks the circuit by melting the fuse metal itself.
3. After breaking, the blown fuse must be renewed.

Static Electricity:
1. Electricity at rest instead of in motion
2. Electric charges may be induced by friction or atmosphere effect.

Single phasing:

1. Single phasing occurs when one of the 3 phase circuits is opened,

hence the remaining circuits carry excess current.
2. One phase of the circuits becomes open, due to blown fuse, faulty contactor, or
broken wire.
3. It prevents a motor from starting, but a running motor may continue to run with this
fault.
4. For a running motor, it can be detected by overloaded device in supply line, or
overheating.
5. For an idle motor, it cannot be started.
6. Due to single phasing, overheating in a stalled or running motor will cause, burnt-out
overloaded coil.

Residual Magnetism:

1. Magnetism remaining in the fields of a generator, after exciting current is cut-off.

2. Residual Magnetism is essential for initial generation of current, necessary for further
build-up of shunt field strength.
3. Generator may fail to excite, if there is loss or reversal of residual magnetism of the
pole.

Remedy, when generator fails to excite:

1. Pass a current through shunt field coil in correct direction.

2. Correct direction means the current will re-magnetise the iron core in the right way.
3. Current for restoration can be obtained from another DC generator or from a battery.
If battery is used for re-magnetising: A 12 V battery is connected [exclusively]
 212

across shunt field coil with the machine stopped.

Current flow in right direction, for a few seconds, only will establish the field.
4. During this time faulty generator must be in stopped position.

Excitation:
1. Production of an electromagnetic field of a generator by supplying exciting current
for magnetising the field magnet.
2. For excitation, DC is used, because DC produces constant rate of magnetic flux.
3. AC generator sometimes lost excitation due to reverse current.

Exciters: The source, which generates the field current for excitation of field magnets.

Rotary converter: A rotating diode to convert AC to DC current for alternator excitation.

Equalising bar:
1. Equaliser is a low resistance circuit, connected across armature ends of series coils
of parallel compound generators, via a special bar in switchboard.
2. Equaliser is fitted to stabilise parallel operation of compound DC generators.

AVR: Automatic Voltage Regulators are used in conjunction with generator for controlling
the terminal voltage to give a steady voltage under varying load.

Types of AVR:
1. Carbon pile
2. Rotating sector
3. Vibrating contact
4. Multi contact
5. Magnetic amplifier
6. Electronic amplifier

Megger testing:
1. Megger tester [generally a 500V set] is used for measuring high resistance, like
insulation resistance of cable, electrical equipment and wire installation,
in million ohms.
2. To get more accurate results, using the larger instrument, it is important that the
terminal marked earth, which is the + ve pole, shall be connected to the earth.

Difference between DC and AC generators:

DC generator has commutator and AC generator has slip ring.

Slipping Clutch:

1. Slipping clutch is commonly fitted between prime mover and gearing.

2. It is incorporated with motor, magnetic brake and drive shaft.
3. Set to slip at approximately 133% of full load torque.
4. Letting go or dropping speed is controlled by friction brake.
5. Hauling speed is 0.15 m / sec.

Why fitted?
1. In windlass, undue stresses must not be applied to chain cable and machinery.
 213

2. Without slipping clutch, excessive stresses could be applied to cable, by armature

momentum, by sudden obstruction when heaving, or when bringing the anchor into
hawsehole.
3. Fitted also to avoid inertia of prime mover being transmitted to windlass machinery,
in the event of shock loading on cable, when anchor is being housed.
4. When ship is riding at anchor, bow stopper prevents the strain for windlass.

Windlass safety devices:

1. Overload [thermal switch]
2. Over speed trip
3. Slipping clutch.

Electric Braking System:

1. When electric deck motor is used for lowering or lifting load, electric brake system is
used. All brakes are failsafe types.
2. In the event of power failure, brake automatically applied, thus preventing the load
running back. A number of brake pads [free to move] are located in carrier, which is
keyed to motor shaft.
3. Armature plate applies pressure to brake pads, by means of a number of springs, to
force against friction surface of back plate, so that it prevents the motor shaft from
turning.
4. When energised, armature plate is attached to magnet, thus releasing the thrust
pressure and allowing the shaft to rotate.

Winch brake adjustment: Adjust the distance between pressure plate and friction plate.

Drying out of Electrical Machine:

It is essential, when machine has been exposed to weather, or when accidentally immersed.

When Electrical Machine is flooded with SW:

1. Machine is disconnected from power sources and dismantled.
2. All salt deposits washed out with FW.
3. If deposited with oily bilge water, wash out with Electro Cleaner.
4. Should be heated with lamp, and enclosed or covered up to retain the heat.
5. Moisture should be escaped, by lifting the cover continuously or periodically.
6. Hottest part of the machine shall not exceed 90°C, while heating.
7. IR readings and temperatures taken regularly, until constant value reach
about 1 m .
8. Then, spray the machine with insulation vanish.
9. Assemble and put in service with low load, if possible.

Short, open and grounded circuits:

Short circuit: A low resistance path that actually shorten the intended path for the flow of
current.
Open circuit: The path for the flow of current is broken. A switch is one method of creating
an “open” intentionally.
Grounded circuit: A circuit that has come in contact with the earth, by coming in contact
somewhere in itself, or by a conductor which is connected with the earth.
Shore connection:
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Shore connection box is provided at convenient position, to receive shore power supply, so
that ship’s generators can be shut down, in port or Dry Docking.

Lloyd’s Requirements:

1. Connection box contains a circuit breaker or isolating switch with fuses.

2. Provided full information of supply system, normal ship voltage and frequency for
AC current.
3. Main Switchboard must be provided with a link switch or a circuit breaker, voltmeter,
ammeter, and an indicator to show that the cable is energised.
4. For 3-phase supply with earth neutral, an earthing terminal must be provided, for
connecting the hull to shore side.
5. A phase sequence indicator is necessary to ensure correct connections.
6. Means shall be provided for checking polarity, and terminals should be labelled.

Diode:
1. A thermionic tube consisting of cathode and anode and heating elements.
2. Electric current can pass the diode in only one direction.
3. It is used as a half wave rectifier in electronic circuit, because electronic current
cannot flow back to cathode.

Thermionic: Transmission of electron by heating.

Transistor: A small electronic device used for rectification and amplification of the current.

Dash pot:
1. Dashpots are fitted for overload trips to get time delay action, so that breaker will not
be opened, due to momentary current surge.
2. When load current is in excess, it attracts plunger of the solenoid.
3. Plunger or piston moves up against the displacement of viscose oil or silicone fluid,
through a small hole on the piston.
4. Time lag depends upon hole size, and viscosity of oil.
5. Load current setting for trip is about 25% above maximum, but should not exceed
50%.
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Electro-technology:
Supplementary:

Common faults in DC Generators and Motors:

1. Sparking at brushes.
2. Overheating
3. Failure to excite.

Sparking at Brushes:
1. Wrong brush position.
2. Dirty commutators.
3. Brushes not properly bedded.
4. Incorrect spring pressure on brushes.
5. Wrong grade of brush.
6. Overloading.

Overheating:
1. Overloading
2. Blocking up of ventilation passages with dirt.

Why Megger Reading is taken?

1. To verify insulation resistance.
2. To detect insulation fault.

How Insulation Resistance of a motor is tested?

1. Switch-off at Main Switchboard.
2. Disconnect the connection from starter.
3. Test with Megger.
4. Insulation Resistance is tested while at hot condition because it is minimum at that
time.

Test for Over Current Trip:

» By increasing current injectors; (e.g. by using Welding Machine.)

Test for Reverse Power Trip:

» By reducing Frequency.

Excitation Loss:
1. Energize with Battery.
2. Tap with hammer to field coil core of Excitation Motor.

Rotary Converter:
1. Convert AC to DC.
2. Synchronous motor and generator combined unit.
3. Field and armature coils are similar to DC generator, except that slip rings are
located on the end of the shaft opposite to commutator.
4. AC turns the converter (as synchronous motor) and DC is taken from commutator
brush.
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Carbon Pile Regulator: (AVR)

1. A resistance from a carbon pile (stack), which is varied by pressure changes,

controls the current flow through exciter shunt field.
2. Pressure is applied by springs and relieved by magnetic field strength of
electromagnetic coil.
3. Current for electromagnetic coil is supplied from Alternator output to switchboard.
4. AVR is designed such that variations in Alternator Voltage, due to load change will
effect strength of electromagnetic coil and hence alters carbon pile resistance.
5. When Alternator voltage is low, spring exerts greater pressure and carbon pile
resistance becomes low, so more currents flow through exciter shunt field and then
increase the output voltage.
6. When Alternator voltage is high, electromagnetic coil relieves pressure on carbon
pile and resistance becomes high. Less current flows through exciter shunt field and
decreases the voltage.
(Strength of Electromagnetic coil relieves spring pressure on carbon pile.)

Fuse, to order:

1. Amperage of the circuit. (AC/DC)

2. Type of fuse wire (Tin or Lead wire).
3. Standard Wire Gauge (SWG)
12 (0.104"dia.),14,16,18 or 20.

Battery, to order:

1. Voltage
2. Ampere/hour
3. Size
4. Type ( Lead Acid or Alkaline )

Static Electricity in oil tank, Prevention;

1. Earthing device, earth bond across flanges on pipeline.
2. Inert gas

Ward Leonard System:

1. Used for fine control of shunt motor speed from zero to full in either direction.
2. Able to give the motor a robust torque characteristic.
3. Can be used for motors of electric steering gears of ships with DC power.
4. Used today on ships with AC power for deck machinery such as windlass, mooring
winch etc.
5. Working motor, which powers the steering gear, windlass or other equipment is a
DC machine, because speed control of these is easy.

Method:

1. A DC generator is driven by AC squirrel-cage induction motor (AC powered ship).

2. Output voltage of DC generator is applied as power supply to armature of working
motor.
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3. Speed and direction of working motor varies with magnitude and direction of
applied voltage.
4. Output voltage of DC generator is increased or decreased by Potentiometer, as
magnetic field strength is altered by changing the field current to field windings of
the generator.
5. As output voltage of the generator varies, speed of the working motor also varies.
6. Change of current flow direction, also by Potentiometer, through the field poles of
the generator will cause the change in direction of generated current, supplied to
the working motor and thereby also the running direction of the motor.

How to change speed?

Through Potentiometer by changing the strength of field current to field winding of

DC generator output voltage of DC generator changed
working motor speed is also changed.

How to change direction?

Through control handle movement of Potentiometer by changing the direction

of field current through field poles of DC generator
direction of generated current is changed
running direction of working motor is changed.

Surveyor approved IR (m

» 1m

Switchboard Survey, what documents to give to Surveyor?

1. Voltmeter, Wattmeter, Ammeter calibration test result.

2. ACB test result (Survey result).
3. Control Circuit Safeguard test results (Safety trips and Alarm test results).
4. Maintenance reports.
5. IR test results of each terminal: all 440V and 220V main circuits.

Data to be given to Surveyor for Electrical Survey:

1. Voltmeter, Wattmeter, Ammeter calibration test result.

2. ACB test result (Survey result).
3. Control Circuit Safeguard test results (Safety trips and Alarm test results).
4. Maintenance reports.
5. IR test results of each terminal: all 440V and 220V main circuits.
6. IR test results of all motors & their safety factors:
a) Test date, time, place
b) Voyage No.
c) Ambient temperature
d) Weather condition, hot or humid
e) Machine is hot or cold.
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Navigation lights:

1. Fore Mast (No. 1&2 or Up, Down).

2. Main or Aft Mast (No. 1&2 or Up, Down).
3. Stern light (No. 1&2 or Up, Down).
4. Port light (No. 1&2 or Up, Down).
5. Starboard light (No. 1&2 or Up, Down).

Emergency Lighting:
1. Engine room lighting
2. Bridge lighting
3. Passage way lighting
4. Embarkation light

How will you check the frequency of shore power supply?

1. Shore Power Supply Connection Box shows Phase Sequence of shore power
generator with bright and dark lights.
2. Frequency can be check at Main Switchboard, after shore supply is ‘on’ through
link switch or circuit breaker.