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Condition-based maintenance: Lubricant


analysis for the PMM course

Classnotes

Prepared for

CE@UP

DIRECTORS:
M Heyns Pr.Eng., Ph.D., (Managing)
Document No: IM-TR000
CJ Botha B.Eng(Hons): Industrial Revision: 0.0
Date: February 2018
Confidential IM-TR000 (Rev 0.0)

Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................ 5
1.1. Course objective .................................................................................................................... 5
1.2. Goal ........................................................................................................................................ 5
1.3. Documents that are available on the website ........................................................................ 5
1.4. Compulsory reading ............................................................................................................... 6
ABBREVIATIONS USED ................................................................................................................ 6
TERMINOLOGY ............................................................................................................................. 6
BACKGROUND ON OIL ................................................................................................................. 7
4.1. Different oil grades ................................................................................................................. 8
WEAR ............................................................................................................................................. 9
5.1. Types of wear and their contributing factors .......................................................................... 9
5.2. Wear particle analysis ............................................................................................................ 9
5.2.1. Rubbing wear ................................................................................................................ 9
5.2.2. Cutting wear ................................................................................................................ 10
5.2.3. Rolling fatigue .............................................................................................................. 10
5.2.4. Combined rolling & sliding wear .................................................................................. 10
5.2.5. Severe sliding wear ..................................................................................................... 10
5.3. Fretting ................................................................................................................................. 11
5.4. Pitting ................................................................................................................................... 12
5.5. Hardness and wear .............................................................................................................. 12
5.5.1. Wear surfaces ............................................................................................................. 13
5.5.2. Hardness of bearing materials .................................................................................... 13
LUBRICANTS ............................................................................................................................... 14
6.1. Typical lubricants ................................................................................................................. 14
6.1.1. Molybdenum disulphide MoS2 ..................................................................................... 14
6.1.2. Nano-lubricant powders .............................................................................................. 15
6.2. Typical properties of lubricants ............................................................................................ 15
6.2.1. Oxidation and thermal stability .................................................................................... 16
6.2.2. Chemical stability......................................................................................................... 16
6.2.3. Water shedding of demulsibility................................................................................... 16
6.2.4. Water and bearing life ................................................................................................. 17
6.2.5. Foaming and air release .............................................................................................. 17
6.2.6. Colour and appearance ............................................................................................... 17
6.3. Oil additives .......................................................................................................................... 17
6.3.1. Depletion of additives .................................................................................................. 18
6.3.2. Replenishment of additives ......................................................................................... 18
6.4. Basic lubrication theory ........................................................................................................ 18
6.5. Oil applications ..................................................................................................................... 18
6.5.1. Viscosity measurement ............................................................................................... 19
6.5.2. Viscosity classification ................................................................................................. 19
6.5.3. Engine oil viscosity classification................................................................................. 21
6.5.4. Climate and motor oil................................................................................................... 21
6.5.5. Engine oils ................................................................................................................... 21
6.5.6. Automotive gear oils .................................................................................................... 21
6.5.7. Examples of oils .......................................................................................................... 22
6.6. Industrial applications of oil .................................................................................................. 24
6.7. Grease.................................................................................................................................. 24
6.7.1. Composition of grease ................................................................................................ 24
6.7.2. Grease characteristics ................................................................................................. 24
6.7.3. Comparison of oil and grease ..................................................................................... 25
6.7.4. National Lubricating Grease Institute – NLGI Guide ................................................... 25
6.7.5. Grease and temperature ............................................................................................. 25
6.7.6. How much grease is enough? ..................................................................................... 26
LUBRICATION SYSTEMS ........................................................................................................... 26
7.1. Automated lubrication systems ............................................................................................ 26
7.1.1. System options ............................................................................................................ 27
7.2. Filtering................................................................................................................................. 31
CONDITION-BASED MAINTENANCE WITH OIL ........................................................................ 31
8.1. Oil analysis service providers............................................................................................... 32
8.2. Oil sampling ......................................................................................................................... 32

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8.3. Oil analysis tests done ......................................................................................................... 33


TEST TYPES ................................................................................................................................ 36
9.1. Karl Fischer water test ......................................................................................................... 36
9.2. Viscosity test ........................................................................................................................ 36
9.3. Spectrographic analysis ....................................................................................................... 36
9.4. FTIR Spectroscopy .............................................................................................................. 36
9.5. Inductively coupled plasma (ICP) spectroscopy .................................................................. 37
9.6. Direct Read Ferrography...................................................................................................... 37
9.7. Analytical Ferrography ......................................................................................................... 37
9.8. Spectrography vs Ferrography............................................................................................. 37
9.9. Total Acid Number ............................................................................................................... 38
9.10. Contamination ...................................................................................................................... 38
9.11. Fuel dilution .......................................................................................................................... 38
9.12. Fuel Soot .............................................................................................................................. 39
9.13. Solids content ....................................................................................................................... 39
9.14. Oxidation .............................................................................................................................. 39
9.15. Nitration ................................................................................................................................ 39
9.16. Total Acid Number – TAN .................................................................................................... 39
9.17. Total Base Number - TBN .................................................................................................... 39
9.18. Particle count and oil cleanliness ......................................................................................... 39
9.19. Cleanliness of oil .................................................................................................................. 40
9.20. Oil cleanliness tests on a gearbox ....................................................................................... 41
TYPES OF EQUIPMENT ......................................................................................................... 42
ECONOMIC FEASIBLE SYSTEM APPLICATIONS ................................................................ 43
OIL ANALYSIS IN PRACTICE ................................................................................................. 43
12.1. Case 1: Bullard LATHE ....................................................................................................... 43
12.2. Case 2: Reduced gearbox failure ....................................................................................... 44
12.3. Case 3: Oil changes ............................................................................................................. 44
12.4. Case 4: Oil change requirements ........................................................................................ 44
12.5. Case 5: Production loss ....................................................................................................... 44
12.6. Examples of oil analysis reports discussed in class ............................................................ 44
FOAMING ................................................................................................................................. 44
CONTAMINATION ................................................................................................................... 45
14.1. Heat contamination .............................................................................................................. 45
14.2. Glycol/anti-freeze contamination .......................................................................................... 46
14.3. Fuel contamination of engine oil .......................................................................................... 46
14.4. Soot contamination of engine oil .......................................................................................... 46
14.5. Measurement of dispersancy ............................................................................................... 47
OIL ANALYSIS RATE-OF-CHANGE ALARMS ........................................................................ 47
15.1. Alarm report: Gearboxes on conveyors, cutters, etc – typical values .................................. 48
15.2. Alarm report: Engines, hydraulics, booster pumps, etc – typical values ............................. 48
USUEFUL WEBSITES ............................................................................................................. 49
REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................... 49

List of Tables
Table 1: Lubricant states of aggregation .............................................................................................. 14
Table 2: Nano lubricant powders (http://www.lowerfriction.com/product-page.php?categoryID=19) .. 15
Table 3: Some characteristics of new and used oil .............................................................................. 17
Table 4: Purpose of typical oil additives ............................................................................................... 18
Table 5: Spectrometer metals and their causes ................................................................................... 34
Table 6: Additive metals ....................................................................................................................... 35
Table 7: Acceptable oil cleanliness values ........................................................................................... 41
Table 8: Oil analysis test results on a Bullard Lathe after 500 on the oil ............................................. 43

List of Figures
Figure 1: Distillation of oils and gas (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Crude_Oil_Distillation.png) ........ 8
Figure 2: Microscopic image of cutting wear ........................................................................................ 10

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Figure 3: Fretting on a collet chuck (http://www.techniksusa.com/images2008/shrink-fit/fretting-web.jpg)


........................................................................................................................................................ 11
Figure 4: Photograph of fretting (http://www.espci.fr/usr/chateau/Fretting_ECL/photo_fretting.jpg) ... 11
Figure 5: Photograph of pitting (http://xkeresto.files.wordpress.com/2008/04/2681-slight-cam-
pitting.jpg) ....................................................................................................................................... 12
Figure 6: Hardness scales .................................................................................................................... 13
Figure 7: Molybdenum Disulphide (MoS2) ............................................................................................ 15
Figure 8: Pump-to-point lubricator ........................................................................................................ 30
Figure 9: Condition-based maintenance with oil analysis flow diagram ............................................... 31
Figure 10: Wear particle size and wear progress ................................................................................. 38
Figure 11: Oil cleanliness according to ISO 4406 1987 and 1999 ....................................................... 40
Figure 12: Cleanliness of oil from from a gearbox inspected by Investmech ....................................... 41
Figure 13: Engine blowby, soot and viscosity ...................................................................................... 46

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INTRODUCTION
This document summarises the notes used for the lubricant analysis section in the condition-based
maintenance module. Extractions from slides used in class as well as other additional information were
used in the construction of these notes.

1.1. Course objective


• To give a limited introduction into tribology with specific focus on how oil analysis is carried out for
trending and fault diagnosis in machinery
• The course focuses on:
o Lubricants – a quick glance and what is possible
o Properties of oil
o Oil additives
o Lubrication theory
o Oil applications
 Viscosity Classification
 Classification systems
 Automotive gear oils
 Industrial applications
o Greases
o Condition Based Maintenance (CBM) with oil analyses

1.2. Goal
After completion of this course you will be able to:
• Describe the term tribology
• Describe the term oil analysis
• Interpret information on lubricant labels
• List important aspects during oil sampling
• Describe the test types done on oil samples
• Interpret trending results
• Do fault finding from trend results
• Prepare an oil analysis programme
• Name your closest oil analysis laboratory

1.3. Documents that are available on the website


The following documents are available on the course website.
• Comparison between Molybdenum Disulfide and Tungsten Disulfide.pdf
• Material Safety Data Sheet Tungsten Disulfide WS2.pdf
• 1091 MoS2 Low-Friction SAE 10W-40_EN.pdf
• All about motor oils.pdf
• The colour of oil.pdf
• Different oil grades.pdf
• Monitor Oil Analysis report.pdf

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1.4. Compulsory reading


• http://www.skf.com/files/513136.pdf
• Reading to do:
– http://issuu.com/atom_supply/docs/10lubrication_maintenanceandrepairs-issuuv1
• Fittings and utilities
– http://s00.static-shell.com/content/dam/shell-
new/local/country/aus/downloads/pdf/lubricants/product-data-guide-complete-2013.pdf
• Product guide
– http://s00.static-shell.com/content/dam/shell/static/aus/downloads/product-data-
guide/product-data-guideappendixanddefinitions2012.pdf
• Storage and handling of lubricants
• http://onlinedigitalpublishing.com/publication/index.php?i=127715&m=&l=&p=35&pre=&ver=flex
– Very usefull online publication demonstrating alarm and alert levels, etc.
• Get your Oil Analysis Handbook from: http://www.spectrosci.com/industry-segments/in-service-
lubrication/
– Students must registers on their site.
– This is a usefull handbook used in the course.

ABBREVIATIONS USED

Abbreviation Description

CBM Condition Based Maintenance

API American Petroleum Institute

ISO International Standards Organization

ACGIH American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists

SAE Society of Automotive Engineers

AGMA American Gear Manufacturers Association

SUS Saybolt Universal Seconds

ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials

STLE Society for Tribologists and Lubrication Engineers

DIN Deutsches Institute for Normung

NLGI National Lubricating Grease Institute

TERMINOLOGY
• Particle density = true density = absolute density
– Density of the particulate solid or powder
– It is the density of the particles that make up the powder
– Not influenced by compaction
• Bulk density
– Average density of a large volume of the powder in a specific medium (usually air)
– Influenced by compaction
• Gas pycnometer (Helium pycnometry normally applied)

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– Used to measure volume of a powder sample


– Gas volume calculated according to Boyle’s law to fill gaps in a powder sample placed in
a gas chamber
• Mercury porosimeter (also termed Mercury Pycnometry)
– To determine total volume of powder as well as volume of pores of different size
– Submerge known mass of powder in mercury
• At ambient pressure, mercury does not invade inter-particle spaces or pores
– Increase pressure
• Mercury starts to invade smaller and smaller holes
• Known relationship between pore diameter and pressure then used
• Pressure vs. volume can be plotted/trended = complete characterization of
sample porosity
• Read more at:
– http://www.mcaservices.co.uk/density.htm

BACKGROUND ON OIL
• Crude oil
– Petroleum coming of drilling hole
– Contaminated
– Varies in oil field dependent colour & viscosity
– Processed:
• Filter on site
• Distillation at refineries
– Gasoline, diesel, kerosene, heating oil, lubricants,
– heavy fuel oil, bitumen, etc.
• Base oils
– Foundation for motor oils
– Alone are far away from having necessary performance
• Fill your motor with base oil alone and breakdown is foreseeable
• Same applies for industrial applications
– Add performance additives!
– Additives make modern high-performance motor oils possible
• Motor oils
– Additives very important
• Can be between 15% and up to 25% and even more
• Reduce engine wear, reduces fuel consumption
• Improve emergency running properties
• Ensure lubrication at low temperatures, etc.
– Viscosity only first criterion for quality and performance of motor oil – THERE ARE MANY
MORE!
• For example: 10W-40
– May be simple mineral oil without any special properties
– May also be a synthetic high performance product with outstanding
characteristics (cleaning, wear protection)
– INSTALL THE CORRECT MOTOR OIL FOR YOUR ENGINE!!

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Figure 1: Distillation of oils and gas


(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Crude_Oil_Distillation.png)

4.1. Different oil grades


• Mineral motor oil
– Extracted from crude oil distillate
– Primary motor oil
– Additives added
– Affordable but least powerful oil
– Wide variety of different molecules (from oil fields)
• Synthetic motor oil
– Since 1970’s
– Made by putting single chemical components together by synthesis
– Result is great chemical purity
– Very homogeneous
– Development of oil sludge nearly impossible
– Results in higher performance compared with mineral motor oil
• Greater temperature range
• Lower friction
• Partial Synthetic oil
– Blends from mineral and synthetic oil
• Hydro-crack (HC) motor oil
– Latest developments
– Based upon crude oil
– Hydrogen is used to crack heavy heating oil into lighter oils, like gasoline
– Motor oils made in this manner are nearly equal in quality to synthetic oils
– Easier to produce than synthetic oils

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WEAR

5.1. Types of wear and their contributing factors


• Wear Adhesion
– visible by fretting, pits, holes or scales transfer, the result of softer materials dislodging
from a widened hardness gap between two moving surfaces
– Besides a drop in performance, look for visible changes in surface finish, dimensional or
geometric distortion
• Wear Abrasion
– witnessed by scratches, grooves, or corrugations, caused by loose abrasive particles
torn away from the wear surface
– Also look for negative changes in performance, surface finish, dimensional or geometric
distortion
• Wear Surface Scarring
– seen by tears or small holes, typically relates to shock or impact, and involves fatigue close
to the wearing surface
• Wear Surface Erosion
– manifested by dimensional loss, but first by changes in surface finish, a natural form of
polishing
– Here, the mated surface consists of fine particles in the form of solids, semi solids, or liquid
suspensions travelling at high rates across a surface
• Wear ‘Tribo’ Oxidation
– involves oxidation products from the wearing surface, usually in particulate form
– Often harder than their parent metals, surfaces become rough which, in turn, leads to
abrasive or adhesive wear
Reference: http://industrialcoatingsworld.com/wear-resistant-coatings

5.2. Wear particle analysis


• Related to oil analysis
• Particles are collected by drawing sample of lubricating oil
• Particles then studied
• Wear-particle analysis
– Provide direct information about wearing condition of machine
– In contrast with oil analysis that determines actual condition of oil sample
– Particle shape, composition, size and quantity is studied
• Normally conducted in two stages
– Routine monitoring and trending of solids content
• Quantity, composition and size of particulate matter in lube indicative of mechanical
condition
• Normal machine
• Contain low levels of solids smaller than 10 µm
• Number & size or particulate matter increase with machine condition degrade
– Analysis of particulate matter in each lubricating oil sample
• Type of wear identified:
• Rubbing wear, cutting wear, rolling fatigue wear, combined rolling and
sliding wear, severe sliding wear
• Rubbing wear & early rolling fatigue wear particles predominantly >15 µm
in size
5.2.1. Rubbing wear
• Result of normal sliding wear
• During normal break-in of a wear surface, a unique layer is formed at the surface
• Surface stable = surface wears normally
• Layer is removed faster the following is generated
– Wear rate increases
– Maximum particle sizes increases
• Excessive quantities of contaminants in lubrication system can increase rubbing wear by more than
10 without completely removing shear-mixed layer

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– Although catastrophic failure unlikely – machines wear out rapidly


• Increasing number of wear particles = trouble
5.2.2. Cutting wear
• Particles generated when one surface penetrates another
– Misaligned or fractured hard surface produces and edge that cuts into softer surface
– Abrasive contaminant becomes embedded in soft surface and cuts opposing surface
• Cutting wear particles
– ARE Abnormal
– ALWAYS worthy of attention
– 2-3 µm x <1 µm wide
• Probably caused by contaminant
– Increasing size may signal imminent component failure

Figure 2: Microscopic image of cutting wear


5.2.3. Rolling fatigue
• Rolling contact bearings
• Particle types
– Fatigue spall particles
• Actual material removed when a pit or spall opens up on bearing surface
• Increase first indication of abnormality
– Spherical particles
• Not always generated by rolling fatigue
– Other mechanisms can also cause this
• Detectable before any actual spalling occurs
– Laminar particles
• Very thin
• Formed by passage of a wear particle through rolling contact
• Frequently have holes in them
• May be generated throughout life of bearing
– Onset of fatigue spalling increases laminar particle quantity
5.2.4. Combined rolling & sliding wear
• From moving contact of surfaces in gear systems
• Larger particles that are never spherical
– Result from tensile stresses on gear surface
• Fatigue cracks spread deeper into gear tooth
• Finally = PITTING
• Gear fatigue cracks
– Does not generate spheres
– Scuffing of gears cause by too high a load or speed
• Excessive heat
– Breaks down lubricating film
– Causes adhesion of mating gear teeth
• Once started scuffing affects each gear tooth
• Rougher wear surfaces = increased wear rates
5.2.5. Severe sliding wear
• Caused by excessive loads or heat in gear system

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– Large particles break away from wear surfaces


– Causes an increase in wear rate
– Further increase in stress applied to surface
• Second transition point is reached: Surface breaks down and catastrophic wear
ensues
• Normal spectrographic analysis of wear particles
– Limited to particulate contamination with size of 10 µm or less
– Larger contaminants ignored

5.3. Fretting

Figure 3: Fretting on a collet chuck (http://www.techniksusa.com/images2008/shrink-


fit/fretting-web.jpg)

Figure 4: Photograph of fretting


(http://www.espci.fr/usr/chateau/Fretting_ECL/photo_fretting.jpg)

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5.4. Pitting

Figure 5: Photograph of pitting (http://xkeresto.files.wordpress.com/2008/04/2681-slight-cam-


pitting.jpg)

5.5. Hardness and wear


Is increased hardness from your coating the answer?
• Hardness
– is a term relative to other materials
– By definition
• Hardness is the ability to resist plastic deformation under contact stress or
penetration
• Other characteristics equally important can include flex strength, or resistance
to mar, abrasion, or cutting
– Types
• Micro Hardness
– Individual hardness of each grain or particle
• Macro Hardness
– Average hardness of individual grains or particles

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5.5.1. Wear surfaces


• Coatings used
– Must have higher plastic deformation resistance than the parent metal
• Macro hardness alone not sufficient
• For wear surface erosion
– Micro hardness is key
• For wear abrasion, wear adhesion, wear surface scarring, sliding wear
– Consider lubrication
– Consider surface finish
5.5.2. Hardness of bearing materials
From http://www.calce.umd.edu/TSFA/Hardness_ad_.htm :
• Bearing materials = through-hardened materials for ball bearings and case-hardened for roller
bearings
• Commonly accepted minimum hardness = 58 Rc
– Less hardness allows race to Brinell
• Carburized or case-hardened materials
– Hardened surface > 0.38 mm thick – 58 to 63 Rc
– Core hardness 25 to 48 Rc

Figure 6: Hardness scales

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LUBRICANTS

6.1. Typical lubricants


See the states of aggregation possible as summarised in Table 1.

Nano Lubricants:
MoS2 = Molybdenum Disulphide
WS2 = Tungsten Disulphide

What is a Nanoparticle?
Any material with particle size less than 0.1 µm
When material made into nano particles its reactivity increases
Smaller particle size – higher surface area
Nano particles have high surface area to volume ratio = higher percentage of atoms can interact with
other matter

Table 1: Lubricant states of aggregation

State of Aggregation Lubricant

Gaseous Air, H2O (vapours), CO2, He, etc.

Liquid Oil Vegetal or Animal oil


Mineral (possible additives)

Synthetic (silicones, organic esters, etc.)


Non-conventional Water

Melted materials: Hg, Na, glass, etc.

Technical fluids

Rheological material Grease Soap base: Ca, Na, Li, Ba, Al, etc.
Solid Plastic Teflon, polyamide, etc.
Pulver Graphite, MoS2, WS2, etc.

6.1.1. Molybdenum disulphide MoS2


• Is a 100% natural material
• Thermally stable
– 1,100 °C in non-oxidizing environment
– 400 °C in normal air
• Insoluble in
– Water, dilute acids, concentrated H2SO4
• Soluble in
– Hot water, HNO3
• Coating thickness
– Between 5 µm and 15 µm
– Sputtering techniques – thin films of 0.2 µm
– Plasma sprays – thick films of 0.003 inch or more
• COF less than 0.05
• Sources to read:
– http://industrialcoatingsworld.com/low-friction-coatings/mos2-low-friction-coatings

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Figure 7: Molybdenum Disulphide (MoS2)


6.1.2. Nano-lubricant powders
SSA = Surface Area = most important unit of measure for nano lubricant, higher SSA = higher lubricity
Table 2: Nano lubricant powders (http://www.lowerfriction.com/product-
page.php?categoryID=19)

Tungsten Disulfide (WS2) Nanopowder Molybdenum Disulfide (MoS2) Nanopowder


Purity: 99.0% Purity: 99.0%
APS: 55 nm = Particle Size APS: 50 nm = Particle Size
2 2
SSA: 30 m /g = Surface Area SSA: 35 m /g = Surface Area
Morphology: nearly spherical Morphology: nearly spherical
Bulk Density: N/A 3
3
Bulk Density: ~0.78 g/cm
True density: 7.50 g/cm 3
True density: 5.06 g/cm
Product # MKN-WS2-055 Product #: MKN-MoS2-050
Packing: 50 gram, 100 gram, 1 Kg Packing: 50 gram, 100 gram, 1 Kg
Hexagonal-Boron Nitride (hBN) Nanopowder Graphite (C-G) Powder
Purity: 99% Purity: 98%
APS: 70 nm (determined from SSA) APS: 400 nm
2 SSA: not measured
SSA: 19.4 m /g
3 Morphology: fragment
Bulk density: 0.30 g/cm Bulk density: N/A
3
3
True density: 2.25 g/cm True density: 2.26 g/cm
Product #: MK-hBN-N70 Product #: MKN-CG-400: Nano Graphite
Packing: 1 lb. Packing: 50 gram, 100 gram, 1 K

6.2. Typical properties of lubricants


• Physical en Chemical Properties
o Appearance
o Odour
o pH value
o Boiling point
o Melting point
o Vapour pressure
o Vapour density
o Solubility in Water
o Specific gravity
o Percent Volatile by Volume
o Evaporation rate
o How Best Monitored
o Non-Hazardous Ingredients
 Material and Percent by Weight
o ACGIH Threshold Limit Values (TLV) (American Conference of Governmental Industrial
Hygienists: see http://www.acgih.org/home.htm )
 Tungsten Disulfide = 5 mg/m3
• Stability and Reactivity
• Toxicological Information

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• Ecological Information
• Disposal Consideration

Typical properties of oil:


• Cloud Point
– Point at which wax crystallises out
– Measured by ASTM D2500
– Easily suppressed by pour point depressants
• Pour Point
– Lowest temperature at which oil will flow
– Measured by ASTM D97
– Rough guide only
– For South African condition a Pour Point of -12 °C is safe
• This property is crucial for oils that must flow at low temperatures
• A commonly used rule of thumb when selecting oils is to ensure that the pour point
is at least 10°C below the lowest anticipated ambient temperature.
• Smoke Point
– Temperature where cooking fat or oil begins to break down to glycerol & free fatty acids
– Bluish smoke is produced
• Flash Point
– Indication of volatile components in the oil
• Measured by ASTM D92 & D93
– Done by producing a spark above the surface
• This tests for impurities in the oil
• Petrol/diesel may increase flash point to +40 °C
• Flash point of clean oil in the order of +200 °C
– At higher Temperature than smoke point and is temperature where oil can vaporize to form
ignitable mixture in air
• Auto-ignition temperature – higher than the flash point and does not need ignition
source
6.2.1. Oxidation and thermal stability
• Oxidation rate dependant on
o Temperature
o Presence of catalysts
 Copper and iron accelerates oxidation rate
• Filter these elements out!!
o Exposure to air
 Oil in gearboxes are more exposed to air by agitation that takes place
 This is the reason why turbine oil lasts longer than engine oil
• Oxidation
o Lets viscosity increase – may block filters
o Deplete some additives
6.2.2. Chemical stability
• Resistance to effects of contaminants
– Wear metal catalysis
– Soot
– Water
• Resistance to effects of process gasses
– NH3
– Others
• White oil
– Has good resistance
– Is refined, clear oil
– Used in pharmaceutics industry
6.2.3. Water shedding of demulsibility
• Property of base oil / Polar compounds
– When the base oil has lots of polar compounds, oil will have bad water shedding
• Adversely affected by most additives

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• Important for
– Hydraulics
– Turbines
– Circulation systems
• Water causes:
– Reduction in oil film strength
– Instability on elasto-hydrodynamic lubrication
– Increased corrosion rates
– Increase growth rate of bacteria
• Demulsibility measured by ASTM D1401
6.2.4. Water and bearing life
From "Practical Plant Failure Analysis„ Practical Plant Failure Analysis: A Guide to Understanding
Machinery Deterioration and Improving Equipment Reliability (Neville W. Sachs):
• Studies have shown that water contamination reduces the fatigue life of rolling element bearings
• At least seven extensive analyses, none of which had the operating conditions duplicating other
studies were done
• Results show there can be a consistent reduction in life at water concentrations as low as 0.01%
(100 ppm) and recommend that water levels be kept below half of that (50 ppm)
6.2.5. Foaming and air release
• Foaming concern = bubbles on oil surface not readily collapsing
– Property of the base fluid
• Air is polar compound
• Polar compounds in oil traps air bubble
– When bubble trapped in oil, it may implode on contact surfaces – Cavitation – High Stress
– Measured by ASTM D892
• Air release = bubbles not surfacing
– Property of base fluid
– Measured by IP 313
6.2.6. Colour and appearance
• Colour has no relation to:
– Quality
– Performance
• Colour for subjective customer appeal
• Also depends on base oils and additives
– Add Molybdenum Disulphide (MoS2):
• This is graphite like solid lubricant that reduces friction
• Looks anthracite like
• Oil has dark colour by nature – the dark colour indicates high performance of the
oil in this case
• Appearance of good oil
– Clear
– Bright
– Free from particulates
– Free from ash and combustion residues
Table 3: Some characteristics of new and used oil

Description New oil Used oil


Colour May be dark Black
Transparency Clear Unclear
Smell Oily Burnt

6.3. Oil additives


For the purpose of this course, the student should have an understanding of the purpose of the additive.
Note, you cannot make bad oil good by adding additives.

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Table 4: Purpose of typical oil additives

Additive Purpose Compounds used


Prevents the oxidation of a
Anti-oxidant or Hindered phenol (chain breaking), zinc
lubricant’s base stock, resulting in
oxidation dithiophosphates (peroxide destroying),
undesirable by-products such as
inhibitor aromatic amine
sludge formation
Reduces friction and wear from
Zinc dialkyldithiophosphate (ZDDP),
Anti-wear sliding contacts
tricressylphosphate (TCP)
Prevent scoring and seizure
Disperses soot to prevent deposit High molecular weight succimides,
Dispersants
formation amines, thiophosorates
Various high molecular weight soaps of
Detergents Keep surfaces free of deposits
barium, calcium and magnesium
Prevents the formation of stable Silicone polymers and organic
Foam inhibitors
foam polymers

6.3.1. Depletion of additives


• Additives are depleted performing their function
• Degraded by:
– Hydrolysis
– Mechanical shearing
– Condensation settling
– Water washing
– Particle scrubbing
• Factors influencing rate of depletion
– Heat
– Pressure
– Shear rate
– Fuel sulphur
– Soot
– Dirt
– Water
– Aeration
– Catalytic metals (copper, iron, etc.)
6.3.2. Replenishment of additives
• Top-up
– Partial drain and replacement (bleed-and-feed)
• Base oil must not be degraded
• Replace completely when base oil has degraded
• Casual addition of additives into formulated oils
– Can be dangerous
– Avoid doing this!

6.4. Basic lubrication theory


This is not part of this course.

6.5. Oil applications


The following topics will be discussed:
1. Viscosity classification.
2. Classification systems.
3. Automotive gear oils.
4. Industrial applications.

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6.5.1. Viscosity measurement

6.5.2. Viscosity classification


• Number of ways
– SAE – Society of Automotive Engineers
• Grades for gear oils and crankcases
– AGMA – American Gear Manufacturers Association
• Grades for gear oils
– SUS – Saybolt Universal Seconds
• cSt or Kinematic viscosity in Centistokes
• Absolute velocity
– ISO VG = International Standards Organization Viscosity Grade
• One International viscosity grade reference
• ISO + ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials) + STLE (Society for
Tribologists and Lubrication Engineers) + BSI + DIN (Deutsche Institute for
Normung) formulated it
• Designers
– Define/specify lubricant viscosity in such way that the equipment user understands what is
needed

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6.5.3. Engine oil viscosity classification


Viscosity Classification for engine oils:
• Monogrades
– SAE 30, 40, 50
– Measured at 100 °C
• Multigrades
– SAE [X]W-[Y]
– W = Winter
– X = Cold temperature viscosity [at -15 °C]
– Y = High temperature viscosity [at 100 °C]
6.5.4. Climate and motor oil

6.5.5. Engine oils


• API = American Petroleum Institute
– API S[X]:S = Service/Spark
• X = A to N
– N or higher the best quality oil
– A was for earlier oils with no additives
– API C[Y]:C = Commercial / Compression
• Y = A to CH-4
– These are for diesel engines
– Grades focus on capacity to take soot away
• Mercedes Benz – Leaders in the area of long-haul trucks
6.5.6. Automotive gear oils
• Classification
– API
• GL-4/Synchromesh – Yellow metals
– Have almost ½ the additives found in GL-5
– Too much Extreme Pressure (EP) additives have negative effect on
performance with yellow metals
• GL-5/Hypoid – Heavy loads, shock loads
– Larger commercial vehicles
• Allison C4 & CAT TO-2 oil have characteristics similar to ATF (Automatic
Transmission Fluid)
• Cat TO-4
– Tight range of friction characteristics

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– Contains friction modifiers/speciality lube


6.5.7. Examples of oils
6.5.7.1. Shell Helix HX3

6.5.7.2. Shell Helix Diesel Ultra

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6.5.7.3. Shell oils for trucks

6.5.7.4. Shell Helix Diesel HX5 multi-grade motor oil

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6.6. Industrial applications of oil


• Viscosity
– ISO VG system commonly used
• Referenced at 40 °C
• Due to higher high temperatures in South Africa, use one ISO VG spec higher
• Applications is mostly at constant temperatures
– Gearboxes
– Pumps
– Classification
• There is a wide variety products available
• Fill up and change with OEM specified lubricants

6.7. Grease
6.7.1. Composition of grease

6.7.2. Grease characteristics


• Drop Point (heated until one drop of oil drops from the grease sample)
– Grease has high temperature operability limit
– Reduction occurs at 40 °C
• This must be considered the operating limit
• Oil separation and bleeding
• Oxidation stability
• Water washout
• EP tests
– Timken (ASTM D 2509)
– Four Ball (ASTM D 2596)
• QUESTION: What is considered to be the most commonly used grease?
– ANSWER: Lithium grease

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6.7.3. Comparison of oil and grease

6.7.4. National Lubricating Grease Institute – NLGI Guide


NLGI Worked penetration after 60 Appearance Consistency food
Grade Strokes at 25°C (0.1 mm) analogue
000 445-475 Fluid Cooking oil
00 400-430 Semi-fluid Apple souce
0 355-385 Very soft Brown mustard
1 310-340 Soft Tomato paste
2 265-295 “normal” grease Peanut butter
3 220-250 Firm Vegetable shortening
4 175-205 Very firm Frozen yogurt
5 130-160 Hard Smooth pate
6 85-115 Very hard Cheddar cheese
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NLGI_Grade
• NLGI Grades 000 to 1 used in application requiring low viscous friction:
– Enclosed gear drives operating at low speeds and open gearing
• Grades 0, 1 and 2 used in highly loaded gearing
• Grades 1 through 4 are often used in rolling contact bearings where Grade 2 is the most
common
• Grease Consistency:
– Lower numbers
• Softer and flow better
– Higher numbers
– Firmer, tend to stay in place
– A good choice when leakage is a concern
• The table above compares the most common NLGI grades with household products that have
similar consistencies
6.7.5. Grease and temperature
• Greases fail more rapidly as temperature of operation increases
– Most obvious reason = the melting point of the thickener or dropping point (complex of
melting and bleed) of the grease
– Evaporation may be significant at high temperatures
– Oxidation also increases rapidly as temperature rises
• Most mineral-oil-based greases (of adequate dropping point) will operate successfully to about 121
°C

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– Smaller number can handle 149 °C


– A few mineral-oil-based greases can operate to about 177 °C
• Around this temperature, synthetic fluids are preferred or required
• As service temperature rises, frequency of lubricant addition and re-lubrication must
increase
• In industrial service, the following may be considered reasonable re-lubrication intervals for rolling
bearings (assuming eight work hours per day):
Temperature Relubrication interval
℃]
[℃ Rolling bearngs (8h/day)
82 6 Months
104 3 Months
149 1 Month
193 1 Week
238 1 Day
– Guidelines assume reasonable-size bearings operating at usual speeds and loads
– If speed is high, bearing large, or load severe, re-lubrication intervals could be even shorter
– Where service is severe and/or contamination is unavoidable, re-lubrication is best carried
out with a centralized lubrication system, and lubrication intervals may be measured in hours
or minutes
• For high-temperature service, greases must be of high quality
– But quality is not a fundamental property of a lubricant
– It is the result of many factors which, all together, lead to the performance sought
– Test data, while indicating the capability of a grease to perform well in service, do not
guarantee such behaviour
– That is learned only in actual operation in the field--in machinery, in vehicles, etc. This is
the limitation of specifications and the reason that laboratory results must be confirmed in
field tests."
6.7.6. How much grease is enough?
• No easy answer on manual grease re-lubrication cycles and volumes
• Solution 1 (http://www.machinerylubrication.com/Read/28493/adding-grease )
– Measure size of bearing shaft, width & bearing outer diameter
– Measure grease gun output per stroke
– SKF Equation:
  0.114

 is the grease quantity in ounces

is the total width in inches


is the bearing outside diameter in inches

LUBRICATION SYSTEMS

7.1. Automated lubrication systems


Note, this section will not be discussed in class. The information below is for self-study.
• Bearing failure major cause of equipment downtime
– Often due to improper lubrication
• Over lubrication, contamination, under lubrication, etc.
– Many bearings are lubricated manually
– Bearings need to be lubricated properly
– Costs

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• Direct: replacement bearings, labour, excess lubricant


• Indirect: downtime, lost production, excess energy consumption, spillage, etc.
• Automated Lubrication: Providing the right amount of the right lubricant at the right time to the right
place
• Manual lubrication:
– Schedule driven – not when needed
– Over lubrication initially
– Under lubrication until re-lubrication occurs again
– Cycle repeats itself
• Benefits of automated lubrication
– Provides lubricant constantly @ an appropriate amount
• Helps to seal bearing from environment
– Reduces number of downtime
– Reduces labour cost
– Precise
– No excess lubricant that can find its way to the products handled by the machine
– Worker safety
7.1.1. System options
• Single-line parallel
• Two-line parallel
• Single-line progressive
• Mist lubrication
• Minute-volume/low-pressure spray
• Recirculating oil
• Pump-to-point (box lubricators)
• Single-line resistance lubricators
• Single-point lubricators
7.1.1.1. Single-line parallel
• Operates at high fluid pressures
• For grease or oil
• Operation:
o Pump pressurizes main supply
o Piston in primed injector displaces premeasured amount of lubricant through outlet to
bearing
o Pump turns off & supply pressure vented to reservoir
o Spring-loaded piston return to rest & discharge chamber fills with measured charge of
lubricant

http://www.machinerylubrication.com/Read/175/automate
d-lubrication

• Advantages:

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– Easy to design
– Easy, cost effective installation
– Individually adjustable injectors
– Proven design
– Reliable
• Disadvantages
– May not be suitable for combinations of heavy lubricants, very cold temperatures, very
long supply lines, etc.

7.1.1.2. Two-line parallel


• For long pumping distances & extreme temperatures
• Easy to adjust
• High pressure up to 30 MPa
• Work with many lubricantion points over wide area
• Pump pressurizes metering devices through one side of 4-way, 2-position reversing valve & the first
supply line
• Valve reverse & pump pressurises second supply line

Source: http://www.machinerylubrication.com/Read/175/automated-lubrication
• Advantages:
o Easily handles very viscous (heavy) greases
o Accommodate long supply lines
• Disadvantages:
o Not cost effective for small systems
o Requires two supply lines that is costly
7.1.1.3. Single-line progressive
• Can be used with low-pressure oil, grease or high pressure oil
• Sometimes include preassembled pump, controller & mono-block piston-metering device
• Pump provides measured single shot (pulsed or continuous volume) during lubrication cycle
• First primed piston in block shifts, displacing lubricant to bearing & diverting flow to nex piston
• Second piston shifts & diverts flow to third
• Sequece continues until timer or feedback switch stops the pump

Divider valve

Source: http://www.machinerylubrication.com/Read/175/automated-lubrication

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• Advantages:
o Accommodates wide range of system control/monitoring options
o Identify blockage by monitoring a single point
• Disadvantages:
o One blockage can disable entire system
o Large systems may require complex piping/tubing runs
7.1.1.4. Mist lubrication
• Facilitates low oil consumption & cool running bearings
• Mist generated by:
– Heat and/or air currents
• Carried through pipe to the lubrication point with low pressure air
• Then sized to appropriate droplet before dispensed to bearing
• Closed loop system environmentally friendly
• Advantages:
– Cools & lubricates bearings
– Low pressure pipes required
– Positive pressure help keeps contaminants out
• Disadvantages:
– Environmental/health concerns of stray mist
– Oil only
– Sensitivity to flow, viscosity, pressure
– Extra pipe for closed loop system
7.1.1.5. Minute-volume/low-pressure spray
• Applies precise amount of oil
• Very low oil consumption (up to 90% less than other systems)
• Environmentally friendly
• Ideal for chain lubrication as it penetrates wear points without over lubrication
• Operation:
– Timer signals start
– Injector begins cycling
– Feed oil @ controlled rate through small diameter tubing to spray nozzle
– Simultaneously low-pressure air is directed to the nozzle
– Air & oil mixes to produce fine, controlled, non-misting spray
• Advantages:
– Precise lubricant volume
– Precise application control
– No “stray mist” problems
– Fast, economical installation
– Very low lubricant consumption
• Disadvantages:
– Oil only
7.1.1.6. Recirculating oil
• Lubricate rolling element bearing
• Maintain correct bearing temperature
• Consist of:
– Motor-driven pump
– Filtration & piping system
– Flow meters – to control amount of oil entering bearing
– Oil exits bearing & returns to reservoir with return filter
– Heat exchanger and/or heaters maintain correct oil temperature
• Used on large, heavily loaded bearings
• Advantages:
– Provides both lubrication & temperature control
– Conditions extends oil life
• Disadvantages:
– Major, capital installations
– Require frequent manual adjustment of flow meter

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7.1.1.7. Pump-to-point lubricator


• Handles multiple lubrication points independently
• Ideal for remote locations
• Can overcome high back pressures
• An individual, adjustable lubricator pump for each point
• Consist of:
– Electric motor or machine take off to rotate cam
– Cam actuates individual pump plungers through rocker mechanism
– Plunger draws oil through needle valve & sight class
– Dispenses measured volume through high-pressure tube to lubrication point
• Used on large compressors & stationary gas engines
• Advantages:
– Overcome extreme high backpressures
– Simple, rugged design
• Disadvantages:
– Limited number of lubrication point
– Relatively high cost per point

Figure 8: Pump-to-point lubricator


7.1.1.8. Single-line resistance
• For closely clustered bearings
• Offers variety of flow resistance metering devices
• Can utilize manual, electric & pneumatic pumps
• Operation:
– Pump supplies fixed oil volume to metering device through low pressure tubing
– Level of resistance in metering device determines proportion of oil flow to each lubrication
point
• Advantages:
– Simplicity
– Low price
• Disadvantages:
– Oil only
– Reliance on resistance can lead to non-positive distribution of oil
– System size limitations

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7.1.1.9. Single-point lubricator


• For individual, remote bearings
• Completely self-contained unit is installed @ each lubrication point
• Gas pressure, spring, electromechanical power drives lubricant over time to bearing
• Reservoir or entire unit replaced when lubricant is consumed
• Advantages:
• Low purchase price
• Easy to install
• Disadvantages:
• Temperature will affect volume output/service life
• Replacement cost rapidly exceeds cost of fully automatic, central systems if number of lube
points increase

7.2. Filtering
QUESTION: What would a beta ratio of 75 mean for a 10-micron filter?
ANSWER: Approximately 98.7% of particles larger than 10 microns will be removed. Restated: 74 out
of every 75 particles larger than 10 microns will be removed by the filter.
Information:
Beta ratio:
      

     
Removal efficiency:
1 $1
 !!"  #1 $ % & 100%  & 100%

CONDITION-BASED MAINTENANCE WITH OIL


Approach flow diagram.

Condition-based
maintenance

Pro-active maintenance Predictive maintenance

Failure symptoms and


Root causes
faults

Contaminant monitoring Wear debris analysis


Balancing and Vibration analysis
alignment tools Temperature analysis
Viscosity & TAN Motor current analysis
monitoring Performance analysis

Result Result
Fault free machine Early detection of faults
Life extension and failures

Figure 9: Condition-based maintenance with oil analysis flow diagram

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Oil analysis is:


• One of oldest predictive maintenance technologies
• Used to define three basic machine conditions:
– Condition of the oil
• Will its current condition lubricate per design?
– Lubrication system condition
• Have any physical boundaries been violated causing contamination?
– Machine condition
• Has worn or breakage occurred?
Tests done:
• Condition of the oil
– Lubricant viscosity
– Lubricant acidity
– Lubricant additives (corrosion inhibitors)
– Lubrication system condition
– Water content
– Silicon content
– System design dependant contaminants
– Machine condition
– Wear particles

Trend results
• Using trending from oil analyses performed over time
– Indication of improperly maintenance or operational practices
• Introduction of contamination during lubricant change-out
• Improper system flush-out after repairs
• Addition of improper lubricant
• Improper equipment operation

8.1. Oil analysis service providers


• Services relatively inexpensive
• Analysis results quick
– Within 24 h
• Internet used for quick & easy access to reports
• Analysis equipment also available for own oil analysis lab

8.2. Oil sampling


• Accurate results require proper sampling techniques
• Samples
– Should be taken from an active, low-pressure line, ahead of filtration devices
– Machine must be in steady-state operating condition (output, power, etc.)
• Consistency & Trending
– Take sample form same place in the system each time
– Permanently install sample valve
• Containers
– Get from laboratory
• Labeling
– Machine number
– Machine type
– Sample date

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RIGHT ERRONOUS
Machines running “in application” Sampling cold systems
Live zone sampling “on the run” Drain-port sampling
Upstream of filters, downstream of machine
Drop-tube sampling
components
Flushed sampling valves and sampling devices,
Changing sampling methods & points
clean bottles
Sampled at proper frequency Dirty sampling pathway
Hours on oil recorded Sampling after oil change
Samples forwarded immediately to lab Cross-contamination of sampling devices
Waiting days or weeks before sending
samples to lab

8.3. Oil analysis tests done


Lubricant condition:
1. Viscosity
2. Acid number
3. Base number
4. Additional tests:
a. Presence and/or effectiveness of oil additives (anti-wear, anti-oxidants, corrosion
inhibitors, anti-foam agents)
Component wear determination
1. Measuring and trending the amount of wear metals
a. Iron
b. Copper
c. Chromium
d. Aluminium
e. Lead
f. Tin
g. Nickel
2. Measure and trend and increase in a specific wear metal which could mean particular part(s) is
wearing and/or wear is taking place in particular parts of the machine
Contamination testing
1. Water content
2. Specific gravity
a. Changes mean that the fluid or lubricant has been contaminated with another type of
oil or fuel.
3. Level of Silicon
a. Indication of contamination from dirt (usually sand).

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Table 5: Spectrometer metals and their causes


Engines Transmissions Gears Hydraulics
Iron
Cylinder liners Gears Gears Gears
Rings Disks Bearings Bearings
Gears Housing Shaft Shaft
Crankshaft Bearings Housing Housing
Camshaft Brake bands
Valve train Shaft
Oil pump gear
Wrist pins
Chrome
Rings Roller bearings Roller bearings Shaft
Liners
Exhaust valves
Shaft plating
Stainless Steel alloy
Aluminium
Rings Pumps Pumps Bearings
Pistons Thrust washers Thrust washers Thrust plates
Thrust bearings
Turbo bearings
Main bearings on crank
Nickel
Valve plating Steel alloy from roller Steel alloy from
Steel alloy from bearings roller bearings
crankshaft Steel alloy from shaft Steel alloy from
Camshaft shaft
Gears from heavy
bunker-type diesel fuels
Copper
Lube coolers Bushings Bushings Bushings
Main and rod bearings Clutch plates Thrust plates Thrust plates
Bushings (auto/powershift) Lube coolers
Turbo bearings Lube coolers
Lube additive
Lead
Main and rod bearings Bushing (bronze alloy) Bushing (bronze Bushing (bronze
Bushings Lube additive supplement alloy) alloy)
Lead solder Grease
contamination
Tin
Piston flashing Bearing cage metal Bearing cage metal
Bearing overlay Lube additive
Bronze alloy
Babbitt metal along
with copper and lead
Babbitt metal: A soft white alloy of variable composition (as a nine parts of tin to one of copper, or of
fifty parts of tin to five of antimony and one of copper) used in bearings to diminish friction.
A wide variety of Babbitt alloys exist. Some common compositions are
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babbitt_metal):
90% tin, 10% copper
89% tin, 7% antimony, 4% copper
80% lead, 15% antimony, 5% tin
A lead-tin based Babbitt (75% lead, 10% tin)

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Engines Transmissions Gears Hydraulics


A copper-lead based Babbitt (76% copper, 24% lead)
A copper-lead-tin based Babbitt composed of (67% copper, 28% tin, 5% lead)
Cadmium
N/A N/A N/A N/A
Silver
Wrist pin bushings Torrington needle bearings N/A Silver solder (from
(EMD’s) (Allison transmission) lube coolers)
Silver solder (from lube
coolers
Vanadium
Heavy bunker-type N/A N/A N/A
diesel fuels
Silicon
Dirt Dirt Dirt Dirt
Seals & sealants Seals & sealants Seals & sealants Seals & sealants
Coolant inhibitor Coolant inhibitor Coolant inhibitor Coolant inhibitor
Lube additive (<15ppm) Lube additive (<15ppm) Lube additive Lube additive
(<15ppm) (<15ppm)
Sodium
Lube additive Lube additive Lube additive Lube additive
Coolant inhibitor Coolant inhibitor Salt water Coolant inhibitor
Salt water Salt water contamination contamination Salt water
contamination Wash detergents Airborne contamination
Wash detergents contaminate Airborne
contaminate
Molybdenum
Ring plating Lube additive Lube additive Lube additive
Lube additive Coolant inhibitor Coolant inhibitor Coolant inhibitor
Coolant inhibitor Grease additive
MULTI-SOURCE MATERIALS
Antimony
Lube additive Lube additive Lube additive Lube additive
Manganese
Steel alloy Steel alloy Steel alloy Steel alloy
Lithium
N/A Lithium complex grease Lithium complex Lithium complex
grease grease
Boron
Lube additive Lube additive Lube additive Lube additive
Coolant inhibitor Coolant inhibitor Coolant inhibitor Coolant inhibitor

Table 6: Additive metals


Engines Transmissions Gears Hydraulics
Magnesium
Detergent dispersant Detergent dispersant Detergent dispersant Detergent dispersant
additive additive additive additive
Airborne Airborne contamination Airborne Airborne
contamination (where (where present) contamination (where contamination (where
present present) present)
Zinc
Anti-wear additive Anti-wear additive Anti-wear additive Anti-wear additive
(ZDP) (ZDP) (ZDP) (ZDP)
Calcium

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Detergent dispersant Detergent dispersant Detergent dispersant Detergent dispersant


additive additive additive additive
Airborne Airborne contamination Airborne Airborne
contamination (where (where present) contamination (where contamination (where
present) Contaminant from present) present)
Contaminant from water Contaminant from Contaminant from
water water water
Barium
Usually additive from Usually additive from Usually additive from Usually additive from
synthetic lubricants synthetic lubricants synthetic lubricants synthetic lubricants
Phosphorous
Anti-wear additive Anti-wear additive Anti-wear additive Anti-wear additive
(ZDP) (ZDP) (ZDP) (ZDP)
EP additive for
extreme pressure

TEST TYPES

9.1. Karl Fischer water test


• Quantifies amount of water in lubricant
• Water
o Seriously damages the lubricating properties of oil
o Promotes component corrosion
• Causes
o Condensation
o Coolant leaks
o Process leaks around seals

9.2. Viscosity test


• Measure lubricant’s resistance to flow at specific temperature
• Significance
– Viscosity is the most important physical property of oil
– Determination provides specific number to compare to recommended oil in service
– Abnormal viscosity (±15%) indicative of problem
• Excessively low viscosity
– Reduce oil film strength, weakening its ability to prevent metal-to-metal contact
• Excessively high viscosity
– May impede flow of oil to vital locations, reducing its ability to lubricate
Normally measured at 40 °C (for INDUSTRY) and 100 °C (for AUTOMOTIVE applications)

9.3. Spectrographic analysis


• Definition:
– The determination of chemical elements by measurement of the wavelength and spectral
line intensity produced by any one of several methods of excitation such as arc, flame,
infrared and X-ray. Also known as spectrometry
• Allows accurate, rapid measurement of many elements present in lubricating oil
– Wear metals
– Contaminants
– Additives
• Standard lubricating oil analysis
– Does not attempt to determine specific failure modes of developing machine problems

9.4. FTIR Spectroscopy


• Definition:
– technique used to identify chemical compounds based on how infrared radiation is
absorbed by the compounds' chemical bonds
• Measures chemical composition of lubricant

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• Significance
– Molecular analysis of lubricants & hydraulic fluids by Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR)
spectroscopy (http://www.siliconfareast.com/FTIR.htm) produces direct information on:
• Molecular species of interest
• Chemical bonding characteristics
• Additives
• Fluid breakdown products
• External contamination

9.5. Inductively coupled plasma (ICP) spectroscopy


Inductively Coupled Plasma (ICP) Spectroscopy measures concentration of:
• Wear metals
• Contamination metals
• Additive metals
Significance
• Measures & quantifies elements associated with wear, contamination and additives
Assists in determining the oil & machine condition

9.6. Direct Read Ferrography


• Measures relative amount of ferrous wear in lubricant
• Significance
– Gives direct measure of amount of ferrous wear of metals of different size present in sample
– Trending reveals changes in wear mode

9.7. Analytical Ferrography


• Allow visual examination of wear particles present in sample
• Significance:
– High magnification microscope used to determine type and severity of wear deposited
– Particles are readily identified & classified according to:
• Size
• Shape
• Metallurgy

9.8. Spectrography vs Ferrography


• Ferrography separates particular contamination by using magnetic field
– Spectrographic analysis burns the sample
• In ferrography particulate contamination larger than 10 µm (as high as 100 µm) can be separated &
analyzed
– Spectrographic limited to particle sizes of 10 µm
• Ferrography limited to ferrous or other magnetic particles

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Figure 10: Wear particle size and wear progress

9.9. Total Acid Number


• Measures acidity of lubricant
• Significance
– Organic acids (by-product of oil oxidation) degrade oil properties & lead to corrosion of
internal components
– High acid levels typically caused by oil oxidation

9.10. Contamination
• Water contamination
– Can cause major problems
• Always have an accurate analysis of new oil for comparison
– Because many additives used in lubricants contain the same elements that are used in
coolants

9.11. Fuel dilution


• Weakens
– Oil film strength
– Sealing ability

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– Detergency
• Caused by
– Improper operation
– Fuel system leaks
– Ignition problems
– Improper engine timing

9.12. Fuel Soot


• Important factor for oil used in diesel engines
• Always present to some extent
• Significance
– Amount of soot in diesel engine oil indicates fuel-burning efficiency of engine
• Tests are conducted by Infrared analysis

9.13. Solids content


• Is a general test
• Sold materials measured as percentage of sample volume or weight
• Presence of solids can increase wear on lubricated parts
• Unexpected rise cause for concern

9.14. Oxidation
• Oxidation of lubricating oil result in
– Lacquer deposits
– Metal corrosion
– Thickening of oil
• Most lubricants contain oxidation inhibitors
– Additives are being used up
• Degree of oxidation measured by differential Infrared Analysis

9.15. Nitration
• Results from fuel combustion in engines
• Products
– Highly acidic
– May leave deposits in combustion areas
• Significance
– Nitration accelerate oil oxidation
• Detected by means of Infrared analysis

9.16. Total Acid Number – TAN


• Measure amount of acid or acidlike material in oil sample
• New oils contain additives that affect TAN
– Always compare used oil samples with new, unused oil of same type
• Regular analysis at specific intervals important

9.17. Total Base Number - TBN


• Indicates ability of oil to neutralize acidity
– The higher TBN, the greater oil’s ability to neutralize acidity
• Causes of low TBN
– Using improper oil for an application
– Too long oil change periods
– Overheating
– High sulfur fuel
• TBN often the main criterion for recommending an oil change

9.18. Particle count and oil cleanliness


In summary:
1. This is about the measurement of size and quantity of particles in the lubricant.
2. The significance of the result:

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a. Oil cleanliness.
b. Oil performance.
c. Machine problems.
d. A high particle count may mean that:
i. The machine is wearing abnormally.
ii. Failures may occur as a result of temporarily or permanently blocked orrifes.
3. Particle count analysis of normal lubricant is different from the tests on wear particle analysis.
For wear patterns the following are needed: the size; shape, and, material of particles.

9.19. Cleanliness of oil


Please see Figure 11.
The cleanliness of oil is defined by three numbers:
1. That corresponds to particles of 4 μm, 6 μm and 14 μm in 1 ml of fluid.
2. Typical measured quantities in Investmech inspections:
a. 16/14/11 – on hydraulic oil, indication of the number of particles according to Figure 11
that exceeds the size 4 μm; 14 of 6 μm, and, 11 of μ.
b. 17/15/12 – on engine oil, indication of the number of particles according to Figure 11
that exceeds the size 4 μm; 15 of 6 μm, and, 12 of 14 μm.
Read the document, downloadable from the website, with title: ISO 4406-1999 Oil Cleanliness and
Filtering – Theory and Targets.

Figure 11: Oil cleanliness according to ISO 4406 1987 and 1999

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Table 7: Acceptable oil cleanliness values

Application ISO 4099:1987 Recommended


ISO ( filtration
)*+/,*+/-)*+ ./ ( -00
/ in *+
Laboratory and Aerospace technology, servo-
15/13/10 2–3
hydraulic systems
High quality industrial hydraulics, electromagnetic
control valves, proportional technology, high pressure 17/15/12 3–5
systems, lubrication systems
Industrial hydraulics, medium pressure systems, low
19/17/14 5 – 10
pressure systems
Medium pressure hydraulics in general, medium-sized
systems, low-pressure systems with large component
clearances & low requirements for component wear 21/19/16 10 – 20
protection, high pressure water hydraulic systems with
high levels of coarse contamination
Source: http://www.oilsolutions.com.au/oilsolutions/oil_cleanliness_codes.htm

9.20. Oil cleanliness tests on a gearbox


The slide below summarises the findings of an oil analysis that Investmech carried out on a Gearbox.

Figure 12: Cleanliness of oil from from a gearbox inspected by Investmech

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TYPES OF EQUIPMENT
• Wide variety
– Viscometers
– Spectrometers
– Oil analyzers
– Particle counts
– Microscopes
• Analysis equipment available for characterization of:
– Oil condition
– Wear particles
– Contamination
• On-site testing can provide quick

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– Verification of specific oil problem associated with critical components – e.g. water
contamination
– Determination of lubrication condition to determine need for change
• Detail analyses require independent laboratory

ECONOMIC FEASIBLE SYSTEM APPLICATIONS


• Turbines
• Boiler geed pumps
• Electro-hydraulic control systems
• Hydraulics
• Servo valves
• Gearboxes
• Roller bearings
• Anti-friction bearings
• Where oil cleanliness is directly related to:
– Longer lubricant life
– Decreased equipment wear
– Improved equipment performance

OIL ANALYSIS IN PRACTICE

12.1. Case 1: Bullard LATHE


The following results were obtained on a Bullard Lathe after 500h on the oil. The oil type and grade is
Shell Tonna T-68.

Table 8: Oil analysis test results on a Bullard Lathe after 500 on the oil
Engine hrs 3020 Unit 2520 2020 1520 1020 520 Universal
Sample date 1988/07/08 averages 1988/06/01 1988/04/25 1988/02/17 1988/02/17 1988/01/10 averages
Aluminium 3 0 1 0 1 0 2 0
Chromium 3 1 2 1 1 1 2 0
Iron 880 209 267 265 218 175 120 162
Copper 127 39 45 43 32 27 51 28
Lead 49 8 12 11 8 0 13 8
Tin 3 0 0 0 0 2 0 1
Molybdenum 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Nickel 2 0 1 1 0 0 1 0
Manganese 13 4 6 5 4 3 6 3
Silver 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Titanium 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Vanadium 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Boron 16 2 1 0 0 0 12 2
Silicon 7 2 4 2 1 0 7 1
Sodium 213 63 72 68 65 69 44 44
Calcium 14 4 5 4 4 4 5 17
Magnesium 11 7 7 6 7 6 9 4
Phosphorus 678 661 648 636 655 719 651 478
Zinc 24 8 10 8 8 6 8 130
Barium 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4
Interpretation:
• Viscosity
– Should be 49 - 53
– Measured 59.7
• Water %
– Should be 0.05%
– Measured 1.1%
• Insolubles

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– Should be 1.1%
– Measured 0.9%
• There is a significant increase in metals
• Increased wear is likely attributable to 1.1% found in the oil
• Boron, silicon and sodium shown this water to be probably cutting water contamination
• Suggestions
– Change the oil
– Identify source of contamination
– Take another sample after 30 days of fresh oil

12.2. Case 2: Reduced gearbox failure


• Oil analysis
– Each time oil was added to a gearbox, contamination levels increased
– Accompanied by an increase in bearing & gear failures
• Removing the cover plate to add oil allowed contamination to fall into sump
• System was redesigned to prevent introduction of contamination during oil addition
• Result: reduction in bearing and gearbox failure rates

12.3. Case 3: Oil changes


• Manufacturer switched from preventative maintenance approach of changing oil in 400 machines
using time-based method to condition-based method
• In-house oil analysis was carried out
• Oil now changed based on actual condition
• Savings - > R 300,000 per annum

12.4. Case 4: Oil change requirements


• Oil change requirements changed from preventative maintenance time-based approach to condition
based approach
• Gain – an average of 0.5 years between oil changes
• Cost Reduction – R 200,000 in less than 9 months

12.5. Case 5: Production loss


• Oil analysis of Centrifugal Compressor indicated:
– Water contamination
– High ferrous and non-ferrous particle counts
• Repair was scheduled
• Saving of more than R 400,000 in maintenance and lost production cost avoidance

12.6. Examples of oil analysis reports discussed in class


• Go through the following documents:
– Oil analysis results and interpretation.pdf
– Spectracare Oil Analysis.pdf
– WearCheck Africa Analysis.pdf
• Symbols used:
– PQ: Particle Quantifier

FOAMING
Defined
(http://www.noria.com/dictionary/default.asp?definitionsearch=xqxqxqxq222&alphasearch=F&offset=2
5):
• A frothy mixture of air and a petroleum product (e.g., lubricant, fuel oil) that can reduce the
effectiveness of the product, and cause sluggish hydraulic operation, air binding of oil pumps, and
overflow of tanks or sumps
• Can result from excessive agitation, improper fluid levels, air leaks, cavitation, or contamination with
water or other foreign materials
• Can be inhibited with an antifoam agent
• Foaming characteristics of a lubricating oil can be determined by blowing air through a sample at a
specified temperature and measuring the volume of foam, as described in test method ASTM D 892

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• Problem when
– Oil level in the sump or reservoir becomes impossible to control
– Oil spills onto the floor creating safety hazard
– Foam leads to air locks and inability to effectively supply oil to lubricated components
– Foam inhibits heat transfer and encourages oxidation and thermal failure of oil
– Equipment is lubricated with foam instead of oil

CONTAMINATION

14.1. Heat contamination


Hot running oil advantages & disadvantages:
Advantages Disadvantages
Good water shedding Additive depletion
Lower foaming tendency Oxidation
Lower aeration tendency Thermal degradation
Improved particle settling rate Varnishing/choking
Water vaporization Hydrolysis
Fuel vaporization Loss of film strength (viscosity thinning)
Base oil and additive volatilization
Increased corrosion
Seal failure
Cost of synthetic base oil
For every 10 °C increase in oil temperature, the lubricant life halves.
Current oil temperature 2 x life oil temperature
[°C] [°C]
149 139
121 111
93 83
52 41

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14.2. Glycol/anti-freeze contamination


Causes Effects
Defective seals These Oil thickening
mechanisms Cavitation causes
Electrochemical erosion Gels and emulsions
damages erosion due to larger
Cavitation erosion cylinder wall. Acid transformation pressure produced during
Coolant then implosion of bubbles.
Corrosion leaks into the Restricted oil flow
These removes the oxide
Damaged cooler core engine. Water Filter failure film accelerating erosion.
evaporates.
Poor lubrication

14.3. Fuel contamination of engine oil


Causes Effects
Blowby – excessive idling, lugging, worn
Loss of viscosity
rings/liner
Defective fuel injection:
• Spray pattern
Addtive dilution
• Dribbing
• Seals
Leaky or worn fuel pump Loss of lubricating film strength
Leaky fuel lines Premature oil oxidation
Extended oil drains Sulfur build-up in oil (corrosion risk)

14.4. Soot contamination of engine oil


Causes Effects
High blowby Loss of dispersancy
Low compression Sludge formation
High fuel/air ratio Loss of antiwear performance
Plugged air filter Deposits and oil-way blockage
Cold air taps Filter plugging
Lugging and excessive idling
Over extended oil drain

Figure 13: Engine blowby, soot and viscosity

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14.5. Measurement of dispersancy


• Measure
o Dispersant additive
o Dispersancy performance
 Use the blotter test
• Blotter test
o Properly dispersing soot and other insoluble produces an evenly graduated blotter
o A blotter indicating a high soot load, but even graduation, suggests the oil is still fit for
service, but should be watched closely for degradation
o Dispersancy begins to fail
 Insolubles begin to form a dense ring on the exterior of the absorbing oil drop
o Characteristic dense black dot and sharp periphery that forms when the oil completely loses
dispersancy performance
• When the ring begins to form around on the exterior oil, the oil blotter – schedule a drain
• If the black dot is allowed to form, problems because the undispersed portion of soot that has
deposited upon surfaces will not be removed by the oil change
o Several changes made at frequent intervals will be required to effectively scour the engine
clean
o If disperancy performance degrades at an unusually rapid pace, do extensive review of
combustion and ring performance.

OIL ANALYSIS RATE-OF-CHANGE ALARMS


When to Use Oil Analysis Rate-of-Change Alarms
• Rate-of-change alarms are typically set to measure properties that are being progressively
introduced into the oil, such as wear debris
• The add rate (change) can be calculated per unit of time, hours, cycles, etc.
– For example, a 100 ppm increase in iron over a period of 100 operating hours could be
stated as one ppm per hour of operation

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• When the parameter is plotted against time, the rate-of-change (add rate) equals the current
slope of the curve
• Unlike level limits, rate-of-change limits ignore the absolute value of the data parameter,
emphasizing instead the speed at which the level is changing
• Rate-of-change limits
– Effectively applied to particle counting (unfiltered systems), elemental wear metals,
ferrous density, acid number (AN) and RPVOT
– Effectively applied to monitor abnormal degradation of additives with elemental and
FTIR Spectroscopy

15.1. Alarm report: Gearboxes on conveyors, cutters, etc – typical values

15.2. Alarm report: Engines, hydraulics, booster pumps, etc – typical values

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USUEFUL WEBSITES
The following are a list of usefull websites:
www.testoil.com
www.pdma.com
www.compsys.com
www.natrib.com
www.sait.org.za
www.noria.com
http://www.oilanalysis.com/article_detail.asp?articleid=853
http://www.machinerylubrication.com
http://www.liqui-moly.de/liquimoly/produktdb.nsf/id/e_1091.html
http://www.blackstone-labs.com/
http://www.zddplus.com/TechBrief13%20-%20Oil%20Viscosity.pdf
http://www.kittiwake.com/oil-condition-sensor
http://www.praemo.com/
http://www.machinerylubrication.com/Magazine/Issue/Practicing%20Oil%20Analysis/3/2007
http://www.tandeltasystems.com/

REFERENCES
BARRON, R. 1996. Engineering Condition Monitoring Practice, Methods and Applications. Addison
Wesley Longman.
DIGILOV, R.M. Weight-detecting capillary visometer. Israel Instituite of Technology, Haifa.
MOBLEY, R.K. 1990. An introduction to predictive maintenance. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.
Operations and Maintenance Best Practices Guide, Chapter 6, Predictive Maintenance Technologies
Von Wielligh, A.J., Burger, N.D.L. & Wilcocks, T.L. 2003. Diesel engine failures due to combustion
disturbances, caused by fuel with insufficient lubricity. Industrial Lubrication and Tribology, Volume
55, No. 2, pp. 65-75.
Available at: http://www.ifleet.co.za/images/pdf/literature/Diesel%20AJ%20von%20Wielligh.pdf

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