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Classnotes
Prepared for
CE@UP
DIRECTORS:
M Heyns Pr.Eng., Ph.D., (Managing)
Document No: IM-TR000
CJ Botha B.Eng(Hons): Industrial Revision: 0.0
Date: February 2018
Confidential IM-TR000 (Rev 0.0)
Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................ 5
1.1. Course objective .................................................................................................................... 5
1.2. Goal ........................................................................................................................................ 5
1.3. Documents that are available on the website ........................................................................ 5
1.4. Compulsory reading ............................................................................................................... 6
ABBREVIATIONS USED ................................................................................................................ 6
TERMINOLOGY ............................................................................................................................. 6
BACKGROUND ON OIL ................................................................................................................. 7
4.1. Different oil grades ................................................................................................................. 8
WEAR ............................................................................................................................................. 9
5.1. Types of wear and their contributing factors .......................................................................... 9
5.2. Wear particle analysis ............................................................................................................ 9
5.2.1. Rubbing wear ................................................................................................................ 9
5.2.2. Cutting wear ................................................................................................................ 10
5.2.3. Rolling fatigue .............................................................................................................. 10
5.2.4. Combined rolling & sliding wear .................................................................................. 10
5.2.5. Severe sliding wear ..................................................................................................... 10
5.3. Fretting ................................................................................................................................. 11
5.4. Pitting ................................................................................................................................... 12
5.5. Hardness and wear .............................................................................................................. 12
5.5.1. Wear surfaces ............................................................................................................. 13
5.5.2. Hardness of bearing materials .................................................................................... 13
LUBRICANTS ............................................................................................................................... 14
6.1. Typical lubricants ................................................................................................................. 14
6.1.1. Molybdenum disulphide MoS2 ..................................................................................... 14
6.1.2. Nano-lubricant powders .............................................................................................. 15
6.2. Typical properties of lubricants ............................................................................................ 15
6.2.1. Oxidation and thermal stability .................................................................................... 16
6.2.2. Chemical stability......................................................................................................... 16
6.2.3. Water shedding of demulsibility................................................................................... 16
6.2.4. Water and bearing life ................................................................................................. 17
6.2.5. Foaming and air release .............................................................................................. 17
6.2.6. Colour and appearance ............................................................................................... 17
6.3. Oil additives .......................................................................................................................... 17
6.3.1. Depletion of additives .................................................................................................. 18
6.3.2. Replenishment of additives ......................................................................................... 18
6.4. Basic lubrication theory ........................................................................................................ 18
6.5. Oil applications ..................................................................................................................... 18
6.5.1. Viscosity measurement ............................................................................................... 19
6.5.2. Viscosity classification ................................................................................................. 19
6.5.3. Engine oil viscosity classification................................................................................. 21
6.5.4. Climate and motor oil................................................................................................... 21
6.5.5. Engine oils ................................................................................................................... 21
6.5.6. Automotive gear oils .................................................................................................... 21
6.5.7. Examples of oils .......................................................................................................... 22
6.6. Industrial applications of oil .................................................................................................. 24
6.7. Grease.................................................................................................................................. 24
6.7.1. Composition of grease ................................................................................................ 24
6.7.2. Grease characteristics ................................................................................................. 24
6.7.3. Comparison of oil and grease ..................................................................................... 25
6.7.4. National Lubricating Grease Institute – NLGI Guide ................................................... 25
6.7.5. Grease and temperature ............................................................................................. 25
6.7.6. How much grease is enough? ..................................................................................... 26
LUBRICATION SYSTEMS ........................................................................................................... 26
7.1. Automated lubrication systems ............................................................................................ 26
7.1.1. System options ............................................................................................................ 27
7.2. Filtering................................................................................................................................. 31
CONDITION-BASED MAINTENANCE WITH OIL ........................................................................ 31
8.1. Oil analysis service providers............................................................................................... 32
8.2. Oil sampling ......................................................................................................................... 32
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List of Tables
Table 1: Lubricant states of aggregation .............................................................................................. 14
Table 2: Nano lubricant powders (http://www.lowerfriction.com/product-page.php?categoryID=19) .. 15
Table 3: Some characteristics of new and used oil .............................................................................. 17
Table 4: Purpose of typical oil additives ............................................................................................... 18
Table 5: Spectrometer metals and their causes ................................................................................... 34
Table 6: Additive metals ....................................................................................................................... 35
Table 7: Acceptable oil cleanliness values ........................................................................................... 41
Table 8: Oil analysis test results on a Bullard Lathe after 500 on the oil ............................................. 43
List of Figures
Figure 1: Distillation of oils and gas (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Crude_Oil_Distillation.png) ........ 8
Figure 2: Microscopic image of cutting wear ........................................................................................ 10
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INTRODUCTION
This document summarises the notes used for the lubricant analysis section in the condition-based
maintenance module. Extractions from slides used in class as well as other additional information were
used in the construction of these notes.
1.2. Goal
After completion of this course you will be able to:
• Describe the term tribology
• Describe the term oil analysis
• Interpret information on lubricant labels
• List important aspects during oil sampling
• Describe the test types done on oil samples
• Interpret trending results
• Do fault finding from trend results
• Prepare an oil analysis programme
• Name your closest oil analysis laboratory
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ABBREVIATIONS USED
Abbreviation Description
TERMINOLOGY
• Particle density = true density = absolute density
– Density of the particulate solid or powder
– It is the density of the particles that make up the powder
– Not influenced by compaction
• Bulk density
– Average density of a large volume of the powder in a specific medium (usually air)
– Influenced by compaction
• Gas pycnometer (Helium pycnometry normally applied)
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BACKGROUND ON OIL
• Crude oil
– Petroleum coming of drilling hole
– Contaminated
– Varies in oil field dependent colour & viscosity
– Processed:
• Filter on site
• Distillation at refineries
– Gasoline, diesel, kerosene, heating oil, lubricants,
– heavy fuel oil, bitumen, etc.
• Base oils
– Foundation for motor oils
– Alone are far away from having necessary performance
• Fill your motor with base oil alone and breakdown is foreseeable
• Same applies for industrial applications
– Add performance additives!
– Additives make modern high-performance motor oils possible
• Motor oils
– Additives very important
• Can be between 15% and up to 25% and even more
• Reduce engine wear, reduces fuel consumption
• Improve emergency running properties
• Ensure lubrication at low temperatures, etc.
– Viscosity only first criterion for quality and performance of motor oil – THERE ARE MANY
MORE!
• For example: 10W-40
– May be simple mineral oil without any special properties
– May also be a synthetic high performance product with outstanding
characteristics (cleaning, wear protection)
– INSTALL THE CORRECT MOTOR OIL FOR YOUR ENGINE!!
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WEAR
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5.3. Fretting
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5.4. Pitting
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LUBRICANTS
Nano Lubricants:
MoS2 = Molybdenum Disulphide
WS2 = Tungsten Disulphide
What is a Nanoparticle?
Any material with particle size less than 0.1 µm
When material made into nano particles its reactivity increases
Smaller particle size – higher surface area
Nano particles have high surface area to volume ratio = higher percentage of atoms can interact with
other matter
Technical fluids
Rheological material Grease Soap base: Ca, Na, Li, Ba, Al, etc.
Solid Plastic Teflon, polyamide, etc.
Pulver Graphite, MoS2, WS2, etc.
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• Ecological Information
• Disposal Consideration
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• Important for
– Hydraulics
– Turbines
– Circulation systems
• Water causes:
– Reduction in oil film strength
– Instability on elasto-hydrodynamic lubrication
– Increased corrosion rates
– Increase growth rate of bacteria
• Demulsibility measured by ASTM D1401
6.2.4. Water and bearing life
From "Practical Plant Failure Analysis„ Practical Plant Failure Analysis: A Guide to Understanding
Machinery Deterioration and Improving Equipment Reliability (Neville W. Sachs):
• Studies have shown that water contamination reduces the fatigue life of rolling element bearings
• At least seven extensive analyses, none of which had the operating conditions duplicating other
studies were done
• Results show there can be a consistent reduction in life at water concentrations as low as 0.01%
(100 ppm) and recommend that water levels be kept below half of that (50 ppm)
6.2.5. Foaming and air release
• Foaming concern = bubbles on oil surface not readily collapsing
– Property of the base fluid
• Air is polar compound
• Polar compounds in oil traps air bubble
– When bubble trapped in oil, it may implode on contact surfaces – Cavitation – High Stress
– Measured by ASTM D892
• Air release = bubbles not surfacing
– Property of base fluid
– Measured by IP 313
6.2.6. Colour and appearance
• Colour has no relation to:
– Quality
– Performance
• Colour for subjective customer appeal
• Also depends on base oils and additives
– Add Molybdenum Disulphide (MoS2):
• This is graphite like solid lubricant that reduces friction
• Looks anthracite like
• Oil has dark colour by nature – the dark colour indicates high performance of the
oil in this case
• Appearance of good oil
– Clear
– Bright
– Free from particulates
– Free from ash and combustion residues
Table 3: Some characteristics of new and used oil
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6.7. Grease
6.7.1. Composition of grease
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LUBRICATION SYSTEMS
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http://www.machinerylubrication.com/Read/175/automate
d-lubrication
• Advantages:
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– Easy to design
– Easy, cost effective installation
– Individually adjustable injectors
– Proven design
– Reliable
• Disadvantages
– May not be suitable for combinations of heavy lubricants, very cold temperatures, very
long supply lines, etc.
Source: http://www.machinerylubrication.com/Read/175/automated-lubrication
• Advantages:
o Easily handles very viscous (heavy) greases
o Accommodate long supply lines
• Disadvantages:
o Not cost effective for small systems
o Requires two supply lines that is costly
7.1.1.3. Single-line progressive
• Can be used with low-pressure oil, grease or high pressure oil
• Sometimes include preassembled pump, controller & mono-block piston-metering device
• Pump provides measured single shot (pulsed or continuous volume) during lubrication cycle
• First primed piston in block shifts, displacing lubricant to bearing & diverting flow to nex piston
• Second piston shifts & diverts flow to third
• Sequece continues until timer or feedback switch stops the pump
Divider valve
Source: http://www.machinerylubrication.com/Read/175/automated-lubrication
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• Advantages:
o Accommodates wide range of system control/monitoring options
o Identify blockage by monitoring a single point
• Disadvantages:
o One blockage can disable entire system
o Large systems may require complex piping/tubing runs
7.1.1.4. Mist lubrication
• Facilitates low oil consumption & cool running bearings
• Mist generated by:
– Heat and/or air currents
• Carried through pipe to the lubrication point with low pressure air
• Then sized to appropriate droplet before dispensed to bearing
• Closed loop system environmentally friendly
• Advantages:
– Cools & lubricates bearings
– Low pressure pipes required
– Positive pressure help keeps contaminants out
• Disadvantages:
– Environmental/health concerns of stray mist
– Oil only
– Sensitivity to flow, viscosity, pressure
– Extra pipe for closed loop system
7.1.1.5. Minute-volume/low-pressure spray
• Applies precise amount of oil
• Very low oil consumption (up to 90% less than other systems)
• Environmentally friendly
• Ideal for chain lubrication as it penetrates wear points without over lubrication
• Operation:
– Timer signals start
– Injector begins cycling
– Feed oil @ controlled rate through small diameter tubing to spray nozzle
– Simultaneously low-pressure air is directed to the nozzle
– Air & oil mixes to produce fine, controlled, non-misting spray
• Advantages:
– Precise lubricant volume
– Precise application control
– No “stray mist” problems
– Fast, economical installation
– Very low lubricant consumption
• Disadvantages:
– Oil only
7.1.1.6. Recirculating oil
• Lubricate rolling element bearing
• Maintain correct bearing temperature
• Consist of:
– Motor-driven pump
– Filtration & piping system
– Flow meters – to control amount of oil entering bearing
– Oil exits bearing & returns to reservoir with return filter
– Heat exchanger and/or heaters maintain correct oil temperature
• Used on large, heavily loaded bearings
• Advantages:
– Provides both lubrication & temperature control
– Conditions extends oil life
• Disadvantages:
– Major, capital installations
– Require frequent manual adjustment of flow meter
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7.2. Filtering
QUESTION: What would a beta ratio of 75 mean for a 10-micron filter?
ANSWER: Approximately 98.7% of particles larger than 10 microns will be removed. Restated: 74 out
of every 75 particles larger than 10 microns will be removed by the filter.
Information:
Beta ratio:
Removal efficiency:
1 $1
!!" #1 $ % & 100% & 100%
Condition-based
maintenance
Result Result
Fault free machine Early detection of faults
Life extension and failures
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Trend results
• Using trending from oil analyses performed over time
– Indication of improperly maintenance or operational practices
• Introduction of contamination during lubricant change-out
• Improper system flush-out after repairs
• Addition of improper lubricant
• Improper equipment operation
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RIGHT ERRONOUS
Machines running “in application” Sampling cold systems
Live zone sampling “on the run” Drain-port sampling
Upstream of filters, downstream of machine
Drop-tube sampling
components
Flushed sampling valves and sampling devices,
Changing sampling methods & points
clean bottles
Sampled at proper frequency Dirty sampling pathway
Hours on oil recorded Sampling after oil change
Samples forwarded immediately to lab Cross-contamination of sampling devices
Waiting days or weeks before sending
samples to lab
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TEST TYPES
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• Significance
– Molecular analysis of lubricants & hydraulic fluids by Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR)
spectroscopy (http://www.siliconfareast.com/FTIR.htm) produces direct information on:
• Molecular species of interest
• Chemical bonding characteristics
• Additives
• Fluid breakdown products
• External contamination
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9.10. Contamination
• Water contamination
– Can cause major problems
• Always have an accurate analysis of new oil for comparison
– Because many additives used in lubricants contain the same elements that are used in
coolants
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– Detergency
• Caused by
– Improper operation
– Fuel system leaks
– Ignition problems
– Improper engine timing
9.14. Oxidation
• Oxidation of lubricating oil result in
– Lacquer deposits
– Metal corrosion
– Thickening of oil
• Most lubricants contain oxidation inhibitors
– Additives are being used up
• Degree of oxidation measured by differential Infrared Analysis
9.15. Nitration
• Results from fuel combustion in engines
• Products
– Highly acidic
– May leave deposits in combustion areas
• Significance
– Nitration accelerate oil oxidation
• Detected by means of Infrared analysis
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a. Oil cleanliness.
b. Oil performance.
c. Machine problems.
d. A high particle count may mean that:
i. The machine is wearing abnormally.
ii. Failures may occur as a result of temporarily or permanently blocked orrifes.
3. Particle count analysis of normal lubricant is different from the tests on wear particle analysis.
For wear patterns the following are needed: the size; shape, and, material of particles.
Figure 11: Oil cleanliness according to ISO 4406 1987 and 1999
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TYPES OF EQUIPMENT
• Wide variety
– Viscometers
– Spectrometers
– Oil analyzers
– Particle counts
– Microscopes
• Analysis equipment available for characterization of:
– Oil condition
– Wear particles
– Contamination
• On-site testing can provide quick
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– Verification of specific oil problem associated with critical components – e.g. water
contamination
– Determination of lubrication condition to determine need for change
• Detail analyses require independent laboratory
Table 8: Oil analysis test results on a Bullard Lathe after 500 on the oil
Engine hrs 3020 Unit 2520 2020 1520 1020 520 Universal
Sample date 1988/07/08 averages 1988/06/01 1988/04/25 1988/02/17 1988/02/17 1988/01/10 averages
Aluminium 3 0 1 0 1 0 2 0
Chromium 3 1 2 1 1 1 2 0
Iron 880 209 267 265 218 175 120 162
Copper 127 39 45 43 32 27 51 28
Lead 49 8 12 11 8 0 13 8
Tin 3 0 0 0 0 2 0 1
Molybdenum 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Nickel 2 0 1 1 0 0 1 0
Manganese 13 4 6 5 4 3 6 3
Silver 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Titanium 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Vanadium 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Boron 16 2 1 0 0 0 12 2
Silicon 7 2 4 2 1 0 7 1
Sodium 213 63 72 68 65 69 44 44
Calcium 14 4 5 4 4 4 5 17
Magnesium 11 7 7 6 7 6 9 4
Phosphorus 678 661 648 636 655 719 651 478
Zinc 24 8 10 8 8 6 8 130
Barium 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4
Interpretation:
• Viscosity
– Should be 49 - 53
– Measured 59.7
• Water %
– Should be 0.05%
– Measured 1.1%
• Insolubles
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– Should be 1.1%
– Measured 0.9%
• There is a significant increase in metals
• Increased wear is likely attributable to 1.1% found in the oil
• Boron, silicon and sodium shown this water to be probably cutting water contamination
• Suggestions
– Change the oil
– Identify source of contamination
– Take another sample after 30 days of fresh oil
FOAMING
Defined
(http://www.noria.com/dictionary/default.asp?definitionsearch=xqxqxqxq222&alphasearch=F&offset=2
5):
• A frothy mixture of air and a petroleum product (e.g., lubricant, fuel oil) that can reduce the
effectiveness of the product, and cause sluggish hydraulic operation, air binding of oil pumps, and
overflow of tanks or sumps
• Can result from excessive agitation, improper fluid levels, air leaks, cavitation, or contamination with
water or other foreign materials
• Can be inhibited with an antifoam agent
• Foaming characteristics of a lubricating oil can be determined by blowing air through a sample at a
specified temperature and measuring the volume of foam, as described in test method ASTM D 892
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• Problem when
– Oil level in the sump or reservoir becomes impossible to control
– Oil spills onto the floor creating safety hazard
– Foam leads to air locks and inability to effectively supply oil to lubricated components
– Foam inhibits heat transfer and encourages oxidation and thermal failure of oil
– Equipment is lubricated with foam instead of oil
CONTAMINATION
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• When the parameter is plotted against time, the rate-of-change (add rate) equals the current
slope of the curve
• Unlike level limits, rate-of-change limits ignore the absolute value of the data parameter,
emphasizing instead the speed at which the level is changing
• Rate-of-change limits
– Effectively applied to particle counting (unfiltered systems), elemental wear metals,
ferrous density, acid number (AN) and RPVOT
– Effectively applied to monitor abnormal degradation of additives with elemental and
FTIR Spectroscopy
15.2. Alarm report: Engines, hydraulics, booster pumps, etc – typical values
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USUEFUL WEBSITES
The following are a list of usefull websites:
www.testoil.com
www.pdma.com
www.compsys.com
www.natrib.com
www.sait.org.za
www.noria.com
http://www.oilanalysis.com/article_detail.asp?articleid=853
http://www.machinerylubrication.com
http://www.liqui-moly.de/liquimoly/produktdb.nsf/id/e_1091.html
http://www.blackstone-labs.com/
http://www.zddplus.com/TechBrief13%20-%20Oil%20Viscosity.pdf
http://www.kittiwake.com/oil-condition-sensor
http://www.praemo.com/
http://www.machinerylubrication.com/Magazine/Issue/Practicing%20Oil%20Analysis/3/2007
http://www.tandeltasystems.com/
REFERENCES
BARRON, R. 1996. Engineering Condition Monitoring Practice, Methods and Applications. Addison
Wesley Longman.
DIGILOV, R.M. Weight-detecting capillary visometer. Israel Instituite of Technology, Haifa.
MOBLEY, R.K. 1990. An introduction to predictive maintenance. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.
Operations and Maintenance Best Practices Guide, Chapter 6, Predictive Maintenance Technologies
Von Wielligh, A.J., Burger, N.D.L. & Wilcocks, T.L. 2003. Diesel engine failures due to combustion
disturbances, caused by fuel with insufficient lubricity. Industrial Lubrication and Tribology, Volume
55, No. 2, pp. 65-75.
Available at: http://www.ifleet.co.za/images/pdf/literature/Diesel%20AJ%20von%20Wielligh.pdf
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