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millions of years in which new species are produced. Since, we are talking about living
organisms, so it is known as ‘organic evolution’. All the plants and animals which we see today
around us have evolved from some or the ancestors that lived on this earth long, long ago.
It will be clearer with the development of ‘pterosaur’ bird. It is an ancient flying reptile which
lived on the earth about 150 million years ago. It began life as a big lizard which could just crawl
on land. Over millions of years, small folds of skin developed between its feet which enabled it
to glide from tree to tree. Over many, many generations, spread over millions of years, the folds
of skin, and the bones and muscles supporting them grew to form wings which could make it fly.
In this way, an animal which crawled on ground evolved into a flying animal and led to the
It is considered that they have evolved from the common ancestor. The more characteristics or
features two species have in common, the more closely they will be related. Some of the
(iii) Fossils.
(i) Homologous Organs: Those organs which have the same basic structure (or same basic
design) but different functions. For example, the forelimbs of a man, a lizard (reptile), a frog
(amphibian), a bird and a bat (mammal) seem to be built from the same basic design of bones,
but they form different functions. The forelimbs of a human are used for grasping, the forelimbs
of a lizard are used for running, the forelimb of a frog is used to prop up etc
(ii) Analogous Organs: Those organs which have different basic structure (or different basic
design) but have similar appearance and perform similar functions. For example, the wings of an
insect and a bird have different structures but they perform the same function of flying.
(iii) Fossils: The remains or impressions of dead animals or plants that lived in the remote past.
For example, a fossil bird called Archaeopteryx looks like a bird but it has many other features
which are found in reptiles. Because Archaeopteryx has feathered wings like those of birds but
teeth and tail like those of reptiles. So, it is a connecting link between the reptiles and the birds
and hence suggested that the birds have evolved from the reptiles.
Archaeopteryx is a connecting link between reptiles and birds.Fossils are formed, when
organisms die, their bodies will decompose by the action of micro-organisms in the presence of
oxygen, moisture etc. Fossils are also obtained by digging into the earth.
Charles Robert Darwin gave the theory of evolution in his famous book ‘The Origin of Species’.
The theory of evolution proposed by Darwin is known as ’The Theory of Natural Selection’.
This theory is called the theory of Natural Selection because it suggests that the best adapted
organisms are selected by nature to pass on their characteristics (or traits) to the next generation.
1. Within any population, there is natural variation. Some individuals have more favourable
2. Even though all species produce a large number of offsprings, populations remain fairly
constant naturally.
3. This is due to the struggle between members of the same species and different species for
4. The struggle for survival within populations eliminates the unfit individuals. The fit
individuals possessing favourable variations survive and reproduce. This is called natural
5. The individuals having favourable variations pass on these variations to their progeny from
generation to generation.
6. These variations when accumulated over a long period of time, lead to the origin of a new
species.
Though, Darwin’s theory was widely accepted, but it was criticised on the ground that it could
not explain ‘how the variations arise’. With the progress in genetics, the source of variations was
explained to be the ‘genes’. Genes vary in natural population. Therefore, Genetic material is the
raw material of evolution. So, the Darwin’s theory was modified accordingly. The most accepted
theory of evolution is the Synthetic Theory of Evolution in which the origin of species is based
on the interaction of ‘genetic variation’ and ‘natural selection’. Also, sometimes a species may
completely die out. It may become extinct. Dodo was a large flightless bird which has become
extinct. Once a species is extinct, its genes are lost forever. It cannot re-emerge at all.
EVOLUTION : THE THEORY OF EVOLUTION
The French biologist Lamarck proposed, in 1809, a hypothesis to account for the mechanism of
evolution, based on two conditions: the use and disuse of parts, and the inheritance of acquired
characteristics. So, according to Lamarckism, as the theory came to be known, the long neck and
legs of the modern giraffe were the result of generations of short-necked and short-legged
DARWIN’S THEORY
In November 1859, Darwin published the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection,
proposing that natural selection is the mechanism by which new species arise from pre-existing
species. The ‘struggle for existence’ described by Darwin was popularised by the coining of the
The theory of evolution, as proposed by Darwin and Wallace, has been modified in the light of
modern evidence from genetics, molecular biology, palaeontology, ecology, and ethology (the
study of behaviour) and is known as neo- Darwinism (neo or new). This may be defined as the
HUMAN EVOLUTION
Prehistoric People
Evidence of prehistoric people, such as fossils, tools, and other remains, is rare and often
fragmented.
Prehuman Ancestors
Most scientists believe that human beings and apes, such as chimpanzees and gorillas, share a
common ancestor. The ancestors of human beings probably began evolving separately from the
ancestors of apes, between about 10 million and 5 million years ago. This evolutionary split
marks the beginning of the development of hominids. Hominids are members of the scientific
family made up of human beings and early humanlike ancestors. Most anthropologists believe
the first hominids were humanlike creatures called australopithecines. The australopithecines
Australopithecus (southern ape). According to differences in the shape of the creatures’ jaws and
teeth and the size of their brains, scientists have divided the genus Australopithecus into five
species: (1) A. ramidus, (2) A. afarensis, (3) A. africanus, (4) A. robusius, and (5) A. boisei.The
most complete australopithecine fossil scientists have found is a partial skeleton of a female A.
afarensis. It was found in Ethiopia. This creature, nicknamed “Lucy”, was probably more than
110 centimetres tall and weighed about 30 kilograms. By about 2.5 million years ago, A.
africanus replaced A. afarensis. Many scientists believe that an evolutionary split occurred
among the australopithecines during the time of A. africanus. This split resulted in the
appearance of an additional evolutionary line, separate from A. africanus, that led to A. robustus
and A. boisei. Scientists refer to these two species as the robust australopithecines.
Most anthropologists believe that the first human beings evolved from a gracile australopithecine
about 2 million years ago. Homo habilis is considered by anthropologists to be the oldest human
species. These prehistoric people lived in Africa about 2 million years ago. Homo erectus: Fossil
evidence indicates that about 1.5 million years ago Homo habilis had evolved into a more
new human species called Homo sapiens. The term Homo sapiens means ‘wise human being’.
All people living today belong to this species. But early Homo sapiens differed greatly from
modern people. Early Homo sapiens were about as tall as modern human beings. Neanderthals
were a type of early Homo sapiens who lived in parts of Europe and the Middle East about
130,000- 35,000 years ago. Neanderthals have become the most widely known of the early
Homo sapiens mainly because they were the first prehistoric people to be discovered.
The first prehistoric people with modern human features appeared about 100,000 years ago in
either the Middle East or Africa. These people had a chin, a high forehead, and a smaller, less-
The aim of biology is to explain the living world in terms of scientific principles. Aristotle, the
great Greek philosopher and teacher, is known as the father of biology and the French naturalist,
Jean Baptiste-de Lamarck, was the first to used the word ‘biology’ in 1800. Biology today is
subdivided into numerous branches based on the molecule, the cell, the organism and the
population.
There are seven characteristics that can be observed, more or less, in all living organisms. In
order to maintain themselves and prevent disintegration, organisms have an inbuilt self-
regulating system to ensure that there is no net energy loss. This control is referred to as
homeostasis and operates at all levels of biological organisation, from the molecular level to the
community level.
Classification of Animal Kingdom
Animals are those organisms which are eukaryotic, multicellular and heterotrophic in their mode
of nutrition. Except few, most animals are mobile and do not have cell wall.
Multicellular animals are called Metazoa which have been divided into two branches: Parazoa
and Eumetazoa.
In Parazoa, the body of animal is made up of loose cells, have poorly differentiated tissues and
have no organ or digestive cavity. E.g sponges.
In Eumetazoa the cells are properly arranged into tissues and organs. It is further classified on
the basis of (a) the number of germ layers present in the embryo; (b) the symmetry of the body of
the organism; and (c) mode of origin of mouth. Those animals which have two germ layers in the
embryo are called diploblastic animals and those having three germ layers are called triploblastic
animals.
In diploblastic animals, the outer cell layer is called ectoderm, while the inner layer is called
endoderm and both of these germ layers enclose a non- cellular jelly-like layer, the mesoglea.
The triploblastic animals have three germ layers, namely ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm.
The two sides of the body are mirror images of one another. Such body symmetry type is called
bilateral symmetry. Some animals have radial body symmetry i.e having similar parts in a regular
(mouth arising from or near the blastopore of gastrula; gastrula is an embryonic stage) and
Further, based on the presence or absence of body cavity or coelom, animals are groups into
acoelomata, pseudocoelomata and coelomata. The acoelomates do not have body cavity because
the space between the body wall and digestive tract is filled with parenchymatous tissue. Also,
these tissues have a cavity between the body wall and digestive tract but this does not arise from
the mesoderm and is not lined by epithelial cells. The Coelomates have true body cavity which
It is important to know the component of cell i.e Plasma Membrane, Cell Wall, Nucleus,
1. Plasma Membrane: It is the outer covering of each cell. Present in cells of plants, animals
and microorganisms. It is living and quite thin, flexible and selectively permeable membrane.
Made up of lipids, proteins and small number of carbohydrates. Its major function is to hold
cellular contents and control passage of materials in and out of the cell.
2. Cell Wall: It occurs in plants and present outside the plasma membrane. It is nonliving, quite
thick and rigid but generally permeable. It is made up of cellulose, hemicelluloses and pectin. Its
3. Nucleus: It is a spherical cellular component, centrally located in the cell and filled with a
fluid namely cytoplasm. Bounded by two nuclear membranes forming a nuclear envelope. Space
between nuclear envelope is connected to Endoplasmic reticulum (ER).It also separates nucleus
from cytoplasm and its pores contains liquid known as nucleoplasm which is embedded with two
structures – the nucleolus and chromatin material. It is rich in protein and RNA (ribonucleic
Inside the nucleus, chromatin material is present which is composed of a genetic substance DNA
and is responsible for the transmission of characteristic features from one generation to another.
4. Cytoplasm: The part of the cell which occurs between the plasma membrane and nuclear
envelope. The inner layer of it is known as endoplasm and outer is known as cell cortex or
organelles and other inclusions like insoluble waste and storage products (starch, lipid etc.) are
present.
(i) Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Inside the cell there exists a membranous network enclosing
a fluid filled lumen which almost filled the intracellular cavity. It is of two types:
(a) Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER): with ribosomes attached on its surface for
synthesising proteins.
(b) Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER): which is without ribosomes and is meant for
secreting lipids.
ER forms supporting skeletal framework of the cell and also provides a pathway for distribution
(ii) Ribosomes: are dense, spherical and granular particles which occur freely in the matrix
(cytosol) or remain attached to the ER. It plays an important part in the synthesis of proteins.
and flattened cisternae (closed sacs). It is absent in bacteria, blue-green algae, mature sperms
and red blood cells of mammals and other animals. Its main function is secretory. It packages
material synthesised inside the cell and dispatches them. It produces vacuoles or secretory
vesicles which contain cellular secretions like enzymes etc.It is also involved in the secretion of
(iv) Lysosomes: are simply tiny spherical sac-like structures evenly distributed in the cytoplasm.
Its cells digest foreign proteins, bacteria and viruses. So, it is a kind of garbage disposable
system of the cell. And also known as suicidal bags as when the cells get damaged, lysosomes
(v) Mitochondria: are tiny bodies of varying shapes and size, distributed in the cytoplasm. It is
bounded by a double membrane envelope. Outer membrane is porous and inner membrane is
thrown in to folds known as cristae having some rounded bodies known as F1 particles or
oxysomes. Since, mitochondria synthesize energy rich compounds (ATP) so, known as power
(vi) Plastids: Occurs in plant cell and absent in animal cell. They have their own genome and
Chromoplasts (coloured plastids) which imparts various colours to flowers to attract insects for
pollination.
Chloroplasts (Green-coloured plastids) trap solar energy and utilises it to manufacture food for
the plant.
Leucoplasts (colourless plastids) store food in the form of carbohydrates (starch), fats and
proteins.
(vii) Chloroplasts: are present in green algae and higher plants. They have a green pigment
called chlorophyll and help in photosynthesis of food. So, known as “kitchens of the cell”.
(viii) Vacuoles: are fluid filled or solid filled membrane bound spaces. They are a kind of
storage sacs. In animal cell vacuoles if present are small and temporary as compared to plant cell.
It helps to maintain the osmotic pressure in a cell and provide turgidity and rigidity to the plant
cells. They also store toxic metabolic by-products or end products of plant cells.(ix)
Peroxisomes: are small and spherical organelles containing powerful oxidative enzymes. They
carry out some oxidative reactions like detoxification or removal of toxic substances from the
cell.(x)
Centrosome: is found only in animal cell. As, it helps in cell division. In plant cells, polar caps
Living things are identified and categorized on the basis of their body design in relation to their
form and function. So, the classification of life forms is closely related to their evolution whereas
living organisms have been classified variously according to different criteria. In the same
Whittaker in 1959 classified living organisms into following five kingdoms or broad categories.
prokaryote and four eukaryote kingdoms- the Protocista, the Fungi, the Plantae and the Animalia.
It is divided in to Archaebacteria (Archae) and Eubacteria (Bacteria). Out of the two Archae is
more ancient.
(i) Archaebacteria: Most of them are autotrophs and only a few photosynthesize. They derive
their energy for metabolic activities, from the oxidation of chemical energy sources like reduced
gases – Ammonia, methane or hydrogen sulphide. In the presence of these chemicals it can
Thermoacidophiles (Favour extremely hot and acidic environments), and Halophiles (grow in
(ii) Eubacteria: They generally lack membrane-enclosed organelles like nucleus etc. Nucleoid
serves as a single chromosome. Electron transport and photosynthesis, takes place on plasma
This group includes many kinds of unicellular eukaryotic organisms such as unicellular algae,
protozoans and unicellular fungi. Some of these organisms use appendages ie hair like structure
cilia like in paramecium or whip-like flagellum e.g euglena. Their mode of nutrition can be
• Non-green plants which are not photosynthetic. They are heterotrophic and eukaryotic
organisms. Some fungi are parasites can draw nutrients from living cells of their host- plants like
Puccinia, Ustilago etc. Some are decomposers like Penicillium etc and saprophytes derive their
• Fungus may be unicellular or filamentous. The body of multicellular and filamentous is called
4. Kingdom Plantae
• Plastids are present also some have photosynthetic pigments called chloroplasts.
• Autotrophic nutrition.
5. Kingdom Animalia
• Heterotrophic nutrition.
• Animals have organisation of cellular, tissue, organs and organ system level.
Classification of Plant Kingdom
Taxonomy is the Science of classification which makes the study of wide variety of organisms
easy and helps us to understand the interrelationships among different groups of organisms. In
Plant Kingdom the first level of classification depends whether plant body is differentiated, have
special tissues for transportation, ability to bear seeds and whether the seeds are enclosed within
fruits or not.
under it. Algae are classified in to three categories: Red, Brown and Green algae.
Economic Utilities: It is useful in the form of food stuffs, agriculture, in trade and business, in
biological research, as the fodder of domestic animals, in the form of medicines and in the
formation of land. But there are many algae which act like pollutants and contaminate the
drinking water. Also, watery equipments are rottened by the algae. Celphaleuros algae produce a
(I) Bryophytta: Plants are found at land and water but are amphibians like Liver warts, Horn
warts, Moss etc. These plants are also autotrophic as chloroplasts are present.
Economic Utilities: These plants have good absorption capacity of water and thus can be used as
flood preventive measure. Also used in stopping soil erosion. Moss plant is used as a fuel called
(II) Tracheophyta: These plants have well developed vascular tissues and divided in to xylem
Angiosperm.
(a) Pteridophyta: In these plants there are lack of seeds and flowers.
Examples: Club Mosses, horsetails, ferns etc.
Characteristics:
- These plants are sporophyte. As spores of these plants are produced in sporangia.
Utilities: This plant is used as fodders for the domestic animals, while the seed is used as
medicines.
Algae Fungi
1. They contain 1. Photosynthetic
photosynthetic pigments are absent.
pigments. 2. Heterotrophic.
2. Autotrophic. 3. Most of them are
3. Most of them are terrestrial.
aquatic in habitat. 4. The cell wall is made up
4. The cell wall is of chitin.
made up of Cellulose. 5. It contains glycogen and
5. It contains starch as oil as the stored food
a stored food material. material.
(b) Gymnosperm: The plants whose seeds are completely uncoated and there is complete lack
of ovary.
Characteristics:
- These plants are perennial and xerophytic.
Economic Utilities: Used in the form of food, timber & medicine. For decorative and domestic
use. In making volatile oils & also used in the form of tanning and resin.
(c) Angiosperm: This is the most- important subgroup of plants, whose seeds are coated and
developed in an organ or ovary. Our major food, fibre, spice and beverage crops are flowering
plants (angiosperms). Also used as medicinal plants and the respondent flavour species, latex
products like rubber etc. These plants are also utilised in making perfumes, soaps and cosmetics
Characteristics:
- The reproductive organ of this plant is flower and double fertilization takes place.
Stems of monocot lack cambium and hence they increase little in girth except palm tree.
Examples: Maize, wheat, rice, onion, sugarcane, barley, banana, coconut etc.
Characteristics:
- The flowers are trimerous i.e have three or multiple of three petals.
(b) Dicotyledonae (Dicot): These plants have two seed leaves. Have veins forming a network in
their leaves. Almost have all the hardwood tree species, pulses, fruits, vegetables etc. Examples:
Characteristics:
Cells are the basic units of life. They are the smallest parts of a living organism that can lead an
independent existence. Singly, or in association with other cells, they make up the bodies of all
living things.
Structure of Cell
Every cell is surrounded by a membrane or a living covering. Within the membrane is the
protoplasm.
Parts of the Protoplasm: The nucleus controls and directs the activities of all the other parts of
the cell. The remainder is known as cytoplasm, where any vital activities of the cell take place.
Following are the parts of a Cell-(i) Cell Wall Found only in plant cells, it consists of non-living
substances, eg, linguin, pectin, cellulose etc., (ii) Cell membrane (Plasmalemma) This is the
outer membrane of the cytoplasm, found both in animals and plants. It consists of living
channels of membrane in the cytoplasm, which helps in protein synthesis and conduction of
material, (iv) Ribosomes They are extremely small, dense, granular, spherical bodies found in
free state in the cytoplasm, composed of RNA and proteins. They help in the synthesis of protein
from amino acids, (v) Golgi apparatus (Golgi bodies) They are bag-like structures formed of
stacks of membrane. Their functions include secretion of various substances, secretion of pectic
material of cells wall in plants, and helping in the formation of cell during cell division, (vi)
Vacuoles Are fluidfilled sacs within a cell. In animals they are tiny. Their functions include
semi-solid structures containing DNA in its matrix along with some enzymes, which are found in
all cells. They synthesise ATP (energy storing molecules), (viii) Plastids Small bodies found in
the cells of higher plants. They are of two types, viz, Leucoplasts, which are colourless and store
starch, protein or lipids; and Chromoplasts, which are coloured and are of two varieties: (i) Non-
photosynthetic chromoplasts, which provide colour to flowers, fruits and leaves, (ii)
Photosynthetic chromoplasts, which manufacture food from carbon dioxide and water in the
presence of sunlight, in green plants, (ix) Nucleus Each nucleus is bound by the nuclear
Chromatin consists of DNA, RNA and proteins. The nucleus controls all cell activities and is
responsible for the transfer of heredity characters and also assists in cell division, (x)
Centrosome A rather dense area of protoplasm, it lies close to nucleus. It is usually found in
animal cells. In the middle of the centrosome are two small dot-like bodies called centroils. They
form a spindle during cell division and lower plants, (xi) Cilia and flagella These are fine
extensions of the cell surface and are similar in structure. Their functions are to help in
Animal Cell
An animal cell typically contains several types of membrane- bound organs, or organelles. The
nucleus directs activities of the cell and carries genetic information from generation to
generation. The mitochondria generate energy for the cell. Proteins are manufactured
Cell: Structure and Functions
The cell is the structural and functional unit of living organisms. It was discovered by Robert
Hooke in 1665. Cell in Latin means “little room”. Many organisms, such as bacteria, protozoa
and yeasts consist of single cell called Unicellular Organisms and complex organisms are known
3. The cytoplasm
The outer boundary of cell is plasma membrane. Inside it lies the cytoplasm. Various cellular
or cell organelles and inclusions like mitochondria, chloroplasts etc. are suspended in the
cytoplasm.
Organs Organelles
1. They are found in multicellular 1. They are found in
organisms. all Eukaryotic cells.
2. They are large sized. 2. They are very small
3. They may be external or internal to sized.
the body of an organism. 3. They are mostly
4. The organs are formed of tissues, internal.
tissues comprise of cells and cells are 4. It is made up of
formed of organelles. micro and macro
5. Organs coordinate to form organ molecules.
system, while organ system forms the 5. Organelles
body of an organism. coordinate to produce
the cell.
Functions:
Plasma membrane permits the entry and exit of some materials in the cells. Therefore, plasma
(i) Diffusion: The spontaneous movement of molecules from a region of high concentration to
one of lower concentration, until uniform concentration is finally achieved. It is faster in the
(j) Osmosis: The passage of water from a region of high water concentration through a semi-
(k) Endocytosis: The ingestion of material by the cells through the plasma membrane.
(l) Exocytosis: In this process the membrane of a vesicle can fuse with the plasma membrane
and extrude its contents to the surrounding medium. This is also known as cell vomiting.
Mode of Nutrition in Animals
Nutrition is the process of taking food and using it for obtaining energy, growth and repair of the
body. Animals depend on other organisms for getting their food. They cannot make their own
Animals need readymade food and therefore they depend on either plants or other animals which
they eat. For example, snake eats frogs, insects eat dead bodies of animals, birds eat worms and
insects etc.
Modes of Nutrition
The method of obtaining food by an organism is called modes of nutrition. There are two modes
1) Autotrophic
2) Heterotrophic
Heterotrophic Mode of Nutrition
All the animals cannot make their own food from simple inorganic material like carbon dioxide
and water. They depend on other organisms for food. This is called heterotrophic mode of
nutrition. The organisms which depend on other organisms for food are called heterotrophs. For
example, man, dog, cat, deer, tiger, cow, non-green plants like yeast are all heterotrophs. They
i) Saprotrophic nutrition
Saprotrophic nutrition
Sapro means rotten. There are organisms which feed on dead and decaying organic matter for
obtaining their food. These organisms feed on rotting wood of dead and decaying trees, rotten
leaves, dead animals, rotten bread etc. Such organisms are called saprophytes.
Fungi and many bacteria are saprophytes. These saprophytes break down the complex organic
matter from the dead and decaying organic matter into simpler substances outside their body.
It is that mode of nutrition in which organisms feed on other living organisms, called their host,
without killing them. The organisms which obtain food in a manner are called parasites.
Parasites harm the host, which may be a plant or an animal. Parasites cause diseases to mankind,
domestic animals, and crops. Fungi, bacteria, a few plants like cuscuta and some animals like
Holozoic Nutrition
Holozoic is a mode of nutrition in which organisms eat solid food. The food may be a plant
product or animal product. In this process, an organism ingests the complex organic food
material into its body and then digests the food which is then absorbed into the body cells. The
unabsorbed food is thrown out of the body of the organisms by the process of egestion. Man, cat,
dog, bear, giraffe, fog, fish, etc., have holozoic mode of nutrition.
On the basis of food habits animals can be divided into three groups. They are:
i) Herbivores
ii) Carnivores
iii) Omnivores
Herbivores
Herbivores are those animals which eat only plants like grass, leaves, fruits, bark etc. The
examples of herbivorous animals are cow, goat, sheep, horse, camel, deer, etc.
Carnivores
Those animals which eat only other animals are called carnivores. They do not eat plants. Lion,
tiger, frog, vulture, wolf, lizard, etc., are examples of carnivorous animals. Carnivores are meat
eaters.
Omnivores
Those animals which eat both plants and flesh of other animals are called omnivores. Dog, crow,
This figure shows how all living things depend on sun for their food.
There are five steps in the process of nutrition in animals. They are:
1) Ingestion
2) Digestion
3) Absorption
4) Assimilation
5) Egestion
Ingestion
Ingestion means eating food so as to get energy and carry on the activities of life. Ingestion is the
Digestion
Food that animals eat consists of large insoluble molecule which cannot be absorbed by their
body. So the process which breaks down these insoluble food molecules into small, water soluble
Animals use physical and chemical methods for digestion. Physical method means chewing and
grinding food in mouth and chemical method means addition of digestive juices to food by the
Absorption
After the food molecules become small they pass through the walls of intestine and go in to
Assimilation
The absorbed food is now carried to all parts of the body and to each and every cell so as to
produce energy and to make materials for the growth and repair of the body. This process is
called assimilation.
Egestion
The process through which undigested food is moved out of the body is called egestion.
In unicellular organisms the process of nutrition is performed by the single cell only.
Nutrition in Animals
Nutrition is the process of obtaining food and then using it for obtaining energy, growth and repair of the
body. There are five main processes concerned with the use of food by animals. As we know that Plants
produces their own food by the help of photosynthesis. But animals are heterotrophs and hence they
depend on other organisms for their food. This readymade food comes either from plants or from other
animals. We are also animals and obtain food from plants in the form of rice, pulses, vegetables etc. and
foods like milk; eggs, chicken, fish etc are obtained from other animals. Many other animals obtain their
f3
3ood by eating the flesh of other animals like fish, birds, snake etc. The big fish eat small fish,
the snake eats frog and the insects eat dead bodies of animals. The non- green plants also obtain
their food from other plants or animals e.g yeast plant. Also, plant eats insects like pitcher plant
Animals are divided in to three groups on the basis of their food habits. These are: Herbivores,
(i) Herbivores: are those animals which eat only plants like grasses, leaves, fruits etc. Examples
of herbivores are: Goat, Cow, Sheep, Horse, Ox, Elephant etc. Thus, herbivores are plant eaters
(ii) Carnivores: are those animals which eat other animals as food or they eat meat or flesh of
other animals. Examples are: Lion, Tiger, Frog, Vulture, Lizard etc.Therefore, Carnivores are
(iii) Omnivores: are those animals which eat both plants and animals. Examples are; Man
(Human Beings), Dog, Crow, Bear, Ant etc. Thus, Omnivores are plant eaters as well as meat
and prepare food by photosynthesis. Plants are eaten by herbivores and omnivores as food. Meat
eaters or carnivores also eat other animals or other carnivores in the form of food and scavengers
eat dead and decaying plant and animal. So, it is the energy of sun which provides food for plants
and animals.
Five steps in the process of Nutrition in Animals
There are five steps in the process of Nutrition in animals. These are: Ingestion, Digestion,
There are two very simple animals namely amoeba and paramecium. They are made up of single
cell and so known as unicellular animals. So, all the 5 processes of nutrition are performed by
single cell. The mode of nutrition in amoeba is holozoic. They eat tiny or microscopic plants and
animals as food which floats in water in which it lives. The process of obtaining food by Amoeba
(i) Ingestion: Amoeba has no mouth so food is ingested by using pseudopodia. When food comes
near amoeba, then amoeba ingests this food particle by forming temporary finger like projections
called pseudopodia around it. And the engulfed food with water formed a food vacuole which is
(ii) Digestion: In Amoeba food is digested in the food vacuole by digestive enzymes. These
enzymes break down the food in to small and soluble molecules by chemical reactions.
(iii) Absorption: The digested food present in the food vacuole of Amoeba is absorbed directly in
to the cytoplasm by diffusion. Due to the presence of one cell, blood is not required to carry the
digested food. The food just spreads out from the food vacuole in to the whole cell of Amoeba
(iv) Assimilation: A part of the absorbed food is used to obtain energy through respiration and
the remaining part of the food leads to the growth in Amoeba. And then amoeba can reproduce
(v) Egestion: Amoeba has no fixed place for removing the undigested part of food.When a
considerable amount of undigested food collects inside amoeba, then its cell membrane suddenly
ruptures at any place and undigested food is thrown out of the body of Amoeba.
In case of Paramecium, hair like structures called cilia helps to sweep the food particles from
water and put them in to mouth. This step is known as ingestion which is followed by other steps
nutrition are performed by a combination of digestive organs. And this combination of digestive
organs is called Digestive System which we will be discussing in our next article in details.
Mode of Nutrition in Plants
The process by which green plants make their own food from carbon dioxide and water by using
sunlight energy in the presence of chlorophyll is called photosynthesis. Green plants also need
foos to acquire energy. All living organisms need energy to perform various life prosesses. This
article deals with the modes of nutrition in plants. How plants prepare their own food, what all
Plants make their own food in the presence of sunlight and hence they are autotrophs. Plants
convert sunlight energy into chemical energy. They use carbon dioxide, water and sunlight to
1) Autotrophic
2) Heterotrophic
Since we are learning about mode of nutrition in plants we will discuss only about autotrophic
mode of nutrition.
In autotrophic mode of nutrition organisms make their own food with the help of simple
inorganic materials like carbon dioxide and water, in the presence of sunlight. Also in this
Green plants have autotrophic mode of nutrition. These organisms are called autotrophs. The
autotrophs have green pigments called chlorophyll which help in trapping sunlight energy. They
use the sunlight to make food by the process of photosynthesis. The food produced by autotrophs
Nutrition in Plants
Green plants synthesize their own food by the process of photosynthesis. Photo means light and
chlorophyll that plants use energy of sunlight to make food from inorganic materials like carbon
Chlorophyll is present in green coloured bodies called chloroplast. The leaves of a plant are
of equation:
Food is prepared in the green leaves of the plant. Plant requires carbon dioxide to make food
which it takes from air. The carbon dioxide enters the leaves through tiny pores in them called
stomata. Water required to make food is taken from soil. This water is transported to the leaves
through roots and stem. The sunlight provides energy to carry out chemical reactions and
chlorophyll present in green leaves help in absorbing this energy. Oxygen produced as a by-
The food prepared by the leaves is in the form of simple sugar called glucose. This glucose is
then sent to other parts of the plant. The extra glucose is stored in the leaves of the plant in the
form of starch. Glucose and starch belong to a category called carbohydrates. Thus green plants
ii) Sunlight energy is converted into chemical energy and water is split into hydrogen and
oxygen.
iii) Carbon dioxide is reduced to hydrogen so that carbohydrate like glucose is formed.
It is not necessary that these steps of photosynthesis take place one after the other.
Conditions Necessary for Photosynthesis
1) Sunlight
2) Chlorophyll
3) Carbon Dioxide
4) Water
Let us discuss some experiments to prove that sunlight, chlorophyll, carbon dioxide and water
are necessary for photosynthesis. This can be proven by getting the result that green leaves make
starch as food and starch gives blue-black colour with iodine solution.
There are certain plants that have partially white and partially green leaves. Such leaves are
Plants obtain water for the process of photosynthesis from soil. Roots of a plant absorb water
from the soil which transported upward to the leaves through xylem vessel and utilised for
photosynthesis.
Plants use carbon dioxide and water as raw materials to prepare energy food called
carbohydrates. Other material like nitrogen, phosphorus, iron and magnesium which are required
The cell organelles of green plants which contain chlorophyll are called chloroplasts. It is here
that the photosynthesis takes place. Chloroplasts are just below the upper epidermis of the leaf in
palisade tissue.
The structure of a leaf to show chloroplasts in it (the small circles in above diagram are all
chloroplasts).
From the article we have seen that how plants prepare theor own food.
Control and Coordination in Humans
The control and coordination in human beings take place through nervous system and hormonal
The five sense organs in our body, eyes, ears, nose, tongue and skin are called receptors. This is
because they receive information from the environment around us. Therefore, a receptor is a
group of cells in sense organ which is sensitive to a particular type of stimulus like light, sound,
All the receptors send message in the form of electrical impulses to spinal cord and brain through
sensory nerves. Another type of nerves called motor nerves then transmits response from brain
and spinal cord to effectors. An effector is a part of the body which responds to a stimulus
according to the instructions sent from the nervous system. The muscles and glands are effectors
of the body.
Human Nervous System
Nervous system coordinates the activities of our body. It controls all our behaviour, thinking and
actions. It is through nervous system only that all other systems of our body work. It passes
information from one internal system to another. For example, when we put food in mouth, it
The cells that make up the nervous system are called neurons. Neuron is the largest cell in the
body. The structure of neuron is such that it can carry messages in the body quickly. These
messages are in the form of electrical impulses or nerve impulses. There are three components of
i) Cell body
ii) Dendrites
iii) Axon
The cell body of a neuron contains cytoplasm and a nucleus. There are many long and thin fibres
coming out of the cell body of a neuron. The short fibres are called dendrites and the long fibre is
called axon. The axon is covered with an insulating and protective sheath called myelin. It is
The messages transmit through nervous system is in the form of electrical impulses called nerve
impulses. The dendrites pick nerve impulses or messages from receptors and send them to cell
body and then to axon. The axon sends these impulses to another neuron through a junction
called synapse. There are three types of neurons, sensory neurons, motor neurons and relay
neurons.
i) Sensory neurons transmit messages from receptors towards the central nervous system that is
ii) The function of motor neurons is to transmit messages from central nervous system towards
iii) Relay neurons serve as link between other neurons. They are present in central nervous
system.
The small gap between the two neurons is called synapse. The nerve impulses are carried over
The sensory cells or receptors are in contact with dendrite of sense organs. When there is a
stimulus which acts on the receptor a chemical reaction occurs which produces an electrical
impulse in it. This impulse travels from dendrite of sensory neuron to its cell body and then
along the axon. At the end of axon electrical impulse release tiny amount of chemical substance
in synapse and similar electrical impulse is started in the dendrite of next neuron. In this way the
electrical impulse is carried in neurons till it reaches the relay neurons in spinal cord and brain.
The relay neurons and motor neurons are connected in the similar way and helps bring electrical
impulses from brain and spinal cord to the effectors like muscles and glands. Synapse ensures
that electrical impulse travel in one direction only. This is because the chemical substance is
• Brain
• Spinal cord
• Nerves
The brain is located inside the skull of the head. The spinal cord is a thick nerve which is located
in the cavity of backbone. The upper end of spinal cord is attached to the brain. The nerves are
The brain and spinal cord are connected to all the sense organs and other parts of the body
through nerves.
• Cranial nerves
• Spinal nerves
• Visceral nerves
The cranial nerves connect all parts of the head to brain, spinal nerves connect all the remaining
parts of the body to spinal cord and visceral nerves connect internal organs of the body to spinal
The cranial nerves, spinal nerves and visceral nerves are of two types, sensory nerves and motor
nerves. Sensory nerves are those which carry message from body to brain and spinal cord and
motor nerves are those which carry message from brain and spinal cord to the body parts for
action.
When any sense organ of our body is affected it sends message to the brain in the form of
electrical impulses. This message is send through sensory neurons. The brain analyses the
message and decides the action to be taken. The brain then sends instructions for that body part
Both brain and spinal cord are involved in complicated responses which require thinking and in
simple responses which don’t require thinking only spinal cord is involved.
The peripheral nerves system is made of all the nerves of the body. There are three types of
nerves which make the peripheral nervous system, cranial nerves, spinal nerves and visceral
nerves. All these nerves enter or leave the central nervous system.
This diagram shows the reflex action and its path (which is called reflex arc)
Reflex action is the one which we perform automatically and is not under the voluntary control
of the brain. Under reflex action same stimulus produces same kind of response every time. Knee
jerk, movement of diaphragm, coughing, sneezing, yawning, blinking of eyes, immediately
moving hand away on unknowingly touching hot plate, etc., are examples of reflex action.
These are the actions which we do without thinking to protect ourselves. Reflex action is an
The pathway taken by nerve impulses in a reflex action is called reflex arc. The reflexes which
involve only spinal cord are called spinal reflexes. The reflexes which involve brain are called
cerebral reflexes.
Cerebral reflexes occur in the organs present in the head. These organs are directly connected to
the brain. For example, when we are in dim light the pupil of our eye is big so that more light can
enter into our eyes and when we are in bright light then the pupil of our eye automatically gets
small. This automatic expansion and contraction of pupil is an example of cerebral reflexes.
The effected muscles cause action because motor nerve impulses sent by the spinal cord or brain
The muscles are able to move or act in response to electrical nerve impulse because muscles are
made of muscle cells. These cells contain special protein which can change their shape and
contract. So when the muscle cells contract, muscles also contract. And when the muscles
contract they pull on the bones of that body part and thus, make it move.
Autonomic nervous system is a part of peripheral nervous system. It controls the activities of the
organs inside our body automatically. This specific network of nerves controls the processes like
breathing, heartbeat, digestion, sweating, etc. The nerves of autonomic nervous system are
attaches with the smooth muscles of various internal organs of a body like head, heart, blood
Those actions which are performed by humans knowingly and need thinking are called voluntary
actions. For example, writing, dancing, cycling, etc. Therefore, voluntary nervous system helps
us take voluntary actions which are under the conscious control of brain.
Central nervous system consists of brain and spinal cord. It is responsible for the control and
coordination of the activities of nervous system. The function of a central nervous system is to
respond to the messages it receives. It directs the motor neurons that are connected to the part of
The central nervous system collects information from all the receptors in our body.
Brain
The highest coordinating centre in our body is brain which is located inside the skull. Brain is
protected by a bony structure in the skull called cranium. The three membranes called meninges
surround the brain and protect it. The space between meninges is filled with a cerebro spinal
fluid which helps the brain from mechanical shocks. Cranial nerves arise from the brain.
Brain is divided into three parts, forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain. The forebrain consists
mainly of cerebrum, midbrain doesn’t have any further division and hindbrain consists of pons,
The main thinking part of the brain is cerebrum. It is a place for faculties such as learning,
reasoning, intelligence, personality, etc. All our thoughts and actions are controlled by the
cerebrum. The association area of cerebrum controls thinking and memory and stores
information and experiences. The sensory area of cerebrum receives information from sense
organs and gives sensation. The motor area of the cerebrum sends instructions to various muscles
to perform different function. All the voluntary actions are coordinated by the cerebrum.
The function of hindbrain is to control reflex movements of head, neck and trunk in response to
visual and auditory stimuli. It also controls the reflex movements of the eye muscles.
Pons helps in regulating respiration, cerebellum helps in maintaining posture and balance of the
body and medulla controls various involuntary actions such as heart beat, breathing, blood
Spinal Cord
Spinal cord begins from medulla and extends downwards. Spinal cord is enclosed in bony
structure called vertebral column. There are 31 pairs of nerves that arise from spinal cord. It is
also surrounded by membranes called meninges. Spinal cord is concerned with the spinal
Functions of Brain
• Brain receives nerve impulses which carry information from the sense organs of the body.
• Brain responds to these impulses by sending instructions to muscles and glands which function
accordingly.
• Brain correlates stimuli from different sense organs and produce appropriate and intelligent
response.
• It stores information.
Control and Coordination in Plants
Despite not having sense organs plants can also sense things and respond to them. Plants respond
to things like light, gravity, touch, water etc. These are environmental stimuli for a plant. Plants
coordinate their behavior by using their hormones and respond to the environmental changes.
Therefore, pants use only hormones to coordinate their behaviour. They respond to the stimuli
very slowly because they have no nervous system. Plant hormones are called phytohormones.
Dormancy: The inactive condition of a part of a plant in which metabolism almost stops is
Plant Hormones
The control and coordination system in plants is done by plant hormones. They affect the growth
of a plant in one or the other aspect. The growth of a plant is divided in three stages:
i) Cell division
So, a plant hormone not only controls these stages of plant growth but also promotion of
breaking of dormancy, falling of leaves, fruit growth, ripening of fruits, ageing of plants etc.
The four types of plant hormones responsible for control and coordination in plants are:
1) Auxins
2) Gibberellins
3) Cytokinins
While auxins, gibberellins and cytokinins promote the growth of a plant, abscisic acid prevents
Auxins
Auxins hormone controls a plant response to light and gravity. It is made by the cells present at
the tip of a stem and roots. This hormone moves the plant away from light and towards gravity. It
speeds up the growth of stem and slows down the growth of roots.
This diagram explains the bending of a plant stem or shoot towards light by the action of ‘auxin
hormone’.
Gibberellins
Gibberellins hormone works in the presence of auxin hormone and promotes cell enlargement
and cell differentiation. It also promotes fruit growth, elongation of shoots and in breaking the
Cytokinins
This hormone promotes cells division in plants and breaks dormancy in seeds and buds. They
Abscisic acid
This hormone inhibits the growth of a plant. Therefore abscisic acid promotes dormancy in seeds
and buds. It promotes closing of stomata, wilting and falling of leave and detachment of fruit and
Plant Movement
Plants are fixed at one place and cannot physically move from one place to another. But plants
still show movement by using hormones under the influence of stimuli. This movement is
auxin hormone than the other, then the side of stem which has more hormones will bend. This
Plant movement due to external stimuli are of two types: tropism and nasties.
Tropisms
When the direction of external stimulus decides the direction of response in the form of growth it
is called tropism. Thus, tropism is the directional growth movement of a plant part. It can be in
Types of tropism
There are five stimuli in the environment. They are light, gravity, chemical, water and touch.
These stimuli give five types of tropism. They are phototropism, geotropism, chemotropism,
When a plant part moves in response to light, it is called phototropism. If the stem of a growing
plant moves or bends towards light, it is positive phototropism and if the root of a plant moves
away from light, this means the roots of a plant shows negative phototropism.
Geotropism
When a plant part moves in response to gravity, it is called geotropism. For example, roots of a
plant moves in a downward direction, so they show positive geotropism and stem moves in the
When a plant part moves in response to chemical stimulus, it is called chemotropism. Here the
stimulus is chemical. For example, the growth of pollen tube towards the ovule during
When a plant part moves in response to water, it is called hydrotropism. Here the stimulus is
water. Roots of a plant moves towards water, so they show positive hydrotropism.
Thigmotropism
When a plant part shows directional movement in response to the touch of an object, it is called
thigmotropism. For example, tendrils of a plant climb towards any support which they touch.
The stem and leaves of a plant moves in the direction of sunlight. So, when a plant is grown in an
open ground where sunlight is coming from above then the stem of a plant grows straight in an
upward direction. If, however, a plant is kept at a place where sunlight is coming from only one
direction then the stem of a plant bends in that direction only. On the other hand roots of a plant
We will perform an experiment to show this. A potted plant is kept in the open ground where
sunlight is coming from above. So the stem of a plant grows straight up and roots also grow
straight but in downward direction. Now, we keep this pot having straight stem and roots is kept
in a dark room near a window with sunlight coming from only one side (right). After a few days
we observe that stem of a plant responds to light and move towards right side and roots of the
Roots of the plant grow towards the earth which shows positive geotropism and stem grows
upward away from the pull of gravity which shows negative geotropism. This can be shown
through an experiment.
Keep a potted plant in a normal position. We see that the roots are growing downwards and stem
is growing upwards.
Now tilt the potted plant and keep it horizontally on the surface.
After a few days we notice that roots of the potted plant grow toward the earth and stem of the
plant bends upwards away from the pull of gravity.
This diagram shows the response of a plant to gravity or geotropism.
Sugary substance acts as a stimulus for the growth of pollen tube towards the ovule. This
happens because ripe stigma in the carpel of a flower secrets a chemical substance into the style
towards the ovary. This sugary substance acts as a stimulus for the pollen grain which responds
by growing a pollen tube in the downward direction into the style of a carpel and reaches the
This diagram shows the response of a plant part ‘pollen’to chemical secreted by stigma or
chemotropism.
Let’s take two glass troughs and fill two-third of them with soil. In both the troughs we plant a
tiny seedling. In the second trough we place a small clay pot inside the soil. Let’s water the soil
in the first trough daily and put water in the clay pot placed inside the soil in second trough.
After a few days, dig up the seedling from both troughs. We will notice that roots of the seedling
of first trough are straight and that of the second trough in which clay pot filled with water was
placed have bent towards the side at which clay pot was placed.
There are some plants which cannot stand upright on their own and need support. These plants
are called climbing plants and have organs called tendrils. Tendrils are the thin thread-like
growth on the stems and leaves of the climbing plants. Tendrils are sensitive to the touch of other
object. When tendrils come in contact with other object, it bends towards the object by growing
towards it, wind around the object and cling to it. This winding movement of a climbing plant is
called thigmotropism.
This diagram shows the response of a plant part ‘tendril’to the touch of an object here a bamboo
stick.
For example, bitter gourd, bottle gourd, grape vine etc., have stem tendrils and peas, glory lily
Tropic movements help the plant to survive. For example, roots of the plant are positively
geotropic and that is the reason that they will always downward into the earth even if they are
planted upside down. Also the root will grow towards water as it is positively hydrotropic. Also
When the direction of response in a plant is not determined by the direction of stimulus, it is
called nastic movement. Nastic movement is not the directional movement of the plant part.
In nastic movement, whatever be the direction of stimulus, all the parts of the plant equally move
in the same direction. This type of movement is generally seen in leaves, flower petals etc.
This diagram shows the nastic movements in the leaves of sensitive plant (Mimosa pudica)
caused by ‘touch’.
Thigmonasty
The movement of a plant part in response to the touch of an object is called thigmonasty. In this
case the movement of a plant part is non-directional. The stimulus for thigmonasty is touch.
The sensitive plant mimosa pudica which is also known as touch-me-not is an example of
thigmonasty. If we touch the leaves of this plant they fold up immediately and droop.
The sensitive plant has pulvini at the base of each leaf. This pulvini contains a lot of water in
their cells and due to internal pressure of water they are firm and keep the leaf upright. So, as
soon as we touch the leaves there is sudden loss of water from pad-like swellings (pulvini). This
on plant hormone. The plant hormone migrate water from the cells of the pulvinus to the
intercellular spaces of the other half of pulvinus. This loss of water makes pulvini lose firmness
After 15 to 30 minutes water comes back to the cells and leaf gets back to its original shape.
The leaves of sensitive plant fold due to the loss of water from pulvinus at their base.
Photonasty
The movement of a plant part, usually flower petals, in response to light is called photonasty.
The opening and closing of flower petals in response to light are growth movements. This is
because petals open when their outer surface grows and petals close when their outer surface
grows.
Sexual reproduction is the production of a new organism from two parents by making use of
their sex cells or gametes. The humans, fish, frogs, cats and dogs, all reproduce by the method of
sexual reproduction.
It is important to know the meaning of some important terms like male sex, female sex, gametes,
sperms, ova or eggs, fertilization, zygote and embryo which are involved in sexual reproduction.
An animal having male sex cells called ‘sperms’ in its body is called male and an animal having
female sex cells called ‘ova’ or ‘eggs’ in its body is called female.
Gametes: The cells involved in sexual reproduction or we can say that they are sexual
reproductive cells. They are of two types: male gametes and female gametes. The male gamete in
animal is called ‘sperm’ and the female gamete in animals is called ‘ovum’ or ‘egg’. Also female
gamete or female sex cell is known by two names: ovum and egg both are same. The plural of
ovum is ova. The ovum or egg contains water and stored food. Nucleus is the important part of
ovum. Sperm cells are hundreds or thousands time smaller than ovum or egg and have a long
tail. The sperm are motile which can move independently with the help of their tails.
Fertilization: The fusion of a male gamete with a female gamete to form a zygote during the
sexual reproduction i.e. the fusion of a sperm with an ovum or egg to form zygote is called
fertilization. The zygote is also known as ‘fertilized egg’ or ‘fertilized ovum’. This zygote grows
and develops to form a new baby. The stage of development between the zygote or fertilized egg
and the newly formed baby is called embryo.
Internal and external fertilization: The fertilization which occurs inside the female body is
called internal fertilization i.e. it takes place in mammals including human beings, birds and
reptiles. The fertilization which occurs outside the female body is called external fertilization i.e.
it takes place in amphibians like frogs, toads and fishes.
The method in which a zygote grows and develops in to a full organism also varies in different
animals. As in humans zygote grows and develops in to a baby inside female body and gives
birth to a young ones, in animals like cats, dogs etc also gives birth to young ones but in birds it
is entirely different which lay eggs. For example: Hen sits on its egg to give warmth so that
zygote grows and develops to form a complete chick. This chick then comes out from egg by
breaking its shell. So, all the organisms do not give birth to individuals like humans do.
It is important to understand that why the amount of DNA does not get doubled during sexual
reproduction?
Gametes are also known as reproductive cells which contains only half the amount of DNA or
half number of chromosomes as compared to the normal body cells of an organism. So, when
male gamete combines with female gamete during sexual reproduction, then the new cell
‘zygote’ will have the normal amount of DNA. Human sperm has 23 chromosomes and human
egg has also 23 chromosomes, after fusion 23 + 23 = 46 chromosomes, which is the normal
number of chromosomes.
The Sexual reproduction has many advantages over asexual reproduction. In asexual
reproduction, the offspring produced is almost identical to their parent because of same genes.
So, much genetic variation is not possible. This is a disadvantage as it inhibits the further
In Sexual reproduction the offsprings although similar to their parents, are not identical to them
or to one another. Because the offsprings receive some genes from the mother and some from the
father. So, mixing of genes makes various different combinations and so all the offsprings have
genetic variations. In this way sexual reproduction leads to a greater variety in population i.e.
providing genetic variation. Sexual reproduction plays an important role in the origin of new
species having different characteristics. This genetic variation continuous leads to the evolution
of species to form a better and still better organism which is not possible in asexual reproduction.
Human Reproductive System: Male
The humans use sexual mode of reproduction. The reproductive systems in human beings
become functional or start functioning at a definite age called puberty. In complex multicellular
organisms like human beings there are special reproductive organs to make sperms and eggs; to
bring together sperms and eggs for fertilization; and for the growth and development of zygote in
to a baby.
But before describing all this in human reproductive system, we will first understand the
Puberty
Sometimes it becomes difficult to tell from appearance that whether the child is male or female
having the same body shape in small age. A time of rapid growth and body changes starts in the
early teens which make the girl appear different and also behave differently. These changes start
earlier in girls than in boys. Time between childhood and adulthood is called ‘adolescence’. At
this age production of male and female ‘sex hormones’ in the bodies of boys and girls increases
and causes wide ranging changes in their bodies. The testes in boys and ovaries in girls make
different hormones. So, they develop in different ways. Ultimately boys and girls become
The age at which the sex hormones or gametes begin to be produced and the boy and girl
Generally boys attain puberty at the age of 13 to 14 years while girls from 10 to 12 years. On
attaining puberty, the male gonads testes start producing male gametes called sperms and the
female gonads ovaries start producing female gametes called ova or eggs. With this male and
female gonads also secrete sex hormones with the onset of puberty.
The testes produce the male sex hormone called testosterone, and the ovaries produce two female
sex hormones, oestrogen and progesterone. The sex hormones plays important role in the process
of reproduction because they make the reproductive organs to mature and start functioning.
Puberty is the age at which the reproductive organs reach maturity and secondary sexual
characteristics develop.
The various changes that occur in boys at puberty are: Hair grows under armpits and in pubic
regions (genital area) between the thighs. Hairs also grow on other parts of the body like chest
and face (moustache, beard etc.). Body becomes more muscular due to the development of
muscles. The voice deepens or cracks. Chest and shoulders broaden. The penis and testes
become larger. The testes start to make sperms. Feelings and sexual drives associated with
adulthood begin to develop. All these changes in boys are brought about by the male sex
The various changes which occur in girls at puberty are: Hair grows under armpits and pubic
region (This change is same as in boys). Mammary glands or breasts develop and enlarge. The
hips broaden. Extra fat is deposited in various parts of the body like hips and thighs. Fallopian
tubes, uterus and vagina enlarge. Ovaries start to release eggs. Menstruation start. Feelings and
sexual drives associated with adulthood begin to develop. All these changes in girls are brought
about by the female sex hormones ‘oestrogen’ and ‘progesterone’ made in ovaries.
The human male reproductive system consists of the following organs: Testes, Scrotum,
Epididymis, Vas deferens or Sperm duct, Seminal Vesicles, Prostrate gland and Penis.
The male reproductive system in humans
Testes are the oval shaped organs which lie outside the abdominal cavity of a man. A man has
two testes. Testes are the primary reproductive organs in man or males. The function of testes is
to make the male sex cells or male gametes called sperms and also to make the male sex
hormone called testosterone. The testes of a man make the sex gametes or sperms from the
puberty onwards, throughout his life. The testes of a man lie in small muscular pouch called
scrotum, outside the abdominal cavity. The testes are outside the abdominal cavity of the body
and not deep inside the body because the sperm formation requires a lower temperature than the
normal body temperature. Being, outside the abdominal cavity, the temperature of scrotum is
about 3 degree Celsius lower than the temperature inside the body. In this way, the testes provide
The sperms from the testes come out and go in to a coiled tube called epididymis. The sperms get
stored temporarily in epididymis. From epididymis, the sperms are carried by a long tube called
Vas Deferens or sperm duct which joins with another tube called urethra coming from the
bladder. Along the path of vas deferens, the glands called seminal vesicles and prostrate gland
add their secretions to sperms so that the sperms are now in a liquid. This liquid plus the sperms
it contains is called semen which is a thick liquid. The secretions of seminal vesicles and
prostrate gland provide nutrition to the sperms and also make their further transport easier.
Urethra forms a common passage for sperms and urine. Urethra carries the sperms to an organ
called penis which opens outside the body. The penis passes the sperms from the man’s body in
to vagina in the woman’s body during mating for the purpose of reproduction.
Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants
Sexual reproduction is the production of a new organism from two parents by making use of
their gametes or sex cells. Plants also have male and female sex organs. These sex organs in
plants are carried within the flower and the seeds which are inside a fruit. Such plants are called
Most of the plants contain reproductive organs of both male and female in the flowers. The same
flower has both male and female reproductive organs. Such flowers make male and female
gametes and ensure that fertilisation takes place so that new seeds are formed for the
reproduction of plant.
Parts of a Flower
There are flowers which are called unisexual. This is because they have either stamens or
carpels. Flowers of papaya and watermelon are examples of unisexual flowers. And the flowers
which have both male and female sex organs are called bisexual. Flowers of hibiscus and
In order to make a new seed male gamete present in a pollen grain units with the female gamete
Pollination
When pollen grains from the anther are transferred to the stigma of a carpel, it is called
pollination. This is important because it is due to pollination that male gametes are able to
combine with female gametes. Pollination is done by insects like bees, butterflies and birds, wind
and water.
There are two types of pollination, self-pollination and cross-pollination. When pollen grains
from one flower carried to the stigma of the same flower or to another flower of the same plant,
it is called self-pollination. And when pollen grains from a flower of one plant are carried to the
Pollination
Insects help in pollination. This happens when an insect sits on a flower of one plant to suck
nectar then the pollen grains from anther stick to its body. Now, when this insect flies and sits on
the flower of another similar plant then the pollen grains are transferred and they stick to the
stigma of the flower of another plant. This way insects help cause cross-pollination. Wind too
helps in cross-pollination.
Fertilisation
After pollination, next step is fertilisation. In this step, male gametes present in pollen grains
When the pollen grain falls on stigma it bursts open and a pollen tube grown which moves
through the style towards the ovary and enters ovule. Male gamete moves down through the
pollen tube. The tip of pollen tube bursts open in the ovule and the male gamete come out. In the
ovule, male gamete combines with the nucleus of female gamete and fertilised egg is formed.
In the ovule, the fertilised egg divides several times to form an embryo. A tough coat is
developed around the ovule and it gradually develops into a seed. The ovary of flower develops
to become a fruit which contains seeds inside it. Other parts of the flower like sepal, stamen,
stigma and style become dry and fall off. Fruit takes place of the flower. Seed is protected by the
fruit. Some fruits are soft and juicy while the other fruits are hard and dry.
The seed is the reproductive unit of a plant. With this seed new plant can be grown as the seed
contains baby plant and food for the baby plant inside it. The part of the baby plant in seed which
grown into leaves is called plumule and the part which develops into roots is called radicle. The
part of the seed which stores food for the baby plant is called cotyledon. The baby plant inside a
seed is in a dormant state. It is only when we provide it with suitable environment like water, air,
light, etc., it germinates and a new plant grows. Wheat grains, gram, corn, peas, beans etc., are
examples of seeds.
Parts of a Seed
Germination of seeds
The seeds obtained from a plat are in dry and dormant state. It is only when they get water, air,
soil, etc., that they begin to grow into a new plant. The beginning of the growth of a seed is
The germination of a seed begins when it absorbs water, swells and bursts through the seed coat.
It is with the help of water that enzymes function in the seed. The enzymes digest stored food
and make it soluble. With the help of soluble food radicle and plumule grow.
Seeds germinate under suitable conditions to produce new plants. These pictures show the
and minerals from the soil. After this plumule grows upwards and shoots are formed. These
shoots develop green leaves. The leaves begin to make food with the process of photosynthesis
Asexual reproduction is a process in which new organism is produced from a single parent
without the involvement of gametes or sex cells. Many unicellular and multicellular organisms
reproduce asexually. In this process, parent organism either splits or a part of parent organism
separates to form a new organism. In this reproduction, certain cells of the parent undergo
mitotic cell division so that two or more new organisms are formed.
1) Fission
2) Budding
3) Spore formation
4) Regeneration
5) Fragmentation
6) Vegetative propagation
Fission
organisms such as protozoa and many bacteria. There are two types of fission:
Binary Fission
In binary fission, the parent cell divides into two after reaching a point where it has fully grown.
In this process, after splitting parent cell do not exist and two new organisms are formed.
Examples of unicellular organisms that undergo binary fission are amoeba, paramecium,
Leishmania etc.
Multiple fission is also a process of asexual reproduction in which parent cell splits to form many
new organisms. This happens when cyst is formed around a unicellular organism. Inside this cyst
the nucleus of an organism breaks in many smaller nuclei. When the favourable conditions come,
the cyst breaks and the many daughter cells inside it are released.
Budding
The word bud means small outgrowth. In the process of budding, a small bud grows on the body
of parent organism and when the time comes it detaches itself to form a new organism. Hydra
The method of spore formation occurs in both unicellular and multi-cellular organisms. This
process takes place in plants. In spore formation, the parent plant produces hundreds of
reproductive units called spores in its spore case. When this spore case of the plant bursts, these
spores travel in air and land on food or soil. Here they germinate and produce new plants.
This is a common bread mould plant or rhizopus fungus. It reproduces by forming spores.
Regeneration
organism gets cut, then each cut part can regenerate and form a whole new organism from its
body parts. This happens because when the body of an organism that can undergo regeneration
gets cut then the cells of cut body part divide rapidly and form a ball of cells. These cells then
Regeneration occurs in both plants and animals. Hydra and planaria undergo regeneration.
Regeneration in Planeria.
Fragmentation
multicellular organism breaks into two or more pieces on maturation. Each piece than grows into
a new organism. Spirogyra which is a plant and sea anemones which is a sea animal undergoes
Vegetative Propagation
This form of asexual reproduction occurs in plants only. In vegetative propagation, parts of old
plant like stems, roots and leaves are used to grow a new plant. The buds which are present in
dormant state in old plant are provided with suitable conditions like moisture and warmth so that
Plants that undergo vegetative propagation are green grass, Bryophyllum, money plant, potato
Vegetative propagation of potato plant from a Potato tuber. Plantlets growing in the margin
of bryophyllum leaf.
When many plants are grown from one plant using man-made methods, it is called artificial
propagation. There are three common methods of artificial propagation of plants. They are:
i) Cuttings
ii) Layering
iii) Grafting
Cuttings
A new plant is grown by cutting a small part of a plant which can be a stem or a leaf that has a
bud on it. This part is then grown into soil and watered. After a few days one can notice a new
plant growing.
Layering
In layering the branches of the parent plant are allowed to go inside the soil in such a way that a
part of the branch comes out of the soil. The part of the branch which is inside the soil develops
roots and is later cut from the parent plant. In this way a new plant is formed from the buried
branch.
The layering method is used for the plants like Jasmine, Strawberry, raspberry, etc.
The propagation of Jasmine plant (Chameli) by the layering method.
Grafting
In grafting stems of two different plants is cut and joined in such a way that they grow as on
plant. Of the two cut stems, one stem is with the roots and is called stock. The other stem is cut
without roots and is called scion. Stock is the lower part of the plant and scion is the upper part
The cut surfaces of scion and stock are fitted and tied together with a piece of cloth and covered
with polythene sheet. This protects the stem from infections and other problems.
Soon the stock and scion combine and a new plant grow. The fruits of this new plant have the
characteristics of both the plants. Examples of fruit which are grafted are apple, peach, apricot
etc.
The grafting method for the artifical propagation of plants or trees.
Excretion is the process of removal of toxic wastes from the body of an organism. The major
wastes produced by us are: Carbon dioxide and Urea. Carbon dioxide is produced by the process
of respiration and urea is produced by the decomposition of unused proteins in the liver. It is
necessary to remove these wastes from our body as their accumulation is poisonous and harm us.
There are different organs which removes waste from the body. These are lungs and kidneys.
Our lungs excrete carbon dioxide and kidneys urea. So, the kidney is the main excretory organs
First we will see how carbon dioxide is removed through lungs: Carbon dioxide is produces as a
waste product in the body by the oxidation of food during respiration. This carbon dioxide enters
from the body tissues in to the blood stream by diffusion. Blood carries this carbon dioxide to the
lungs. When we breathe out, then the lungs excrete carbon dioxide which goes in to the air
through nostrils.
The excretory system of human beings collects the liquid wastes of the body and helps it get rid
of them. It consists of the following main organs: Two kidneys, two ureters, Bladder and
Urethra. The kidneys are bean shaped organs towards the back of our body just above the waist.
Everyone has two kidneys. Blood constantly passes through our kidneys. The renal artery or
kidney artery brings in the dirty blood containing waste substances in to the kidneys. So, the
function of kidney is to remove the poisonous substance urea, other waste salts and excess water
from the blood and excrete them in the form of yellowish liquid called urine. The cleaned blood
is carried away from the kidneys by the renal vein or kidney vein.
The ureter, one from each kidney, opens in to urinary bladder. Ureters are the tubes which carry
urine from the kidneys to the bladder. Here urine is stored. The bladder is big it store urine till
the time we go to toilet. A tube called urethra which is connected with the bladder, urine is
In the structure of kidney it is shown that each kidney is made up of a large number of excretory
units called nephrons. The nephron has a cup shaped bag at its upper end which is called
Bowman’s capsule. The lower end of Bowman’s capsule tube shaped called tubule. And these
together form nephron. One end of a tube is connected to the Bowman’s capsule and other is
connected to a urine- collecting duct of the kidney. The Bowman’s capsule contains a bundle of
blood capillaries which is called glomerulus. One end of glomerulus is attached to the renal
artery which brings the dirty blood containing the urea waste in to it and the other end is joined
The function of glomerulus is to filter the blood passing through it. Only the small molecules of
substances present in blood like glucose, amino acids, salts, urea and water etc. passes through it
and collects as filtrate in Bowman’s capsule. The large molecules like proteins and blood cells
cannot pass through glomerulus capillaries and remain behind in the blood. The nephron tubule
allow the selective reabsorption of the useful substances like glucose, amino acids, salts and
water in to blood capillaries. But urea remains behind the tubule and does not get reabsorbed in
to blood capillaries.
As discussed above the dirty blood containing waste like urea enters the glomerulus and blood is
filtered here. During filtration substances like glucose, amino acids, salts, water, urea etc. present
in blood pass in to Bowman’s capsule and then enters the tubule of nephron. Here
useful substances are reabsorbed in to the blood through blood capillaries surrounding the tubule.
The liquid left behind the tubule of nephron is urine. The nephron carries this urine in to the
collecting duct of the kidney from where it is carried to the ureter. And from here urine passes to
the urinary bladder. And after some time urine is passed out of the body through urethra.
Due to an infection in the kidney, an injury to kidney or restricted blood flow to the kidney’s,
may stop working and complete failure of kidney’s allows urea and other waste products to build
up in the blood. Even the amount of water in the body is not regulated which may cause death if
the patient is not given proper treatment. The best solution is kidney transplant. In this the
damaged kidney is removed and from healthy person matching kidney is transplanted by a
surgical operation. If, this is not possible then periodically patient is kept on a kidney machine
by a procedure called dialysis. The kidney machine is also known as artificial kidney which
So, dialysis is the procedure used for cleaning the blood of a person by separating the waste
substance urea from it. The blood from an artery in the patient’s arm is made to flow in to the
dialyser of a dialysis machine made of long tubes of selectively permeable membrane which are
coiled in a tank containing dialysis solution. The dialysis solution contains water, glucose and
salts in similar concentrations to those in normal blood. As the patient’s blood passes through the
dialyzing solution, most of the wastes like urea present in it pass through the selectively
permeable membrane cellulose tubes in to the dialyzing solution. The cleaned blood is pumped
Transport in biology means carrying substance absorbed or made in the body of an organism to
In plants, it is only water and minerals that need to be transported to its other parts. Another thing
that needs to be transported to other parts of the plants is the food prepared in leaves. This is
because a plant has a branching shape so it gets carbon dioxide for photosynthesis and oxygen
The two types of conducting tissues that perform the function of transport system in plants are:
1) Xylem
2) Phloem
Transport of water and minerals
Plants need water to make food through the process of photosynthesis and minerals for making
proteins. Thus, a plant absorbs water and minerals from soil through roots and transport it other
parts like stem, leaves, flowers etc. It is through two kinds of elements of xylem tissue called,
xylem vessels and tracheid that water and minerals move from roots of a plant to its leaves.
Xylem vessels
Xylem vessel is a long tube made up of dead cells joined end to end. It is a non-living tube which
runs from roots of the plants and runs through the stem and reaches every leaf. The end walls of
Xylem vessels do not have cytoplasm or nuclei and the walls of the vessels are made of cellulose
or lignin. Other than transporting water and minerals, xylem vessel also provides strength to the
stem and keeps it upright. This is because lignin is very hard and strong. Wood is made of
lignified xylem vessels. Xylem vessels have pits in their cell walls where lignin is not deposited.
Either xylem vessel or both xylem vessel and tracheid transport water in flowering plants.
Tracheids
In non-flowering plants tracheids are the only water conducting tissues. Tracheids are dead cells
with lignified walls with no open ends. They are long, thin and spindle shaped cells. They have
pits in them and it is through pits only that water flows from one tracheid to another. All the
Epidermis: The outer layer of the cells in the root of a plant is called epidermis. The thickness
Endodermis: It is the layer of cells around the vascular tissue (xylem and phloem) in the root of
Root cortex: It is the part of root between the epidermis and endodermis.
Root xylem: It is the xylem tissue present in the roots. It is present at the centre of the root.
Epidermis, root cortex and endodermis are present between the root hair and root xylem. So, the
water which is absorbed by the root hairs from soil first passes through epidermis, root cortex
nitrates and phosphates. Minerals from soil gets dissolve in water to form an aqueous solution.
So, when water is transported from roots to leaves, minerals dissolved in water is also
transported.
Root hair absorbs the water containing dissolved minerals from the soil. Root hair is directly in
contact with the film of water present in-between the soil particles. Water containing minerals
gets into the root hair and passes from cell to cell through the process of osmosis and reaches
Xylem vessels of the root are connected with the xylem vessel of the stem of a plant. So the
water enters from root xylem vessel to the stem xylem vessel and further reaches into the leaves
of the plant from petiole. The plant uses only one or two per cent of the water in photosynthesis.
The pressure at the top of the plant (in the leaves) is low whereas pressure at the bottom of the
plant is high. It is due to transpiration that the pressure is low at the top of a plant. And it is
because of low pressure at the top of the plant that water flows up the xylem vessel into the
leaves of a plant.
The continuous evaporation of water from the leaves of a plant is called transpiration. The leaves
of a plant have tiny pores called stomata. It is through them that the water evaporates into the air.
This reduces the pressure at the top of xylem vessels and thus water flows up into them.
The food which is prepared by the process of photosynthesis in the leaves of a plant has to be
transported to other parts like stem, roots, branches etc. Therefore this food is transported to
other parts of the plant through a kind of tubes called phloem. The transport of food from leaves
to other parts of a plant is called translocation. The food made by the leaves is in the form of
simple sugar.
Phloem is a long tube made of many living cells joined end to end. The living cells of phloem are
called sieve tubes. The end walls of cells in the phloem have sieve plates which have tiny holes
in them. It is through these holes that the food passes along the phloem tubes. Sieve tubes
contain cytoplasm in them but have no nucleus. Each sieve tube cell has a companion cell which
has a nucleus and many other organelles. The cell wall of sieve tubes contains cellulose but no
lignin.
The food is made by the mesophyll cells of a leaf and from there it enters into the sieve tubes of
the phloem. These phloem tubes are interconnected and once the food reaches the phloem tube of
The transport of food is necessary because every part of a plant needs food for:
Energy
Building its parts
Maintaining its life
Other substance like hormones made in the tips of roots and shoots are also transported through
phloem tubes.
Mechanism of transport of food in a plant
It is by using the energy from ATP that the food made in the leaves of a plant is loaded in sieve
tubes of phloem tissue. Then by the process of osmosis water enters into sieve tubes that contain
sugar. This raises pressure in phloem tissue. This high pressure produced in phloem tissue moves
the food to all other parts of a plant having less pressure. In this way food is transported to all
Respiration is the process by which energy is released from food in our body. The function of
respiratory system is to breathe in oxygen for respiration producing energy from food, and to
breathe out carbon dioxide. With the help of lungs gases are exchanged between the blood and
the air. Gases exchanged are oxygen and carbon dioxide. We can live without food and water for
many days but we cannot live for more than a few minutes without air, as it is necessary for
breathing. So, before discussing the human respiratory system, it is necessary to know the
Process of Breathing:
During breathing we take air in to our lungs through the nose, and then expel it. The taking in of
air rich in oxygen in to the body during breathing is called inhalation and giving out of the air
rich in carbon dioxide is called exhalation. Both the process takes place regularly during
In this we will learn how air from outside is sucked in to our lungs during inhalation and how air
from lungs is pushed out during exhalation and this happens with the help of lungs. Lungs are
connected to our nostrils (holes in the nose) through nasal passage and wind pipe. When we
inhale air, it enters our nostrils, passes through nasal passage and windpipe, and reaches our
lungs. Our two lungs hang in an airtight space in our body called ‘chest cavity’. Around the side
of the chest cavity is the rib cage with sheets of muscles between the ribs which encloses the
lungs in it. At the bottom of the chest cavity is a curved sheet of muscle called diaphragm.
Therefore, it forms the floor of the chest cavity. So, breathing involves the movement of the rib
(a) Breathing in: When we breathe in or inhale, two things happen at the same time:
(i) The muscles between the ribs contract causing the rib cage to move upward and outward.
All these movement increases the space in the chest cavity and make it larger and air is sucked in
from outside in to the lungs. As a result, the lungs filled up with air and expand.
(b) Breathing out: When we exhale or breathe out two things happen simultaneously:
(i) The muscles between the ribs relax causing the rib cage to move downward and inward.
Due to these movements the space in our chest cavity decreases and makes it smaller, which
Many organs take part in the process of respiration in Humans. Various organs are: Nose, Nasal
Respiratory system begins from the nose. Our nose has two holes known as nostrils and the
passage behind the nostrils are called nasal passage or nasal cavity. The air for respiration is
drawn in to our body through the nostrils present in the nose. This air goes in to the nasal
passage. It is separated from the mouth cavity or buccal cavity or oral cavity by a hard, bony
palate so that we can breathe in air even when we are eating food. The nasal passage is lined with
fine hair and mucus. Mucus is secreted by the glands inside the nasal passage. When air passes
through the nasal passage, the dust particles and other impurities present in are trapped by nasal
hair and mucus so that clean air goes in to the lungs. Pharynx is the part of throat between the
mouth and wind pipe. So, air enters from nasal passage to pharynx and then goes in to the wind
pipe (trachea).
Now air passes through trachea, it does not collapse even when there is no air in it because it is
supported by rings of soft bones called cartilage. The upper end of the trachea has a voice box
called larynx. The trachea runs down the neck and divides in to two smaller tubes called
‘bronchi’ at its lower end and these are connected with the lungs. The lungs lie in the chest
cavity or thoracic cavity which is separated from abdominal cavity by a muscular partition called
diaphragm. The lungs are covered by two thin membranes called pleura. The lungs are also
The singular of bronchi is bronchus and they divide in the lungs to form a large number of still
smaller tubes called ‘bronchioles’. They have tiny pouch like air sacs at their ends called
‘alveoli’ (singular alveolus). Walls of alveoli are very thin and surrounded by blood capillaries.
From alveoli oxygen is taken in to the body and carbon dioxide is eliminated. So, in alveoli
Millions of alveoli are there in lungs which provide a large area for the exchange of gases.
Availability of large area maximises the exchange of gases. Diaphragm helps in ‘breathe in’ and
‘breathe out’ .The muscles of chest also help in breathing in and out. Now, we will see How
When we breathe in air, the diaphragm and muscles attached to the ribs contract due to which
our chest cavity expands. This movement increases the volume inside the chest cavity. Due to
this, the air pressure decreases inside the chest cavity and air from outside being at high pressure
In this way, during the process of ‘breathing in’ the air sacs or alveoli of the lungs get filled with
air containing oxygen. And alveoli are surrounded by blood capillaries due to which oxygen of
air diffuses out from the alveoli walls in to the blood. The oxygen is carried by a red pigment
called haemoglobin present in blood to all the parts of the body. As the blood passes through the
tissues of the body, the oxygen present in it diffuses in to the cells due to its higher concentration
in the blood. This oxygen combines with the digested food or glucose present in the cells to
release energy. Carbon dioxide is produced as a waste and diffuses in to the blood due to its
higher concentration in body tissues. Blood carries carbon dioxide back to the lungs where it
diffuses in to the alveoli. When we breathe out air, the diaphragm and the muscles attached to the
ribs relax due to which our chest cavity contracts and become smaller. This contraction
movement of the chest pushes out carbon dioxide from the alveoli of the lungs in to the trachea,
nostrils and then out of the body in to air. The process of gaseous exchange is completed in this
way.
We should know that during the breathing cycle, when air is taken in or inhaled and let out or
exhaled, the lungs always contain a certain residual volume of air so that there is sufficient time
‘for the oxygen to be absorbed’ in to the blood and ‘for carbon dioxide to be released’ from the
blood.
Rate of Breathing
Breathing occurs involuntarily but the rate of breathing is controlled by the respiratory system of
brain. The average breathing rate in an adult man at rest is about 15 to 18 times per minute.
During physical exercise breathing rate increases which supplies more oxygen to body cells for
The deficiency of haemoglobin in the blood of a person reduces the oxygen-carrying capacity of
blood resulting in breathing problems, tiredness and lack of energy. The person looks pale and
loses weight. During carbon monoxide poisoning carbon monoxide binds very strongly with
haemoglobin in the blood and prevents it from carrying oxygen to the brain and other parts of the
body. If carbon monoxide is inhaled for a long time, then the person becomes unconscious and
can even die due to oxygen starvation. The persons having breathing problems are given oxygen
masks to facilitate breathing. In serious case, the patient is put on a machine called ‘ventilator’ in
which a tube is inserted directly in to the trachea or wind pipe of the patient to help him in
breathing comfortably.
Respiration in Animals
Respiration is the process of releasing energy from food and this takes place inside the cells of
the body. The process of respiration involves taking in oxygen (of air) into cells, using it for
releasing energy by burning food, and then eliminating the waste products (carbon dioxide and
water) from the body. Respiration is an essential for life because it provides energy for carrying
out all the life processes which are necessary to keep the organisms alive.
The mechanism by which organisms obtain oxygen from the air and release carbon dioxide is
called breathing. But on the other hand respiration is a complex process it includes breathing as
well as the oxidation of food in the cells of the organism to release energy. Breathing is a
process involves lungs of the organism whereas respiration involves the mitochondria in the cells
molecules in the cells of the body and used by the organism as when required. To understand this
we should know the meaning of ADP, ATP and Inorganic Phosphate. ADP is Adenosine Di-
Phosphate; ATP is Adenosine Tri- Phosphate and Inorganic Phosphate is a substance which
(i) The energy released during respiration is used to make ATP molecules from ADP and
inorganic phosphate.
(ii) When the cells need energy, then ATP can be broken down using water to release energy.
The released energy by ATP is equivalent to 30.5 kJ/mole and is used to carry out all the
endodermic reactions taking place in the cells and so, ATP is known as the currency of cells.
Types of Respiration:
• Aerobic Respiration: The respiration which uses oxygen. In this process, the glucose food is
completely broken down in to carbon dioxide and water by oxidation and this energy gets stored
microorganisms like yeast break down glucose (food) in to ethanol, carbon dioxide and releases
energy.
Therefore, whole process of anaerobic respiration takes place in the cytoplasm of cells. So, we
can say that all the cells do not use oxygen to produce energy. Fermentation of sugar can also be
Human beings obtain energy by aerobic respiration but sometimes anaerobic respiration takes
place in our muscles during vigorous physical exercise when oxygen gets used up faster in the
by the breakdown of food like glucose. The main differences between them are explained
below:
Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration
2. Complete breakdown
2. Partial breakdown of food occurs.
of food occurs.
4. In this considerable
amount of energy is 4. Much less energy is produced.
produced.
• In simple unicellular animals like Amoeba, respiration takes place by the simple diffusion of
gases through the cell membrane. Most of the animals have, however, specific organs for
respiration.
• The animals like earthworms which live in the soil use their skin to absorb oxygen from air and
remove carbon dioxide. So, the respiratory organ in the earthworm is the skin.
• The aquatic animals like fish, prawns and mussels have gills as the respiratory organs which
extract oxygen dissolved in water and take away carbon dioxide from the body.
• In the insects like grasshopper, cockroach, housefly and a mosquito, the tiny holes called
spiracles on their body and the air tubes called tracheae are the respiratory organs.
• The respiratory organs of the land animals such as man (humans), birds, lizard, dog and frog
etc. are the lungs. However, Frogs breathe both by lungs and skin.
Therefore, we can say that all the respiratory organs whether skin, gills, trachea or lungs have
• All the respiratory organs have a large surface area to get enough oxygen.
• All the respiratory organs have thin walls for easy diffusion and exchange of respiratory gases.
• All the respiratory organs like skin, lungs and gills have a rich blood supply for transporting
gases. But only in tracheal system of respiration, air reaches the cells directly.
Respiration and Excretion in plants
Respiration in Plants
Respiration is the process of releasing energy from food. Like human beings and other animals,
plants also need oxygen from the environment and release carbon dioxide. This shows that even
plants undergo the process of respiration. So, Oxygen and carbon dioxide are also called
respiratory gases.
The respiration is plants differ from human beings and other animals in the following aspects:
Respiration takes place individually in all parts of the plants like stem, roots, leaves etc. In
human beings and animals respiration takes place through one part only.
In plants, respiratory gases are hardly transported from part to another part. On the other hand, in
animals and human beings respiratory gases are transported to all parts of the body.
The rate of respiration is slow in plants whereas it is faster in humans and animals.
Diffusion is the only process through which much needed oxygen is supplied to all the cells of
Roots of the plant take oxygen from the air that is present in-between the particles of soil. Root-
hair, which is an extension of the epidermal cells of a root, is in direct contact with the soil.
Oxygen diffuses in root hair and reaches all the other cells of the roots. It is through root hairs
that only carbon dioxide gets diffused into them and is expelled from the roots of a plant. Thus,
respiration in roots of the plant occurs by diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide through root
hairs.
Also, many a times we have noticed that plants die if they are waterlogged for long. This is
because due to water logging air is expelled from in-between the particles of soil and thus,
oxygen becomes unavailable to the roots of the plants. Under such condition plant respire
The soft stems of small herbaceous plants have stomata in them and hard stem of big plants and
trees have lenticels in them. Lenticels are in the small area of a bark. These cells are loosely
placed and therefore allow the gaseous exchange of respiratory gases between air and living cells
Stomata help in the gaseous exchange of respiratory gases between stems of herbaceous plants
and air. It is through stomata that oxygen from air diffuses into the stem and goes to all the cells
Similarly, carbon dioxide produced in the stems diffuses into stomata of herbaceous plants and
lenticels of trees or large plants and goes out into the air.
Respiration in leaves
Respiration in leaves takes place through stomata that is present as tiny pores in the leaves of a
plant. Oxygen gets diffused in stomata and reaches other cells of the leaves. The carbon dioxide
produced in the process of respiration also gets diffused with stomata and moves out of the
leaves.
Also, respiration in leaves takes places at both day and night time. But photosynthesis occurs
only during day time. Because of this, net gaseous exchange in the leaves of a plant is:
During day time, oxygen is produced in the leaves. This is because photosynthesis occurs during
the day. So leaves use some of this oxygen for respiration and rest of it is diffused out in the air.
The carbon dioxide produced during respiration in the leaves is also used up in photosynthesis.
Rather more carbon dioxide is required from the air. Therefore, net gaseous exchange during day
time is, oxygen diffuses out and carbon dioxide diffuses in.
During night time no photosynthesis occurs in the leaves. Therefore, in the process of respiration
oxygen diffuses into leaves from the air and carbon dioxide diffuses out in the air. So, the net
gaseous exchange in leaves at night is oxygen diffuses in and carbon dioxide diffuses out.
Excretion in Plants
Excretion is the removal of waste from the body. Plants also produce waste products but very
slowly and in very small amounts. They do not have any special organ for the removal of their
waste product.
The waste products of a plant are carbon dioxide, water vapour and oxygen. While carbon
dioxide and water vapour are waste products of respiration, oxygen is a waste product of
photosynthesis. These waste products are removed through stomata in leaves and lenticels in
Some of the waste products are stored in the leaves, bark and fruits of a plant or a tree. Trees get
rid of them when dead leaves bark and ripe fruits fall off from them. Some plants store waste in
their fruits in the form of solid bodies called raphides. For example, fruit yam has needle-shaped
raphides on its surface. Plants also secrete waste in the form of gum and resins from their stem
and branches.
Therefore, various methods used by plants to get rid of their waste products are:
Gaseous waste through stomata and lenticels.
Stored solid and liquid waste by shedding leaves, peeling of bark and falling of fruits.
By secreting waste in the form of gum and resins.
Excrete waste into the soil around them.
Human Circulatory System
The Circulatory System is the system of organs in the human beings and other animals which is
responsible for transport of materials inside the body. It consists of heart, arteries, veins,
capillaries and blood. The heart acts as a pump to push out blood. The arteries, veins and
capillaries act as pipes or tubes through which the blood flows. These tubes carries blood are
called blood vessels. So, there are three types of blood vessels in the human body: arteries, veins
and capillaries. Now in detail we will understand all the parts of the circulatory system.
Roughly the shape of the heart is triangular and is made up of special muscle called cardiac
muscle. The heart has four compartments known as ‘chambers’ inside it. The upper two
chambers of heart are known as atria (in singular atrium) and the lower two chambers of heart
are called ventricles. From two main veins these two atria receives blood. And the two ventricles
transport blood to the entire body and the lungs. The left atrium is connected to the left ventricle
through a valve V1. Similarly, the right atrium is connected to the right ventricle through another
valve V2. These valves prevent the back flow of blood in to atria when ventricles contract to
pump blood out of the heart to the rest of the body. This is because when the ventricles contract,
the valves V1 and V2 close automatically so that the blood may not go back to atria. So, heart
pumps blood around our body. All the atria and veins contract and relax and make heart to pump
blood. Since ventricles have to pump blood in to various organs with high pressure, they have
A sheath of tissue called ‘pericardium’ protects the muscular heart and the chambers of the heart
are separated by a partition called septum. Now, before describing the circulation of blood in the
human body it is necessary to know more about arteries, veins and capillaries.
Arteries are thick walled blood vessels which carry blood from the heart to all the parts of the
body. They are thick because blood emerges from the heart under high pressure. Arteries are
found in whole of our body. The main artery called aorta is connected to the left ventricle of the
heart through a valve V3. The function of main artery is to carry oxygenated blood from left
ventricle to all the parts of the body except lungs. Another artery called pulmonary artery is
connected to the right ventricle of the heart through another valve V4. The pulmonary artery
carries deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs.
The Capillaries are thin walled and extremely narrow tubes or blood vessels which connect
arteries to veins. Thus, the exchange of various materials like oxygen, food, carbon dioxide etc
between the blood and the body cells takes place through capillaries only. The other end of
capillaries is joined to some wider tubes called veins. The deoxygenated blood or dirty blood
coming from the capillaries enters in to veins.
Veins are the thin walled blood vessels which carry blood from all parts of the body back to the
heart. Veins do not need thick walls because the blood flowing through them is no longer under
high pressure. Veins have valves in them which allow the blood to flow in only one direction
towards the heart.
The main difference between artery and vein is that an artery carries blood from the heart to the
body organs whereas a vein carries blood from the body organs back to the heart. The blood
which carries oxygen is called oxygenated blood and the blood which does not carry oxygen is
like hormones to all the cells of the body. It also carries back waste products like carbon dioxide
The pulmonary vein brings the oxygenated blood from the lungs in to the left atrium of the heart,
when the muscles of all the four chambers of the heart are relaxed.
When the left atrium contracts, the oxygenated blood is pushed in to the left ventricle through the
valve V1.
When the left ventricle contracts, the oxygenated blood is forced in to the main artery called
‘aorta’. These arteries are in branched form and goes in to the different body organs. The smaller
arteries called arterioles further branch in to capillaries.
The main artery carries blood to all the organs of the body like head, chest, arms, stomach,
intestines etc. In this way the cells of the body gets oxygen from capillaries and then blood
becomes deoxygenated by loosing oxygen. Now the deoxygenated blood from the body organs
enters in to the main vein called vena cava. The main vein carries the deoxygenated blood to the
right atrium of the heart.
When the right atrium contracts, deoxygenated blood is pushed in to the right ventricle through
the valve V2.
And when the right ventricle contract, the deoxygenated blood is pumped in to the lungs through
the pulmonary artery. In the lungs, deoxygenated blood releases its carbon dioxide and absorbs
fresh oxygen from air. So, the blood becomes oxygenated again. This oxygenated blood is again
sent to the left atrium of heart by pulmonary vein for circulation in the body.
This whole process is repeated continuously.
So, now we can say that a circulatory system is that in which the blood travels twice through the
heart in one complete cycle of the body called double circulation. In human circulatory system
the pathway of blood from the heart to the lungs and back to the heart is called pulmonary
circulation and the pathway of blood from the heart to rest of the body and back to the heart is
called systemic circulation. And these two together make double circulation.
Heart Beats:
One complete contraction and relaxation of the heart is called a heart beat. The heart beat
usually beats about 70 to 72 times in a minute when we are resting. A stethoscope is an apparatus
due to which doctors listens our heart beat. The heart beat faster during and after exercise
Blood Pressure:
The pressure at which blood is pumped around the body by the heart is called blood pressure.
The maximum pressure at which the blood leaves the heart through the main artery during
contraction phase is called the systolic pressure and the minimum pressure in the arteries during
Diastolic pressure: 80 mm Hg
So, the normal blood pressure is 120/80 and is measured by an instrument called
sphygmomanometer.
Note:
The Heart
Its average weight is about 340 grams in men and 255 grams in women. The left half and the
right half of the heart is divided by a wall called septum. Each half, in turn, is divided into an
upper chamber called the auricle and a lower chamber called the ventricle. The auricle receives
blood from the veins and the ventricle pumps blood into the arteries.
Heartbeats In a normal, healthy adult, the contraction and relaxation mechanism of the
(i) to supply pure blood to all parts of the body; (through arteries)
(iii) to pump impure blood into the lungs for purification; and
Functions of Blood
(i) Carries oxygen and essential nourishment through arteries to every living tissue in the body.
(ii) Carbon dioxide and waste products generated in the body by metabolism (Metabolism are all
chemical processes which govern living organisms), such as urea, are removed by the blood
through veins. (iii) Controls body temperature. (iv) Defends against infections.
Constituents of Blood: There are two main constituents of blood, viz., the solid or cellular part
called blood cells (35 per cent) and fluid or humoral part called plasma (65 per cent). Blood
cells, called corpuscles, are of three types. (i) Red Blood Corpuscles (RBC) RBCs, which are
called erythrocytes, are disc-shaped cells. They have no nucleus and contain a pigment called
haemoglobin which gives blood its red colour. RBCs are produced in the spleen. The life of an
(ii) White Blood Corpuscles (WBC) WBCs are the ‘soldiers’ of the body’s defence system. They
Blood grouping K. Landsteiner, in 1900-02, classified human blood into four groups, A, B, AB,
and O. The cells of these groups contain the corresponding antigens—A, B, AB, except O cells
Blood Pressure It is the force exerted by the blood beating against artery walls. The highest
point in the pressure range is called systolic pressure (upper reading) and lowest point in the
pressure is called diastolic pressure (lower reading). 120/80 is the normal blood pressure.
Composition and Functions of Blood
Blood is a red coloured liquid which circulates in our body. It is red in colour because it contains
a red pigment called haemoglobin in its red cells. Blood is a connective tissue, consists of four
things namely Plasma, Red blood corpuscles (Red blood cells or RBCs), White blood corpuscles
Plasma is a liquid also known as Fluid matrix consist of three types of cells which keep floating
Source: www.4f20lz3r4bii3yfqutfxz0o17ou.wpengine.netdna-cdn.com
Functions of Blood
Blood has three main functions in the human body i.e Transport of substances from one part of
the body to the other like respiratory gases, waste products, enzymes etc, Protect against diseases
On an average, a healthy man has about 5 litres of blood in the body, while woman has about
500ml less than man. So, total blood is about 60-80 ml/kg of body weight.
Plasma
The fluid or liquid part of blood is called plasma. It is a colourless liquid which contains 90%
water, protein and inorganic salts. It also contains some organic substances in dissolved form like
glucose, amino-acids, fats, urea, hormones; enzymes etc.It carries these dissolved substances
from one part to another part in the body. The protein in plasma includes antibodies to assist in
Also known as erythrocytes are disc- shaped cells concave in the middle and visible under a
microscope. RBC carries oxygen from the lungs to all the cells of the body. They have no
nucleus and contain a pigment called haemoglobin which is made up of an iron containing
pigment known as haema and a protein called globin. RBCs are produced in the spleen and the
bone marrow and live for about four months because they lack nucleus. So, when we donate
blood to save the life of a person, then the loss of blood from our body is recovered within a day
because red blood cells are made very fast in the bone marrow. Life of the RBC is about 100-120
days.
Functions
Haemoglobin in RBC picks up oxygen in the lung tissues by forming a chemical compound with
it.
This oxygen is carried to the tissues where it is used in the chemical reactions to produce energy.
It then combines with carbon dioxide which is produced in these reactions and returns to the
lungs with the heart where the cycle starts again.
What is Bombay Blood Group and how it is discovered?
White Blood Corpuscles (WBC)
WBC is also known as leukocytes. They fights with infection and protect us from diseases
because they eat up the germs which causes diseases. That is why they are also known as
‘soldiers’ of the body’s defence system. They are round or irregular, semi- transparent cells
containing a nucleus and visible under a microscope. They are little larger than RBC. Some
White blood cells make chemicals called ‘antibodies’ to fight against infection i.e why they
provide immunity in our body. WBC in the blood is much smaller in number then red blood
cells.
Functions
Broadly, WBC acts as a defence system in the body.
There are several varieties of WBC performing specific functions such as, Neutrophils (65 to
70% of the total WBC) attack the invading bacteria and engulf them. Lymphocytes (25% of
WBC) produces antibodies which protect the body against antigen and thus provide immunity
against infection. Basophils secrete anticoagulant called heparin which prevents clot within the
blood cells. Eosinophils and monocytes also assist in defence mechanism of the body by
becoming active against specific antigens.
Blood platelets
Blood Platelets are also known as thrombocytes. They are tiny, circular or oval colourless cells
formed in the bone marrow. They lack nucleus and help in the coagulation of blood (clotting of
blood) in a cut or wound, due to which bleeding stops. All the blood cells are made in the bone
Blood clotting is a body’s defence system to combat bleeding. Plasma contains a soluble protein
fibrinogen of the blood which produces the insoluble protein called fibrin essential for blood
In an injury blood platelets break down and release an enzyme which helps in the formation of
fibrin from fibrinogen. This fibrin forms clot in the form of mass of fibres which stops bleeding
from blood vessels. After clotting, a straw- coloured fluid called serum is left.
Blood Grouping
cells of these group contains corresponding antigens – A, B and AB except O. That is why O is
donated to any of the groups and so is known as Universal donor. AB group is known as
A A, AB A and O
B B, AB B and O
Is a blood antigen discovered in 1940 by Landsteiner and A.S Weiner and played an important
role during blood transfusion. The Rh factor is an agglutinogen found in RBC of most people
called Rh+. It was initially found in the rhesus monkey and later in man. People who do not have
this antigen in their blood are called Rh-. The Rh- blood does not carry anti- Rh antibodies
naturally but could synthesize them if synthesized through blood transfusion of Rh+ blood. If
Rh+ blood is transfused in to an Rh- patient, the serum will produce anti-Rh agglutinin. If
another dose of Rh+ blood is given, the anti-Rh agglutinin will cause clumping of RBC of the
Erythroblastosis Foetalis: If the father's blood is Rh+ and the mother's blood is Rh- then the
child to be born dies at the pregnancy or short span of time after birth. Basically, this happens in
This technique was first developed by James Blundell in 1825. The injection of blood from one
person (donor) in to the circulatory system of another is called blood transfusion. It is done after
Is the force exerted by the blood beating against artery walls. The highest point in the pressure
range is called systolic pressure (upper reading) and lowest point is called diastolic pressure
pressure is always lower than the systolic pressure. The average systolic pressure of a healthy
young man is about 120 mm Hg and the diastolic pressure is about 80 mm Hg that is, 120/80 is
the normal blood pressure. High blood pressure is known as hypertension and low blood
‘Circulatory system’ or ‘Blood circulatory system’ is the main transport system in human beings.
In this blood carries oxygen, digested food and other chemicals like hormones and enzymes to all
parts of the body and take away waste products like carbon dioxide and urea. Therefore, Human
blood circulatory system consists of the heart which pumps and receives blood and the blood
In the circulatory system, blood flows through three types of blood vessels: Arteries, veins and
capillaries. The blood vessels are present in all parts of the human body so, that blood reaches
There is another system with the blood circulatory system for the transport in human beings is
Lymphatic System. Lymph is the liquid which circulates and carries materials in the lymphatic
system. Thus, we can conclude that in Human beings, the various substances are transported
The nutrition in human beings takes place through human digestive system. It consists of
alimentary canal and its associated glands. Various organs of Human digestive system in
sequence are: Mouth, Oesophagus (or Food Pipe), Stomach, Small Intestine and Large Intestine.
The glands which are associated with this system are: Salivary glands, Liver and Pancreas. The
human alimentary canal runs from mouth to anus and is about 9 metres long tube. The ducts of
various glands open in to the alimentary canal and pour the secretions of the digestive juices in to
Now we will understand the various steps involved in the nutrition of human digestive system of
human beings:
1. Ingestion: Food is ingested in human beings through the mouth and it is put in to the mouth
2. Digestion: In the mouth itself the digestion of food begins in the mouth itself. Process of
digestion is as follows: The mouth cavity or buccal cavity contains teeth, tongue and salivary
glands. The teeth cut the food in to small pieces, chew and grind it. So, teeth help in the physical
digestion. The salivary glands present in our mouth produce saliva and with the help of tongue
saliva is mixed with food. As, we know that saliva is a watery liquid so it wets the food in our
mouth and helps to swallow it easily. Many a times we have observed that when we see or eat a
delicious food our mouth ‘waters’. This is due to the saliva produce by the salivary glands. The
salivary glands help in chemical digestion by secreting enzymes. Human saliva contains an
enzyme known as salivary amylase which digests the starch present in food in to sugar. Thus, the
digestion of starch or carbohydrate begins in the mouth itself. But food remains for very short
Now, the slightly digested food goes to stomach through food pipe i.e oesophagus. This happens
as follows: The walls of food pipe have muscles which can contract and expand alternately.
When slightly digested food enters the food pipe, the walls started movements of contraction and
expansion and this movement is known as peristaltic movement. And this peristaltic movement
The stomach is J- shaped organ present on the left side of the abdomen. The food is churned in
the stomach for about three hours. During this time, the food breaks down in to still smaller
pieces and forms a semi-solid paste. The glands present in the stomach walls secrete gastric juice
and it contains three substances: hydrochloric acid, the enzyme pepsin and mucus. Due to the
presence of hydrochloric acid food is acidic in nature and the enzyme pepsin begins the
digestion of proteins present in food to form smaller molecules. Thus, the protein digestion
(ii) It kills any bacteria which may enter in stomach with food.
Mucus helps to protect the stomach wall from its own secretions of hydrochloric acid otherwise
it may cause ulcers in the stomach. The partially digested food goes from the stomach to small
intestine. The exit of food from stomach is regulated by ‘sphincter muscle’ which release it in
The small intestine is the largest part of the alimentary canal. It is about 6.5 metres long in an
adult man. It is known as small intestine because it is very narrow. The small intestine is
arranged in the form of a coil in our belly. The small intestine in human beings is the site of
complete digestion of food like carbohydrates, proteins and fats. This happen as follows:
(i) The small intestine receives the secretions of two glands: Liver and pancreas. Liver secretes
bile. Bile is a greenish yellow liquid made in the liver which is normally stored in the gall
bladder. Bile is alkaline and contains salts which help to emulsify or break the fats or lipids
present in the food. It makes the acidic food alkaline which comes from stomach so that pancreas
can act on it and it also break the fats present in the food in to small globules making it easy for
the enzymes to act and digest them. Pancreas is a large leaf like gland which lies parallel to and
beneath the stomach. Pancreas secretes pancreatic juice which contains digestive enzymes like
pancreatic amylase, trypsin and lipase. Amylase breaks down the starch, trypsin digests the
(ii) The walls of small intestine contain glands which secrete intestinal juice. The intestinal juice
glucose, proteins in to amino acids and fats in to fatty acids and glycerol. Glucose, amino acids,
fatty acids and glycerol are small, water soluble molecules. In this way, the process of digestion
converts the large and small insoluble food molecules in to small, water soluble molecules. The
3. Absorption: After digestion the molecules of food becomes small and passes through small
intestine and goes in to our blood. So, we can say that small intestine is the main region for the
absorption of digested food. The inner surface of small intestine has millions of tiny, finger like
projections called villi which gives large surface area for absorption and the absorbed food goes
in to our blood.
4. Assimilation: The blood carries digested and dissolved food to all the parts of the body where
it becomes assimilated as part of the cell. This assimilated food is used by the body cells for
obtaining energy as well as for growth and repair of the body. The undigested food stored in the
liver in the form of carbohydrate called ‘glycogen’ and can be used by the body during
requirement.
5. Egestion: A part of the food which we eat cannot be digested by our body. This undigested
food cannot be absorbed in the small intestine. So, undigested food passes from small intestine to
large intestine. The walls of large intestine absorb most of the water from this food and become
solid. Last part of the large intestine called ‘rectum’ stores this undigested food for some time
and finally, egested from our body through anus as faeces or ‘stool’. This process is known as
egestion or defecation.
Dental Caries:
The formation of small cavities or holes in the teeth is due to the action of acid-forming bacteria
and improper dental care is called dental caries. If the teeth are not cleaned regularly, they
become covered with a sticky, yellowish layer of food particles and bacteria cells called ‘Dental
Plaque’.
List of Human Diseases
The word disease implies that dis-ease (not easy). In other words malfunctioning or improper
functioning of various body parts like genetic disorder, hormonal imbalance, malfunctioning of
immune system of body are some factors which affects the human health. The diseases caused by
intrinsic sources are called organic or metabolic diseases like cardiac failure, kidney failure,
diabetes, allergies, cancer etc and the diseases caused by extrinsic factors are Kwashiorkor,
obesity, Night blindness, scurvy etc. Some diseases are also caused by micro-organisms due to
unbalanced diet such as viruses, bacteria, and fungi, protozoan’s, helminthes, worms, etc.;
environmental pollutants, tobacco, alcohol and narcotic drugs are also an important extrinsic
Types of Diseases: On the basis of its nature, character and causes of its spreadness is of two
types:
1. Congenital Disease is the diseases which are present since birth. These are caused due to
genetic abnormality or due to metabolic disorders or malfunctioning of any organ. They are
basically permanent, generally not easily curable and may be inherited to the children like
Harelip, Cleft Palate, Club foot etc. Also due to imbalance in the chromosomes the appearance of
Mongalism, to born the blue baby due to cardiac disorder etc are also some examples of it.
2. Acquired Disease is those defects or disorders which are not present by birth but appear due to
the various causes and factors. These may be further categorized into following heads:
(i) Communicable or infectious diseases: These are caused by a variety of pathogenic viruses,
bacteria, protozoa, fungi and worms. The pathogens are generally carried with the help of a
vector.
malfunctioning of some organ or organ system in the body. It may be of various types like
Deficiency diseases: These occur due to the deficiency of some nutrients, minerals or vitamins,
AIDS (Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome): It destroys immune system of the body & is
caused by the Human Immuno deficiency Virus (HIV).There are two types of HIV namely HIV-1
and HIV-2. The most common virus currently associated with AIDS is HIV-1. A virus found in
the blood of wild African green monkey called the Simian Immuno deficiency Virus (SIV) is
similar to HIV-2. HIV is a retrovirus. It can synthesize DNA from RNA. The major cell infected
by HIV is the helper T-Iymphocyte that bears the CD-4 receptor site. HIV progressively destroys
T-Iymphocytes. The patient occasionally will suffer from swollen lymph nodes, mild prolonged
Important facts about AIDS: AIDS in India was first reported in 1986 and is the end stage of
the disease. HIV antibodies can be detected by the ELISA test (Enzyme-Linked Immuno
Cancer: They are characterized by the uncontrolled growth and division of cells which leads to a
mass of cells known as neoplasm. Abnormal and persistent cell division localized in a particular
Gout: It results from accumulation of uric acid crystals in the synovial joints. It is a disease
associated with an inborn error of uric acid metabolism that increases production or interferes
Haemophilia A, is characterized by lack of anti- haemophilia globulin factor VIII. About four-
Hepatitis : It is a viral disease, causes hepatic anorexia resulting in liver damage (liver cancer)
or jaundice. It is transmitted by the faecal-oral route. Children and young adults are susceptible
Parts of
Name of Method of Type of
Caused by body
disease spread Vaccination
affected
Respiratory
passages:
A myxovirus epithelial Droplet
Influenza Killed virus
(RNA virus) lining of Infection
trachea and
bronchi.
Large variety
Common of viruses, Respiratory Droplet Intramuscular
cold commonly passages Infection injection.
rhino-virus
(RNA Virus)
Living
Droplet atteneuated
Respiratory
Variola virus Infection virus applied
Smallpox passages,
(DNA virus) (Wounds in by scratching
then skin
skin) skin, no
longer carried
Living
Varicella- Blistering Air-borne
Chickenpox attenuated
zoster Skin rash droplets
virus
Respiratory
passages,
infection via
A Living
blood, Droplet
Mumps paramyxovirus attenuated
salivary infection
(RNA virus) virus
glands,
testes in
adult males
Respiratory
A passages, Living
Droplet
Measles paramyxovirus spreading to attenuated
infection
(RNA virus) skin and virus
intestines.
Living
attenuated
Respiratory
virus, more
passages,
German essential for
lymph Droplet
measles Rubella virus girls because
nodes in infection
(Rubella) disease
neck, eyes
causes
and skin.
complication
in pregnancy.
Pharynx and
Poliomyelitis Poliovirus Droplet Living
intestines,
(polio) (RNA Virus) then blood; infection or attenuated
via human virus given
occasionally
motor faeces orally
neurons in
spinal cord,
paralysis
may occur.
Sexual
Retrovirus intercourse
AIDS Skin Cancer Not available
(RNA virus) homo- and
hetrosexuals
It is
transmitted
to people
from wild
animals and No licensed
Ebola Fatal Illness
Ebola Virus spreads in Ebola
haemorrhagic in Humans,
disease (EVD) the human vaccine is
fever Fever
population available
through
human-to-
human
transmission.
Basically
Infection in
Causes mild pregnant
Zika Virus illness in women is
No vaccine
Zika disease (mosquito the people linked to
available
borne disease) like dengue, abnormally
yellow fever small heads
in their
babies.
Bacterial Diseases of Humans
affected antibodies
tract, mainly
throat also
toxin affects
heart.
cattle. streptomycin.
(Pertussis) tract,
inducing
violent
coughing
Gonorrhoea Neisseria Reproductive Contagion by Antibiotics, e.g.
mainly streptomycin
mucous
membranes
of
urinogenital
tract.
Newborn
infants may
acquire
serious eye
infections if
they pass
through
infected birth
canal.
eyes, bones,
joints,
central
nervous
system, heart
and skin.
tetani infection
Toxin
produced
which affects
motor nerves
of spinal
cord and
hence
muscles,
causing
lockjaw and
spreading to
the muscles.
person.
(b) handling
of
contaminated
Objects.
(c) vector,
e,g. flies
moving from
human faeces
to food.
spreading to
lymph and
blood, lungs,
bone
marrow,
spleen.
ileum and
colon
enteritis or infected
poultry and
faecal
contamination
as cholera
walking swelling of
faecally-
contaminated
soil.
swallowing Vitamin A
vegetables. protein-calorie
malnutrition
and night
blindness
respectively.
Can cause
appendicitis,
jaundice.
eggs in night,
contaminated inflammation
appendix.
larvae
deposited on
skin which
enter through
puncture
wound and
reach
lymphatic
channels
baldness in
children.
in the skin,
mass of loose
dead skin
clings between
toes.
lower
extremities,
affected part
becomes
enlarged and
develops many
deep sores,
extensive bone
destruction
leading to
crippling
deformities.
handled by infection
in the groin
and inner
surfaces of
which itches
intensely.
How Genetics define the hereditary characteristics of human?
The fundamental characters which easily transmit generation to generation from their parents are
called genetic character and the processes of transmission of such heredity and the studies of
their causes are called Genetics. Gregor John Mendel is known as ‘Father of Genetics’ who made
the scientific study of heredity and genetic theory. His method was based on cross breeding of
various kinds of the garden peas that had the opposing pairs of obvious traits. He established the
principles of segregation, dominance and independent assortment which became the most
fundamental basis of the science of genetics. Gene (factor by Mendel) is the core component of
Mendel’s Experiment
Gregor J. Mendel studied the various pea plants through the cross breeding and propounded a
comprehensive theory on the basis of genetic heredity which is called Mendel’s law of
Inheritance. He had randomly selected seven pairs of pea’s species in which it was seen the
inheritant characteristic of the one pair suppressed the inheritant characteristic of another pair in
his experiment. The first pair he called as Dominant written with a capital letter like for tallness
‘T’ and another pair as Recessive written with small letter as for Dwarfnes ‘t’ which are
Dominant Recessive
Characters
Characters Characters
Spherical smooth
Shape of the seed. Wrinkled seed.
seed.
Colour of the cotyledon. Yellow cotyledon. Green cotyledon
Colour of the flower. Red White
Shrinked or
Shape of the fruit. Smooth
Wrinkled
Colour of the fruit. Green Yellow
Position of the flower. Closed Farthest
Length or height of the
Tall Dwarf
plant.
According to Mendel there are two factors to express the same inheritant characteristic in every
reproductive cell and whenever these two factors are same then it is called Homozygous but
when these two are opposite then it is called Heterozygous. He studied one or two pair species of
opposite characteristic to diagonise the hereditary characteristics of the cross breeded species.
So, one pair cross is Monohybrid Cross and two pair is Dihybrid Cross.
the next. In this we will discuss about the inheritance of single characteristic or trait such as plant
height.
(i) Mendel first crossed pure-breed tall pea plants with pure-breed dwarf pea plant and found that
only tall plants were produced in the first generation or F1 generation. No dwarf pea plants were
The ratio 3:1 is known as Monohybrid ratios i.e. 3 (tall) and 1(dwarf).
determined by internal ‘factors’ which occur in pairs. Only one of a pair of such factors can be
shape and colour of seeds: round-yellow seeds, and wrinkled – green seeds.
(i) He first crossed pure-breed pea plants having round-yellow seeds with wrinkled-green seeds
and found that only round- yellow seeds were produced in F1 generation. No wrinkled green
four types of seeds having different combinations of shape and colour were obtained in F2
The ratio of each phenotype (appearance) of the seeds in the F2 generation is 9:3:3:1. This is
According to Mendel’s second law of inheritance: In the Inheritance of more than one pair of
traits in a cross simultaneously, the factors responsible for each pair of traits are distributed
The characteristics or traits of parents are transmitted to their progeny (offsprings) through genes
present on their chromosomes during the process of sexual reproduction. As genes work in pairs
one is dominant and other one is recessive and each parent possesses a pair of genes for each
characteristic on a pair of chromosomes. Thus, the male and female gamete carries one gene for
each characteristic from the gene pairs of parents. But when male and female gamete fuses
during fertilization zygote is formed, which grows and develops to form a new organism having
Please note that though the progeny inherits two genes or a pair of genes for each trait from its
parents but the trait shown by the progeny depends on which inherited gene is dominant of the
two.
A gene is the section of DNA on a chromosome which codes for the formation of a protein
controlling a specific characteristic of the organism. Suppose a plant progeny has gene for the
characteristic called ‘tallness’. Now, the gene for tallness will give instructions to the plant cells
to make a lot of plant growth hormones. And due to this, the plant will grow too much and hence
become tall and if the plant has a set of gene for dwarfness, then less plant growth hormone will
be produced and remain short and become dwarf. Just like plants the characteristics in animals
are also transmitted from the parents through genes by the process of sexual reproduction.
There are four Blood Groups in a person: A, B, AB or O. This blood group system is controlled
by a gene which has three different forms denoted by the symbols IA, IB and IO. The genes IA
and IB show no dominance over each other. So, they are co-dominant, but dominant over the
gene IO. In other words, the blood gene I0 is recessive in relation to genes IA and IB.
Although there are three gene forms (called alleles) for blood, but a person can have only two of
them. So, the blood group of a person depends on which two forms of the genes he possesses.
(i) If the genotype (gene combination) is IAIA, then the blood group of the person is A. And if
the genotype is IA I0 even then the blood group is A (because I0 is a recessive gene).
(ii) If the genotype is IBIB, then the blood group of the person is B. And if the genotype is IB IO
(iii) If the genotype is IAIB, then the blood group of the person is AB.
(iv) If the genotype is IOIO, then the blood group of the person is O.
Cell Division, Mitosis and Meiosis
According to the theory old cells split into new cells and the formation of new cells is known as
cell division or cell production. This was firstly observed by Flemming in 1882 but an extensive
Amitosis: This cell division takes place in less developed cell of unicellular organism and firstly
nucleus of the cell is divided and then later cytoplasm, ultimately two new cells are formed. In
bacteria, blue-green algae, yeast, amoeba, protozoa etc this type of cell division takes place.
Mitosis: This cell division is also known as Somatic cell division in which two identical cells are
produced. Although cell is divided but number of chromosomes remains the same and mitosis is
a continuous process. Various phases like prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, cytokinesis
- In all animal cells and in some plants like fungi and some algae.
- The centriole duplicates itself and divides two new centrioles (centrosomes) move to opposite
- The spindle fibres or series of fibres radiates from vicinity of each centriole towards the
nucleus.
- Except fungi and some algae the spindle fibres develop without the presence of centrioles.
- The chromosomes which are already duplicated become shorten and thicken.
- Chromatids are the duplicated halves of each chromosome which are held together by the
centromere.
- The nucleus and the nuclear membrane begin to disintegrate in the late prophase.
Metaphase:
- The pairs of chromosomes align themselves in such a way that the centre of the cell and each
- The centromere divides and the separated chromatids become independent daughter
chromosomes.
Anaphase:
- Spindle Fibres begin to shorten.
- This exerts a force on the sister chromatids that pulls them apart.
- This ensures that each daughter cell gets identical sets of chromosomes.
Telophase:
- The nuclear envelope forms i.e nuclear membrane forms around each new group of
chromosomes.
- The original large cell becomes two smaller identical cells and each daughter cells take food,
- Plays significant role in wound healing, regeneration of damaged parts (like tail of lizard), the
replacement of cells (the skin surface), and it may give rise to tumours or cancerous growth if
*In mitosis it is also ensured that two daughter cells inherit the same number of chromosomes
thus gametes (sex cells) are produced. It consists two successive cell division that resembles like
mitosis but chromosomes are duplicated only once. Thus, gametes have half the number of
chromosomes normally found in the body cells. Two sub stages – meiosis I and meiosis II occur.
• Meiosis I: Can be broken down into four sub stages: Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I and
Telophase I.
• Meiosis II: Can be broken down into four substages: Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II
Meiosis I:
- Homologous chromosomes will swap genetic material in a process known as crossing over
- Microtubules grow from the centrioles and attach to the centromeres where tetrads line up
Anaphase I:
- The centromeres break, cytokinesis begins and homologous chromosomes separated but the
- Depend upon species the chromosomes may decondense and cytokinesis reches to its
Meiosis II:
Prophase II:
- The nuclear membrane dissolves, centrioles form and move toward the poles.
Metaphase II:
- Microtubules attach to the centromeres and grow from the centrioles and the sister chromatids
Anaphase II:
- Depends upon species chromosomes may decondense, Cytokinesis reaches completion creating
A physical reaction which causes change in the nucleus of an atom is called nuclear reaction and
The mass of nucleus serves as the source of nuclear energy which is released mainly in the form
i) Nuclear Fission
The heavy nucleus of radioactive atoms like uranium, plutonium or thorium is bombarded with
low energy neutrons which split the nucleus into smaller nuclei. This process is called nuclear
fission. For example when uranium-235 atoms are bombarded with neutrons then the heavy
uranium nucleus splits to produce barium-139 and krypton-94 with the emission of three
neutrons. A lot of energy is also produced in this reaction because mass is converted into energy.
Also, in a nuclear fission reaction neutrons are used up and produced as well. The neutrons
produced in the nuclear fission reaction leads to further fission of heavy nuclei and cause chain
reaction. If all the neutrons produced during fission of uranium-235 produce further fission, then
so much energy will be produced that it will not be controlled and leads to explosion called atom
bomb. However, nuclear fission reaction can be controlled by using boron rods as boron can
absorb neutrons.
Nuclear fission reactions are done to generate electricity at nuclear power plants.
Nuclear power plants use nuclear fission reaction to generate electricity and the fuel used for this
purpose is uranium-235.
In a nuclear power plant fission reaction is carried out in a steel pressure vessel and inside is a
nuclear reactor. In a nuclear reactor uranium-235 rods are inserted in graphite core. Graphite is
called the moderator as it helps in slowing down the speed of neutrons so that a proper fission
reaction takes place. In between the uranium-235 rods are placed boron rods as they help in
absorbing excess neutrons and prevent nuclear fission reaction to of out of control. Boron rods
are called control rods. The nuclear rods can be raised inside or pulled outside the reactor as the
demand is. The nuclear reactor is enclosed in a concrete chamber which has thick wall so that it
Now the heat produced due to fission reaction in the reactor is cooled by using liquid sodium or
carbon dioxide gas which also helps it transfer to heat exchanger. Here with the help of a coolant
water is converted into steam. The steam produced is used to turn turbines and run generator.
Tremendous amount of heat energy is produced when controlled fission reaction takes place in
nuclear reactor. That is why liquid sodium is pumped continuously through the pipes attached to
the reactor. Sodium helps in absorbing the heat produced in the reactor. Then through pipes
extremely hot sodium is passed through water in the heat exchanger. Water absorbs heat from
hot sodium and boils to form steam. This steam is then passed at high pressure into turbine
chamber having turbine. This steam then rotates the turbine which is further attached to its shaft
and the generator. So, when turbine rotates, its shaft also rotates and drives generator. This
The spent steam coming out of turbine chamber is passed through condenser which contains
water and this water helps in cooling the steam. This steam then converts into water and through
pipes is again sent to heat exchanger. The waste material produced in the nuclear fission reaction
Nuclear bomb is based on the nuclear fission reaction of uranium-235 and plutonium-239. The
The atom bombs based on nuclear fission of uranium-235 ad plutonium-239 were dropped on
Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945 during the Second World War. This caused
E = mc2
M is mass destroyed
Since the speed of light is large so an extremely large amount of energy is produced even if small
amount of mass is destroyed. Also, if mass is taken in kilograms (kg) and speed of light in meters
Therefore, if one kg of mass of any matter is destroyed in nuclear reaction than the amount of
E = 1 * (3 * 108)2
E = 9 * 1016 J
The SI unit of energy released in nuclear reactions is electron volt (eV) or million electron volt
(MeV). And,
And,
Since absolute mass of atomic mass unit is 1.66 * 10-27 kg and the exact value of speed of light is
Also,
The meaning of fusion is to join or to combine. Therefore, the process in which two nuclei of
light electrons are combined to form a heavy nucleus is nuclear fusion. In the process of nuclear
The nuclei of atoms are positively charged and thus they repel each other. So in order to combine
or fuse these two nuclei to form one heavy nucleus a lot of heat energy and high pressure is
required. This shows that nuclear fusion is carried out by heating lighter atoms to an extremely
high temperature at high pressure. Some mass is also lost in this process which gives tremendous
amount of energy.
For example, when deuterium atoms are heated to an extremely high temperature under high
pressure than two deuterium nuclei combine to form helium which has a heavy nucleus, a
Nuclear fusion reaction is opposite of nuclear fission reaction. The energy produced in nuclear
fusion reaction has not been controlled yet and is much more than nuclear fission reaction.
Hydrogen bomb
Nuclear reactions which occur at extremely high temperature are called thermonuclear reactions.
This reaction is used in producing hydrogen bomb which causes mass destruction. Isotopes of
hydrogen, deuterium (2H) and tritium (3H), along with an element lithium-6 is used in making a
hydrogen bomb. The explosion of hydrogen bomb is done by using an atom bomb. This is
because when atom bomb is exploded then its fission reaction produced a lot of heat which raises
the temperature of deuterium and tritium in a few microseconds. Thus the fusion reaction takes
place and hydrogen bomb is exploded producing enormous energy. Hydrogen bomb causes
destruction of life.
Classification of Humans
Linnaeus classified humans as animals. He recognised that people belonged with monkeys and
apes in the taxonomic order Anthropomorpha, which he later renamed Primates. Linnaeus also
recognised all humans as belonging to a common genus, Homo, and species, sapiens.
In 1969 R H Whittakar classified all living organisms into five main kingdoms. According to the
Bacteria
Bacteria are the most ancient group of organisms, having appeared about 3500 million years ago,
and are the smallest organisms with a cellular structure. Bacteria range between the lengths of
0.1 to 10 micro metre. They occupy many environments such as soil, dust, water, air, in and on
plants and animals. On the basis of their importance bacteria can be divided into two parts:
(i) Helpful Bacteria : Certain types of bacteria live in the intestines of human beings and other
animals. These bacteria help in digestion and also produce vitamins for the body. Bacteria that
live in soil and water play a vital role in recycling carbon, nitrogen, sulphur and other chemical
(ii) Harmful Bacteria: Some bacteria cause diseases in humans preventing the body from
Virus
Viruses are the smallest living organisms, ranging from sizes of 20-300 m m; on an average they
Characteristics of Virus
They are the smallest living organisms.
They do not have a cellular structure.
They can only reproduce by invading living cells, therefore, they are all parasitic.
Most viruses cause disease.