Advanced Course in Algebra

A D V A NC E D CO UR S E
IN
AL GE B RA V
.
BY
W E B S TE R W E LLS S B ,
. .
P R O F E SS O R O F M A T H M A T C S I N T H
E I EM A SS A C H U S E TT S
I NS T I T U T E O F T E C H NO L O G Y
B O S TO N , USA
. . .
D . C. H E ATH P U BL I S H E R S
1 9 04
C O P Y R IG H T , 1 9 04 ,
BY W E B S TE R W E LL S .
C 0 CC c (
C (
O c 0 C
( c
0
C
C
PREFACE
I N p r e p ari n g t h e p r e s e nt w o r k , th e au t h o r h as e n de a v or e d
t o m eet t h e n e e d s o f Coll e g e s an d S c i ent i fic S ch ool s of t h e
h i gh e s t r an k .
Th e d e v e l o p m e n t o f th e s ubj e c t fol l o w s i n th e m ai n th e
au t h o r s C o ll e g e Al g e b r a ; bu t n u m e rou s i mp r ov e m e n t s h a v e
’
be e n i n t ro d u c e d .
At te n ti on i s e s p ec i al ly i n v i t e d t o th e fol l o w in g :
1 . Th e d e v el o p m e n t o f th e fun d a m e n t al l a w s o f Al ge br a fo r
th e p o s i t i v e a n d n e g a t i v e i n t e g e r t h e p o s i t i v e an d n e g a t i v e
,
fr a c ti o n a n d z e r o i n Ch a p s I a nd II
, ,
. .
In t h e ab ov e t r e a t me n t t h e au t h o r h a s fo ll o w e d t o a ce rt a i n
,
e xt e n t Th e Number S ys tem oA
f gl ebr a ,
by P r o fe s s o r H . B . Fine ;
wh o h as ve ry c our te ou s l y p e rmi tte d t h i s u s e o f h i s t re at i s e .
2 . Th e d e v e l o p me n t of th e p ri n c ip l e s o f e qui v al e n c e o f
e q uat i o n s , a n d s y s t e m s o f e q ua t i o n s b ot h li n e a r a n d o f h i gh e r
,
d e g r ee s ; see 1 1 6—1 23 , 1 8 2, 233- 6, 39 6, 4 4 2, 4 70, 4 77, an d
4 78 .
3 . Th e p r om i n e n c e gi v e n t o g ra ph i c a l r e p r e s e n t at i on .
In Ch a p X IV , t h e s t u d en t l e ar n s h o w t o o btai n t h e g r ap h s
.
o f li n ear e quat i o n s w i t h t w o u n k n o wn n u mbe r s , an d o f l i n ea r
e
e xpr s s i o n s w i t h o n e u n k n o w n n u mb er H e al s o l e a rn s h o w
.
t o r e p r e s e n t gr a p h i c al ly th e s ol ut i o n o f a s y s t e m o f t w o l i n e a r
e q uat i on s i n v o l v i n g t w o u nk n o w n n u mbe r s an d s e e s h o w i n d e
, ,
t e r mi n at e an d i n c o n s i s t e n t s y s t e m s ar e r e p r e s e n ted g rap h i c al l y .
Th e gr ap h i c al r e pr e s e n t at i o n o f q ua dr a t i c e xp r e s s i o n s w i t h ,
o n e u nk n o w n n u mbe r i s t ak e n up i n
,
4 6 5 ; a n d i n § 4 67 t h e
, ,
r
g p a h i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f e q u al a n d i m a g i n a r y r oo t s .
iv P R E FA C E
Th e p r i n c i p l e s are fur th e r d e v el o p e d fo r s i mul t an e ou s q u a d

r a t i os , i n 4 82 a nd 4 83 ; an d fo r r
e xp e s s i on s o f a ny d e g re e ,
w i th o n e un k n ow n n um b e r ,
in 74 4 an d 74 5 .
At t h e en d of C h ap X V II I
.
,
th e i s t a ugh t th e gr a p h i
s t ud e n t
r
cal r e p e s e n t a t i on o f t h e fun d am e n tal l a w s o fAl g eb r a fo r p u r e
im a gi n a ry an d c o mpl e x n um b e s r .
I n Ch a p . XXX V II ,
th e g p
r a h i c a l re p r e s e n t a ti o n i s gi v e n o f
D e r i v at i v e s of M ul t i p l e R o ot s o f S t ur m s
’
Th eore m an d o f a D i s c o n t i n u o us Fun ct i o n
4 . I n Ch ap V I I , t h e r e
. ar e g i v e n t h e R e m ai n d e r a nd F a ct or
Th e or e ms ,
an d th e p r in c i pl e s o f S y m m et ry .
5 . In C h a p V I I I w i ll be fo un d ev e ry m et h o d of fa c t o r i n g
wh i ch ca n be d on e a d v an t ag e o u s ly by i n s p e c ti on , i n cl ud i n g
fa c t o ri n g o f s y mm e tr i c al e xp r e s s i o n s . In t h i s ch ap t e r i s al s o
g i v e n S o l u t i on o f E q u a t i on s by F a c tori ng
6 . In t h e e a rli e r p o r ti o n s of Ch ap X I , t h e p u pi l i s s h o wn
.
t h at a dd iti on al s ol u t i on s ar e i nt r o du c e d by mu l ti ply i n g a
fr a c ti on a l e qu ati o n by an e
e xp r s s i o n w h i ch i s n o t t h e L C . . M .
o f th e g i v e nd e n omi n a tor s ; and is s h ow n h ow s u ch a dd it i on al

s ol ut i on s are d i s c ov e r e d .
7 In. 2 64 an d 2 6 5, t h e s tu d ent i s t au gh t h ow t o fin d t h e
val ue s o f e xp r e s s i on s t a k i n g t h e i n d e t er m i n at e fo r m s
33 , ,
0X 00 an d 00 oo
8 . All w or k c omi n g un der th e h e ad of th e B i n o mi al Th e o

re m for p o s it i v e i n t e gr al e xp o n n t s e i s t a k en up i n th e ch apt e r
on I n vol u t i on .
9 . d ev e l opi n g t h e p r i n c i pl e s o f E v ol uti on al l r o ot s ar e
In ,
r e s t r i c t ed t o t h e i r p r i n c i p al v a l u e s .
1 0 In t h e e xampl e s o f 3 9 8 t h e p up i l i s t aug ht t o r ej e c t
.
,
al l s ol u t i on s wh i ch d o n o t s a t i s fy t h e g i v e n e q u ati on wh e n ,
t h e ro o t s h a v e t h e i r pri n c i p al v a lu e s .
1 1 .The de v el op ment o f t h e th e o ry of th e Irrati o n al Num

be r an d i ts g ra ph i c al r e pr es e n t at i o n
, 39 9
1 2 Th e d e v e l op m e n t o f t h e fun d a me ntal l aw s of Al g ebra
.
for P ur e Imag in a ry and Co mp l e x Numbe r s ( Ch a p XV I II) .

,
PRE FA CE
1 3 . Th e us e of th e g e n ra e
l fo r m i n th e
t h e o ry o f q u a d r at i c e q ua t i o n s 4 54
1 4 . Th e d i s c us s i on of th e m axi ma an d mi n i ma v al ues of
u
q a d ra ti c e xp r e s s i o n s
1 5 . ch ap ter o n Con v e rg e n cy an d Di ve rge ncy of S eri e s

Th e
( C h a p XX V I )
1 6 I n Ch ap XX V II I i s g i v e n E ul e r s p r oof o f th e B i n o m
. .
’
. . i al
Th e o r e m for a n y R at ional'E xppn e n t
,
.
1 7 T h e s o l ut i o n o f l o g a r i t h m i c e qu a t i o n s
.
1 8 Th e p r oo f o f t h e fo rmul a fo r t h e n u mb e r o f p e rmu t a
.
'
t i o n s o f n d i fi e r e n t th i n g s t a k e n 7 a t a t i m e
,
1 9 Th e ch apt e r o n Th e o ry o f Numbe r s (Ch a p XXXV )

. . .
2 0 In t h e ch ap t e r on D e t e r m i n an t s t h e d oubl e-s u f
.
,
fix n o t a
t i o n i s u s e d o n ly i n de m on s tr ati o n s w h i ch w o ul d n ot ot he r w i s e
be c o mpl e t e .
E a c h d e m on s t rati on o f a ge n e r al p r i n c i pl e i s p r e ceded by
a n i ll u s tr at i o n s h o w i n g t h e t r ut h o f th e p r i n c i pl e for a d e t e r
m i nan t o f t h e t h i r d o rde r .
Mult ipl i c a t i o n o f d e te r mi n an t s i s t ak e n up o nl y fo r de te r
m i n a n t s o f t h e s e c on d a n d t h i r d o r d e r s .
21 . In C h a p XXX V II w ill b e foun d S y mm e t ri c al F u n c ti on s

.
o f t h e R oo t s a s h o r t e r p r o of o f D e s car t e s
’
R ul e
i mp r o v e d me th o d s fo r fi n d i n g li m i t s t o th e r o ot s
739 ,
t h e d e m o n s t ra t i on o f tw o t h e o r e m s us e d i n th e
p r oo f o f S t u r m s Th e o r e
’
m a n d a d i s c u s s i o n o f C o n
t in uo u s F un c t i o n s
22 Ch a p XXX V II I c o n tai n s th e s oluti on of C ubi c E qu a
. .
t i o n s by Tr i g o n o m et ry i n C ar d an s Ir r e d uc i bl e C a s e
,
’
a l s o a n i m r o v e d d i s c u s s i o n o f Ne w t on s M e t h o d f or d e te r
’
, p
m i n i n g i n c o mm e n s u r abl e r o ot s
Th e e x a mpl e s a n d p r obl e m s h a v e b e e n s e l e c te d w i t h g r eat
c a r e an d i n c l u d e man y v a ri e t i e s n ot foun d i n th e Col l e g e
,
Al geb r a ; n o e xa m pl e i s a d u pl i c at e o f a ny i n t h e C ol l e ge
Al g e br a .
Th e man u s c r i p t w a s r e a d i n th e m o s t c a r e ful m an n e r by
P r ofe s s o r G e o r g e D O l d s o f Amh e r s t Co ll e ge w h o offere d
.
, ,
Vi PR E FA C E
many s ugg e s ti on s ; the s e h av e a dde d mat e ri ally t o th e v al ue

o f th e w o rk .
The au t h or w ou l d be un d er ger a t ob l i ga t i o n s to a ny o n e wh o
w i ll bri n g to h i s e
a tt n ti o n an y e rr o r wh i ch m ay be fo un d i n
t h e bo ok .
WE B S TE R WE LL S .
B O S TO N ,
1 9 04 .
C O NTENTS
C H APT E R P AGE
'
IA EF D I ITION S N . NOT A TION . PO S ITIV E INT E G ERS 1
II RA
. TION A L NU M B ERS 1 1
31 1 1 A .D D ITION A ND S AO N O F A LG E B RA I
U B TR
C E PRESS ION
T IO S X .
P ARE NTH ESE S 23
M A N O F A LG E B RA I
U L TI P L IO E PRESS ION S
TI O C X 32
A V D VI S ION O F A E A E PRESS ION S

. I LG BR IO X
'
3 « VI I NT E G RA L L IN EAR E Q UA TION S
. 46
V II S PE C I A L M E THOD S IN M U LTI P LI C A TION A ND D IVI S ON
.
I 59
V III FA TO R ING
. C 76
'
IX . N
H I GH ES T C OMMO F A C TO R L O W ES T C OMMON M U LTI P L E . 99
4
X F RA TION S
. C 1 08
XI F RA C TION A L A D L IT ERA L E Q UA TION S

. N 1 22
X II S IM U LT A N E O US L IN EA R E Q UA TION S
. 1 33
X III D I S C USS ION O F L IN EAR E Q UA TION S

. 1 49
X IV GRAP HI C A L R EPRESE NT A TIO

. N 1 66
XV INVOL U TION A ND E VOL U TIO

. N 1 73
XVI I N E Q UA LITI E S
. 2 06
X V II Su. T HE O RY O F E PO E T S
RDs
'
. X NN 21 2
X V II I P . I M AG NA Y A N D C OM P L E N U M B ERS
UR E I R . X 24 6
X IX Q A A O E Q UA TION S
. U DR TI 26 1
XX E Q UA TION S S OLV E D LI K E Q UA D RA TI C S
. 29 2
X XI S IM U LT A N E O US Q UA D RA TI E Q UA TION S
. C 29 8
X X II IND E T ER M NA T E L N EA R E Q UA T IO N S
. I I 32 3
X X III R A TIO A ND P R O P O R ION
. T 32 8
X X IV V R I A TION
. A 33 8
X XV PR OG RESS ION S
. 34 3
X X VI C ONV R G E N C Y A ND D IV ER G E N C Y S ER I E S OF 36 2
E
.
vi i
v i ii CO N T E N TS
C H A PT E R P AG E
XX V II ND E T ER MIN E D C O EFF I I E NT S
. U C 3 78
X X VIII T . B INOMI A L T H E O RE M
HE 392
X X IX L OG AR ITHM S
. 39 9
X XX . N N
C OM P O U ND I T ERES T A D A NN U ITI E S 4 22
X XXI . N
P ER M U T A TION S A D C OM B IN A TION S 4 28
X X X II PR O B A B ILITY
. 4 36
X X X III C ONTIN UE D F RA C TIO S

. N 44 9
X X X IV S U MM A TION O S ER I E S
. F 4 59
XXX V T H E O R Y O F NU M B ERS
. 4 71
X X X VI D E T ER MIN A T S N 478
X X X V II T H E O R Y O F E Q UA TIO S N 5 02
N
.
X X X V III S OL U TIO O F H IGH ER E Q UA TION S

. 54 5
A PPE NDI X . C AU C HY S P R OO F TH A T E V E R Y E Q UA TION H A S A R OOT

’
5 76
N
A SW ERS
AL GEBR A
I . D E F IN IT ION S N O T A T ION
. . PO S IT IV E
IN T E G E R S
1 I n Al g ebra, th e o p e r at i o n s of Ar i th me t i c
. a r e abri dg ed an d
g e n e r al i zed by m e a n s o f S y m bo l s .
S Y M B OL S R E PRE S E N TING N UM B E RS
2 . Th e s y mb o l s u s u al l y e mpl o yed to r e p r e s en t n u mbe rs ar e
t h e Ar a bi c Numera ls ,
an d t h e L etters of th e A lp ha bet .
Th e n ume r a l s d e te rmi n at e n umbe r s

de n ot e k n o wn or .
Th e l e tt e r s d e n o t e n u mb er s w h i c h m ay h a v e a n y v al u es
w h at e ve r o r n u mb e r s wh o s e v al ue s ar e t o be d e t e r m i ne d
,
.
Numbe rs o cc upy i n g s i mil a r r el at i on s i n th e s a m e i n v e s ti ga
by d i fi e re n t a cc ents ; as a
'
t i on a re o ft e n r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e s a m e l e tt e r d i s t i n gui s h e d
,
a
"
,
r ea d a p ri me,
,
” “
c
a s e on d ,
”
”
a th i r d , etc .
Th e y m ay al s o be d i s t i n g ui s h e d by d i ffe r ent c
s ubs r ip t n u m
bers ; a s a1 , a 2, a 3, r ea d a s ub on e
“ ”
,
a s ub two ,
”
a s ub th r ee,
”
e tc .
S YM B OL S RE RESE P NTING OPE R AT IONS

3 . Th e S i g n of Addit i on ,
is rea d “
p lu s .
”
Th e S i gn of S ubt ra ct i on ,
is r ea d “
mi n us .
”
Th e S i g n of Mu l t i p l i cat i on, x , i s r e ad ti mes , “ ” “

i nto , ”
or
“
multip li e d by ”
.
A p o i n t i s s o me t i me s us e d i n s te a d o f t h e S i gn X ; t hu s ,
2 -3 -4 s i gn i fies 2 X 3 X 4 .
Th e S i g n of D i v i s i on ,
is r ea d “
d i vi ded by .
”
i i J
)
’
a
J J J
2 ADVAN C E D C O UR S E I N ALG E B R A
S Y M B OL S OF RE LATION
4 . Th e S i g n of E q uali t y ,
is r ea d “
equa ls ,
”
or
“
is equa l to .
”
Th e S ign is so me t imes us e d for t h e w o d s r “

i s no t e qua l to .
”
Th e S i gns of Inequ al i t y , an d s tan d fo r “

i s grea ter
r e s p e cti v e ly
” ”
th a n a nd i s les s th a n,
“
.
Th e si g ns )9 a nd 5c a r e so me t i m es us ed for th e w o d s r “
i s n ot g rea ter
th a n
”
an d
“
is no t l es s th a n , ”
res p e ct ively .
S Y M B OL S OF A BB RE V IA TION
5 . Th e S i g ns of Ag gregat i on, t h e p a r enth es es th e bra ckets
j ,
t h e br a ces f ,
an d th e v i n cu lu m i n d i c at e t h at wh at
is en c lo s e d by t h e m i s t o be t ak e n as a w h ol e .
Th e S i g n of Deduct i on ,
isr e a d th er efor e “ ”
or
“
h en c e .
”
Th e S i g n of Cont i nuat i on, m i s r ea d a nd s o

,
on .
”
TH E PO S IT IV E IN T E GER
6 . By t h e nu mbe r of t h i n gs in a g r o u p, w e mean t h at at tri
but e o f th e g r o u p w h i c h r e m a i n s u n c h a n ge d h ow e v e r t h e g r o up
m ay be c h a ng e d , p r ov i d e d n o t h i n g i s d i vi d e d i n to t w o o r
m or e t hi n g s , an d t h at t w o or m o re t h i n g s are n ot me r g e d i n t o
a s in gl e t h i ng .
Th a t i s t h e n umbe r Of th i n gs
,
in a
g r o up i s i n d epe n d e n t of
t h e i r ch a r a c t e r o f t h e o rd e r i n
, w h i c h th e y m ay be rra n ge d a ,
an d o f t h e w a
y i n w h i c h t h e y .
m ay b e a s s o c i a te d i n s m a ll e r
g r o up s .
7 Th e
. r
n u m be s o f t h i n g s i n t w o g roup s ar e sai d t o b e e qu a l
wh en fo r e v e ry t h i n g i n e i t h e r g r ou
p t h e re i s a th ing i n th e
o th e r .
8 . Th e n u mb e r o f thi n gs i n on e g r oup is s ai d t o be gr ea ter

th a n t h e n um be ,
r in an o t h er g r o up
or th e n u mb e r in th e se c on d
les s th a n t h e n u mbe r i n t h e fir s t , w h e n fo r e v e ry th i n g i n th e
s e c o n d g r ou t h r i t h i i t h fir st bu t n o t o ne i n th e
p e e s a n g n e ,
s e cond f o r e v e ry t h i n i n t h fi t
g e
r s ( C .
‘
.
C s t ‘ t
C l t
‘ t
P O S I T IV E INTE G E RS 3
9 . Th e Pos i t i v e Int eg er .
W e d efi n e a p o s i t i ve i n teger as th e n u mbe r of t h i ng s i n a
g r o u p .
A p os i t ive i nte ge r i s a l s o c all ed a wh o le number .
To e n s ure g e n e r a l i ty i n t h e r e s ul t s we r e p re s e nt n umbe r s by ,
le tte rs .
I n t h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h e p r e s ent ch a pt e r t h e l e t t e r s a b c , , , ,
etc w il l be un d e r s t o o d a s r e p r e s e nt i n g p o s i t i v e i n t e g e r s
, .
1 0 If . a and b s tan d fo r t h e n u m be r s in a ny t w o gr o u p s
( t h a t i s ,
fo r a ny t wo p o s i t i ve i n t e ge r s ), w e u s e t h e s t a t e me n t
a =b
to s i gn i f y t h at th e n u mbe r s a r e e qua l
Th e s t a t e me n t a b is c a ll e d an E qu at i on .
Agai n, w e us e th e s ta t e me n t s
a b, an d a b
to s ign i f y th a t t h e n u mbe r i n th e fir s t g roup i s g r e at e r or l es s ,

I
r e s p e c t i v e l y t h a n t h e n um b e r i n t h e s e c o n d
,
Th e s e s t at e m en t s ar e c all e d Inequ alit i es .
ADD IT ION OF PO S IT IV E INT E GE RS

1 1 . L et t w o or mo r e g ro up s c on ta i n a, b, c, th i n gs , re s pe c
t i v e ly .
I f th e se j o i n e d t o th e fir s t w e re p r e s en t th e
con d g r o u p be ,
n umbe r i n t h e r e s ul t i n g g r o up by a b .
If t o t h e l att e r g r o up t h e t h i rd g r o up be j o i n e d w e r e p r e ,
s e n t t h e n u mbe r i n t h e r e s u l t i n g g r o up by a + b + c ; an d
so on .
Aft e r al l t h e g r ou p s h a v e b e e n u nite d i n a s i ngl e r

g o u p, th e
n umbe r in t h e l a t t e r g r o u p i s e xp r e s s e d
a + b+ c + u
u
Th i s r e s ul t is c alle d t h e S um o f th e p o s i t i v e i n te g e rs a, b, c ,
e tc .
Th e r
o p e at i on of fi n d in g th e s um is c a l l e d A d d i t i on .
4 ADVAN C E D C O UR S E IN AL G E B RA
1 2 . Th e Commut a t i v e A s s oci at i v e Law s for Addi t i on

a nd .
Add i ti o n o f p o s i t i v e i n t e g e r s i s s ubj e c t t o t h e fo l lo w i n g l aw s :
I . Th e Commuta ti ve L a w .
To a dd b to a i s th e s ame a s to a dd a to b .
E xp re s s e d i n s y mb ol s ,
a + b = b+ a
II . T he As s o c i a ti ve L a w .
To a dd th e s um o f b an d c to a i s th e s am e as to a dd b to a
and th e n ad d 0 to th e r e s u lt .
E x p re s s e d i n s y mbol s ,
To i nd i c a t e th e a d di t i on of b c, i t m us t b e en cl os e d i n p a r enth es es
Th e Co m mutat i v e an d As s o c i ati v e L a w s fol l o w fro m 6;

fo r t h e n umb e
r o f t h i n gs i n t h e s um-g r ou p i s i n d e pe n d e n t of
t h e o r d e r i n wh i c h t h e y m ay be a rr a n g e d a n d o f t h e w ay in ,
wh i ch t h ey m ay be a s s o c i a te d i n s mal le r g r o up s .
Th e C o mm ut a ti ve a n d A s s o ciat ive L a w s e vi d e nt l y h o l d for t h e s um o f

any numb e r o f p o s i t i ve i n t e g e rs .
M UL T IPLIC A T ION OF PO S IT IV E IN TEGER S

1 3 . F i n di n g th e s um o f 5 p o s i t i ve i n t e ge r s , ea ch e qual to a,
is c al l e d multip lyi ng by b
a .
Th e r e s ul t is e xp r e s s e d a x b, o r s i mpl y ab; thus,
ab = a + a + t o b te r ms .
gn o f mul tipl i cati on i s us ually omi tt ed i n Algebra

Th e S i , c t b e tw e e n
e x ep
Arab i c numera l s .
W e c al l a th e Mult i pl i ca nd , an d b th e Multi pli er .
If a b b e mu l ti pli e d by an o t he r p o s i t i v e i nte g e r, c, th e re s u lt
is e x p r e s s e d a bc ; a n d s o on .
If a ny n umbe r of p o s i t i v e i n t e ge r s be mu lti p li e d t og e t h e r,
th e r e s ul t is c al l e d th e i r P roduct .
The o
p e r a t i on o f fi n d i ng t h e p o
r d uct is c all e d Mult i pl i cat i on .
PO S IT IV E INT E G E RS 5
1 4 .
Mul t i p l i cat i on
Th e Commut at i ve, As s oci ati v e ,
.
and D i s t ri but i ve La w s for
1 '
Mult i p li c at i o n of p o s it i v e i n t e g er s i s s ub e j ct t o t h e foll o w in g
law s :
I . Th e Co mmuta ti ve L a w .
T o m ul t i p l y a by b i s t h e s ame as to m ul t i pl y b by a .
E x pr e s s e d i n s y mb o l s , ab ba .
II . The A s s o c i a ti ve L a w .
To m ul t i p l y by th e p r o du c t o f b by c, i s t h e
a sa me as to
mul ti p l y a by b, an d t h e n mul ti p ly t h e r e s ul t by c .
E xp r e s s e d i n s y mb ol s , a ( bc) a bc .
III . Th e D i s tr i buti ve L a w .
To m ult i pl y by t h e s um o f b a n d c i s th e s am e
a as to mul ti
l
p y a b y b ,
a n d t h e n a b y c ,
a n d a dd t h e re s u l t s .
E xp re s s e d i n s y m bo l s , a (b c
) ab ac .
1 5 . Proof of t h e Commut at i v e Law .
L e t t h e r e be, i n th e fi g ur e a un i t s i n e ac h r ow
, ,
an d b r ow s .
W e may fin d t h e e n t i r e n u mb e r o f un i t s by
a m a” r o w '
mult i ply i n g t h e n um b er i n e ach r o w a by th e , ,
1 1 1 1
n u m be r o f r o w s , b .
1 1 1 1
Th us ,
th e e nt i re nu mbe r o f un i t s is ab .
1 1 1 1
W e ma y al s o fin d th e entire n um b e r by mul ti
p l y i n g t h e n um be r in e ach v e r t i c a l c ol um n b by , ,
t h e n u mber of c ol u mn s , a .
b ro ws .
Thu s t h e e n ti r e
,
n um b r o f
e uni ts i s ba .
Th e re fore , ab ba .
1 6 . Proof of t h e A s s oci at i v e Law .
By th e d e fin iti o n of 1 3,
ab c : ab ab to 6 t e r ms
( a a t o b t er ms) ( a a t o b t e rms )
to 0 te rm s
d + a t o bc t e r m s ,
by th e As s oc i a t i v e La w fo r Add i ti on 1 2)
a
( ),
bc by t h e d e fi ni t i on o f 1 3 .
6 ADVAN CE D C O UR S E I N ALG E B R A
1 7 Proof of t h e Di s t ri buti v e Law .
By th e d e fi n i ti on of 1 3,
= e r ms
a
( +
b c
) a + a + to ( +
b c ) t
( d + a to b te r ms) (
d + a to c t e r m s ),
by t h e A s s o c i a t i v e L a w fo r Add i t i o n
ab a c, by t h e d e fi n i ti on o f 1 3 .
1 8 . We w i ll h o w th at th e Co mmut ati ve an d As s o c i a
n ew s
t i v e L a w s fo r Mul t i p l i c at i o n h ol d fo r t h e p ro d u c t of a ny
n um be r o f o s i t i v e i n t e g e r s
p .
W e w il l fir s t p r ov e t h e Co m mut at i v e L aw for th e p r o d u c t of
th ree p o s i t i v e i n t e g e r s a b an d 0 , , ,
.
By 1 4 , I I, a bc = a ( )
bc
( ) cb a , by 1 4 , I,
cba
In l i k e ma nn e r, w e m ay p r ov e a bc e q ual t o th e p r o d u c t of a ,
b, an d c i n an y o t h e r o rd e r .
1 9 . We w i ll n ow
p r o v e th e As s oc i at i v e L a w for th e p r o d uc t
of fo ur p o s i ti v e i nt e g e r s , a, b, c ,
an d d .
By 1 4 , I, a
( )
bc d ( )
bed a :2
( )
be d a a
( )
bc d 1 8)
( ab c)d 1 4 , I I) ab cd .
By c o n ti n u i n g th e fo r e go i n g, th e C o mm u t a t i v e and A s s oci a
t i ve L a w s m a y be p r o v e d fo r t h e p r o d uc t o f an n umb r e of
y
p o s i t i v e i nte ge r s .
Th e D is trib uti ve L a w fo r Mul tip l icati on h ol ds fo r th e sum of any

n um b e r of p os i t iv e i n t e g e rs as i s e vid e n t from t h e n a ture o f th e d e m on
,
s t rat i o n in 1 7.
S UBT R A C T ION OF PO S ITIV E I N TE GE RS

20 . We d e fi n e S ubt ract i on th e p roc e s s o f fi n d in g on e of
as
t w o p o s i ti v e i n t e g e r s ( t h e R emainder), wh e n t h e i r s um (th e
Mi nuend) a n d th e o t h e r p o s i ti v e i nt e ge r ( t h e S ubt rah end
) ar e
g i v e n .
Th us , s ubt ra c t i on i s th e i n v e rs e o f ad d i ti on .
21 . The re mai nde r, wh e n b i s s ubtrac te d from a , i s e xpre s s ed

a b .
PO S IT IV E I NT E G E RS 7
S i n c e , by t h e d e fi n i t i o n o f § 20, t h e s um o f t h e re ma i n d e r
a n d t h e s ubt r a h e n d e q u a l s t h e m i n u e n d , w e h a v e
( a ( 1 )
22 . If th e n a = b .
F o r i f th e r
n umbe s o f u n i t s in th e s um s a c an d b c are
e q ual , th e r e s ul t o f s u b tr a c ti n g t h e un i t s i n c fr o m ea ch s um
w i l l be t h e s ame ; t h a t i s ,
a b.
23 . It fo l lo w s , p r e c i s e l y as In 2 2 , th a t
If th en a >b .
If th en a <b .
24 . R ul e s for S ubt ract i on .
Th e foll o w i n g r ul e s ,
t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e l aw s of 1 2 an d 1 4,
ar e s uf fic i e n t ,
i f s ui t a bly c o mbi n e d ,
t o d e te r m i n e t h e e s ult o f
‘
r
a ny o p e r at i o n w i th p o s i t i v e i n t e g e r s , i n v o l v i n g o n ly a dd i t i on ,
s u btr a c ti o n , a n d m ul t i p li c a t i o n :
-b — c
( 1) a .
— = — c— b
@) a b — c a
— — c = a — b
( )
3 a
( b ) + c .
a + b — b = a .
5 —
( ) a + (b c .
w) a + b — c =a — e
+h
7 b— —
( ) a ( c
) ab ac .
25 . Pr oofs of t h e R ul es for S ubt ract i on .
P r oof of
If w e a dd 0, an d th e n b to a b c, or 1 2, I), i f w e a dd
b, an d th en 0, Or 1 2, II), i f w e add b c, th e re s ul t is a .
Th a t i s , a — b
R e ga r d i n g a as th e mi n u e n d , b + c as th e s ubtra h en d , an d
a b c as th e re m a i n d e r, w e h av e
a — b— c .
8 ADVAN CE D C O U R S E IN ALG E B R A
P ro of of
W 0) .
a — c — b= a
— — b— b
a a y a)
P ro of f
o
— b+ e = a
— C + cz by
a ( b
P r oof of
We h a ve a +b
Th e n, by § 22 , a + b — b = a .
P r oof of
B y § 2l , a +b — c
a +( b — c) + c — c I I)
+( — by
a b c) ,
P r oof of
B y § 1 2, I, a + b — c = b+ a — c
)
,
by
— — c
( a c
) + b +b .
P r o of of
B y § 21 ab — ac
,
a
( b —
)+ c ac —a c
( § 1 4 ,
I II =
) (a b —c
) y
,
b
It i s i mp o rta nt t o o b s e rv e t h a t th e r e s ults o f 24 a r e s i mp l y
fo rm al c o n s e q u en c e s of 1 2, 1 4 , 2 1 ,
an d22 ; t h e y m u s t fo ll o w
fr o m t h e s e w h at e v e r me an i n g i s att a ch e d t o th e s y mb ol s , a , b,
c,
an d
26 . E q ua ti on s ( )
2 a n d 24 , s h o w t h at a s e t of S ub tr a c
tio n s , o r of a d d iti on s and s ubtrac ti on s , ca n be p e rfo rme d in an y
o rd e r .
E q ua ti on (4 ) S h o w s t h at dd i t i on i s th e i nv er s e o fs ubtra ct i on
a .
E q ua t i o n s an d w i th 1 2 II g i v e c om pl e t e , ,
as s o c i a ti v e law s fo r a ddi t i o n a n d s ubtr a c t i on .
E q ua t i o n w it h 1 4 I I I g i ve a c ompl et e d i s tr i bu t i v e
, ,
W for m ult i pli c a t i o n .

1 0 ADVAN C E D C O UR S E IN ALG E B R A
a d 0 a d
A1 3 0:by 1 4 7 II
be d b C
do
B ut by 28,
Cd
Wh e n c e ,
by 29 ,
g ( )
B
F ro m (A) a n d (B ) , by 29
ad be
3 a+ q
b d bd
F o r by 1 4 , I , II, an d I I I,
e
+ b
d
ad be, by 28,
Al s o ,
“d
:
b
be
bd ad be, by 28, ( )
D
F c d /D b 29 : '
i‘
b d bd
a q ad be
( )b
4
(1 bd
Th i s i s p r o ve d i n th e sa m e m an n e r as
Th e r e s ult s o f 30 are Si m p ly fo r m al c o n s e q ue n c e s of 1 4
24 , 2 8 , an d 29 ; an d m u s t fo ll o w fr o m t h e s e w h a t e v e r m e a n i n g
is a tt a ch e d t o th e s y mbo l s a, b, 0, “ b, a n d
31 . Ifa d : bc, t h e n d = b
“
l
b a
o
Th e n ,
by 29 ,
g
R A T IONAL N UMB E RS 1 1
II . RA T ION A L N U M B E R S
32 .Th e p r o o fs i n § 2 5 h o l d o n l y wh e n t h e r e s ul t o f e v e ry
i n di c at e d s ubt r a c t i on i s a p os i ti ve i n teger ; fo r t h e l aw s o f 1 2
an d 1 4 h ave y b e e n p r o v e d fo r t h e c a s e i n w h i ch al l th e
o nl
l e tt e r s i n vol v e d r e p r e s e n t p os i t i ve i n t e g e r s .
A r e s u lt l i k e ( 1 ) h a s a t p r e s e nt n o m ea n i ng un l e s s b + c
, ,
is a ; a n d i n t h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h e w o r k w e s h o u l d be co m
e ll e d t o l i m i t e v e ry s ubt r a c t i o n t o c a s e s w h e r e i t w a s a r i t h
p
m e t i ca lly p o s s i bl e .
U nl e s s , t he n, s ubt ra c ti o n i s t o be ve ry m uc h r e s tri c te d ,
we
mu s t c o n s i d e r t h e c a s e s wh e r e t h e s ubt ra h e n d e q ua l s , o r i s
g r e a t e r t h a n ,
t h e m i n u e n d ; t h i s l e a d s t o t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n i n t o
Al ge br a o f Z er o a n d th e Nega ti ve Number .
S Y M B OL IC E QUA T IONS
33 . Th e e q uat i o n 21 ,
is n o t a n e qu a t i o n a s d e fi n ed in
1 0, u nl e s s a a n d b are p o s i t i ve i nte g e r s , and a b .
B ut i f w e r
a g ee to d efine a n e q uat i o n a s s i m p ly a s ta te me nt
th a t two sy mbo ls , o r co mbin a ti o ns of s ymbo ls , a r e of s uch a cha r
a cter th a t o n e m a y be s u bs ti tu te d fo r th e o th er i n a ny op e r a t i o n ,
the n § 21 ,
m ay be an e q ua t i o n wh ate v e r th e v a l ue s of
a and b .
In thi s y mb oli c d e fi ni ti on o f an e q uati on i t i s unn e c e s s a ry

s ,
t h a t t h e r e S h o ul d be a ny r e a l th i n g s t o w h i c h t h e s y mbo l s
c o r re s p ond .
W e s h al l atta c h th i s m e a n i n g t o e v e ry e quati o n thr o ugh o ut

t h e r e m ai n d e r o f t h e w o r k wh i c h d oe s n o t e xp r e s s t h e e q ua l i ty
o ft wo
p o s i t i v e i n t e e
g sr .
34 . S y mbol i c S ubt rac t i on .
If w e r e ga rd e q u at i o n 21 , as d efi n i n g a b, wh a te ver
th e va lu es o f a a nd b, w e h av e i n th i s w a y a sy mbo li c d e fi n i t i o n
o f s ubt a r c ti o n which h o ld s u n i v e r s a l ly .
1 2 ADVAN CE D C O UR S E IN ALG E B R A
Th i s de fi n e s s ubtr a c ti o n i n t e r ms o f s ymboli c a d di ti o n fo r
t h e S i gn c an n ot i n d i c a t e n umer i c a l a d di ti o n un l e s s th e ,
s y mb ol s wh i c h i t c o n n e c t s a r e p o s i t i v e i n t e g e r s .
It i s p e r fe c tl y l ogi c al t o d e fi n e a n o p e r ati on by m ean s o f

an e q u at i on .
Z ER O AND TH E N E GAT IV E IN TE GER

35 . In d e t e r mi n i n g th e d e fi n i ti on s a n d r u l e s o f o p r at i o n o f e
z ero an d th e n ega ti v e i nteger, w e m a k e t h e a s su m p t i o n t h at t h e
r es ul t s o f 1 2, 1 4 , 2 2 , and 23 h ol d fo r t h e s e s y mb ol s .
If all th e l e tt e r s d o n ot p re r e s e nt
p o s i t i ve i n te ge r s , th e
r e s ul t s of 1 2, 1 4 , 22 , an d 2 3 ar e r e g ar de d as s y mboli c
s t a t e m nt s
e .
36 . S i n ce th e re s ult s of 24 a r e s i m pl y fo rmal c on se que n ce s

of 1 2, 1 4 , an d 22, a nd th e d e fi n i ti o n o fs ubt ra c t i on , i t foll o w s
fr o m 3 5 t h at t h ey h ol d fo r t h e ab ov e s y mbol s .
If t h e r e s ul t s o f h a v e a p o s i t i v e i n t e gr a l i n t e r
24 d o n ot
r et ati o n t h e y a r e r e g a r d e d as s y m bo l i c s t at em e nt s
p ,
.
In t h i s w a y t h e y b e c o m e d e fi ni t i o n s o f s y m bol i c a dd i ti on ,
s ubt ra c ti o n an d mu l ti p l i c at i on a n d t he i r r e l at i on s
, , .
3 7 Z er o
. .
r l
E v e y e tt e i n r 3 7t o 4 2 , i n c l us i ve ,
wi ll b e und ers to od a s repres enti ng
a p os i ti ve i nteg er .
P utt i n g b a, in 28 , w e h av e
( a ( 1 )
The s y mbol a a i f a i s an y p o s it iv e ,
i nte ge r, i s r e p r e s e nt e d
by th e s y mbo l 0 c a l le d z er o ,
.
Th e n (1 ) be c o mes 0 a a . 2
( )
S in c e t h e Co m mut at i v e L aw fo r Add i ti o n 1 2) i s a s s um e d
to h ol d if e it her l e t te r e qu a l s 0 w e m ay w rite e q ua
Ag ai n , by d e fi n i ti o n , a 0 m e an s a s y mbol su ch th at wh e n
0 is a dd e d to it , t h e s um is a .
Th at i s, ( a 0) 0 a .
R A T I ONAL N UM B E RS 1 3
Th e n , by a O a .
( )
4
Aga i n , by t h e d e fi n i ti on o f 0,
— b = — ab
a
) ab ,
by § 24 ,
O, by d e fi n i t i o n .
( )
5
We ca n us e 24 , i n th e a b ove p ro of know fro m 36 th a t
fo r w e
l
it h o d s , e ve n i f th e res ul t d o es n ot h av e a p o s i t i ve i nt e gra l i n t e rp r e t a t i o n .
Fr om by t h e C o mmuta t i v e L aw for Mult i p l i c ati on ,

OX Ct 0 .
( )
6
38 . Th e Neg at i v e Int eg er .
L e t b b e g r e a te r th a n a ; and s upp o s e b a d, wh e r e d is
a p o s i t i v e i n t e g e r .
Th en ,
by t h e d e fi n i t i on ofs ubt r a c ti on, b a d .
Th en a — b = a -a —d b 24 ,
, , y
0 d e fi n i t i on o f 0
d , by t h e .
We ca n us e 24 , i n th e a b ov e fo r w e k n o w th a t i t h o l d s e v e n if
, ,
th e res ul t d o e s n ot h av e a p os i t i ve i n t e gr a l i n t e rp re t a t i o n .
W e th e n d e fi ne a b, i f b i s a, as be i n g e q ua l to 0 d .
It i s u s ua l to w r it e d i n s t ea d of 0 d .
Th us , 0 d
Th e s y mbo l d is c all e d a Negat i v e Int e ge r ; i n co n t r a d i s
t i n c t i o n , t h e p o s it i v e i n t e ge r d m ay b e wr i tte n d .
39 . Th e s igns an d w he n u s e d i n t h e ab ov e mann e r,
a re no l o n ge r s i gn s o f o p e r a ti o n ; t h ey a re c all e d s i gn s of
Af
fec ti o n, Q u a li ty, or Opp os i ti o n .
Ifno S i gn I s w r i tte n , t h e Si
g n is un d e r s t oo d .
4 0 R u l e s for
. Addi t i on ,
S ubt ra ct i on, a nd Mult i pli cat i on, i nv olv
i ng Ne gat i v e Int eger s .
—b =
( 1 ) a + ( ) a — b .
F o r, by t h e d e fi n i t i on of 38,
— b by 24 ,
a + ( ,
a — b
,
by 3 7,
1 4 ADVA NC E D C O UR S E IN ALG EB R A
— —b — b) = —
F o r, a + ( ) — a + (0 -a
+ 0 b
O— a
—0 by § 24 ,
( )
3 a
F or, a — b) = a — (O — b =
) a
( )
4 — a — b
) = —a
+ b = b — a .
F or, — a — b) = — a — b)= — a — O + b= — a +b 0
— a 3 7,
+ b, by
_b
P utt i n g b fo r a in ( 1 ) an d we h a ve
( ) +
5 b (
( )
6
7
( ) -b
( )
8 a ( — b) — ab .
By 3 7, 0 z a O= a
[ b by
ab a ( b), by 1 4 , III .
Th en ,
a b —l a b ab a b) .
Wh en c e ,
by 22 , ab a b) .
( )
9 b)a = ab ba .
Th i s fol l o w s fr o m ( ) y
8 b 1 4, I .
( )
1 0 a
) x 0 0 .
F o r , by t h e d efi n i t i o n o f O,
- a
) X 0= (t o
m b - b) — a
)b by 24 ;
ab
) ab
) ,
by
0, by
( 1 1 ) 0x a
) : 0 .
Th i s fol l o w s fr o m (1 0) by 1 4, I .
R A T I O NAL N UM B E R S 1 5
( )
1 2 a
) b) = ab .
By
a b
) + ( a
) b), by 1 4 , I II,
ab
) a b), by ( )
9
Th e n —a b + =—
by ab ab +
( — a
) b).
Th en by 2 2, a b a
)( b) .
41 . If b i s > a,
The n ,
Th e n by 23 , — a
> — b ( )
.1
In l i k e m a nn e r , i f b i s < a , a is — b .
Th e s e m ay be r e g ar d e d a s d e fi n i n g g r e at e r a n d l e s s i n e q ual i ty
i n n e ga t i v e i n t eg e r s .
42 . If a an d b a re p o s i t i v e i nt e g e r s ,
a < d + b; o r, by 3 7,
Th e n by 23 , ,
O b .
Th en , b b b O, by 3 7, an d 4 0,
Wh e nc e by 23 , ,
b 0 .
S Y M B OL IC D IV IS ION
43 . I t i s i m p o r ta n t t o obs e v e r t hat th e r e s u lt of 29 d oe s
n ot h ol d w h e n c 0; fo r by 3 7, a xO b x 0, w h e n a an d
b a r e n ot e q ual .
I t fo ll o w s fr o m t h i s t h a t t h e p r o o fs i n 30 an d 31 d o n ot
hold i f b z o O I “
44 . S y mbol i c D i v i s i on . Th e Fract i on .
Th e p r oo fs i n 3 0 a nd 3 1 h ol d o n l y
w h en th e r e s ul t o f
e v e ry i n d i c at e d d i v i s i o n i s a p o s i t i ve i n teger .
A r e s ul t l ik e t h a t o f 3 0, h a s , a t p r e s e nt, n o m e an i n g
a 0 ac
un l e s s ’ a nd are p o s i t l v e In t e g e s r .
b d bd
B ut i f w e r e ga r d e q ua t i o n 28 , as d efin ing wh at
e ve r th e v alu e s o f a an d b, p r o v i d e d b i s n o t 0 we h av e
a s y mbo li c d e fi n i ti o n o f d i v i s i o n , w h i c h h o l d s un i v e r s a l l y .
Th e s y mbol g, w it h th e a bo v e m e a n in g o f a an d b, i s c all e d
b
a Fra ct i on .
Th e sy mb o ls 1
3 a nd
g ar e c o n s i d e re d i n C h ap X III. .
If a an d b are p o s i t i v e r
In t e g e s , a nd
g is n ot a p o s i t i v e
i n t e g e r, is c all e d a P os i t i v e Fra ct i on, an d a Negat i v e

Fract i on .
45 . W e m ak e th e as s u m p t i on t h a t th e
‘
r e s ul t s o f 1 2, 1 4 ,
an d 22 h ol d fo r t h e s y m bol as d efi n e d in 44 ; wh e n c e ,
it
foll o w s t h at t h e r e s ul t s o f 24 h ol d for t h e s y mbo l

W e al s o a s s u m e th at th e r e s ul t o f 2 9 h ol d s fo r al l t h e s y m
bol s c o n s i d e r e d i n th e p r e s e nt ch ap te r , pr o vi d e d b i s n o t 0 .
46 . S i n c e th e r e s ul t s o f 3 0 a n d 31 are s i mpl y fo rmal co n
s e q uen ces of 1 4 , 24 , an d d e fi n i ti on o f d i v i s i o n
29 , an d th e ,
i t foll o w s fr o m 4 5 t h at t h e y h ol d p r o v i d e d b a n d d a r e n ot 0
, ,
e v e n i f t h e r e s u l t s d o n ot h a v e a p o s i t i v e i n t e g ra l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .
In t h i s w a y t h e r e s u lt s o f 3 0be c o m e de fi n i ti o n s o f a dd i t i o n
, ,
s ubt ra c t i o n mul t i pl i c a t i o n an d d i v i s i o n f
, ,
o r t h e s y mb ol ,
4 7 S i n c e th e
. r e s ul t s of 1 2, 1 4 , 2 2, an d 24 h ol d for an y
o f th e s ymbol s c on s i d e r e d i n t h e p r e s e nt ch ap t e r 35 36 , ,
t h e r e s ul t s o f 3 7 an d 4 0 h o l d fo r a ny of t h e s e s y m bo l s ; for
t h e y ar e s i m p l y fo r m a l c o n s e q ue n c e s o f 1 2 1 4 22 an d , , ,
24 ,
a n d t h e d e fi n i t i on o f s ubt r a c t i o n .
48 . Sinc e th e y mb ol i c d efi n i t i on
s of d i v i s i on 4 4) h ol d s
fo r an
y v a lu e s o f t h e l e tt e r s i n v o l v e d ,
w e h av e
Ag ai n, 4 0, h ol d s wh en we r e pl a e ac by 4 7)
The n , b= a .
(B )
1 8 ADVAN C E D C O UR S E I N ALG E B R A
In Ch ap I, w e . d e fi n e d t h e p o s i t i v e i n t e g e r a n d t h e o p er a ,
ti o n s o f Add i ti o n S ubt r a c t i o n M ul ti p l i c a t i on an d D i v i s i o n
, , ,
w i t h p o s i t i v e i n t e g e r s ; a n d w e S h o w e d h o w t h e fun d a m e n t a l
la w s of 1 2 1 4 22 a n d 2 9 fo ll o w e d fr o m th e d e fi n i t i o n s o f
, , ,
A d d i t i o n a n d Mult i p li c a t i o n a n d t h e r e s ult s o f , 24 a n d 3 0
fr o m t h e a bo v e g e n e r al l a w s a n d t h e d e fi n i t i o n s o f S ub tr a c t i on
,
an d D i vi s i o n .
I n C h ap II, . we a ssu med th e fun d a m e n tal l aw s of 1 2, 1 4 ,

22, an d 29 , a nd th e s y m b o li c d e fi n i t i o n s o f S ub t r a c t i o n a n d
D iv i s i o n, t o h old uni v e r s al ly ; an d fr o m t h e s e a s s umpt i on s w e ,
d e r i ve d t h e d e fi n i t i o n s o f z e r o t h e n e g a t i v e i n t e g e r a n d t h e
, ,
o i t i ve a n d n e g a t i v e fr a c t i o n a n d t h e r ul e s fo r t h e i r o e r a
p s , p
t i o n t h e a s s um p t i o n s b e i n g j u s t s uf
,
fic i e nt t o de te rmi n e th e s e
me an i n g s w i t h o u t a mb i gui t y .
51 . R at i ona l Numbers .
In th e p r e s e n t ch a pt e r, w e h av e c on s i d e r e d fo u r s y mbol s
z e r o , t h e n e g a t i v e i n t e g e r , a n d th e p o s it i v e a nd n e gati v e fr a c
t i o n — w h i c h a r e s ub j e c t t o t h e s a m e r ul e s a s p o s i t i v e i n t e ge r s .
Th e r e s ult o f eve ry r
o p e a ti o n i n v ol v i n g y a dd i ti on s ub
o nl ,
t r a c ti o n , m u l t i pli c a t i o n , an d d i v i s io n — w h e th e r p e r fo r m e d o n
p o s i t i v e i nt e g e r s , or y m b o l s t h e m s e l v e s — ca n b e e x
on th e s
p r e s s e d e i t h e r a s a p o s i t i v e i n te g e r o r a s o n e o f t h e, s y m b o l s .
F o r t h i s r e a s o n w e s h al l r e g a r d t h e s e s y m bo l s a s n umber s ;
,
a n d w e s h a ll t e r m t h e e n t i r e s y s t e m o f p o s i t i v e an d n e g at i ve
i n t e g e r s an d p o s i t i v e a n d n e g a ti v e fr a c ti o n s R a ti o na l Number s
, ,
.
Z e r o t h e n e g a ti v e i n t e g e r an d t h e p o s i t i v e a n d n e gat i v e
, ,
fr a c ti o n a r e e s s e n t i all y a r tific i a l n um be r s i n c o n t ra s t t o th e
, ,
n a tur a l n u mb e r s i r c n s i d e r e d i n Ch a p I
(p o s t i v e i n t e g e s ) o . .
I t m u s t b e c l e ar l y u n d e r s t o o d t h a t th ey a r e s i m ply s ymbo ls
fo r t h e r e s ul t s o f o p e r at i o n s o n a c t u a l g r o up s o f th i n g s w h i c h ,
c ann o t be e xp r e s s e d i n p o s i ti v e i n t e g e r s (C o mp a r e .
W e Sh all us e th e ter m p os i ti ve n umber i n C h ap s II t o X VII i n cl us i ve ,

.
, ,
t o d e n o t e a p o s i ti ve i nteg er o r a p os i t i ve fr a cti o n ; a n d t h e t e r m neg a ti ve

n umbe r to d e n o t e a n eg a ti e i nteg e r v a n eg a t i ve f r a ct i o n
or Th e t e r m .
n u mber w i th o ut a q ua l i f
, y i n g a d j e ct i e wi ll b e u n d e r t o
v o d,
a s S i gn i fy i n g s
a p o s i t i ve o r n eg a t i ve i n teg er , or a p os i ti ve o r n eg a t i ve fra ct i o n .
R A T I ONAL N UM B E R S 1 9
E ve ry l e tt e r wi ll b e un d e rs t o o d asr ep res e n t ing a p os it ive o r ne ga ti ve

int e ge r ,
or a p os i t i ve or ne g a t iv e fra ct i o n u nl e s s t h e co n tra ry i s t at e d
, s .
52 . I t i s i m p o r ta n t t o o bs e v e r th at th e r e s ul t s of 24 an d
3 0, and al l th e r e s ul t s of C h ap I I .
,
fol l o w fr o m t h e fu n d a
m e n t a l la w s of 1 2, 1 4 , 2 2, 2s , a nd 29 , an d th e s y mbol i c
d e fin i t i o n s o f s ubt r a c t i on an d di v i s i on , en tir e ly i r resp ecti ve o f
w h eth er o r no th e sy mbo ls h a ve a ny n u mer i c a l m ea n i ng .
Thu s all th e r e s ul ts o f th e
,
t e xt h ol d fo r an y s y mb ol s wh i ch
s at i s fy t h e fun d am e n t al l a w s ,
no m a t t e r w h a t t h e i r m e an i n g .
53 . Th e a bs o lu te v a lu e o f a n u mbe r i s th e n umb e r t ak e n
i n d e p e n d e n tl y of th e Sign af
fe c tin g it .
T h us ,
th e a bs o l ut e v al u e o f 3 is 3 .
54 . The r e s ul t s of 42 h old wh e n b is an
y p o s i ti v e n u mbe r .
Henc e ,
z ero i s les s th a n a ny p os i t ive n u mber, a n d a ny n ega ti ve
n umbe r i s les s th a n z ero .
55 . Ag a i n, by § 4 7, th e r e s ult § 41 ,
als o h ol d s when a
an d b ar e p o s i t i v e fr a c t i o n s .
Hence ,
of two n ega ti ve n u mbers , th a t i s th e gr ea ter w h ich h a s
th e s ma ller a bs o lu te va l ue .
56 An y t w o m a gn i t ud e s w h i ch a r e Opp os i te t o e a c h o t h e r m ay
.
be r e p r e s e n t e d by p o s i t i v e a n d n e ga t i v e n um be r s , i n Al g e br a .
T h us , i n fi n a n c i al t r a n s a c t i o n s , w e m ay r e p r e s e n t a s s ets by
the S i gn an d l ia bi li t i es by th e S i g n t h us , t h e s ta t e m e nt
th at ma n $ 1 00, m e a n s th at h e h a s li abi li t i e s
’
a s as s ets are
t o th e a m o un t o f $ 1 00 .
Ag a i n , w e m ay r e p r e s e n t m o t i o n a l o n g a r
s t aig ht li n e i n a
c e r ta i n d i r e c t i on by t h e S i gn an d i n th e o pp o s i t e d i r e ct i on
by t h e S i gn an d s o on .
5 7 Gr aph i ca l R ep res ent at i on of P os i t i v e

. a nd Ne g at i v e Nu mbers .
— 8 — 7 —6 — 5 —4 —3 _2 0 + 1 + 2 +3 + 4 + 5 + 0 + 7 + 8
0 A B U D E F 0 1 1
Th e e nt i e r se rie s of p o s i t i v e a n d n e g at i v e n u mb e s r m ay b e
r e pr e s e n te d by t h e a bo v e s c a le ,
i n w h i c h th e d i v i s i on s a re o n e
un i t i n l e n g th .
20 ADVAN C E D C O UR S E IN ALG E B R A
D i s t a n c es m e a s u r e d t o t h e r i gh t of 0 r e p r e s e nt p o s i t i v e
r
n um b e s , a n d t o t h e l e ft of 0, n e gat i ve .
E v e ry p o s i t i ve or n e g at i v e fr a c t i o n w i l l be r e p re s e n t e d by
t h e d i s t an c e fr o m 0 t o a p oi n t b e tw e e n t w o c o n s e c ut i ve s c al e
m a rk s
% '
.
Thu s ,
th e n um be r w i ll b e r e p re s e nt e d by th e
3 d i s t an c e
fr o m 0 t o i t w o-t hi rd s t h e w ay fr o m C t o l )
’
a p o n t
58 . If a n y n u mb e r , p o s i t i v e o r n e g at i v e , be d e n ot e d by t h e
s y mb ol a, a w ill r
r ep e s e n t a nu mbe r of th e s am e a b s ol u te
v a l ue , bu t o pp o s i t e S i g n .
I t fo ll o w s fr o m t h i s t h at a
) a nd a
) s ign i f y n um
be r s o f th e s a me a bs ol u t e V a l u e a s a , and o f th e s am e S i g n,
an d Opp o s i te s i g n, r e s p e c t i v el y .
Th at i s ,
a
) a, an d a
) a .
( 1 )
S i mil a r ly ,
a
) a, an d a
) :2 a . 2
( )
F r om ( 1 ) a n d
— a
>= an d
DE F INITION S
59Ad d i ti on , S ubt r a c ti on , Mul t i pli c a ti on, a n d D iv i s i on o f
.
a n y a l g eb r a i c n u mb e r s a r e e x r e s s e d i n t h e s a m e m an n e r a s i n
p
1 1 ,
1 3 , 2 0, an d 28 .
F or e xa mp l e , 2 a b s i gn i fi e s 2 x a X b.
60 If . a n u mb be m ul ti pl i e d by i t s el f an y n umbe r
er of
t i m e s , th e p r o d uc t i s c a ll e d a P o w e r o f t h e n u mb e r .
An E xponent i s a nu m be r w r i t t e n at th e r i g h t o f, a n d ab ov e
a n o th e r n umb e r , t o i n d i c at e wh at p o w e r o f t h e l a t t e r i s t o be
t ak e n ; t hu s ,
a
2
, r e ad a s qua r e,
”
or a s e ond c p o w er ,
”
d en ot e s a X a ;
a
3
, r ea d “
a c ube ,
”
or
“
a th i r d p o w e r,
”
d en ot e s a x a X a ;
‘
re ad
” ”
a , a f o ur th
,
or a fo ur th p o w er , d en ot e s a X a x a x a ;
an d s o o n .
Ifno e xp o n n t e is ex
p r e s s e d ,
t h e fi r s t p o w e r i s und ers t ood .
R A T IONAL N UM B E RS 21
Thus ,
a is the s am e a s a
‘
.
61 .Al gebrai c E xpres s i ons .
An Al g ebra i c E xp re ss i on o r S i m ply ,
an E xp res s i on, i s a nu mb e r
e xp r e s s e d i n a l g e br a i c s y mb o l s ; a s ,
x —
2
2, a ,
or 2 3 ab +5 .
A Monomi a l , or Term, i s an r
e xp e s s i o n w h o s e p arts are n ot
m
s ign s
2
s e pa r a t e d by t h e or as 2 x ,
3 a b, 5, or
n
A mo n omi a l is s om e t imes ca ll e d a s i mp l e exp re s s i o n .
c all e d th e t e rm s
2
2 x ,
3 a b, a n d 5 a re of th e e xp r e s s i o n
2
2 x 3 ab 5 .
A Pos i t i v e Term i s o ne p r e ced e d by a p lus S i gn ; a s 5 a .
F o r th i s r ea s o n th e S i gn is often c all e d th e p os i tive s i gn .
I f 1 1 6 S i g n i s e xp r e s s e d , t h e t e r m i s un d e r s too d t o b e p os i ti v e ;
th us , 2 x i s t h e s a me a s
2
2x 2
.
A Neg at i v e Term i s on e p r e c e d e d by a mi nu s S i gn as 3 ab .
F o r t h i s r ea s o n t h e s i gn is ofte n c all e d th e n ega ti v e s i gn

‘
it can ne v e r be o mi tt e d b e fo r e a n e ga t iv e te rm .
A P oly nomi al is an r
e xp e s s i o n c on s i s ti n g of mo r e th an o ne
t e rm ; as a + b, or 2x — 2 '
3 ay — 5 y 2
.
A p ol y n omi al is o
al s o call e d a mul ti n omi a l , o r a co mp o und r
e xp es s i on .
A B i nomi al i s a p o ly n o m i al o f tw o t e r m s ; a s a b
.
A Tri nomi al i s a p oly n o m i al o f th r ee t e r m s ; a s a b c .
62 . Th e Nu meri cal V alu e o f an e x p re s s i on i s th e r e s ul t

ob t a i n e d by s ub s t i tut i n g p a r t i c ul a r n u m e r i c al v al ue s fo r t h e
l ette rs i n v o l v e d i n i t, a n d pe r fo rmi n g th e o p e r a t i o n s i n d i c at e d .
T h us ,
if a : 4, b z 3, and d
‘
: 2, th e n um e r ic a l va uel of
6 c
4 a +
b
63 . A m o n o m i al i s s aid to be r a ti o n a l a n d i n tegr a l w h en i t
IS e it h e r a n umbe r e xp r e s s e d i n Ar a bi c n u m e r a l s o r a s i n gl e ,
l e tt e r wi t h u n i t y fo r i t s e xp o n e n t o r t h e p r o d uc t o f t w o o r ,
mo r e s u c h n umbe r s o r l e tt e r s .
22 ADVAN C E D C O U R S E IN AL G E B R A
It i s al s o d t o be
s ai r at i on a l and i n te g r al wh e n it ca n be
c
re d u e d to e it h e r o f th e ab o v e fo r m s .
Th u s ,
3 a
2
b 3
, be i n g e q u i v a l e nt to 3 o a o a b b b, i s r a ti o n a l
a nd i nt e g r a l .
A p o ly n o mi a l i s s ai d t o be r a t i o n al a n d i n te g r al wh e n ea ch
ter m i s rat i on al i nt e g r al ; —
i
2 3
an d as 2x ab 0 .
64 . If a t e r m h a s a l i t e r a l p o r t i o n w h i c h c on s i s t s o f a S i n gl e
l e t t e r w i th un i t y fo r i t s e x p on e nt, t h e t e r m i s s a i d t o b e of th e
fir s t d egree .
Th e d egr ee o f any r a t i o n al an d i n t egral mo no m i al 63 ) i s

t h e n u m be r o f t e r m s of . th e fi r s t d e g ree wh i ch a re mult i pli e d
t o g e t h e r t o fo r m i t s l i te r a l p o r t i o n .
Th us ,
2 a is of th e firs t d e gr e e ; 5 a b, o f th e s eco n d d e gree ;
3 a
2
b , be i ng
3
e qu i v a l e n t to 3 a a bbb, i s o f th e fifth d e g r e e e tc .
Th e d e g r ee o f a r a ti o n a l a n d i n t e g r a l m on o mi al eq u al s th e
s u m o f t h e e xp o n e n t s o f t h e l e tt e r s i n v o l v e d i n i t .
Th us , ab c
4 "
is o f th e e igh th d e g r ee .
Th e d e g r ee of a r at i o n a l a n d i n t e gr al p oly no mi al i s th e
d eg re e o f i t s t e r m o f h i gh e s t d e g r e e .
Th us 2 a b ,
2
3c d i s o f t h e th i r d d e g re e
2
.
65 . H omogeneou s Te rms are t erms o f th e s am e de g r e e .
Th us ,
a
4
,
3 b c, 3
and 5 x
2
y
2
a re h om og en e o us .
A p oly n omi al i s s ai d t o be h o mo ge neous whe n i t s t e rm s ar e
h o mo ge n eo us a s a 3
3 b02
4 acyz .
66 . An Axi om i s a s el f- vie d e nt t r u t h .
Th e foll ow i n g are a s s u med a s a xi o ms :
1 . Any n umbe r equa ls i ts elf

2 . A ny n umber equ a ls th e su m of a ll its p a rts .
3 . Any nu mber i s grea ter tha n a ny of i ts p a rts .
4 . Tw o n umbers w h i ch a re e q ua l to th e s a me n umber , or to
e qua l n u mbe rs , a r e equa l .
5 . If fo r a ny n u mbe r i n an exp res s i on a n equa l n u mber be

subs ti tuted, the va lue f
o th e exp r es s i o n i s n o t ch a nged .
ADD IT IO N 23
III . A D D IT ION A ND S U B T RA C T ION O F

A L GE B R A IC E X PRE S S ION S . PA R E N T H E S E S
67 . A ddi t i on of Pos i t i ve a nd Negat iv e Numbers .
If a a n d b r e p r e s e n t a n y p o s i t i v e n u m be r s ,
— b = — b
a + ( ) a ; ( 1 )
fo r by 4 7, th e r e s u l t 4 0, a ls o h ol d s whe n eit her a or b
i s a p o s i t i ve fr a c ti o n .
If b i s > a, a — b = —
( b — a
)§
fo r t h e r es ul t o f 38 al s o h ol d s wh e n eit h er a or b is a p o s i t i v e
fra c t i o n 47
Th e n —
, a + b) ( b a )
.
( )
2
Fro m ( 1 ) an d we h av e t h e fo ll o w i n g r ul e :
To a dd a p os i t ive a nd a n ega ti ve n umber , s ubtr a ct th e s ma ller
a bs o lute va lu e 5 3 ) fr o m th e gr ea ter , a n d p la c e befo r e th e r es ult
th e s i gn o f th e n u mber h a v i n
g th e gr ea te r a bs o lu te v a lue .
Th us — 3
,
68 . Addi t i on of Negat i v e Numbe rs .
If a an d b re
p r e s e n t p o s i ti v e n u mbe r s , w e h av e by 4 0,
W e th e n h av e th e fo ll o w i n g r ul e :
To a dd two n ega ti ve n umber s , a d d th ei r a bs olute va lues , a n d
ut n a ti e i n befor e th e r es ult
p a eg v s g .
Thus ,
2 15 )
69 . Addi t i on of Monomi al s .
Th e s um o f a a n d b is a b; an d by 4 0, th e sum of a
an d — b is a — b h en c e
; ,
Th e a dd i ti o n of mo n o mi a ls i s ej ecte d by un i ting th em wi th
thei r resp ecti ve s igns .
21 ADVAN C E D C O URS E IN ALG E B R A
Th u s th e s um o f a , —b e — d an d -e is
, , , ,
— b c — d — e
a + .
S i n c e t h e Co mmut a t i v e L a w fo r A d d i t i o n h ol d s for any
ra ti on a l n u mbe r s 47 t h e t e r ms m ay be un i t e d in a ny
o rd e r , p r o v i d ed ea ch h a s i ts p r op e r S i gn .
70 . D efi ni t i ons If t w o o r mo r e n um be r s a r e multi pl i e d
.
t o g e t h e r e a c h o f t h e m o r t h e p r o d uc t o f a ny n umbe r o f t h e m
, , ,
i s c a ll e d a F act or o f t h e p r o d u c t .
Th us a b c a b a c a n d be ar e fa c t o rs o f th e pro d uc t a bc
, , , , , , .
71 . If a n u mb e r be e xp r e s s e d as th e pro duct of t w o fa c t or s ,
ea ch is c a ll e d t h e Coef
fi c i ent o f th e o th e r .
Th us in 2 a b, 2 i s th e c o effic i e n t of a b ; 2 a o f b ; a o f2 b; e tc .
72 I f . on e fa c t or of a p r o d u c t is r
exp e s s e d i n Ar a bi c
n umer a ls , and th e ot her i n le tte rs , t h e fo r me r i s c al le d th e
n umer i a l co e c filci en t of t h e l at t e r
‘
.
Th u s in 2 a b, 2 i s th e n ume r i c a l c o e ffi c i e n t o f a b .
If n o n um e r i c al c oe ffic i e n t i s e xp re s s e d th e c o e f
,
fic i ent u n i ty
is und e r s to od .
Th us a i s t h e
,
s am e a s 1 a .
By 4 7, t h e r e s ult 4 0, al s o h ol d s whe n b is a p os i t i v e
fr a c ti on .
2
Th a t i s 3 a i s t h e p r o d uc t of 3 a n d a , an d ab i s th e
g
,
roduc t o f an d a b
p .
Th e n ,
— 3 i s th e n umer i c a l coefii ci en t o f a in — 3 a, an d
2
i s th e n ume r i a l c c oe ffic i e n t of a b in
g ab .
Th u s ,
in a n e ga t i v e t e rm th e n um e r i c al c oe ffic i ent
i n c lu d e s t h e si
gn .
73 . S i mi l a r or Li k e Terms a r e t h o s e w h i ch e i t he r d o n ot
fe r
dif a t a l l, o r fe r o n l y i n t h e i r n u me r i c a l coe f
d if fic i e nt s ; a s
2 fly an d 7my z
.
Di s s i mil ar or Unl i ke Terms a re t h o s e w h i ch a r e n ot s i mi l a r ;

as 3 fly an d 3 xy
2
.
Th e s um o f 1 2a an d — 5 a is 7a .
Th e s um of — 5 a, : 8a , and 3 90 i s O ; fo r t h e r e s ul t,
4 0,h ol d s fo r a ny v a l ue o f b
H e n c e t h e r e qu i r e d s um i s
,
7a 3y 2
.
76 . A p o ly n o m i a l i s s ai d to be a r r a nged a cc or d i n g t o th e
d es c en d i ng p o we r s o f a n y l e t t e r , w h e n t h e t e rm c o n t a i n i n g t h e
h i g h e s t p ow e r of t h at l e tt er i s p l a c e d fi r s t, t h at h avi ng th e n e xt
l o w e r i mm e d i a t e l y a ft e r ,
a n d s o on .
Th u s — 2 :2 -- 2 3 — 4
,
0y l 3 wy 4y
is r
a ran g e d a cc o rd i n g t o th e d e s c e n d i n g p o w e r s of x .
Th e t erm —4 4
y , w h i ch d o e s not i nv o l ve a at all ,
is reg ard ed as con tai n
i ng t h e l o we s t p o we r o fa:i n t h e ab ove e xp re ss i o n .
A p oly n o mi al i s s ai d t o be r
a ra n g e d a cc o r d i n g t o th e c
a s en d
i ng p o w e r s o f a n y l e t t e r , w h e n t h e t e r m c o n t a i n i n g t h e l o w e s t
o w e r o ft h at l ett e r i s l a c e d fir s t t h a t h a i n t h e n e xt h i g h e r
p p ,
v g
i m me d i at e l y a ft e r ,
an d s o o n .
Th us ,
— 4 4
y
is a rr an ge d a c c o rd i n g t o th e as c e n d i ng p o w e s o f y r .
77 Addi t i on of Pol y nomi a l s

. .
I t fo ll o w s fr o m 1 2 I I a n d § 24 , , ,
t h a t th e dd i ti o n of
a
p o ly n o m i a l s i s e f
fe c t ed by u n i t i n g th e i r t e rm s w i th t h ei r
re spe c ti v e S i gn s .
1 . R e q ui r e d th e su m of
6 a — 7w2 3 x — 2a
2
+ 3y
3
and 2x — a — 2
mn .
, ,
We s et th e r
e xp e s s i o n s d ow n on e un d e rn eat h th e ot he r,
si mil a r t e r m s b e i n g i n t h e r t i c a l c olu m n s am e v e .
W e t h e n fin d t h e s um o f t h e t e r m s i n e a c h c ol u mn, and
wri t e th e r e s ult s w i t h th e i r r e s p e c ti v e s i gn s ; t h u s ,
6 a — 7fl
— 2 a + 3fl + 3f
2 fl —m m
a +
— 3 ~—
3 a 2x2
+3y nt n .
ADD I T ION . S U B T R A C T ION 27
2 . Ad d 4x— 3 x
2
1 1 + 5 x
3
, 7— 8 x —
3
1 5:
e, an d
3 2
1 4 + 6 x + 1 0x 9 11 3 .
It i s c o n v e n i e n t t o a r ran g e ea ch e xp re s s i on i n d es cen d ing

p o we r s o f 9: 76) t hu s ,
0—
3 2
5 x 3 90 + 4 0 1 1
— 3
8w + 1 2x — l5x 7 2
6x3
9 m + 1 0x + 1 4
2
c
c 4 .
3 . Ad d 9 (a + b) an d
4 (c + a
)
9 (a + b) 8 (b + c
)
3 (b + e
)
4 (a b) 1 1 ( b c) 3 (c a
)
.
é g g
§a 1-—
4 Add +
§ b c an d a — b -l— c
a +
g é b c
$ % b+ 0
E S
1
M -
1 2 1
S U BTR A C T ION
78 . S ubt ract i on of M onomi a l s .
By 4 7 th e r e s ul t 4 0 h ol d s ,
fo r an y v al ue s o f a an d b .
H en c e ,
to s u btr a ct a mo n o mi a l, we ch a nge i ts s i gn a nd a dd th e
r es ult to th e mi nu en d .
1 . S ubt ra c t 5 a fr o m 2 a .
C h an gi n g t h e S i gn o f th e s ubt a r h en d ,
an d a dd i n g th e r e s ult
to t h e mi n ue n d , w e h av e
2 a — 5 a
) = — 3 a
2 . S ubt a r ct -2 a fr o m 5 a .
5 a
3 . S ubt a r ct 5 a fr o m — 2 a .
2a — 5 a z m
7a
4 . S ubt r a c t -5 a fro m —2 a .
— 2 a — 5 a
) =
5 . Fr o m 23 a t ak e th e su m of l 9 a and 5 a .
It i s c on v e n i e n t t o ch a nge th e s ign of ea ch exp re s s i on wh i ch is
to be s u btr a cte d , a n d t h e n a dd t h e r e s ul t s .
We th e n h a v e — 23 a — 1 9 a +5 a, or — 3 7a .
79 . S ubt ract i on of Pol y nomi al s .
By 3 6, ( 1 ) an d 24 , h ol d fo r an y va lu e s o f t h e l e tt e r s .
H e n c e, to s u btr a p ct m
a i a l,
w e c h
o ly n o
a ng e th e s i gn of e a c h of
i ts ter ms , a n d a d d th e r es u lt to th e mi n uen d .
1 . S ubt r a c t 7a b z
9 a
g
b 8 b fr om 5 3
a
3
2 a
z
b 4 ab
2
It i sc onv en i e nt t o pl a c e t h e s ubt r ah en d un d e r th e mi nu en d ,
s o t h a t s i mi l a r t e r m s s h all b e i n t h e s a m e v e r t i c al c o l um n .
W e th e n c h an g e t h e S i g n o f e a ch t erm o f t h e s ubtr ah en d ,
a n d a d d t h e r e s ul t t o t h e m i n u e n d ; t h u s ,
5 a — 3
2 a
2
b+ 4 ab
2
b + 7a b + 8 b2 2 3
9 a
z —
+ 7a b
3
5 a
2 — 3 ab 8 b3
.
Th e t
s ud e n t S h oul d r r
p e fo m m enta l ly t h e op e a r tion of ch ang ing th e
si g n o f e ac h t e r r
m o f t h e s ub t a h e n d .
2 S ubt ra c t t h e s um :fro m
2
an d
2 3
. of 9 x 8w x 5 x a
6fi — 7x — 4
W e c h an g e th e s i gn of ea ch e xp r e s s i o n wh i ch i s t o be s ub
t r a c t e d, an d a dd th e r e s ul t s .
6 x
3
75c — 4
— 3 2
x 9 x + 8 x
2
90 90 — 5
5 iv —
3
8 a: 2 — 9 .
S U B T R A C T I ON . PA R E N T H E S E S 29
‘
8 0 By
. 78, s ubt r a c ti n g + a i s t h e s a m e t h i n g as a dd i n g
a , an d s u bt r a c t i n g a t h e s a me t hi n g a s a d di n
g a .
Th at i s, a ) a
),
an d a
) a
)
.
In th es e res ul ts , g t
t h e s i n s w i hi n t h e p a re n th es es ar e s i gns of a f
fecti o n
and Sig ns o f op er a ti o n
t h os e w i th o u t .
C o mp ari n g th e r es ul ts w i th th o s e o f 5 8 w h ere a ll th e s ig ns a r e s i gn s of ,
af fe ct i o n w e s e e t h a t th e s i gn s
,
an d w h e n us e d a s s i g n s o f a ffe ct i o n ,
a r e s ub je ct j o t h e s a m e l a w s a s w h e n u s e d a s s i gn s of o p e ra t i o n .
Th us th e me an in g a tta ch e d t o th e S ign s a n d i n 39 is c o ns is t en t ,
wi th t h ei r m ean i n g as s y mb o ls o f op e ra t i o n .
PAR E NT HE S E S
81 . R emov al of Par nt h s es e e .
It fo ll o w s from 1 2, I I, an d 24 , t h at :
P a r en th es es p r ec ed ed by a s i gn ma y be re moved wi th out
ch a ngi ng th e s igns of th e terms en clos ed .
Ag ai n, i t fol l o w s fr om 24 , ( 1 ) an d t h at :
P a r en th es es p r ec ed ed by a s i gn ma y be re mo ved if th e s ig n
of e a ch term e nclo s ed be ch a nge d , f rom to or fr om to
Th e a b ov e rul es a pp ly e q ua lly t o th e remo va l of th e bra ck e ts , br a ces ,

o r vi ncu l u m
It s h ou d b e l no tic e d i n th e c a s e o f th e l atte r th a t th e s ign app arentl y
, ,
p re fix e d t o th e fi rs t t e rm u n d er ne ath i s i n r e a l i ty p re fi xe d to th e vi nc ul um .
Th u s a , b a nd a b a r e e q uiva l en t to ( a b) an d — ( a b),
resp ectivel y .
P a r e nth e s e s ofte n en clo s e ot he rs ; in thi s c a s e th ey m ay be

re m ov e d i n cc e s s i o n by t h e r ule s o f 8 1
su .
B e g in n e rs S h oul d re m ov e o n e a t a ti m e c omme n c i n g w i th th e i nner ,
mos t p a i r b ut a fte r a l i tt l e p ra cti c e th e y s h o ul d b e a b l e t o re mo ve s e ve ra l

s i g n s o f a ggre g a t i o n a t o n e o p era t io n i n w h i c h cas e th e y s h o ul d c o mm e n c e
,
w ith th e o ut e rm os t p a ir .
Ex . S i m pl ify 4 x — 2 x— x
We re mo v e t h e v n i c ul um fir s t ,
th e n t h e p a r e n t h e s e s , a nd
fi n a l ly th e b r a c e s .
30 ADVAN C E D C O U R S E IN ALG E B R A
Thu s , 4 — 2x— v— a
x c
)§
—4 x -2 ce
— 4 w— x — 2 x —
{ 3 w+ a
§
— 4 x — 3 x — a 4 m—
x +2 x + z a .
82 . Ins e rt i on P arent h es es
of .
To en clos e t e r m s i n p a r en t h e s e s ,
w e t ak e th e c on v e r s e o f th e
r ul e s o f 81 .
A ny n umber o f ter ms ma y be en c los ed i n p a r en th es es p r eced ed

by a s i gn , w i th o ut c h a n g i ng th e i r s i gn s .
A ny n umber o f er ms
t ma y be en clo s ed i n p a re nth es es p r ec ed ed
by a s ign , if th e s i gn o f ea ch ter m be ch a nged , fr om to
or f m ro to
Ex . E n c l o s e t h e l a s t thr e e t e rm s of a b c d e in
p a ern t h e s e s p rec e d e d by a s i gn .
R e s ul t , — b -c —
a + d e
) .
EX ERC IS E l
1 . A dd 5 ( a + b), — 4 ( x —y), 3 ( r — y), — 7( x — y), and
2 . A d d 7m2 — 2 p — 8 u 3
, bu — m ,
2 3 a n d 3 xy — 4 m 2
+ 2 n 3
.
3 . Add a — 1 2 a — 2 a 2 an d 6 a2
,
— 1 0a 3
+ 1 1 a — 1 3 .
4 . Add l 4 (x y) 1 7( y z ), 4 (y z ) x), a nd as )
5 1 2 7 6 1-
5 . A dd 33 y 3: x +y+ 2 , a nd — x z .
2 3 4 4 5 8
6 . S ub t ract t h e s um of8 ( m n ) a nd 1 5 (m n ) f orm 1 9 (m n ) .
7 S ubt ra ct 3 b
.
— 6 d — 1 00
+ 7a fro m 4 d + 1 2 a — l3 o —9 b .
8 . S ub t r t ac 4 1 x3 2x 2
r
1 3 f o m 1 5 x3 a; 1 8 .
7 — 5 — 3 3 2 1
9 S ub tra ct m m m —
g
p
é a ro
g g
p
.
1 0 . S ub t ract th e s um of 4 2
11 3
-1 1 z
.
2
fr om
733 2 — 5 22
1 1 . Fro m t h e s um of 2 a + 3 b — 4 c a nd 3b+4 c ~ 5d s ub tract th e

s a m oi 5 c — 6 d — 7a a nd
PA R EN T H E S E S 31
S imp l i fy th e fo ll o w ing :
9 m — n — 6 m] }
1 2 .
[
1 3 . 2 a + ( — 6b —4 b
1 4 . 7x —6x —5 x — 4 x — 3 x
1 5 . 5 n — [ 8 n — 6 n
+ 7u
1 6 . 4 a — [ a — 7a — ( 8 a — 5 a + 3) — 6 a — 2 a
1 7 : — 1 2 — 4 — 7x — 5 — 6 x— 9
. 23 y y y} y)
1 8 . En cl os e l a s t t h r e e t e r ms o f a b c
th e d e in pa ren th es es
p re ce d e d b y a S i g n an d i n t h e res ul t e ncl os e
, th e l as t t wo t erms i n
p are n th es e s i n b r a c k e ts p r e ce d e d b y a S ig n .
32 ADVAN C E D C O UR S E IN AL G E B R A
IV . M U L T IP L IC A T ION O F A L G E B R AI C
E X PRE S S ION S
83 . Th e R u l e of S i gns .
Th e r e s ul t s an d 4 0, h ol d whe n a an d b ar e
a ny p o s i t i v e n u mb ers .
F r o m t h e s e r e s ult s w e m ay s ta t e w h at i s c all ed th e R ul e of
S i gns i n mu l t i p li c a ti on , as fol l ow s
Th e p r o d uct o f two terms f

o li ke s i gn i s p os i ti ve ; th e p r od uct
of tw o ter ms o f un li ke s i gn is n ega ti ve .
84 . W e h av e by 4 0,
— x —c
a
> H »
x >
— a be ; (1 )
— a -
) X b) X C
) X d) : a bc
)x d), by
ab cd ; etc .
Th at i s th e p r o d u c t of th r e e n e g at i v e t e rm s i s n e g ati v e ; t h e
,
p r o d u c t o f fo u r n e ga t i v e t e r m s i s
p o s i t i v e ; a n d s o o n .
In g e n e r al th e p ro d uct of a ny n umber of ter ms i s p o s i ti ve o r

,
n ega ti ve a cc o rd i ng as the n umber f

o n ega ti ve terms i s eve n o r odd .
85 . Th e Index Law
d t o m ult i pl y
2
L e t i t be re
q ui r e a
3
by a .
B y § 60,
a nd
Wh e n c e ,
We w i ll n ow c o n s i d e r t h e ge n e r a l c a s e .
r e q ui r e d t o mul ti l y a whe re m
m
L e t i t be p b y a
"
,
a n d n a re
a ny p os iti v e i nt e ge r s .
W e h av e a
’“
a x a X to m fa c to r s ,
an d, a
”
a X X a to n fa ct o r s .
m”
The n , a
’"
X a ,
”
a x a X to m fa c tors a .
8 7 Mu l t i p l i cat i on of P ol y nomi a l s by Monomi a l s

. .
By 1 4 , I I I, an d 24 , we h a ve t h e fo ll o w i n g r ul e fo r t h e
p r o d u c t of a p ol y n o mi a l by a m on o mi a l :
M ultip ly ea ch ter m o f th e multip li ca n d by th e multip li er, a nd
a dd th e p a rti a l p r o d uc ts .
Ex . Mul t i pl y 2x — 2
5 x + 7 by — 8 3
x .
(2x — 2
5 x + 7) X — 8 x
3
)
2 — 8 3 — 5x X — 8 3 —
( 2 ) ) ) ) 8 3
x X x x X x )
— 1 6 x5
+ 4 0x — “
56 x 3
.
Th e t
s ud e n t s h ou ld e n d e avo r t o p ut d ow n th e fin al re s ul t in
op e a r tion .
88 . Mu l t i pli cat i on of P ol y nomi al s by Pol y nomi al s .
By th e D i s t r i bu ti v e L a w fo r M ul t i p l i c at i on
( a + b) X X d
a n d a s i m il a r r e s ul t h ol d s wh at ev e r th e n u mbe r Of t e rms in
th e m ul t i pl i c a n d o r mult i p l i e r .
W e t h en h av e t h e fo ll o w i n g r ule :
M u ltip ly ea ch ter m o f th e mult ip li ca n d by ea ch term of th e
multip li er , a nd ad d th e p a rt i a l p r od uc ts .
1 . Mult i pl y 3 a — 4 b by 2 a — 5 b
.
In a c c o r d an c e wi t h th e r ul e , w e m ul ti p l y 3 a — 4 b by 2 a,
an d t h e n by th e p a r t i a l p ro d uc t s
5 b, a n d a dd .
A c o n v e n i e nt a r r a n g e m e nt o f t h e w o r k i s s h ow n be l o w,
si mi l ar t er ms be i n g i n th e s ame v e r t i al
c c o l um n .
3 a —4 b
2 a — 5b
2
6 a 8 ab
— 1 5 ab + 20 b
2
6 a
2 — 23 ab + 20b
2
.
M UL T IPL IC A T ION 35
Th e w o rk may b e ver ified by p erformi ng t h e e xa mp l e w i th th e mul t i

pl i ea n d a n d mul t i p l i e r i n t e r c h a ng e d .
2 . Mul ti pl y 4 ax
2
+ a
3 — 8 x
3 — 2 2
a x by 2 x + a .
It i s c on v e n i e n t t o a r r an g e t h e mul t i p li c an d an d multipli e r
i n th e s a me o rd e r o f p o w e r s o f s o m e c o m m o n l e tt e r 7 and
w r i t e t h e p a rt i a l p r o d uc t s i n t h e s a m e o r d e r .
Ar ra n gi ng t h e e xp re s s i on s a c c o rd i n g t o th e de s c en d in g p o we rs
of a w e h a v e
,
3
a
2 — 2 a x 2 3
+4 ax — 8x
a + 2 x
a
“ — 2 a x
"
+4 a x
2 2 - 8 d x3
x — 4 8 ax —
3 z
‘ 2 3 4
2 a a x + 1 6 x
4 4
a 1 6 x .
If th e m ul t ip li c a n d a nd mul ti pl i e r a re a rr an ge d in o rd e r of
p ow e r s ofa c e r ta i n l e t te r, w i t h l i ter a l c o e ffic i e n t s , th e O p e ra t i on

may so m et i mes be a br i d g ed by t h e u s e o f p a re nt heses .
3 . M ul ti ply x
2
ax bx ab by x a .
By 8 7, ax bx can be w r i t t e n ( a b)x .
( —
2
x a + )
b x ab
x — a
(
3 2
x a + b)x a bx
2 2
d x + a b
2 2
x
3
a x + a b
x — m
x + n
x
2
mx
7x
71
x
2
+ ( — m+ u x —
) mn .
It i s c on ve n i e n t t o w r i te th e c o e ffi c i e n t of x i n parenth e s e s ,
w h en a dd i n g t h e t e rm s mx an d n x,
89 . H omog enei t y .
'
If t h e mul t i p l i c a n d an d mul ti pli e r ar e h o mogen eo us
th e p r o d uc t w i ll a l s o b e h o mo ge n e ou s , an d i t s d e g re e e q u a l t o
th e s um o f t h e d e g r e e s o f th e m ult ip li c a n d a n d m ul t i pl i e r .
F o r if ea ch te r m of t h e m ult i pl i c an d i s of t h e mt h d e gr e e
an d e a ch t e rm o f th e mul ti pl i e r o f t h e n th d e g re e e a c h ,
t e rm p r
o fth eo d u c t w il l b e o f th e
( m n
)t h de g re e
Th e e xa mp l e s i n 8 8 a r e i n s t an c e s of t h e ab o ve l a w ; th us i n E X 2, .
t h e mul ti p l ic a n d m ul t i p l i e r a nd p ro d uct a r e h om og e n e ous a nd

, , , of th e
th ird firs t an d fo urth d e gre es res p ect ivel y
, , , .
Th e d e n t s h o ul d al w ay s w h en p o s s i ble a pp ly t h e p rin
s tu , ,
ci pl e s o f h o m o g e n e i t y t o t e s t t h e a cc u r a cy o f a l g e br a i c w o r k .
Th u s i ftw o h om o gen e ou s exp r e s s i on s be mul ti pli e d t oge th e r

, ,
a n d t h e p r o d u c t obt a i n e d i s n o t h o m og e n e o u s i t i s e v i de nt t h at ,
th e w o rk i s n ot c or r ect .
9 0 Mult i pli cat i on by De t ach e d Coef

. fici e nt s .
In fi n d i n g t h e p ro d uc t o f t w o e xp r e s s i on s wh i ch ar e arran ge d
a c c o rd i n g t o t h e s a m e o r d e r o f p o w e r s o f s o me c o mmo n l e t t e r ,
t h e o p e r a t i o n m ay b e abr i d ged by w r i t i n g onl y th e n umeri c a l

coe fiici ents o f th e t e rm s .
1 . Mult iply 3 x
2
+5 x — 4 by 2 x — 7x + 1
2
.
3 + 5 4
2 7+ 1
8
— 21
3 + 5 — 4
6— 1 1 —4 .
We k n ow th at t h e e xp on e n t o f x i n th e fi r s t t e r m i s 4 .
Th e n t h e p r od uc t i s 6 x 1 1 x 4 0x
,
4 3 2
33 x 4 .
If th e t e r m i n v ol vi n g a n y p owe r be w an ti n g i t ,
may be
s uppl i e d w i t h t h e c o e f
fic i e n t 0 .
2 . M u lt i p l y 4 a
3
+ 6 ax — 2
7x by 2 3
a
z — 3 x
2
.
In th i s case th e t e r m i n v o l v i n g 2
d x i n t h e m u l t i pl i c a n d and
th e te rm i nv ol vi n g ax i n th e mul t i pli er a re w anti ng .

M UL T IPL IC A T ION 37
6 7
3
—1 4
— 1 2 O
+ .
0— 1 4
W e k n o w t h at t h e p r o d uc t i s h o m o g e n e o us and t h at
th e e xp o n e n t o f a i n th e fi r s t te r m i s 5 .
Th e n , t h e p r o d uc t i s 8 a
5
1 4 2
a x
3
1 8 ax
“
21 5
x
3 . Fin d th e v al ue of ( 2 x 3 )(3 x 5 )(6 x
2 3
3 5
6 9
+ 0 1 5
1 —
6 1 — 1 5
6 1
36 6 — 90
6 1 + 1 5
R e s ul t, 3 — 91 x
36 x +1 5 .
91 . By 83 ,
— b
) a b,
— a
) X b) = + a b, — a
) (
X + b) — ab .
H ence ,
i n t h e i n d i c a t e d p r o d u c t o f t w o m o n o m i a l e x p r e s s i o n s ,
th e s i gn s of bo th exp r es s i o n s ma y be c h a n ged w i th o u t a lte r i n th

g e
p ro d uc t ; but if th e s i gn of ei th er o n e be ch a nged ,
th e s i gn o f th e
p ro d u c t w i ll be c h a nged .
Th e a b ov e i s t r u e fo r t h e p r od u ct of a m on o mi al an d a p o l y
n om i a l, o r o f tw o o l y n o m i a l s
p .
If e i th e r exp r e s s i—o n i s a_p o ly no mi al , _ ca r e mus t be t ak e n ,

fi
on
ufl
“
g
ch an gi n g i t s i
sg , t _
n o c h a n g e_t h e S i g n o f ea ch of i ts te r ms .
F o r by 81 — a
,
- a
( + b 0.
Th u s (a , b)(c d ) m ay b e w r i tt e n i n t h e fo rms
— — — — - a — b)(d —c)
( b a
)(d c ) , ( b a )( c — d ), or
( .
38 ADVAN C E D C O UR S E IN A LG E B R A
I n l i k e m an n e r i t m ay b e s h o wn t h at , i n t h e i n di c at e d p ro du c t
o f m o r e t h a n t w o e xp r e s s i o n s , th e s ign s of a ny ev e n n umber of
th e mma y be ch a nged wi th o ut a lter i ng th e p ro d u ct ; but ifth e s i gns

of a ny odd n um ber of th em be c h a nged , th e s i g n of th e p r o d u ct wi ll
be c h a nged
Th u s , (a b)(c d )(e f) m ay b e wri tten i n t h e fo r m s

Q
— h d — — e
( a
X c ) .
— — d —
( b d
)( c
)(f )
e ,
— b— —
( a
)( d c
)( f e
)
, etc .
EX ERC IS E 2
Mul tipl y th e foll owi ng :
1 . x 3 — 6 x2 + 1 2 x —8 a nd x2 +4 x +4 .
2 . n — 5 n2 + 2 + n 3 a nd
‘
5 n —
l—n 2 —
1 0 .
3 3 (a + )
b — (a
2
b)+ 2 a nd 4 ( a + b)2 — ( a + b)— 5 .
m n -5 m “-7 2m - 1
4 4 x3 ’ 2
r
y 5 x + 5
y
3 a nd 3x y
3
7 y
x2 2n + 1
x — Q
m — n ) x — mn a nd x —
5 ( p .
6 . x 2
+ ax — bx — a b a nd x + b .
7 . a
3
+ 3 + 5 a
4 — 6 a —2 a
2
and 6 +2 a
2 — d .
8 . mx + my — nx — ny a nd mx — my -l—nx — ny .
9 . 2x — 3 y, 3 x + 2 y , 2 x + 3 y, a nd 3x— 2y .
1 0 . x + a, x + b, a nd 11 3 —0 .
m —§ m — 1
2
—
- 2
1 1 . a nd
3 4 2 3 9
1 2 . x3 an d x2 — ( c — d) x — cd .
1 3 . a + b+ c, a —b+ c, a nd a + b — c.
S i mp l ify th e foll o w i ng :
— 5y
1 4 .
[3 x (
1 5 — 2 m —( m
.
(
2
1 6 .
[2 x + (3 x
1 7 .
(a [a
D IV IS ION 39
V . DIV I S ION O F A L GE B RA IC E X PR E S S ION S
In th e p re s e nt ch apte r we S h al l co ns id er t h os e ca s es o n ly
, i n w h i ch th e
D i vi d e n d , D iv is o r and Quoti ent are ra t ion al a nd in t egra l
,
In su ch c as es ,
t h e d i vi s i o n i s s a i d t o b e exa ct , a n d t h e d i vi d e n d is s ai d
to b e d ivis i bl e b y th e d ivis o r .
92 .The R eci procal of a n u mbe r is 1 di vi ded by th at n u mbe r .
Th u s th e r e c i pr o c al o f a i s
,
a
93 . W e h av e a X 1 a .
R e gar di n g a as t h e q uo t i e n t , 1 as th e d i v i s o r, an d a a s th e
d i vi d e nd ,
we h av e a
a .
94 . B y § 3 0 (1 ) 9 =9 x 1 =a x 1
b 1 b b
H e n c e , to d ivid e by a nu mber i s th e sa me th i ng as to multip ly

by i ts r ecip r oca l
95 . Th e Commut at i v e Law for Di v i s i on .
By ry O pe r ati o n i n D i vi s i o n
94, e ve can be e xp r e s s e d a s an
O p e r a t i o n i n M u l ti p l i c a t i o n .
Th us i f a i s to be di vi ded by b c
, , ,
m ,
in su cce s s i on , th e
r e s u lt is
1— 1—
d x X X m .
b c
It foll o w s from t h i s , by 1 4 , I, t h at i f a n umbe r i s t o be

d i vi d e d by an y n umb e r o f nu mbe rs i n s ucc e s s i on, t h e d i vi s i ons
can be p e r fo rme d i n a ny o rd e r .
Th i s i s t h e Commuta tive L a w for D i v is io n .
It may be e xpre s s e d as fo llo w s
= (a -
z-c -b m
) , e tc.
96 . By 1 4 , I, I I, b (a c)
40 ADVAN CE D CO UR S E IN ALG E B R A
The n by 31 ,
Z ( 1 )
Th at is, a f ac t or c ommo n to th e d i vi de nd and di vi s or ca n be
re mo ved , or ca n c elled .
P u tt i n g b 1 , in w e h ave
ac a
=a
2 93
c 1
Th at i s , if a mber be bo th multip li ed a nd d iv id ed by
nu a n oth er,
th e va lue of th e fo rmer w ill n ot be cha ng ed .
9 7 Th e R u l e
. of S i g ns .
Fr om th e r e s ul t s an d 4 8, we may s t at e th e
R ul e of S i gns i n D i v i s i o n, as fo l l o w s :
Th e quoti en t of tw o ter ms of li ke s i gn i s p os i ti ve ; th e quoti en t

of two ter ms of u n li ke s i gn i s n ega ti ve .
98 . Th e Index Law for Di v i s i on .
”
L e t i t be re q ui r ed to d i vide a
s
by a .
5
a a X a X a X a X a
By § 60,
Can ce l li n g th e c o mm on fa c t or a X a we h av e
5
a
=a X a X a z fi .
2
a
We w ill n ow c on s i d e r th e ge n e ral c as e :
i
L et i t be re qu i red t o d iv i de a by a wh e re “ “
,
m and n a re any
p o s i t i v e i n t e g er s s uc h t h a t m i s n .
W e h a ve ,
Ca nc el ling th e comm o n fa c to r a X a X a X to n fa c tor s ,

m
m — n fa ct ors
a
=a x a a m to v
n
a
Th en ,
th e exp on e n t o f le tter i
a n th e qu o ti en t i s e q u a l to i ts
exp on en t i n th e d i vi d end , mi nu s i ts exp on en t i n th e d i vi s or .
Th i s is c a ll e d t h e I ndex La w for D i vi sion .

42 ADVAN C E D C O UR S E IN AL GE B R A
4
1 . D ivi de 9 6 a c 1 2 a
3 3
bc by 3 a
2
.
’ 2
f 4 3 3
9 a b 6 a c 1 2 a be 9 6 a c
4
1 2 a
3
bc 3
_ 3 a2 3 a
2 _ g az _ 3 a2
— 3 b2 + 2 a c
2 — 4 a bc
3
.
Th e t
s ud e n t s h ou ld e n d e a vo r t o p u t d o w n th e r e s ul t in one ope a r ti o n .
2 . D i v i de 3 5 ( x y)
5
20(x y) by 5
4
( x y)
3
.
5 _ 20 x +
(
4
35 x + y y
1 01 . D iv i s i on of Poly nomi al s by Poly nomi al s .
Ex . L e t i t b e r e q ui r e d t o d i v i d e 1 2 1 0x3
1 1 x 21 x
2
by
2fi — 4 — 3 x
Ar r an g i n g th e r
c c or d i n g t o t h e d es c en d i n g p o w er s
e x p e s s i o ns a
of x 7 w e ar e t o fin d a n e x p r e s s i o n w h i c h w h e n m ul t i p li e d ,
by 2 x 2 —
3x 4 w i ll p r o d uc e 1 0x
i
i 21 x 2
1 1 x+ 1 2
, .
It i s e v i d e n t t h at t h e t e r m c on t a i n i n g t h e h i g h e s t p ow e r o f
x i n t h e p r o d u c t i s t h e p r o d u c t o f t h e t e r m s c on t a i n i n g t h e
h i gh e s t p ow e rs o f x i n t h e mul ti pli c an d an d mul ti p li er .
Th e re fo r e 1 0x i s t h e p ro d uc t o f 2 x an d th e t e rm c on tai n i n g
3
,
2
t h e h i g h e s t p o w e r o f x i n t h e q u ot i e nt .
Wh e n c e th e t e rm c o nt a i n i n g t h e h i gh e s t p ow e r o f x i n th e
,
q uo t i e i s l 0x d i v i d e d by 2
n t 3
or 5x .
M ulti ply i n g t h e d i v i s o r by 5 x, h av e th e p r o d u c t 1
we 0x 3
1 5 x2 20x ; wh i ch w h e n , s u bt r a c t e d fr o m th e di v i d e n d ,
l e av e s
th e r e m ain d e r 6 x 9 x 1 2 2
.
Th i s r e ma i n d e r mu s t be t h e p r o du c t o f t h e d i v i s o r by t h e
r e s t o f th e q u o t i e n t t h r f t bt i n t h n x t t r m o f th e
; e e o r e o o a e e
e ,
i r rd d i i d end
2
q u o t e n t w e ,e g a 6 x 9 x 1 2 a s a n e w v .
D i v i d i n g t h e t e r m c o n t a i n i n g th e h i g h e s t p o w e r o f x 6x 2
, ,
by t h e t e r m c o n t a i n i n g t h e h i g h e s t p o w e r of x i n th e d i v i s o r
' ,
2
2 x w e o b ta i n
, 3 a s t h e s e c o n d t e r m o f t h e q uo t i e n t .
Multi p ly i n g t h e di v i s o r b y 3 w e h av e t h e p r o d u c t 6x 2
, ,
9x 1 2 w h i c h wh en s ub t r a c t e d fr o m t h e s e c on d d i v i d e n d
, ,
l e av e s n o r e ma i n d e r .
H e n c e, 5 x 3 i s th e r e q ui r e d qu o t i e n t .
D IVIS ION 43
It i s c u s t o m a ry to r
a ran g e th e w o rk as foll o w s
1 0x — 2 1
3
x — l 1 x -
2
l-1 2 2x — 3 2
x — 4 , D i v i s or .
3 2
l 0x 1 5 x 2 0x 5 x 3, Q uo ti en t .
2
6x + .
9 x + l2
Th e e xamp e l m igh t h a ve b e e n l
s o ve d by a rrangi ng th e d ivi d e nd a n d
di vis o r acc ord i ng to a s cend i ng p o we rs of x .
1 02 . Fr o m 1 01 ,
we de ri v e th e fo ll o w i n g r ul e
Ar r a nge the d i vi d end a nd d i vi s or i n th e sa me o r d er o fp o wers
of s ome c o mmo n letter .
D ivi d e the fir s t ter m o f th e d i vi d en d by th e fi

rs t ter m f th e
o
d i vi s o r, a nd w r i te th e r es ult a s th e firs t te rm of th e quo ti ent .
M ultip ly th e wh ole d i vi s o r by th e fi r s t ter m of th e quo t i en t ,

a nd
s u btr a ct th e p r od u c t fr o m th e d i v i d en d .
If th er e be a re ma i n d e r, r ega r d it as a n ew d i vi d en d , a nd
c
p r o eed a s befor e ; a r ra n g i n g th e re ma i n d er i n th e sa me or d er o f
p o wer s a s th e d i v i d en d a nd d i vi s o r .
D ivi d e 9 a — —
2 3 2
1 . ab +
3
9 b 5 a b by 3 b + 2
a 2 ab2
.
Arr an g i n g a cc or di n g
t o t h e d e s c e n d i n g p o we r s of a ,
a
3 — 5 a 2 b + 9 a b2 — 9 b3
3 — 2 a 2b 2 — 3 b
a + 3 a b a
2 2
3 (1 5 6 d b
3 a
2
b+ 6 ab — 2
9 b3
In th e a b o ve e x a mp e , l
l a s t t erm o f th e s eco nd divid e nd is om itt ed
th e ,
as i t i s m e re l y a r e p e t i t i on o ft h e t e rm d ir e ct l y a b o ve .
T h e w o rk m a y b e v e r ifie d b y mul t ip l y i n g t h e q uo t ie n t b y t h e d ivi s or ,
wh ich S h oul d o f c o urs e g i ve t h e d ivi d e n d .
2 D i vi d e 4 l 9 x
.
- - ‘ -28 x by 2
Arran g i n g a cc o rd i n g t o t h e as c e n d i n g p o w e r s of x ,
4 — 2
28 x + 9 x
4 — 3 x2
4
2
4 ‘
8 x 6x
8 x — 22 x2
+ 9 x
4
8x — 2 -
1 6x l 1 2x3 —
2 3 4
6 x — 1 2 x + 9 x
6x — 2
1 2x3 4
+ 9 x
D i vi d e — bc — x — a be
3 (
3
. x + a +b cd
) by x + a .
3 — bc — cd )x -a bc
x + (
a +b
x
3
+ dx
2
x
2
+ (b —c)x — bc
( b— c x
)
2
bcx
bcx —a bc
1 03 . It i s e v i d en t fr o m 8 9 t h at , if th e
d i v i de n d a n d di v i s or
a r e h omogen eo us t h e q uo t i e nt w i ll a l s o be h o m o g e n e o u s a n d i t s
, ,
d e gre e e qu al t o t h e d e g re e of t h e d i vi de n d mi nu s th e d e gre e of
th e d i v i s o r .
1 04 . Di vi s i on by Detach ed Coef
fi ci e nt s .
In fi n d i n g th e q uo t i e nt o ftw o exp re s s i on s wh i ch are ar ran ge d

a c c o r d i n g t o th e s a m e o r d e r o f p o w e r s o f s o m e c o m m o n l e tt e r
’
t h e op e r a t i on m ay be a br i d ge d by w r i t i n g o nly t h e n umeri ca l
c oeffici en ts of th e t e rm s .
I f th e t e r m i n v o l v i ng any po wer is w antin g, i t may b e s up
p ed
l i w i th th e c o e ffic i ent 0.
Ex . D i vi de 6 x + 2 6
x
5 — 3O by 3 x + x 3 2—
6 .
— 9 + O+ +5 I 8 — 30 — 6
— 1 2 2+O
— 9
1 5 5 O 30
Th e n th e q u o t i e n t i s 2 x 3
3x 5 .
1 05 . By 3 7, ifa i s a n y nu mbe r,
0X a 0.
R e g ar di n g 0 as t h e q u o t i e n t, a as th e d i vi s or ,
an d 0 a s th e
d i vi de n d ,
we h av e 0
O
a
D I V I S IO N 45
EX E RC IS E 3
D ivid e th e fo ll owing :
x 5
+ 3 7x ~
2
70x + 5 0 b y x ~ 2 x + 1 0.
2
20
2
7( x y) 2 0 b y 3 ( as y) + 4 .
a 3r + l 1
lf abgq + 2 by a1 ’+1
b 2
abs + 2
p and q b e in g p os itive i nteger s .
a
s — b5 — 5 a
4
b+ 5 ab4
+ 1 0a 3bz — 1 0a 2b3 b a 3 — b3 — 3 2
b+ 3 ab
2
y a
.
,
6 n5 + 25 n4 — 7n3 — 8 1 n2 —3 n + 2 8 3
by 2 n + 5 n2 -8 n — 7.
2 3 x2 — 5 x4 — 1 2 + 1 2 x5 + 8 x — 1 4 x3 b y x — 2 + 3 x2 .
- 8 1 by 2 ( a + b)- 3 .
8 x6 — 4 x5 — 2 x4 + 1 5 x3 + 3 x2 — 5 x — 1 5 b y 4 7
53 — 93 —3 .
a
3
+ b — 3 c3
+3 a be by a + b — c .
4 9 1 2 3 1-
H9 .
4 -2 m 3
+ 7
” 2
by —m3 — m o
4 1 6 3 2 4
1 1 . 52 x3 + 64 + 1 8 x4 u
200fi + x5 by 6 x 2 —8 + x3 - l 2 x .
1 2 . a 6 — 6 a n
4 2 -
-
l 9
2
a n4 n
4 n 6 by a 3 —2 2
a n — an 2 --
l 2 n 3
.
1 3 . x3 — —
( a b + c)x2 -
( ab x2 —
( a — b)x ab .
1 4 . x3 + (a ab + ac —be)x ~—a be by x + c .
1 5 . by
1 6 . x3 — 6 a bc by x —3 b .
1 7 ( 2 m + 1 0 mn)
.
2 x2
+( 8 m — 9 2 mn 1 5 n 2 — —
)x ( 1 2 mn 9 n )
2 by
2 mx — 3 n
1 8 . x4 — 5 b + 2 x2 — 8
) ( a —1 5 b)x —l o b by
fl —3x+ 2
46 ADVAN CE D C O UR S E IN AL G E BR A
VI . IN T E GRA L L IN E A R E Q U A T I ON S
1 06 . Th e F i r s t M ember o f a n e q uat i o n i s th e e xp re s s i on to
th e l e ft of th e s i gn o f e q u a li t y , an d t h e S ec o n d M ember t h e
r
e xp e s s i o n t o th e r i gh t of t h at s i gn .
Th u s ,
in 2 x 3 3 x 5, th e fi rs t m e mbe r i s 2 x 3 an d
th e c
s e on d m e mbe r 3 x 5 .
An y t e r m o f e i t h e r m e m be r o f a n e q u at i o n is c alle d a ter m
o f t h e e q u at i o n .
Th e s i d es o f a n e q ua t i o n a r e i t s t w o m e mbe r s .
1 07 An Ident i cal E qu at i on, o r Id e nt i t y , i s a n e quat i o n w h o s e

.
m e mbe r s a r e t h e s a m e , o r be c o m e t h e s a me a ft er al l t h e i n di
ca t e d o p e at i o n sr h av e b e e n p e rfo r me d ; a s,
or — b
) = a
g — b2.
Th e s ign 5r ea d i s i d enti ca lly equa l

,
“
to ,
”
r l
i s f e que nt y us e d i n p l ace
o ft h e S ign of e qual i ty i n a n i d e n t ity .
It i s d e n t t h a t I n a n i d e n t i t y i n v o l v i n g l e t t e r s t h e me m
e vi , ,
be r s a r e e qua l w h at e v e r v a l ue s a r e g i v e n t o t h e l e tte r s p r o v i d e d ,
th e s a m e v a lu e i s g iv e n t o t h e s am e l e t t e r w h e r e v e r i t o c c u r s .
Al l e quat i o n s c o n s i d e red u p t o t h e p r e s e nt t i m e h av e b e en
i d e n t i c a l e q u ati o n s .
1 08 . An e qu a t i o n is s ai d t o be s a ti s fie d by a s e t o f v a l ue s of
c e r t a i n l e tt e r s i n v o l v e d i n i t w h e n o n ,
of s ub s t i t ut i n g t h e v al ue
e a ch l e t t e r i n p l a c e o f t h e l e tt e r wh e r e v e r i t o cc ur s t h e e qu a ,
t i on b e c o m e s i d e n ti c a l .
Th us t h e e q uat i on x y 5 i s s ati s fi e d by t h e s e t o f v al ue s
,
x 8, y 3 ; fo r, o n s ubs t i t ut i n g 8 fo r x, a n d 3 fo r y, t h e e q ua
t i on be c o me s
8 3 5, or 5 5; wh i ch i s i d en t i c al .
1 09 . An E quat i on of Condi t i on i s an e q uat i o n i n vo l v i n g one
or m o r e l ett e r s , c a ll e d Unk now n Numbers , w h i c h i s s at i s fied

o nl y by p a rti c ul a r v al ue s , o r s e t s o f v a l ue s , o f t hes e l e t t e rs .
IN T E G R AL L IN E A R E Q UA T ION S 47
Th us ,
th e e qu a t i o n x 2 5 is s a ti s fied by th e v a lue x : 3;
but n Ot by t h e v a l ue x 5 .
A g a i n, t h e e q u a t i o n x y 7is s at i s fied by t h e s e t o fv al ue s
x = 4 , y = 3 ; but n o t by t h e s e t o f v a l ue s x = 6, y = 9 .
An e q u at i o n o f c on d i t i o n
y c al le d a n equa ti o n
is u s ua ll .
Any l e tt e r i n a n e q uat i o n o f c o n d i t i o n m ay r e p r es e n t a n
un k n o w n n u mb e r ; b ut i t i s u s ua l t o r e p r e s e n t u n k n o w n n um
be r s by t h e l as t l e t te r s o f t h e a l p h ab e t .
1 1 0 A ny l e tt e r,
. o r s e t o fl e t t e s , r whi ch s at i s fi es a n e q ua t i o n
is c a ll e d a S olut i on o f t h e e q ua ti o n .
I f th e e q u at i o n c on t a i n s but on e un k n o wn n umb e r i ts s o lu
ti on s a re c all e d R oot s .
A s o l ut i o n is ver ifi ed w h e n, o n s ub s t i t ut i n g th e v a l u e s o f th e
un kn o w n n u m be r s , and p e r fo rm i n g th e r
o p e ati o n s i n d i c at e d ,
th e e qu a t i o n be c o m e s i d e n t i c a l .
To s o lve a n e q ua t i o n , o r a s y s t em o f e qu at i o n s , i s t o fin d i t s
s ol uti o n s .
1 1 1 A Numeri ca l E quat i on i s o n e i n w h i ch al l t h e
. k now n
n u mbe r s a r e r e p re s e n t e d by A r a bi c n um e r a l s ; a s ,
2 x
A Li t eral E qu at i on i s o n e i n w h i ch s o me o r a ll o f th e kn o w n
n u mbe r s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d by l e t t e r s ; as,
3 x + a =5 x — Z b
An Int egr al E qu at i on i s one ea ch of w h os e me m be r s is a
r a t i on a l an d i n te g r a l r
e xp e s s ion as,
— 5= 2 -
4 x y l 1 .
1 1 2 . If a r at i o n a l a n d i n t e g r a l m o n o m i al 6 3) i n v ol ve s a
c e rt a i n l e tt e r i t s d egre e
,
w i th r esp e ct to i t i s d e n o t e d by i t s
e x p o n e nt .
If i t i n v o l v e s t w o l e t te r s , i t s d egre e w i th r esp e ct to th em i s
d e n o t e d by t h e s u m o f t h e i r e x p o n e n t s ; e t c .
Thu s ,
2 4
ab x
2
i
y s
3
of th e c
s e ond d e gre e w i th re s
p e ct t o x, an d
o f th e fifth w i t h re spe c t to x an d y .
48 ADVA NCE D C O UR S E IN ALG E BR A
1 1 3 . If an i n te g ra l e qua t i o n 1 1 1 ) c on t ai n s on e or mor e
u n k n o w n n um be s , r t h e d egr e e of th e e q ua t i o n i s th e de gre e of
i t s te r m of h i gh e s t d e g re e .
Th us ,
if x an d y r e p r e s en t un k no w n n u mbe r s ,
ax by c,
is a n e q ua ti o n o f t h e fi rs t d e g r e e ;
x
2
4 x 2, d e g re e ;
a n e q u a ti o n o f t h e s e o n d c
2 x
2
3 xy 2
5 a n e q uat i o n o f t h e th i r d d e g r e e ; e t c
, .
A Li near E qu at i on i s an e q u at i o n o f t h e fir s t d e g r ee .
1 1 4 . Tw o e qu a t i o n s , ea c h i n v o l v i n g o n e o r m o r e un k no w n
r
n um b e s , a r e s a i d t o be E qu i v a le nt w h e n e v e ry s o l ut i o n o f t h e
fir s t is a s ol u t i o n of th e se c on d ,
and eve ry s o l ut i on of th e
s e o n d a s o l ut i o n o f t h e
c fir st .
1 1 5 . Th e fol l o w i n g ar e of u s e in s olv i n g e quat i o n s :

1 . me n u mber (o r equa l numbers ) be
If th e sa a d d ed to equa l
n u mbe rs , th e s ums w i ll be equa l .
2 If th e s a me n umber (o r e qua l n umbers ) be

. s ubtr a cted fr o m
e qua l n umber s , th e r emai n d ers w i ll be e qua l .
Th e s e fol l o w fr o m 22 .
3 . If e qua l n u mber s be multip li ed by th e sa me n u mber

( or
e qua l n u mbers ), th e p r o d uc ts w i l l be e qua l
4 . If equa l be d i v i d ed by th e s a me n umber (or

n umber s equ a l
n umbers th e qu o ti en ts w i ll be e qu a l, p r o vid ed th e d i v i s o r i s 0
) ,
n ot .
Th i s fo ll o w s fr o m 29 ; c o m par e § 43 .
PR INCIPLE S U S E D IN S OLV ING INT E GR AL E QUA TIONS

1 1 6 . Addi t i on .
If th e sa me exp re s s i on be a d d ed to bo th member s of a n equa ti on ,

th e r es ulti ng e qu a ti o n w ill be e qu i va len t to th e fi rs t .
C o n s i d e r, fo r e xa mp l e , t h e e q ua t i o n
A B .
( 1 )
To p r o v e t h a t t h e e q u at i o n
A + 0= B + a
wh e r e C is an
y ex
p r e s s i o n ,
is e qu i v a le n t to
5O ADVAN C E D C O U RS E IN ALG E B R A
1 1 9 . Mult i p l i cat i on .
If th e member s of a n equa ti o n be mu ltip li ed by the s a me exp r es

s i on, w h i ch i s n ot z er o ,
a nd d o es n o t i n v o lve th e u n kn o wn n umbers ,
th e r es u lti ng equ a ti o n w i ll be equ i va le n t to th e fi rs t

.
C on s id e r th e e q ua t i o n A B .
( 1 )
T o p r o v e th a t t h e e q ua t i o n
A X O=B X a
wh e re C i s n o t z e r o an d d o e s n ot i n v ol ve th e un k n o wn n um
,
b e r s i s e q u i v a le n t t o
,
An y s o luti o n o f w h e n s ub s ti tu t e d fo r th e un k n o w n n um
be r s m a k e s A i d e n t i c al ly e q ua l t o B
, .
It t h e n m a k e s A X C i d e nt i c ally e q ual t o B X C 1 1 5 ,
Th e n i t i s a s ol ut i on of (2)
Ag ai n a ny s ol ut i on o f
,
w h e n s ubs ti tut e d fo r th e un k n o wn
num be r s m a k e s A X C i d e n t i c a lly e q u al t o B X C
,
.
It th e n m ak e s A i d e n t i c al ly e qua l t o B 1 1 5 ,
Th e n i t i s a s oluti on o f
Th e r efo r e (1 ) a n d (2) ar e e qui v al en t
,
.
Th e re as o n w h y t h e a b o ve d o e s n o t h o l d for th e mul t ip l i e r z e ro i s t h at ,
t h e pri nci p l e o f 1 1 5 4 i s re s trict e d t o c as es wh e re th e d ivi s o r i s n ot z e ro

, ,
.
1 2 0 Th e . c
n e es s it y
fo r li mi t i n g th e p r i n c i pl e o f § 1 1 9 t o
c a s e s wh e r e th e mul t i pli e r d o e s n o t i n vo l v e t h e unk n o w n n u m
b er s i s t h at , i f C c ont ai n s th e unk n o w n n umbe r s th e e qu ati on ,
A X C=B X C i s s at i s fi e d by c e r t ai n va lu e s o f t h e un kno wn
n umb e s r w h i c h m ak e C : 0
.
B ut th e s e v a lu e s do n ot , i n g e n e r al , s at i s fy A: B .
C o n s i d e r, fo r e xa mpl e , t h e e qu a t i o n
x 2 3 x 4 .
( 1 )
No w th e e qu at i o n
— 4
n )(
+ 2 x >(
a
c ( )
2
wh i ch is o bt a i n e d fr o m ( 1
) yb mu l t i p l y i n g b o t h m e mb e r s by
x 1 ,
is fi e d by t h e
s at i s v a l ue x 1 , w h i c h d o e s n ot s at i s fy
Th en ( )
1 a n d ( )
2 a r e n o t e q u i v al e n t .
I N T E G R AL L IN E A R E QUA T ION S 51
It fo ll o w s fr o m th i s th at i t i s n e ve r a ll o w a bl e to m ul t i p l y
bo t h m e m b e r s of an i n te gr a l e q ua t i o n by an e xp re s s i o n w hi ch
i n v o l v e s th e un k n o w n n um be s r ; fo r i n t h i s w ay ad d i ti o n a l
s ol ut i o n s are i nt r o d u c e d .
1 21 . Cl ea ri ng of F ra ct i ons .
C o n s i d e r th e e qu a t i o n
2 5 5 9
x '
3 4 6 8
Mul ti ply i n g ea ch t e r m by 2 4 , th e l ow e s t c om m o n m ul t i p l e o f
th e d e n o mi n a t o r s w e h a v e t h e e q ui v a l e n t e qu a t i o n
l6 x— 3 0= 20 x — 2 7,
w h e r e th e d e n o mi n at o r s h a v e be e n r e m ov e d .
R e mo vin g t h e fra ct i o n s fr o m a n e qu a t io n b y m ul t ip l i ca ti o n is ca ll e d
”
cl ea r i ng th e e q u a ti o n o f fra cti o ns
“
.
1 22 . Di v i s i on .
If th e mem ber s of a n e qu a ti o n be d i v id ed by th e s a me exp res

s i on , w h ich i s n o t z er o , a n d
. d oes n o t i n v o lve th e u n kn o wn n u m
bers , th e r es ulti ng e qua ti o n w i ll be e qu i va lent to th e fi rs t .
C o n s i d e r th e e q u at i o n A B .
( 1 )
To p r o v e t h a t t h e e q ua t i o n
( )
2
w h er e C is n ot r
z e o , an d d oe s n ot i n vol v e th e un know n n um
be r s , i s e qui v a l e n t to
An y s ol ut i o n o f w h en s ub s ti t ut e d for t h e un known n um
b e r s , m a k e s A i d e n t i c a l ly e qual to B .
I t th e n m ak e s A C i d e n t i c al l y e q ual to B 0 1 1 5,
Th e n it i s a s ol u t i o n o f
Ag ai n , a n y s o l ut i o n o f w h en s ub s ti t u te d fo r t h e un k n own
n um b e rs , m ak e s A C id e n t i c a lly e qu al t o B C .
I t th e n m ak e s A i d e n t i c a ll y e qua l t o B .
Th e n i t i s a s o lu t i o n o f
Th e r e for e (1 ) an d (2) a r e
,
e q ui v a l e n t .
52 A DVAN CE D C O UR S E IN ALGE B RA
1 23 . Th e c
ne essit y fo r li m i t i n g t h e p r i n c i pl e o f 1 22 t o
ca s e s w h er e th e d i v i s o r d o e s n o t i n v o l v e t h e un k n o w n n u m
be r s i s t h a t ,
if C c o n t ai n s t h e un k n o w n n u mb e s ,r th e s o l ut i o n
of A=B c o n ta i ns c e r ta i n n u mb e r s w h i ch d o n o t, i n g e n e r a l,
s at i s fyA C : B C .
C o n s i d e r, fo r e xa m pl e , th e e q ua t i o n
—4 — l
( x + 2 ) (x )( x ) .
( 1 )
Al s o t h e e q ua t i o n 2 3
x x 4, ( )
2
wh i ch i s d from (1 ) by d i v i d i n g bot h m e mbe r s by x 1

o bt a i n e .
No w e quat i o n (1 ) i s s ati s fi e d by th e v a lue x : 1 wh i ch d oe s ,
n o t s a ti s fy
Th e n (1 ) a n d (2) a r e n o t e q ui v a l e nt .
I t fo ll o w s fr o m t h i s t h a t i t is n e v e r a l l o w a bl e t o d i v i d e bot h
me m be r s o f a n i n t e g r a l e q u at i o n by a n e xp r e s s i o n wh i c h i n
v o l v es t h e un k n o wn n u mb e r s ; f o r i n th i s w a
y s o l ut i o n s a re
los t .
S OL U T ION O F IN T E GR AL L INE AR E QU A TIONS

1 24 . To s o l ve a n e q ua t i o n c on t ai n i n g o n e un k n ow n n umbe r ,
w e p ut i t i n t o a su c c e s s i o n o f fo r ms ,
w h i c h l ea d fi n a lly to a
k n ow l e d g e o f t h e r oot o r r oo t s .
Th i s p r o c es s i s c al l e d tra n sfor mi ng th e e q uat i o n .
fe c te d by m e a n s o f t h e p ri n c i pl e s
I f e ve ry t r a n s fo r m a t i o n i s e f
of 1 1 6 t o 1 22 th e s u cc e s s i v e e qua t i o n s w il l h a v e t h e s a me
,
ro o t s a s t h e g i v e n e q uat i o n a n d n o s o lut i o n s w i l l b e i n t ro d u c e d
,
nor los t .
EXAM P L ES
1 25 . 1 . S o l v e th e e quat i o n
5 x — 7= 3 x +L
T ra n s p o s i n g 3 x t o th e fir s t m e mbe r , an d 7 to th e s ec on d
w e h ave
5 x 3 x 7 1 .
U ni ti ng s i mi l ar t e rms , 2 x z: 8 .
IN T E G R AL L IN E A R E Q UA T IO NS 53
Div i di n g b oth me mbe r s by 2

: 4
(I .
To ver f t
iy e h res ult , p ut x 4 i n th e g iven e qua ti on .
Th us ,
20 7 1 2 1 w h ich is i d e nti ca l .
2 . S ol v e t h e e qu a t i o n
7 d s 1
w
6 3 5 4
Cle ar i ng of fr ac ti o ns by mult i ply i ng e ach t e rm by 60, th e

L C
. . M . of 6, 3, 5, an d 4 , we h ave
70x — 1 00 = 3 6 x — 1 5 .
T ra n s p os i n g 36 x t o th e first m e mbe r, an d — 1 00 t o t h e
s e c o n d an d un i ti n g
,
s i mil a r t e rm s ,
34 x = 85
D i vi d i n g by 34 ,
3 . S o l v e th e e qu a t io n
x g g :
(5 =62 — 4 x ) .
E x p an d i n g , — 2
7
62 ( 31 2
x 1 2x x 1 2x)
— 62 — 7 3 1 x — 1 2 2
+ x
C an c el l i n g t h e x t e rm s 1 1 7
2
1 2 an d tr a n s p os i n g ,
1 1 x — 31 x = 62 — 7— 1 5 .
U n i t i n g te r m s , 20 x 40 .
Di v i d i n g by 20, x 2 .
T o exp and an a lg eb ra ic e xpres s i on is t o p erform th e op era ti ons i nd i c at e d .
4 . S ol v e t h e e q u at i o n
. 2 x . 001 . 03 x . 1 1 3 x . 01 61 .
Tr a n s p o s i n g ,
. 2 x . 03 x . 1 1 3 x . 01 6 1 . 001 .
U n i ti n g t e r m s , 05 7x . 01 71 .
Di vi d i n g by 05 7, . x . 3 .
F ro m th e a bo v e e xa mpl e s , w e h a ve th e fo l l o wi n g r ule fo r
s ol v i n g a n i nte g ral l i n e a r e q ua t i o n w i t h o ne unk n o w n n u mb e r :
Clea r th e equa ti o n offr a c ti on s , ifa ny, by multip ly i ng ea ch ter m

by th e L C M of th e d en o mi n a tors of th e fr a cti on a l co efii e i en ts
. . . .
R emove th e p a r e nth es es , if a ny .
Tr a nsp o s e th e u n kn ow n te rms to th e firs t member, a nd th e

kn o w n to th e c
s e ond ; c a n ce lli ng a ny ter m wh ich h a s th e sa me
coe fii c i e n t i n bo th me mbe r s .
U ni te si mi la r ter ms , a n d d i vi d e bo th members by th e fi
co ei ci en t
f
o th e u n kn o wn n umber .
Th e t
s ud e n t s h oul d e n d e avo r to a pp ly mo re th an one r
p i nc ip le a t o ne
r tion
op e a .
H e will al s o fin d it ex e c ll en t p ract ic e to ve rify h is so u l t i ons .
EX E RC IS E 4
S ol ve th e fo llowmg :
1 .
2
—x +
- 1 x
5 3 9 1 5
2 . . 05 x 504 .
4 (x + 1 4 )— 4 ( 3 x — 7x
3 .
(
5 7 7 1
4' "
x — x Z — x - x
e S ii E 4s
5 .
(5 —4 x ) = —1 .
6 . x :2 x . 86 )
7 — x 2 — x
.
( 1 + 3 x) 2
) ) (3
— 2x 2 — 2x
s . 6 (x ) ) .
9 .
( 3 x — 9 x x— l
( )( 3 x — 8 ) = 4 5 x2 —
3 8 .
- x
1 0 .
( x + 4) 3
(
1 1 .
1 7
- _3 - 3 .
1-
1 2
2
PR O B L E M S I NVOLV ING IN T E GR AL
L IN E A R E QUA TIONS
W IT H O NE U N KNO W N N UM B E R
1 26 . F or th e s o l u ti o n o f a p r o bl e m by a l ge b rai c me t h o d s no
g e n e r al rul e ca nbe g i v e n .
The fo ll o wi n g s ug g e s ti on s w i l l be fou n d of s rvi e ce :

IN T E G R AL L IN E A R E QUA T ION S 55
1 . R e p r e s en t t h e u n k n o w n n u mbe r ,
o r o n e o f t h e un k n o wn
n u mb e s r if t h e r e r
a re s e v e a l , by x .
2E v e ry p r o bl e m c o n t a i n s , e xp l i c i tly o r i m pl i c i tl y, j us t a s
.
ma ny d is ti nct s ta te men ts a s th er e a r e u nk nown n umbe rs i n volved .
Use all bu t one of th e s e t o e xp e s s r th e ot her un k n o wn n um
be r s i n te r m s of x .
3 . U s e th e re m ai n i n g s tat em ent t o for m an e qu at i on .
ILLU S TR A T IV E PR O B L E M S
1 27 1 . . D i v i d e 4 5 i n t o t w o p a rt s su ch th at th e l e s s p a r t
sh al l be fo ur t h t h e g r e a t e r
on e- .
H ere t h e re are two unk no w n numb e rs th e great e r p art and th e l es s .
In a cc o rd an c e w i th th e fi rs t s ugg e s t i on o f § 1 2 6 w e r e p re s e n t th e ,
greater p art by x .
Th e firs t s t a t e m e n t o f th e p rob l e m i s i mp l ic i t l y : ,
Th e s um o f t h e gre a t e r p a rt a n d t h e l ess i s 4 5 .
t
“
Th e cond s tateme n t i s :
se
Th e l e s s p a rt i s o ne-fo urth th e gre a te r .
In a c co rd a nc e w i th th e s e c o nd s ugge s t i o n o f 1 26 , we us e t h e s e co nd
s ta teme nt t o e xp r e s s th e l e s s p a r t i n t e r ms o f x .
1
T h us th e l e s s p ar t is re pres e nt e d b y x
Z
, .
We now , in a cc ord ance wi t h th e th ird su gg es ti on , th e firs t s ta te
ment t o fo rm an e q ua t i on .
T h us , x
i x 2 45 .
C l ea ri ng o ff ar cti ons , 4x x 1 80 .
U n i ting t erms , 5x 1 80 .
Di vi di ng by 5 , x 3 6 , th e gr e ater part .
Th en ,
i
-x 9 , th e l ess p art .
2 . A i s 3 time s a s ol d a s B, an d 8 ye ar s a go he was 7 ti me s
a s old . R e qu i r e d t h e i r a g e s at p r e s e n t .
L et x n umb er o fy e ars i n B s age ’

.
T h en 3 9: numb e r o fy ears i n A s a ge
’
, .
Al s o , x 8 nu mb e r o fy e ar s i n B s age 8 y e ars a go
’
,
a nd 3x 8 numb er ofy e ars i n A s age 8 y e ars a o

’
g .
56 A DVA NCE D C O U R S E IN ALG E B R A
B ut A ’
s a ge 8 y ea rs ag o w a s 7t i me s B ’
s a ge 8 yea rs ag o .
W h e nc e ,
3 x 8 = 7( x
E xpa n d i ng, 3x 4
8 7x 56 .
T ran sp os ing ,
4x 48 .
D ivi din g b y 4, x r of y e ars in B s age

th e a be
‘
’
.
Th e n , 3x 3 6 t h e numb e r o f y e a rs i n A s a ge
,
’
.
I t mus t b e c arefull y bo rn e in mi nd t h a t x ca n o nl y re p r es e n t a n
a bs tr a ct n um ber .
T h us ,
in Ex 2 , w e
. do
not sa y let x “
repr ese n t B ’
s a g e,
”
b ut “
le t x
r epre s en t th e n umber of y e a r s i n B s a ge
’
.
”
3 . A s um of m on e y , a m o un t i n g to c on s i s t s o f 1 08
c o i ns ,
a ll di mes and c nt s e ; h ow m a n y are t he r e o f e a ch k i n d ?
L et x t h e n umber ofd i mes .
Th e n ,
1 08 x t h e n umbe r o fc e n t s .
A l s o , th e x d i m es a re worth 1 0 x ce nts .
B ut t h e en t i re s u m a m oun s t to 4 32 c e n ts .
Wh e nce , 1 0x 1 08 x 4 32 .
Tran s p os i ng ,
9x 324 .
W h e nce ,
x 36 , t h e r ofd imes ;
n umb e
and 1 08 x 72 , t h e n umbe r of c e n t s .
4 . At w h at t i me b e t w e e n 3 an d 4 o
’
c l oc k ar e th e h an d s of
a w at ch O pp o s i t e to ea ch ot her ?
L et x r of m inu t e-s p aces p ass e d over by th e mi nute-h and
t h e n umb e
fro m 3 o cl o ck t o th e r e q ui re d t im e
’
.
T h e n s i n ce th e h our-h an d i s 1 5 min ut e -s p a ce s i n a d van ce o fth e mi nut e

h a nd a t 3 o c l o c k x 1 5 ~ 30 o r x 4 5 w i ll r ep re s e n t th e num b e r o f
’
, ,
mi nut e-Sp ac e s p as s e d o ver b y t h e h o u h a nd n .
B ut t h e m in ut e -h a n d mo ves 1 2 t i me s a s fas t a s t h e h our-h an d .
T h en , x z : 1 2 (x 4 5)
1 2x 540 .
T ra n s p o s i n g , 1 1 x 54 0 .
Wh e n c e , x
T h e n th e requi re d t i me
, is 49 , I 1 mi nu t es after 3 o
’
cl ock .
9 . A w o ma n s ells h a l fa n egg more th a n h a l f h e r e ggs S h e th e n s e lls .
h a l fa n e gg m o re t h a n h a l f h e re m a i ni n g e gg s
r A t h i r d t i me s h e d o e s t h e
.
s a me a n d n o w h a s 3 e ggs l e f
,
. t H o w ma ny h ad s h e a t firs t
1 0 A t ra i n l e a ves A for B 2 1 0 m i l e s d is t a n t t ra ve ll i ng a t t h e ra t e o f
.
, ,
2 8 m il e s a n h o ur . A fter i t h as b e e n g o ne 1 h our a n d 1 5 min ut es a n o t h er ,
tra in s tarts fro m B fo r A t ra ve ll i ng a t th e r a t e o f22 mi l e s a n h our H o w

, .
m a ny mi l e s fro m B w i ll t h e y mee t
1 1 . A man p uts a cert a i n s um i n a s a vi ngs b a nk p ay ing i n t e re s t .
A t th e e nd o f a y ear h e d ep os i ts th e i n te res t rec ei vi ng i n teres t o n th e

,
e n t i re a m o un t . A t th e e n d o f a s ec o n d y e ar a n d a t hird y e ar h e d o e s t h e
s a me a nd n o w h as 8
,
in t h e b ank W h a t w a s h is orig i n a l d ep os i t
.
1 2 A fo x is p urs ue d b y a h o un d a n d h a s a s t a r t o f 77 o f h e r o w n
.
,
l e aps Th e fox ma k e s 5 l e a ps w h i l e th e h o und m ak e s 4 b ut th e h ound

.
i n 5 l e a p s g o es a s fa a s th e fo x i n 9
r .H o w m a n y l e a p s d o e s e a c h ma k e
b e fore th e h o und c a tch es th e fo x
1 3 A c l oc k h a s a n h o ur-h a n d a mi n ute -h a n d a n d a s e c o n d -h a n d a ll
.
, , ,
turn i ng o n th e s a me c e n tre A t 1 2 o cl o c k a ll t h e h an d s p o i n t a t 1 2 H o w
i
’
. .
m a ny s e co nds w i ll i t b e b e fo r e t h e h o ur-h a n d i s b e t w e e n t h e o t h e r tw o
h a n d s a nd e q uall y d i s t an t fr o m t h e m
1 4 . A fre ig h t train trave l s fro m A t o B at th e ra te o f 1 2 mil es a n h o ur .
Afte r i t h as b e e n g o n e h ours a n e xpres s tra i n l eaves A fo r B trav e l

, ,
l ing a t th e rate o f4 5 mi l es a n h our a n d re ach e s B 1 h our an d 5 mi nute s

,
a h e a d o ft h e f re i gh t F i nd th e dis tan ce from A t o B an d th e ti me t ake n

.
b y t h e e xpr e s s tra i n .
1 5 A m e rch a n t i n cr eas e s h is c a p i t a l ea c h y ea r b y o n e -t h i rd a n d a t
.
,
t h e e n d o f e a ch y e a r s e ts a s i d e 8 1 3 50 fo e xp en s e s r A t t h e e n d o f t h re e
.
1- 4 5
y e a r s a f
,t e r s e tt i n g a s i d e h is e xp e n s es h e fi n
,
d s t h a t h e h a s — o f h is
1 08
o ri g i n a l c ap i t a l
. Wh a t was h is ori g i na l c ap i ta l ?
/
y
S PE C IAL M E T H OD S 59
V II . S P E C IA L M E T H O D S IN M U L T IP L IC A T ION
A ND DIV IS I ON
1 28 . Any P owe r of a Pow er .
R e qui r e d t h e v a l ue o f w h e re m a n d n a r e any p o s i t i v e
i n te g e r s
'
.
W e h ave , a
"
X a
“
X to n fa c t o r s 60)
m+ m+ n :
to n t e rm s mu
a a .
1 29 . Any P ow er of a P r odu ct .
R e q ui r e d t h e v a lue of ( a bc w h e re n is a ny p o s i t i v e
i n te ge r .
W e h av e (a bc ,
( a bc m ) X (a bc m ) X to n fa c to r s
(a X a X to n fa c t o r s ) (b X bX to n fa ct o r s )
O O O
1 30 . Any Pow e r of a Monomi al .
1 . R e q ui r e d t h e v a l ue o f
( 5 a
2
b) 3
.
W e h av e , (5 a
g
b) 3
5 a
2
bX 5 a
g
b X 5 a
2
b 1 25 a
6 3
b .
2 . R e qu i re d t h e v alue o f m) 4
W e h av e ,
m) 4
m) X m) X m) X m) m 4
.
3 3
3 . R e q ui r e d t h e v al ue o f 3 n ) .
W e h av e ,
3n 3 3
) 3 n
3
) X 3 n
3
) X 3 n
3
) :2 2 7n 9
.
Fro m 1 28 an d 1 29 , an d th e a bo v e e xa m p l e s , we h av e th e
fo ll o w i n g r ul e fo r r ai s i n g a r a t i o n al a nd i n t e g r a l m o n o mi a l
63 ) to a ny p o w e r whose e xpon e nt is a p o s i t i v e i n teg er :
R a i s e the a bs o lute va lue of the nu mer ic a l co e fii ei en t to th e

r equ i r e d p o we r , a nd multip ly th e exp o n en t o f ea ch le tter by th e
exp o n e n t of th e r e u i r ed w er
q p o .
G i ve to eve ry p o we r of a p o s iti ve te r m, a nd to e ve ry ev en p o wer

ofa n ega ti ve te r m, th e p os i ti ve s ig n a n d to e ve ry o dd
p o w er of
a n ega t i ve ter m th e n ega ti ve s ig n .
60 A DVAN CE D C O UR S E IN A LGE B RA
1 31 . S qu are of a B i nomi a l .
We fin d by a c tu al m ult i pl i c a t i o n ,
( 1 )
2 —
( a — b
)x ( a — b =a 2 ) ab + b
2
( )
2
Th at i s ,
Th e s qua r e f
o the S um of two n umbers e qua ls th e s q ua r e o f
th e fir s t ,p lus tw i c e th e p r o d u ct o f th e fir s t by th e c
s e on d , p lus th e
s qu a r e of th e s ec ond .
Th e s qu a r e o f th e d ilfer en ce o f tw o n umber s e qua ls th e s qua re
of th e firs t ,
mi n u s tw i c e th e p r o d uc t f
o th e fi rs t by th e c
s e o nd ,
p lus th e s qu a r e o f th e s e ond c .
In t h e re maind e r o fth e bo o k ,
we s h a ll , fo r t h e sa ke o f b e vi r ty ,
us e t h e
r
e xp e s s i o n “
fer e n ce o f a
t h e d if a nd b ”
t o d eno te th e re ma i nd er o bta i ned
by s ubtr a cti ng b fr o m a .
1 . S qu a r e 3 a
2
2b .
By (3 a
2
2 b) =3 (3 2
a
i
)
2
2 (3 a
2
2
)( )b ( )
2 b 2
- 4 g 2
9 a 1 2 a b 4 b
If th e firs t te rm o f th e b i n o m ia l is g ati ve It s h oul d b e

ne ,
en cl os e d ,
ne g a ti ve s ig n a n d a ll , in pa re nt h es es ,
b e fo re a pp l y i ng t h e rul e .
2 . S qu a e — 4 x3
r +9 .
—4 x3 2 + 2 — 4 x3 by 1
) ) ( )
=1 6 x —
6
72 x
3
+ 81 .
1 32 . P rodu ct of t h e S um a nd D i fference of Tw o Numbe rs .
We fin d by a c tu a l m ul t i pli c at i o n ,
b) = — b2
- 2
a .
Th a t i s , th e p r o d uct o f th e su m a nd f
d ife ren c e o f two n umbe rs
equa ls th e d ifier e nce
’
f
o th ei r s qua r es .
1 . M ul t i p l y 6 a + 5 b
3
by 6 a -5 b 3
By th e r ul e ,
( 5 b ) =3 2
3 6 a
2 — 2 5 b6 .
S P E C I AL M E T HOD S 61
M ul t i ply 2
x 4 by x
2
4 .
— W2 — S‘Z - 4
) 1
m
( — x )
i 2 — 42 =
3 . E xp an d ( a + b— c (d
)
To exp a nd a n a lg e b ra ic e xp ress i o n is t o p e fo r rm th e o pe a r t i on s i nd i
c a te d .
— — b—
B y § 8 2, (
a + b c
)( d
( )]
c
— 2
(
2
a b —
)
c , by t h e rul e ,
-a 2 ~- b2 — 2 b 2
c ( + c
)
= a
2
— b2 + 2
.
bc — c
z
.
4 . E xpa n d ( x .
—
yl
—92
- 2 2 — 2
x +2 xz + z y .
1 33 . Produ ct of Tw o B i nomi a l s h avi ng th e S ame Fi rs t

We fin d by a c tu al m ult i p l i c a t i on
= x
2
+ ( a
Th at i s,
Th e p r o d uct o f tw o bi n o m i a ls h a v i ng th e sa me fi rst ter m e qua ls
th e s qua re o f th e fi rs t te r m, p lu s th e a lge br a i c su m of the s eco n d
te r ms multip li ed by th e firs t te rm, p lus th e p r o d uct o f e

th c
s e ond
ter ms .
1 . M ul t i ply x 5 by x +3 .
By t h e a bo v e r ul e ,
th e c oe ffi c i e n t ofx i s th e su m of 5 an d
+ 3, or — 2 an d th e la s t t e rm i s th e p r od uc t of — 5 and + 3,
,
or 1 5 .
Wh e n ce — 2 —1 5
(
x x .
2 . Mul t i ply x 5 by x — 3 .
Th e c o e ffi c i e n t of x i s th e s um of —5 an d 3, or — 8
, a nd
t h e l a s t t e r m i s t h e p r o d uc t of 5 an d 3, or 1 5 .
Wh e n c e , ( x 5) 3) x
2
8 x 1 5 .
3 . Mult ip ly ab 4 by ab 7 .
B y th e r ul e , (ab 4 )(d b 7) a
z
b 2
3 ab 28 .
4 . Mul ti ply m + n + 6 by m + n + 8 .
+ 6] + 8]
(m n
)
2
1 4 (m n
) 48 .
1 34 . S qu a r e of a P ol y nomi al .
By ( a1
)
a2
“
2
a f
i
a } 2 l
a ag .
( 1 )
We a ls o h a ve ,
2
( a1 a2 “a
ll : a2
) 9 3
1
'2
( ( 1
2
CI/I ‘
1 a “2
) X as "
I
"
“3
2 2 2
C1 1 ’
1 2
"
“ I f1 2
/ (1 2 2 (1 1 61 3 “
I2
”
a zas 00
3
z
( )
2 2
al a2 a3 2 al a2 2 al a3 2 a 2a 3 . 2
The r e s ul t s
( 1 ) a nd
( )
2 a r e in a cc o r d an c e w i t h th e follo w i n g
l aw :
Th e s qua r e o fa p o lyn o mi a l e qu a ls th e s um of th e s qua r es
f i t m l tw i c e th e p ro d uc t of ea ch te rm by e a ch of th e
‘
o ts e r s , p u s
fo ll o w i n g te r m s .
W e w i ll n ow p r o v e t h a t t h i s l aw h ol d s fo r t h e r
s qua e o f any
p o l y no m i al .
A s s ume t h a t t h e l aw h ol d s for t h e s q ua e o f a r p ol y n o m i al of
m t e rm s , wh e re m is a ny p o s i t i v e i n te g e r ; t h a t i s ,
a2 + as + + a’ m
—
)
2 2 2
a1 + a2 + am +2 a1 ( a2 + + am
+2 a ..
( )
3
Th e n (a 1 , a2 a3 am am
+1 )
2
''a 2
a2 ‘
1
"
am
) 1 ’
m+ 1 ]
(on a2
2 ( a. 3 + by <)
1
0h
”
062
2
an
?
a m n
i
2 (1 2
6 1 3 "
l
"
am + a m+ 1 ) +2 “ ma m -1 2 by
S PE C IAL M E T HOD S 63
Th i s r e s ul t i s i n a cc o r d an c e w i th th e a bo v e l a w .
H e n c e i f t h e l a w h o l d s fo r t h e s q ua r e o f a p o ly no m i al o f 777
, .
t e r m s w h e r e m i s a n y p o s i t i v e i nt e g e r i t a l s o h o l d s fo r t h e
, ,
s q ua r e o f a p o ly n o m i a l o f m 1 te r ms .
B ut w e k n o w t h a t t h e l a w h o l d s fo r t h e s q ua r e o f a p o ly n o
mi a l o f t hr e e t e rm s a n d t h e r e fo r e i t h ol d s for t h e s q ua r e o f a
,
o l y n o m i a l o f four t e r m s ; a n d s i n c e i t h o l d s for t h e s ua r e o f
p q
a p o ly n o m i a l o f fo u r t e r m s i t a l s o h o l d s f o r th e s q ua r e o f a
,
p o l y n o mi al o f fiv e t e r m s ; a n d s o o n .
H e n c e t h e la w h o l d s fo r t h e s q ua r e o f a n y p o ly n o mi al
,
.
Th e a b o ve m e th o d r
o f p o o f is kn o w n a s Ma th ema ti ca l I nd ucti o n .
Ex . E x pa n d (2 x
2 -3 x
In a cc o r d a n c e w i t h t h e l aw , w e h av e
x —
2
(2 3 x
( n < — 5
r
r
z +
— 3 x — 5
)( )
— 1 2 x — 20 x 2
+ 3 0x
3
— 4 x‘ — l 2 x3
1 35 . Cube of a B i nomi al .
We find by a c t ua l mult i pli c at i o n,
( 1 )
— b 3= — 3 2 — 3 2
( ( )
3
a
) a a b + 3 ab b . 2
Th at i s,
Th e cube of th e su m of two n umbers

cube of th e e qua ls th e
firs t p lus th r ee times th e s qua r e of th e firs t times the s econd p lus
, ,
th r ee ti mes th e fir s t ti mes th e s qua r e of th e s eco nd p lus th e c ube ,
of th e s ec o n d .
Th e c ube of th e d ifer en ce of two n u mbe r s e qua ls th e cu be

of th e fi r s t mi n us th r ee ti mes th e s q ua r e of th e fir s t t i mes th e
,
s ec o n d p lu s th r ee ti mes th e fi r s t ti mes th e s qua re of th e s e co n d

, ,
mi n us th e c ube of the s ec ond .

64 ADVAN CE D C O UR S E I N ALGE B R A
1 . Fi n d th e c ube . of a 2b .
By ( a 2 )
e l 3 . .
a
s
3 a
i’
( )
2 b 3 a ( )
2 b 2
( )
2 b 3
- 3 2 z 3
a +6 a b+ 1 2 ab +8 b .
2 . Fi n d th e c ube of 2x 3 .
fi i
3
By x 5y
2 8
( 9
2 x
3 “
3 (2 3 (2 99
3
)( 9
5 3
2
( 31
5 1
sx 9
60my 1 5 0x y 3 4
1 25 y “
.
1 36 . Cube of a Pol y nomi al .
By (
1 35 , a1 an ? n 04
3
a
?
3 9 1
2
062 3 ai m }
.
( 1 )
W e a l s o h av e (a 1 ,
a2 a3
)
3
'
[( 1
d a 2) 1
‘
2
3 (a 1 a2
)
2
a3 3 (d l a2 a3
) ’
I ‘
(1 1
3
3 2
a1 a2 3 a 1 a2
2
3 (1 1
2
% 6 a 1 a 2a 3
3 2
61 2 61 3 3 “ 1 61 3
2 " '
1 3 @ 20 3
2
(1 3
3
(1 1
3
(1 2
3
(1 3
3
3 H
I3 “1 %1 3
2 ' ” ‘
1 3
‘
052 053
2
'
( )
2
2 2
3 “3 0 1 " 1 3 @3 02 6 a ra'
sa s
Th e res u l t s (1 ) an d (2) a re i n a cc or danc e wi th t h e fo ll o w i n g

l aw :
Th e c ube of a p o lyn o mi a l equa l s th e su m of th e cubes f i ts
o
ter ms , p lus th r ee t i mes th e p ro d uct o f th e s qua r e f

o ea ch ter m
by ea ch of th e o th er ter ms , p lus s ix ti mes th e p r o d uc t o f every
th r e e d ilfe r en t te r ms .
We w i ll n ow
p r o v e by M a th ema ti ca l In d ucti on ( see
th a t th i s l a w h old s fo r t h e c ub e o f a n y p oly n o m i a l .
A s s ume t h a t t he l aw ho ld s fo r th e c ube o fa p o ly n o mi al of m
te r m s , wh e r e m i s any p o s i ti v e i n te g e r ; t h a t i s ,
3 3 3
a1 + a2 + + am
i
+3 d2 ( al + a3 +
'
1"
+ um —1 ) ’
6 a i d 2a s + 6 a m— 2a m —l a’ m '
66 ADVAN C E D C O UR S E IN A LG E B R A
In a cc o r d a n c e w i th t h e a bo v e l a w, w e h av e
2
( +2
3
—
2 x x x
— 3
(
3
)
‘
3
x + x
) )
+3( — x2 — 3
)
— 3 2 2 x3 — x2 +2
+3( )( x
)
— 3>
— 3
>
9 6 — —
27 1 2 x
3 8 7— 6 7 5—
+ 24 36 x + 6 4
8 x — 93 +8 x x x +6 x 9 x
4 — —
+ 24 x — l2x 5
36 x2
+ 54 x 2 7x + 54 x
2 3 — 24 w6
+ 36 x — 5
72 w + 3 6
4
x
3
— 1 2 w + 3 0x 8 7—
61 w + 6
66 x — 93 w4 5
98 x — 3
63 2
+ x
+ 54 x
EX ERC IS E 6
W r it e b y i ns p e ct i o n t h e l
v a ue s o f t h e fo ll o w ing
5 c4 4
1 .
( 6 2 . 4 ab ) 3 . 3 x3y2 2 )5 .
4 .
(3 7x ) 2 2
. 7 . 6 my 1 1
5 .
(2 a
3 5 b 2
c 2
) . 8 .
( 8 x? 9 x9 )
2
; p an d q b e in g
6 . m 4
n s 4 t
p o s i i ve i n t e g e rs .
W rite b y i n s p e ct io n t h e l
va ue s o f t h e fo ll o w ing
(
? 3 2
9 . 5 a + 1 2 5 0)( 5 a 1 2
1 0 . 1 0m " 4
. 1 3x 5
)( 1 07
72 % 1 3x 5
).
m m m g p os iti ve i nte gers

1 1 .
( a ( a x3 “
) a nd n bein .
E xp a n d t h e fo ll o win g :
— b -c
1 2 .
( a ) . 1 4 .
— — 4 2
)( a
2
1 3 .
y 1 5 .
(a +5 a
1 6
'
.
1 7 (m m2 n2 2 )( m
4 2 4
. 5 2 7 4 4
5a 2 n )
.
W rit e b y i ns p e ct i on t h e va ue s l o ft h e fo ll o w i ng
1 8 .
(x 2 )( x 22 .
( m n l1 )( mn
1 9 .
(x 5 )( a: 23 . 3 3
c ) ( a ?)
2
8
(a a
3
20 .
(x 4 )( 90 2
24 . b 5 )( b
21 — 1 5
. a ) . 25 .
(x + y
S P E C IAL M E T HOD S 67
E xp a n d th e fo ll o w i ng
26 .
(3 x
2 5 : a 28 .
( 2 x3 3 x2 x
27 — 4 3 — 4
.
(a b 29 .
(a + 3 a a
2
W ri te b y i ns p e ct i o n t h e l
v a ue s o f t h e fo ll o w in g
30 .
( a 3 b
2
3 . 32 .
(3 a
g
b 2 c
3 3
) .
( 7x ( mar:
2 3 3
31 .
4
x3 3
) 33 . 5 4 ny ) .
E xp a n d t h e fo ll o w ing :
(a c
2
34 .
(a a 36 . b
2 — 4 x+ 3 3 37 ( x
3 3 — 4 x2
35 .
(2 x ) .
l
S i mp ify t h e fo ll o wing :
(x
2 3
38 .
( 3 a
2
5 b) ( 3 2
a
2
5 b) . 41 . l) (x
— 2 — 2
39 .
)( x 42 .
( +y z
x ) (x
40 .
( 2 x)( 2 x)( 4 x 2
) . 43 .
(a b c 3 ) (a b c)3
.
— 2
44 . z ) .
—c
45 .
) .
— — n 2
( m + n) (m —u m )( m
3 3 -3 2
46 .
) ( + u )
1 37 . We fin d by a c t ua l d ivi s ion
A\
H N
AV
" " )
/
9 0 9 Q
l
I u
l l
Th a t is,
If th e d i fe r e nc e o th
f e s qua r es o f t wo mbe rs be d i v i d ed by th e
nu
m of th e n umbe r s , th e q uo ti en t i s th e d ifier e nce of th e n umber s

’
su .
Ifth e d ifl f h f mb b h
‘
e r e n ce o t e s q ua r e s o tw o n u e r s e d i vi d e d by t e
d ifier en ce o f th e n u mber s ,
th e q u o ti en t i s th e su m of th e nu mbers .
2 4 2
Ex . D i vi d e 25 y z 9 by 5 ye 3 .
By 1 3 0, 25 y z
z
“
i s th e r
s q ua e o f 5 y z
g
.
2
5 yz + 3
1 38 . We fin d by a c t u a l d i v i s i o n,
3 3
(1 b
= a
2 — ab
+b
2
.
( 1 ) ( )
2
a b
68 ADVAN C E D C O U RS E IN ALG E B R A
Th at is
If th e m of th e c ubes of tw o n umbe r s be d i vi d e d by th e s um
su
f
o th e n u m ber s , th e q uo t i e n t i s th e s q ua r e of th e fi r s t n u m be r ,
m i n us th e p r o d uc t of the firs t by th e c
s e o nd , p lus the s qua re o f the
s ec o n d n u m be r .
If th e d if fer e n c e of th e cu bes of tw o n u m be r s be d i v id e d by th e
d efe r e n ce of th e n um ber s , th e q u o ti en t i s th e s qu a r e of th e fir s t
n umber, p l us th e p r o d uct oth
f e firs t by th e s e on d,c p lu s th e s qu a r e
of th e c
s e o nd n u m ber .
Ex . D iv id e 2 7a 3
b by 3 3
a b .
By 1 3 0, 2 7a i s t h e 3
c ube of3 a .
’7 3 3
E
g?
Th en ,
by i
— 9 a
2
3 a b 5 2
.
g a .
1 39 . Th e R ema i nder Th eor em .
L e t i t be r e qui e d r t o d i v id e 2 £8
3
7x 2
1 0x 3 by a: 2 .
2x — 3
7x + 1 0x — 3
2 — 2
x —
3 — 2 2
2 93 4 90 2 3 x +4
— 3 :+
2
a 6 x
4 90
t 4 513 8
5
Th e d i vi s io n i s n o t e xa ct ,
and th e r e fi n al r e m ai n d e r
IS a 5 .
No w ifwe s u b s t i t ut e 2 fo r x i n th e d i vid e n d w e h a v e ,
2 X 2 — 3
7 2 + 1 0 x 2 — 3, w hi c h
2
eq u al s 5 .
Th i s e xe m
p fi e s t h e fo llo w i n g l a w :
li
If a ny r a ti o n a li n tegr a l p o lyn o mi a l, i n vo lvi ng 22, be n o t d i vi s i ble

by a : a, th e r e ma i nd e r o
f th e d i v i s i o n e q ua ls th e r es u lt o bta i n ed
by s u bs t i tuti n
g a f or x i n th e gi ven p o ly n o mi a l .
Th e a bo v e i s c a lle d Th e R e ma i n d er Th eor em .
To p r o v e t h e t h e o r e m , l e t D b e a n y r ati o n a l i nt e gr al p o ly
n o mi al , i n v o lv i n g :
1 3, n o t d i v i s i bl e b x a
y .
S PE C IAL M E T H ODS 69
L e t t h e d i v i s i on b e c a rri e d o u t u n t il a r e ma in d e r is o bt ai n e d
w h i ch d o e s no t c o n tai n :
13 .
Let Q d e n o t e t h e q u o t i e n t ,
a n d R t h e r e m a i n d e r .
S i n c e t h e d i v i d e n d e q ua l s t h e p r od u c t o f t h e di vi s or and
q u o t i e n t , p
l u s t h e r e m a i n d e r ,
w e h a v e
Q( at a
) R D .
S ubs ti tut e i n t h i s e qu a t i on a fo r x.
Th e t e r m Q( x a
) b e comes z e ro ; and s i n e
.
c B do e s n o t co n
tain at , it is n ot c h a n ge d ,
w h a t e ve r v al ue
i s g i v en t o so .
Th e n R ,
m us t e qu a l th e r e s ul t o bt a i n e d b
y s ub s t i t ut i n g a
fo r a:l n I) .
1 4 0 Th e . F act or Th eor em .
If a ny i n tegr a l p o lyn o mi a l, i n vo lvi ng cc, becomes z er o

r a ti o n a l
w h en a:i s p ut e qu a l to a , th e p o lyn o m i a l h a s x a as a f a c to r
‘
F o r by 1 3 9 , t h e r e m a i nd e r o bt a i n e d by d i v i d i n g t h e p o ly
n o mi a l b :
a a i s z e r o
y .
I t fo ll o w s fro m 1 4 0 th a t
If a ny i n teg r a l p o lyn o mi a l, i nvo lvi ng cc, bec omes z e r o
r a ti o n a l
wh e n a:i s p u t equ a l to a , th e p o lyn o mi a l h a s a: a as a f a ctor .
1 42 . We w i ll now p r o ve t h a t ,
i fn i s a ny p o s i t i v e i n t e g e r,
I . a
”
b is
”
a lwa ys d i v i s i ble by a b
' .
II . a
“
b i s d i v i s i ble by
"
a b if n i s e ven .
III . a
"
b i s di vi s i ble by
"
a b if n i s odd .
IV . a
"
b i s d i vi s i ble by
"
n ei th er a b n or a b ifn i s even .
s t i tu t e d fo r a in a
”
b”
,
th e r e s ul t is b "
b "
,
or 0 .
1 4 0, a
"
b h as
“
a b as a fa c t o r .
If b be s ub s t i t ut e d fo r a in a "
b ”
,
th e r e s ul t i s b) ”
b ;
”
or, s i n e n c is e ve n , b “
b “
,
or 0 .
Th e n by 1 41 a
n — b" h a s a b as a fa c t or
, .
70 ADVAN C E D C O U RS E 1 N AL GE B R A
P roof of I I I .
If b be s ub s t i t ut e d fo r a in a
”
b”
,
th e re s ult i s b ; ”
o r, s in ce n is o dd , b "
b
”
,
or 0 .
Th e n ,
a
”
b h as ”
a b a s a. fa c t o r .
P ro of of IV .
If b or b be s ubs t i t ut e d fo r a in a
"
b ”
,
th e r e s ults are
b) "
b "
b "
b”
c t i v ely
’
or ,
re s p e .
S inc e n is e ven , n e i t her of t he se is ze ro .
Th e n ,
n eit h er a b no r a b is a fa c to r of a
”
b ”
1 43 . We fin d by a c tual d i vi s i on
4 _ 4
2
a — a
3 — a
2
b + ab — 3
b, 2
a +
4 — 4
a b 3 -
o 2 3
+ a b+ ab + b,
a _b
5 5
a
= a
4 — a 3b
+ a
2
b 2 -a b3
+ b,
4
a
5 — b5
e tc .
a b
In t h e s e r e s ul t s , we ob s e rve t h e fo l l o w i n g l a w s :
I . Th e exp o nen t o f a i n th e fi rs t ter m o f th e q u o ti e n t i s les s by

1 th a n i ts exp o nen t i n th e d i vi d en d , a nd d ec r ea s es by 1 in ea ch
su cc eed ing ter m .
II . Th e exp o n e nt o f b i n th e c
s e ond ter m of th e quoti ent i s 1 ,
a nd i n c rea s es by 1 in ea ch s u cceed i ng ter m .
I II . If th e d i v i s or i s a b, a ll th e terms f o th e q uo ti e n t are
p os i ti ve ; if th e d i vi s or i s a + b, th e terms of th e quo ti e n t a r e
a lter n a tely p os i ti ve a n d n ega ti ve .
1 44 . We w ill n o w p r o v e , by M a th ema ti ca l I nd ucti o n, th at t he

law s of 1 43 ho l d uni v e r s a l l y .
a
" — b"
A s s u me t h e l a w s to h old fo r wh e r e n is an y p os i t i v e
a —b
i n t e ge r .
S P E C IA L M E T H OD S 71
a
”
b "
n—l —2 —3 2 n —l
Th en ,
a a
rt
b a
rt
6 H .
b
a l)
n+1 n+l n+ l n +l
a b a a
n
b a
n
b b
a — b a — b
a b
_
_a n
b<
a
n—l
a
rt — 2
b a
n —3
b 2 H .
b it
-1 —2 2
b 6 + +b
n rt rt n
a + a a .
Th i s r e s ul t i s in a cc o r d a n c e w i t h th e l a w s of 1 43 .
Henc e ,
i f th e l aw s h o ld
fo r t h e q u o ti e n t o f t h e d i ffe r e n ce o f
t w o lik e p o we r s o f a a n d b d i v id e d by a b, t h e y al s o h ol d fo r
t h e q uo ti e n t o f t h e d i ffe r e n c e of th e n e xt hi gh e r p o w e s of ar
an d b d i vi d e d by a b .
5 5
a b
B ut w e k n o w t h a t t h e y h ol d fo r and t h e r e fo r e t h ey
a b
6 6 6 6
a b a b
h old fo r an d S i n c e t h ey h ol d fo r t h ey h ol d fo r
a b a b
7 7
a b
an d s o o n .
a b
_
Z
a
H en c e ,
t h e l aw s h o ld fo r whe re n is any p os i t i v e
0’
i n t e ge r .
P ut t i n g b for b i n we h av e
a b)
l
If n i s b) "
b ”
an d b
" ‘
e v en , ,
a
n
b ”
n—2 ”
( )
2
3 z
Wh e n c e " 1
b ""
b U
“
a ct a .
,
a b
l
If n is o dd , b) ”
b "
an d b n ‘
.
,
a
n
b n
n— l —2 —3 2 o —I
Wh e n c e ,
a a
rt
b a
rt
6 H
b n
.
a b
in cc or d an c e w i t h th e l aw s of
E quati on s ( )
2 and ( )
3 are a
1 43 .
72 ADVAN C E D C O UR S E I N AL GE B R A
H e n c e, th e l a w s h old fo r wh e r e n is a ny ev en p o s i
a
a
”
b "
t i ve i n t e g e r, and fo r w h ere n is an y odd p o s i t i v e

a + b
i nt e g e r .
7 7
1 45 1 D ivi de b by b
:Z
. . a a .
7
C 6 5 4 2 3 3 2 “ 5 6
By s 1 4 3, a a b a b a b a b ah b
2 . D iv i d e 1 6 x 4
81 by 2 x 3 .
By 1 3 0, 1 6 90 4
( y
2 m .
l
1 G ai —
Th en ,
— 2
( )c
v
2
3 3
=8 x —
3
1 2x + 1 8 2
x — 27 .
Th e l t
a b s o u e va ue o f a n y l t e rm af e t r th e fi rs t ,
in t io n s
e q ua
a nd of 1 4 4 , m a y b e o b ta in e d b y d i vid i n g th e of t h e a b s o l ut e va l ue
p re c e d i n g t e r l l g
m b y a , a n d mu t i p y i n t h e e s u r l t by b .
T h i s w o ul d b e th e s h o r te s t me t h od i f t h e n umb e r s i nvo l ve d w e r e l a rg e .
EX ERC IS E 7
Wr i t e b y i nsp e ct i on th e l
va ue s o f t h e fo ll o wing :
36 a
?
49 21 6 m n 3
34 3 Q 6 9 n 9 — x9
1 6 .
1 1 .
— x
. .
6 a + 7 6 mn2 + 7p 3 n
6 64 6
“4 b4 a b
2 7 . 1 2 .
— 2 b
.
1 1 a3 8 yz z a b a
" 3
1 m 5
’7
5 625 m 4 2 56
3 1 3
’
8
m —n
. .
— 1 m—4
.
n 5
8 + m 6 2 56 a 8 a 8
4 . 1 4 .
2 m2 1 a; 2 d + x
a
6
a 7 x7
5 1 0 1 5
x
. . .
2
5 a 3x a 3x+4 y
1 46 . S y mmet ry .
An e xp e s s i o nr c o nt a i n i n g t wo m o r e l e t t e r s i s s a i d t o be
or
sy mmetr i ca l w i t h re s p e c t to an y t w o o f t h e m, wh e n t h e y can
be i nt e r c h a n g e d w i t h o ut r i n g th e v al ue of th e e xp r e s s i on
al t e .
T h us , a b c i s s ym m e t r i c a l w ith r es pe ct to a a nd b for o n i n t e r ,
ch an gi n g th es e l ett ers th e e xpress i on b ecomes b a c

,
.
3
1 . E xp an d ( a b+ c
) .
W e h av e ,
Th i s y mm e t r i c al w i th r e s pe c t t o a b a n d 0
r
e xp e s s i o n is s , ,
a n d o f t h e t h i r d d e g r ee .
Th e r e a r e t hr e e p o s s i bl e ty p e s o f t e rm s o f t h e t h i r d d eg r e e
i n a b a n d 0 ; t e r m s l i k e a t e r m s l i k e a b a n d t e rm s l ik e a bc
3 Q
, , , , .
It i s e v i d e n t t h a t a h a s th e c oe f fic i en t 1 ; an d s o by s y m
3
,
m et ry b a n d 0 h a v e t h e c o e f
,
3 3
fi c i en t 1 .
I t I S e v i d e n t t h a t a b h a s t h e c oe f
g
fic i e n t 3 an d s o by s y m ,
m e t r y h a v e b a b c 0 b c d an d a o
,
2 2 2 2
,
2
, , ,
.
L e t m d e n o te t h e c o e f fic i e n t o f a bc .
Th en (a b c) ,
3
3 3 3
3 (
g
b b
2
bc
2
0b
2 2 2
) ma bo
a
'
+ b c a a c d a c .
To d e t e r m i n e m, w e o bs e r v e t h at t h e a bov e e qua t i o n h ol d s
fo r a ll v a l ue s o f a , b, an d c .
W e m ay th e r e fo r e let a b c z : 1 .
Th e n ,
an d m= 6 .
Wh en c e (a , ) b c
3
2 2 g 2 2 2
a
3
b + 0 + 3 (a b
3 3
ba b c+ c b 0a
)
a o + 6 a bc .
Th e a b o ve re s ul t m a y b e w ri tt e n i n a m ore c o mp a ct fo rm b y r e p re s e n t
i n g t h e s u m o f t e rms o f t h e s a m e t yp e b y t h e s y mb ol 2) re a d s i g ma .
T h us ( z a ) Z a 3 3 Z a b 6 a bc
g
,
g
.
a:— -z — x 2 z — é - ?
2 . E x pa n d ( y ) ( + as y)
Th i s r
e xp e s s i o n is s y m m e t r i c al w it h r e s pe ct t o x, y, an d z ,
a n d o f th e s e c on d d e gr e e .
Th e p o s s i bl e ty p e s of t e r m s o f t h e s e on c d d e gr ee in x, y
,
an d
a r e t e r m s l i k e 90 , a n d t e r m s l ik e m
2
z y .
It i s by t h e l a w o f 1 3 4 , th at
e v i d e n t, x
2
h as th e c o e ffic i en t
3 ; a n d s o , by s y m m e t ry , h a v e y a n d 2
2 2
.
L e t m d e n o t e t h e c oe f
fic i e n t o f my .
Th e n ( ,
w— y
-z a: — y)
2
+ m(xy + yz +
To d et e r m i n e m, p ut a: y z 1 .
Th e n , + 3 m, or m — 2 .
S PE C I A L M E T H OD S 75
Whe nce ( ,
x- y
— z 513 — 9?
-
3 (:
v
2 -
y
2
2
2
) 2 (xy
3 . E xp a n d
— c 3
+ (b +
3
) ) (
3
c a + c + d b) .
Th e y mm e tri c a l w i t h r e s p e ct
e x p re s s i o n is s to a, b, an d c ,
an d o f th e t h i r d d e g r e e .
Th e p o s s i bl e t y p e s o f t e r m s are t e rm s l i k e a 3
,
t e r m s l ik e a
g
b,
an d te rm s li k e a bc .
It i s ev i d en t ,
by t h e l a w of 1 3 6, t h a t a
3
h a s th e c o e ffic i en t
2; an d s o, by s y m m e t ry h av e , b 3
and 0
3
.
Al s o, by 1 3 6, a
2
b h a s th e co e f fic i en t 3 + 3 + 3 — 3, or 6;
and s o, by y mm e t ry h a v e b a b e
s ,
2
,
g
,
2 2 2
0 b, 0 a , a n d a c .
Ag a i n , a bc h a s t h e c o e f
fic i e n t 6 6 6 6, or 1 2 .
Wh e n c e ,
3 — b 3
— c
) ( + c — b)
= 2 (a + b3 + 3
c
3
) a c
2
) 1 2 a bc .
EX E RC IS E 8
1 . In t h e e xp an s i on o f a n e xp es s i o n r w h i h is c s y mme t r i ca l w i th re
Sp ect t o a , b, a n d c, l typ e s o f t erms o f th e fo urth

Wha t a re t h e p os s i b e
d e gre e o f th e fi fth d e gr e e 2 o f t h e s i x t h d e gr e e
‘
2 If o n e t e rm o f a n e xp res s io n w h i ch i s s y m me tri ca l w i th res p e ct t o

.
a b a nd c is ( 2 a
, , , b c) ( 2 b c a ) w h a t a r e t h e o t h e rs ,
3 Is t h e e xp re s s i o n a ( b
. c)
2 b (c a) C(d b) s y mm e tr ic a l 2 2
w i t h r e s p e ct t o a b a n d c , ,
4 Is th e e xp re s s i on ( a:
.
y )
3
(y ( 2
2
x2 3 s mme
) y
2 t r i2ca l 2
w i th r e s p e ct t o x y a n d 2 ? , ,
E xp a n d t h e fo ll ow i ng b y th e sym m e t r i ca l m e t h o d
5 . 6 .
2
7 (x + v —
z/) o
a — 3 b — 3 —3
— 4 b 2
8 .
(2 c ) a .
-d ——d — b)2
9 .
( a + b+ c t + a
— c 2
) .
1 0 .
1 1 .
— b — c - a — b)3 .
—x —
1 2 .
( x + y — z ) (y + z )( a + a y) .
l3 .
[x
2
+ y
2
2
2
+ 2 ( my + yz
— — a c —
1 4 .
( a + b c ) (b + c ) ( a + b) .
V III . F A C T ORING
1 51 . To F act or an al g ebr a i c e xp r e s s i o n is t o fin d tw o or
m o re e xp r e s s i o n s w hi ch, wh e n m ult i p li e d t og e t h e r , s h all p r o
d uc e t h e gi v e n e x p r e s s i on .
1 52 .I n t h e p r e s e n t c h a p t e r w e c on s i de r on l y th e s e p ar at i o n
o f r a t i o n a l a n d i n t e g r a l e x p r e s s i on s w i t h i n t e g r al nu
me r i c al c oe ffic i e n t s ,
i n t o fa c t o r s o f th e s a m e fo r m .
1 53 . A Common Fa ct or of tw o r or m or e e xp e s s i on s is an
e xpr e s s i o n whi ch w il l e xa c tl y d i v i d e ea ch o f t h e m .
F A C TO R ING
1 54 . It i s n ot al w a ys p o s s i bl e t o fa c tor an e xp re s s i o n ; t h e r e
a re, h ow e v e r c e r tai n fo r ms wh i ch can
,
a l w a y s b e fa c t o r e d ;
t h e s e w i ll b e c on s i d e r e d i n th e p r e s e nt t re a t i s e .
1 55 . CASE I . Wh en th e terms of th e exp r es s i on h a ve a co m
mon fa ctor .
1 . F a c t or 1 4 ab
4
35 a
3
b z
.
E a ch t e r m c on t ai n s t h e m on omi al fa cto r 7a b z
.
2
D i v i d i n g t h e e x p r e s s i o n by 7a b w e h a v e 2 b
2
2
,
5 d
Th e n 1 4 a b 35 a b 7a b (2 b 5 a )
,
“ 3 z 2 2 2
.
2 . F a c t or
Th e t e r m s h ave th e c o mmon bi n om i al fact or 2 m 3 .
by 2 m
2
D i v i d i n g th e e xp r e s s i o n 3, w e h av e x
Th e n ,
3 . F a ctor (a — b) m + ( b — a n
) .
— = — —b
B y § 8l , b a ( a ) .
The n (a — b m — — b n
, ) (a
)
- -
( a b )
4 . F c a t or 5 a ( x —
y)
—3 a
F A CT O R ING 77
5 a ( x— y)
— y)
— — x—
a (5 x -5
y 3 3 y)
a ( 2 x 8 y)
— 2a
( x— 4 y) .
W e may l
a s o s o ve l E x 3 by
. wri t i n g t h e firs t t e rm i n t h e form
(b a )m .
T h us ( a — b m + (b — a) n ( —
) —
( —a m
)
, ) : b a n b
(b a )( n m) .
Th is a gre es wi th 9 1 ; for by 9 1 th e s i gn s of two fa ct ors o f a , ,
p ro d uct m a y b e c h a n g ed w i th ou t al te ri n g th e v a l ue o f t h e e xp res s i o n .
W e may th us h ave mo re th an o n e fo rm fo r t h e fact ors o f a n e xpr es s i o n .
1 56 . Th e t e r m s of a p o l y n o mi a l m ay s om e ti m e s be so ar
r an g e d as to s how a c o mm on p oly n o mi a l fa ct o r ; an d the

r
e xp e s s i o n can t he n be fa ct o r e d a s i n 1 55 .
1 . F a c tor ab ay bx xy .
By 1 55 , a b — ay — xy = — —
+ bx a ( b y )+ x ( b y) .
Th e t e r ms n o w h av e t h e c o mmo n fa ct o r b y .
Wh e n c e a b a y bx xy (a + x) ( b ,
2 Fa ctor a + 2 a — 3 a — 6
.
3 2
.
Th e t h i r d t e r m be i n g n e g a t i v e i t i s c o n v e n i e n t ,
to en cl o s e
t h e l a s t t w o t e r m s i n p a r e n t h e s e s p r e c e d e d by a s i gn .
2 —
Th us a + 2 a
3
, 3a
z
( d
EX E RC IS E 9
F actor th e foll ow i ng :
— 2
1 . 3 . x 2
( y
5 z )
— 5
2 .
(m 4 . 4 x (a — b — c ) y( b + c — a
) .
'
5 .
( a b) ( m 2
xz) ( a b) ( m2 yz ) .
m —n 4 — 2 m (m — n 3 — n 2
6 .
( ) ) )
9 . 6 — 1 0 a + 2 7a — 4 5 a 3
2
.
8 . m +6m
- 4 3 — 7m —4 2 . 1 0 . 26 a b — 2 8 ad — 5 bc
+ 7cd .
1 1 . ax — ay + az —bx + by — bz .
1 2 . 3 a m — 6 a n + 4 bm — 8 b n -I—cm — 2 cn .
1 3 ax -
+a — d e — bx — cz
.
y .
1 5 7 If a n . r
e x p e s s i on wh e n r ai s e d t o th e n th p o w e r (n b e in g
a p o s i t i ve i n t e g e r) is e qu a l to an ot her r
e xp e s s i o n , th e firs t
r
e x p e s s i on is s aid t o be an n th R oot of th e c
s e on d .
Th u s ,
if a ”
b ,
a is an n t h r o o t o f b .
1 58 . Th e R adi cal S i g n, w h e n w r i t t e n b e fo r e an e xp r s e
s io n , i n d i c a t e s s o m e r o ot o f t h e e xp r e s s i o n .
Th u s , x/ a
“
i n d i c ates a s e o n d , o r s qua r e r o o t o f a
c 4
3
x/a
c at e s a th i rd or cube r oot o f a 9
o
9
i n di
o
,
"
V a i n d i c a te s an n th r o o t o f a ; e t c
? " 2 "
.
Th e i n d ex o f a r o o t i s th e n u m b e r w r i t t e n o v e r th e ra d i cal
S i gn t o i n d i c a t e w h at r oo t o f t h e e x p r e s s i o n i s t ak e n .
I f n o i n d e x i s e x p r e s s e d t h e i n d e x 2 i s un d e r s t o o d , .
An e ven r o o t i s o n e w h o s e i n d e x i s a n e v e n n u mbe r ; an odd
r oo t i s o ne wh o s e i n d e x i s an o dd n umbe r .
1 59 . A r at i o n a l a n d i n t e g r al r d t o be a p erfect
e xp e s s i o n is s ai
s qu a r e, a p erfect c ube, o r i n g e n e r a l a p erf

, ec t n th p ow er w h e n
, ,
i t h a s, r e s p e c ti v e l y , a r a ti o n al a n d i n t e g r a l s u a r e c ub e o r n t h
q , ,
r oo t .
1 60 . S in c e ( 2 a
2
b) 3
8 a
6 3
b a c ube r oo t of 8 a
6
b 3
g
is 2 a b .
Ag a i n , c e (m ) m a four th r o o t o f m i s m
s in
2 4 8
,
8 2
.
I t i s e v i d e n t fr o m t h i s t h a t e v e ry p os i ti ve t e rm wh i ch i s a ,
p e r fe c t n t h p o w e r h a s a p os i ti ve n t
,
h r o o t .
W e s h a l l c all t h i s i t s p r i n c ip a l n t h r o ot .
W e al s o h av e m ) m8 s o th a t a n o th e r fourth r oo t o f m i s
2 4 m 8 2
It i s e vid e n t fr o m t h e a b o ve th a t e ve ry p o s it i ve t e rm w h i ch i s a p e rfe ct
n t h p o w e r h a s if n i s e ve n i n a d di t i on t o i t s p o s i t i ve nth r o o t a n eg a ti ve
, , , ,
n th r o o t o f t h e s a m e a b s o l ut e va l ue .
In t h e p res en t ch a p t e r o n l y th e p r i n cip a l n th r o o t w ill b e c o n s i d e r e d

,
.
1 61 . S inc e 3 x
3 3
) 27 a c ube r o ot of 2 7x 9
3
is 3 x .
It i s e v id e n t fr o m th i s t h at ev e ry n eg a ti v e t e r m, wh i ch is a
p e r fe ct n th p o w e r h a s a n ega tive n th r o o t
,
.
W e s h a ll c all t h i s i t s p ri nc ip a l n t h r oo t .
FA C T O R ING 79
1 62 . It w i ll be sh o wn 75 6 ) t h at a n umb e r h a s two d i ffe r

e nt r r o ot s
s qu a e ,
th r ee d i f
fe r e n t c ub e r o o ts a n d i n g e n e r al , , ,
n d i ffe r e n t n t h r oo t s .
It w i ll b e un d e r s t o od t hr o u g h out t h e re m ai n d e r o f th e w or k ,
un l e s s th e c o n tr a ry is S pe c i fie d ,
t h at w hen we s p ea k o f th e n th
r oot of a te r m , w e m e a n t h e p r i n c ip a l n t h r o ot .
1 63 . L et n be a p o s i t i ve i n t e ge r , and a and b tw o e qua l
p e rfe ct n th
p o w e s r ; t h e n ,
by A x 5 ,
. 6 6,
Th at i s , if two p erfect n th p ow ers a re e qua l, th e i r p r i ncip a l

n th r o o ts a r e e qua l .
1 64 . Any R oot of a Pow er .
"
R e q u i r e d th e v a l ue o f V a
m”
,
wh e r e m a n d n a r e a ny p o s i t i v e
i nte g e r s .
: m"
By 1 28 , ( y
n
a a .
Th en , by 1 5 7, Va “
a
“
.
1 65 . Any R oot of a Pr odu ct .
L et n be a p o s iti ve i n t ege r , an d a, b c, ,
n o
,
n u mbe r s wh i ch
a re p e rfe c t nth p o w e s r .
By 1 5 7, ( W bo a
Al s o ,
x { Vb x { 75 x m) (W Y X
"
X
a bc m ,
by 1 57 .
Th e n ,
by 1 63 , V
”
a bc X V I; X X
fo r e a c h oft hese r
e xp e s s i o n s i s th e n th r o ot o f a bc
T h is si mp l y m e a ns t h a t t h e p ri n c ip a l n th ro o t of a p rod uct is e qua l to

th e p ro d uct o f th e p ri ncipal nt h r o o ts ofth e fa ct o rs .
1 66 . Any R oot of a M onomi a l .
F r om 1 6 0, 1 6 1 ,
1 64 , and 1 65 , w e h a ve t h e fo l l o w i ng
r ul e fo r fi n di n g
t h e p r i n c i pal r o ot of a r at i on al a nd i nt e g r a l
m on om i al , w h i ch i s a p e r fe c t p o w e r
,
o f th e s a m e d e gr e e as th e
i nd ex o f th e r e q ui r e d r o o t :
80 ADVAN CE D C O U R S E IN ALG E B R A
E xtr a ct th e re qui r ed r o o t o f th e a bs o lute va lue o f e n umer i ca l

th
co e filci en t,
a nd d i vi d e th e exp on en t o f ea ch le tter by th e i n d ex of
th e r equ i r ed ro o t .
G i ve to every even r o o t o f a p os i ti ve term th e p os i tive s i gn , a n d
to e very o d d r o ot o f a ny term th e s ign o f th e term i ts elf .
R e qu i r e d t h e c ube 6
1 . r oo t o f 64 x .
By th e r ul , e
2 . R e q ui r e d th e fo ur t h r oo t o f 8 1 mn i ”
5 1”
3 . R e qui r ed t h e fi ft h r o ot o f 32 a
1 °
bc .
1 6 7 It fol l o w s fr o m
. 1 31 t h at a r at i on al an d i nt e gral t r i
n omi al is a p e r fe c t s q ua r e w hen i ts fir s t an d t h i r d te rm s a re
p e rfe ct r
s q ua e s , a n d p o s i t i v e ,
a n d it s s e c o n d t e r m p l u s o r mi n u s
t w i c e t h e p r o du c t oft heir s q ua e r r oot s .
Thus ,
4 x 2
1 2 xy 2
9 y is “
a p e rfe c t s qu ar e .
'
1 68 . To fin d t h e r
s q ua e r o o t o f a tri n o mi al p e rfe c t s qua re ,
we re v e s er th e r ul e s o f 1 31
E xtr a ct th e s qua r e r oo ts 1 6 6) of th e fir s t a nd th i r d ter ms ,

a nd c on n ect th e r es ults by th e s ig n o f th e c
s e o nd term .
1 . Fin d th e s qu ar e root of 4 x
2
1 2 xy + 9 y 2 4
.
By th e r ul e ,
Th e r
e xp e ss i o n may b e w ri tt en i n th e form
x ?
) 2( 2 x>< 3 3 215 2
;
w hi ch s h ow s th a t 2 x) 3 or 2x 3 y , is a 2 l s o a s quare ro ot .
B ut t h e fi rs t form is s i mp e l r , a nd wi ll be us ed i n th e e xamp l e s o f th e
pr e s en t c h ap t er .
2 . Fin d th e s qua r e r o ot o f m 2
2 mn + n
2
.
W e m ay r
w i te th e r
e xp e s s i o n i n t h e form n 2 2 mn m2 ; i n w hi ch
cas e ,
by th e rul e , t h e s q ua r e r oo t i s n m .
82 A DVAN C E D C O URS E IN ALG E B R A
O r, by 1 55 a nd 1 69 ,
x— — 4 z
2
( 3 y) ( 3 x
Th i s e xp re s s i on i s t h e s qua r e o f (3 x — y) 2 2 .
Th us 9 x + y + 4 z — 6 xy — 1 2 xz + 4 yz = (3 x — y
2
,
2 2
By 9 1 w e may p ut t h e r e s ul t i n t h e fo rm
, 3x y 2 z )
2
EX ERC IS E l l
F actor t h e foll o wi ng :
1 . a
2
+ b + 2
02
+ 2 ab — 2 ao — 2 bc .
2 . 1 + 25 m + 36
2
n 2 — 1 0m + 1 2 n — 6O mn .
3 . a
2
+ 8 1 b2
+ 1 6 — 1 8 ab — 8 a + 72 b .
P
”
S 36 m 2
+ 64 n2
+ x 2
+ 96 mn — 1 2 mx - l 6 ux .
3
9 1 6 a
4
+ 9 4
b + 81 c4 — 24 a
2
b2 — 72 2 2
a 0 + 54 b
2 2
6 .
S 2 5 x6 + 4 9 y1 °
+ 36 28 — 70x3 5 + 6 0x3 z 4 — 84 5z 4
y y .
'
1 71 . CAS E IV . Wh en the eap r es s i o n i s th e d ifler en ce
p e r ef c t s qua r es .
By 1 3 2, a
z— b2
= b).
H e n c e to o bt a i n th e fa c t o r s w e re v e r s e th e rul e of 1 3 2 :
, ,
E xtra ct th e s qua re roo t of th e firs t s qua r e, a n d of th e s econ d

s qu a r e ; a dd th e r es ults fo r on e f a cto r a n d s ubtr a ct the s econ d ,
r es ult f m th
ro e firs t for th e o th er .
1 . F ac t o r 36 a
2 4
b 49 c “
.
Th e s q ua r e r o o t o f 3 6 a l) i s 6 a b ,
l “ 2
a nd o f 49 0
6
i s 7d 8
"
The n ,
36 a
l
l) 4
49 c “
( 6 ab
z
7 ab 7
2 . Fa c t o r ( 2 x — 3
y )
2 —
( y) x—
2
.
By th e — 2 — - 2
r u le ,
( 2 x 3 y) (x y)
— 3 — —r
r) (w )l
— x— — 3 — + v)
( Z r 3y+ r)(2 w y x
“
—
<
3 m— 4
y)<
x — 2
t) .
A p ol y n o mi al of m o r e t h an t w o t e r m s m a y s o me t i m es be
r
e xp e s s e d as t h e d if
fe renc e o f tw o p e r fe c t r
s q ua e s , a n d fa c t or e d
by t h e r ule o f Ca s e IV .
FA C T O R IN G 83
3 . F a c to r 2 mn m 2
1 M .
Th e fir s t s e c on d an d la s t te r m s m ay be g r o upe d
, , t o ge th e r i n
o rd e r m + 2 mn + n ; wh i ch e x p r e s s i o n
2 2
th e by ,
1 68 , i s t h e
s quare o f m n .
Th us ,
2 mn + m 2 — 1
m 2 — 1
( + n
)
4 . F a c tor 1 2y+ x — 2
9 y 2 —
4 .
1 2y + x — 2
9 y
— 4
2
= x —
2
9 y + 1 2y 2 — 4
— x2 — 2
(9 y
— x2 3 by § 1 68,
( y
—
[ r + (3 y (3 y
— 3 — 2)(x
( x + y
EX E RC IS E l2
F actor th e foll o wi ng :
1 1 96 m 4
x 12 — 28 9 n 6 1 0
.
y .
36 2 —
2 . a (2 a
3 . m 7x)2 n 4 y)2 .
— 9 4 a -5 b 2
4 . 4 (8 a + 3 b)
z
( )
a
2
+ b
2 — c2 + 2 a b .
x2 — 2 — 2 z — 22
y y .
6 np -- 1
I 6 m 2 — 9 Z — n2
p
'
z — —x2 + 2 x — 2
nt 2 mn + n 2
y y .
l6 a
2 —8 ab + b — c2 — 1 0c
d — 2 5 d2
2
.
2 8 xy — 36 — 25 + 4 x
i
2
1 0 . 2 2
+ 4 9 y + 6 O z .
1 72 . CASE V . Wh en th e exp r es s i o n i s i n th e form

4 2 2 4
x ax y y
C e r t a i n t r i n o mi al s of t he a bo v e fo r m m ay b e fa c to r e d by
r
e xp e s s i n g th e m as t h e dif
fe r e n c e o f t w o p e r fe c t s qua r e s , a n d
th e n e m pl o y i n g 1 71 .
1 . F a c to r a
i
a
2 2
b b4
84 ADVAN CE D C O UR S E IN ALG E B R A
‘
By 1 67, a t r i n o m i al i s a p e r fe ct Sq u a r e i f i t s fi r s t and la st
t e r ms rfe c t s q ua r e s an d p o s i ti v e a n d i t s
ar e p e , s e c on d t e r m p l us
o r mi n u s t w i c e t h e p r o d uc t o f t h e i r s qu a r e r o o t s .
Th e g i v en e xp r e s s i o n ca n be m a d e a p e r fe c t s q ua r e by a ddi n g
a b t o i t s s e c o n d t e r m ; an d th i s can be d o n e i f w e s ubt rac t
’
f 2
a b fr o m t h e r e s ul t
2 2
.
Th u s a a b ,
b 4 4
(a
4
2 a b
2
i 2
b42
) a b 2 ’ z
2
( b) 2 2 2 2
a b ,
by
(
2 2
a b ab
)( a
2 2
b ab
)
, by 1 71 ,
(
2 2
a ab b )(a 2
ab
2 . F a c to r 9 x
4
3 7x 2
4 .
Th e r
e xp e s s i o n wi l l be a p e r f ec t s q uar e if i ts c
s e on d t e rm is
2
1 2 x .
Th u s 9 x
4 — 1 2 x + 4) —
2
25 x2
,
- 2 —
( (
2
3 x 5 x )
= (3 x
2
+5 x— 2)(3 x —
2
5 x
Th e r
e xp e s s i on may l
a so b e fact o re d as fo ll o ws :
9 x 4 — 3 7x2 4 4 1 2 x2 + 4 ) -4 9 x2
( 9 x
( 7x)
2
(3 x
2
(3 x +
2
7x + )( 3 x
2 2
7x + 2 ) .
S eve ral expres s i ons i n t h e fo ll o wi ng s et may b e fact ored i n t wo d ifferent

w ay s .
Th e fa c t r g
o in of tr i nom i a ls of th e fo m r x4 ax z
y
2
y
“
, w h en th e
fa ctors i n vo l ve
‘
su rd s , wi ll b e c ons id ered i n 4 59 .
EX E RC IS E I3
F act or th e foll owi ng
1 . a 4
+5 x2
+9 . 5 . 9 a 4
46 a 2 2
y + 4 9 ya
4 z 4 2
2 . a 21 a
2
b 36 b4 . 6 . 1 6 a 81 a 1 6 .
3 . 4 — 3 3 x2 + 4 x4 . 7 6 4 + 64
. m + 2 5 m4
2
4 . 25 m 4 6 m2 uz 8 . 49 a 4 1 2 7a 2x2 8 1 x4 .
Fa cto r e a ch o ft h e fo ll o wi ng in two d i ffe r en t w ay s :
9 . x4 1 7x2 1 6 . 1 1 . 1 6 m 4 1 04 m2x2 2 5 x4 .
1 0 . 9 1 48 a
2
64 a
4
. 1 2 . 36 a
4 9 7u 2
m2 36 m 4
.
F A C T O RING 85
1 73 . CASE VI . Wh en th e e xp r es s i o n is in the for m

2
x ax b .
If, t h e n , a t r i n o m i a l i s i n t h e fo r m x 2
ax b, a n d a an d b
ar e, r e s p e c t i ve ly ,
th e s um an d p r o d u c t of t wo n umb e r s , th e
fa c t or s a re x p l u s o ne n u m be r a n d x p l u s t h e ot h er .
Th e n u mbe r s m ay be fo u n d by i n s p e c t i on .
1 . Fa ctor x
2
1 4 x 45 .
We fin d t w o nu mb e r s wh o s e s um is 1 4 an dp r o d u c t 45 .
B y i n s pe c t i o n , w e d e t e r mi n e t h at t h e s e n umb e r s ar e 9 a n d 5 .
Wh en c e ,
x
2
1 4 x 45 ( x 9 )(x
2 . Fa ct or x
2
5 x 4 .
We fin d t w o n u mbe r s w h os e su m is 5 an d p r o d u ct 4 .
S in c e th e s um is n e g at i v e , an d t h e p r o d uct p o s i t i v e , th e
n um b r s e m u s t b o th be n e gat iv e .
By i n s p e cti on, we d e t e r mi n e t h at th e n u mbe r s are — 4
and — 1 .
Wh e n ce — 4
)(
2
,
x x
3 . Fa ct o r x
2
6x 1 6 .
We fin d t w o n um b e r s w ho se s um is 6 an d p r o du c t 1 6 .
S i n c e th e s um i s p os i t i v e ,
an d t h e p r o d u c t n e g a ti v e , t h e
n umbe s r m us t be o f O pp o s i te S i gn ; a n d t h e p o s i t i v e n u m b e r
m u s t h a v e t h e g r ea t e r a b s ol ut e v alue .
B y i n s pec t i on w e d e t e r mi n e t h at
,
th e n umb r s e are 8
an d 2 .
Wh e n c e ,
x
2
6 x 1 6 (x 8 )(x
4 . Fa ctor x
4
a bx
?
42 a
2
b 2
.
We fin d t w o n um b e s r whose s um is 1 an d r
p o d uc t 42 .
Th e n u m be s
r mu s t be o f o pp o s i t e S i gn a n d t h e , n e g at i v e
n umb er m us t h a v e t h e g re a t e r a bs o l ut e v a l ue .
B y i n s p ec t i o n w e d e t e r m i n e t h a t t h e n u mbe r s are — 7
, ‘
n 7a b)(x
? 2
(
2
42 a x 6 ab
) .
86 AD VAN C E D C O UR S E IN ALG E B R A
5 . F a ctor 1 2a 99 a
2
.
We fin d t w o n umbe s r wh os e su m is 2 an d p r o duc t 99 .
B y i n s p e c ti on , w e d et e r mi ne t h a t t h e n u mbe r s a re 1 1
an d 9 .
Wh en c e 1 +2 — 9
,
a a ).
If th e ,
x
2
t e rm i s n e ga t i v e , th e e nti e r e x p r es s i o n s h ould be
en c lo s e d i n p a r e n t h e s e s p r e c e d e d by a S i gn .
6 . F a c t or 24 5 x x
2
We h a ve , 24 + 5 x — x = —
2
( x —
2
5 x — 24 )
—
< x
In cas e t h e numbe rs a re l a rge ,

w e m ay p rocee d as fo ll o ws :
R e q ui r e d t h e n u mb e r s W h o s e s um i s 26 a nd p ro duct 1 92 .
O ne o ft h e n u mbe rs m us t b e and the o the r

Ta k in g in o rd e r ,
g
b e inn i n g w ith t h e fa ct o rs 1 x 1 9 2, a ll po ss ib e l
r
p a i s o ffa ctors of -1 9 2 of w h i h o n e i s
,
c an d th e o th e r we h a ve :
+ 1 x — 1 92 .
+ 2 x 96 .
+3 x 64 .
+4 x 48 .
+ 6 x 32 .
S i nc e th e su m of 6 a nd 32 i s 26 , th e y are th e numbe s r required .
EX ERC IS E I4
F actor t h e follo wmg :
(a x)
2 28 ( a
1 . x 2
+ 1 8 x + 56 . 1 1 . x) 1 92 .
2 . x2 + 1 6 x — 57 . 1 2 . 95 1 4 x4 x3 .
3 . a
2 — 1 0a — 75 . 1 3 . 1 05 8m 3
ii i “
.
— 21 2 1 36 xy2 68 x2y4
+ 1 04 1 4
4 4
.
y y . . .
5 . 77— 4 x — x 2
. 1 5 . x 6 1 7x yz 3 2
72 y 2 4
z .
6 . 84 + 5 n — n2 . 1 6 . a
2 6 ab 91 b 2.
7 1 + 7m + 70m
1 .
2
. 1 7 . a
2
32 a mu 1 1 2 mi n” .
8 . l + 5 a b — 1 4 a 2 b2 . 1 8 . x 4 4
y 7x y z g
z 1 702 2 .
— — I5 x — — mn
x — ( m
2
9 .
( x y) ( y) 1 6 . 1 9 .
2 2 3 n x ) 6 .
'
1 0 .
(m n 2+ 21
) (m n ) 1 30 . 20 . xz (a b)x ab .
F A C T O RI NG 87
1 74 . CA S E V I I . Wh en th e exp r es s i o n i s i n th e for m
2
ax bx c .
If a i s a p e r fe ct s qu a r e , a n d b is d i v i s i bl e by V 5 ,
w e m ay
fa c t o r th e e xp re s s i o n d i r e c tly by t h e m e th o d o f 1 73 .
1 . F ac t o r 9 x
2
1 8 x 5 .
W e h av e , 9 x
2
x
)
2
x )+ 5 .
W e fin d tw o n u mbe s r w hos e su m is 6, an d p r o duc t 5 .
Th e n u mbe r s ar e 5 and 1 .
Th en 2 — 5 3x
,
9 x
)(
If b is d i v i s i bl e by
n ot X/ d, or i fa is n ot a pr fe c t s qu are w e
e ,
m u l ti p l y a n d d i v i d e t h e e xp r e s s i o n by a, w h i ch by , 9 6 d oe s ,
n ot ch a n g e i t s v al ue .
2 . F a c to r 6 x
2
+5 x — 4 .
Mul ti ply in g an d d i vi d i n g t h e r
e xp e s s i on by 6, w e h a ve
2 —
(6 x
) + 5 (6 x
) 24
.
6
Th e n umbe r s a r e 8 an d 3 .
Th em
2 x3
D i v i d i n g th e fir s t fa c t o r by 2, an d th e c
s e on d by 3, we h av e
2 — 4 =
~
l
6 x +5 x
In c e rt ai n c a s e s the c oe ffi c i e n t o f as m ay be ma de
,
2
a p e rfe ct
s q u a r e by mu l t i p ly i n g by a n umbe r l e s s t h an i t s e l f .
3 . F a ct o r 8 x
2
2 6 xy 1 5y i’
.
Mult i p ly i n g a nd di vi d i n g by 2 , w e h av e
2
( 4 x
)
2
2
88 ADVA NCE D C O UR S E IN ALG E B R A
4 . Fa c to r 2+5x — 3x2
.
2+5 x 3 x
2
= -
(3 x — 5 2
x —2
)
3
—
( 2 x )( l + 3 x) .
EX E RC IS E l 5
F acto r th e foll owi ng :
1 . 4 x2 + 28 x + 4 5 . 8 . 7 + 7x
2 — 49 x2
.
2 . 6x + x — 2
2 . 9 . 6 — x —1 5 x2 .
3 . 25 x — 2 5 2
mx — 6 m 2
. 1 0 . 5 + 9 n2 — l 8 n4 .
4 . 1 0x — 39 x + 1 4
2
. 1 1 .
5 . 1 2 x2 1 1 x 2 . 1 2 . 1 8x 2 2 7a bx 35 a b
2 2
.
6 . 2 0 a 2x2 23 ax 6 . 1 3 . 7( a b) 2 3 0( a 2 b + 8 i .
7 36.x2
+ 1 2 x —35 . 1 4 .
— 7 .
1 5 . 1 4 (m n 2 ) 39 e (m n ) 1 0a 2
(ad
2
1 6 . a cx bc)x bd .
1 75 . It is n ot p o s s i bl e t o fa c t or e v e ry e xpre s s i on o f th e form
+ b by t h e m e th o d of 1 73
2
x dx .
Th us l e t i t be r e qui r e d t o fa c t o r x
,
2
1 8 x 35 .
W e h a v e t o fin d tw o n u mbe r s wh o s e su m i s 1 8, an d p r o duc t
Th e on l y p a i r s o f p o s i t i v e i nt e gr al fa c t or s o f 3 5 ar e 7 an d 5 ,
an d 35 an d 1 ; an d in n eit h e r c as e i s th e s um 1 8 .
In Ch a p X IX w ill be g i ve n . a g en era l m eth o d fo r fac to ri ng

a n y e xp r e s s i o n o f t h e fo r m a x
2
bx c .
1 76 . CASE V I II . Wh en the exp r es s i on is the cube o f a
bi n o mi a l .
Ex . F a c to r 8 a
3
36 a
z
b2
54 ab
4
27 b “
.
W e mus t s h o w th a t th e e x p re s s i o n is i n th e fo r m o f th e c ub e
of a b i n o mi al, as o b t ai n e d by th e r ul e of 1 35 , and fin d i ts
c ube r o ot .
90 ADVA NC E D C O UR S E IN ALG E B R A
3 . F a c t o r (x a
)
3
( x a
) : 3
( x + a r ( x o
r
2
(
- w — d
)l
— a2 x —
2 2
( x + a + 2 ax + a
)
2 2
2 a
(3 x a
) .
1 78 . CASE X Wh en th e exp r es s i on
. i s th e su m or d ifer en c e
f two
o equa l o d d p o we r s of tw o n u m bers .
By 1 4 2 , th e s um o r di ffe r e n c e of tw o e q ual o dd p o w e rs of
tw o n u m be s r i s d i v i s i bl e by t h e su m or d i ffe r e n c e , re s
p e ct i v e ly ,
o f t h e n um be s r .
Th e q u o t i e n t m a y b e obt ai n e d by l a w s of 1 43 .
Ex . F ac t o r a
5
32 b 5
.
5
( )
5
By 1 3 0, 32 b 2 b .
Th e n ,
by 1 4 2, on e fa c t o r i s a 2 b .
D i v i di n g a 5
3 2 b by 5
a 2 b ,
t h e q uo t i e n t i s
( )
4 2
( b) ( )
3 2 4
( )
3
a a 2 b a 2 a 2 b 2 b
Wh e n c e ,
a
5
32 b = 5
( a 2 b)(a 4
2 a
3
b 4 a
2
b 2
8 ab
3
+ 1 6 b)
4
.
EX ERC IS E I7
F actor th e fo ll o wm g
1 . 8 m 3
n 3
. 3 . a
6
64 . 5 . 72 9 a
g
b3 51 2 c3 d 3
m m (m
a 3
2 . x y 3 3
1 25 23 . 4 . 21 6 a
3 s
34 3 n 9
. 6 . n ) .
— 3
7 .
y)
3 . 9 .
(2 a + x )
2 7( a — b 3 — 8 b3 — 4 3
8 .
) 1 0 .
(5 x y)
5 5
1 1 . x5 y
5
1 4 . 1 x7 . 1 7 32. a b .
1 2 . a
s 1 . 1 5 . m 9 n9 . 1 8 , 24 3 x 5
y
5
.
1 3 . a
7
b7 . 1 6 . a
9
1 . 1 9 . m l4 1 8n
2 7 .
1 024 5 5 24 3 1 0
20 . a b 0 .
1 79 . By c
rul e s al r ea dy g i v e n a n e xpr e s s i on
a p p li a ti o n o f t h e ,
m ay o ft e n b e r e s o l ve d i n t o m o r e t h a n t w o fa c t o r s .
c
I f t h e t e r m s o f th e e x p r e s s i o n h a v e a c o m m o n fa c t o r t h e ,
me t h o d o f 1 5 5 s h o ul d a l w ay s b e a ppl i e d fir s t .
FA C T O R ING 91
1 . F a c to r 2 ax s 2
8 a xy
“
.
(
3 2 “ 2 2 ?
By 1 55, 2 ax y 8 a xy 2 a xy x 4y )
t e
2 F act o r a b
By 1 71 , a
6 6
b :
( a
3
b )( a
3 3
b) 3
.
Wh e n c e ,
by 1 77,
6
a
3 . F a ctor x — 8
y
8
.
B y § 1 7l t g — 4
w y )
y)
-
4 . F a ct or 3 (m + n
)
2 — 2 (m 2 — n2
) .
3 (m + 2
m 2 —
n
) -2
( ) n
<
— 2 m— n
>i
— 2m
+ 2 n)
5 . F a ct o r a
( a — 1
) —b b
(
— 1 — b (b — — a — b2
(
2
a a
) l) z a +b
-a 2 — b2 — a
+ b
— b
— b —
> <a
>
—
(
a
EX E RC IS E l8
Factor th e foll o wmg :
1 . x4 62 5 . 1 0 .
( 1 6 m2 n 2 2
) 64 m 2
n 2
.
a x"
2 1 2
l 1 1 2 an 8 5
e x3 2 3
xs 8
. a . . a .
3 . m1 6 1 . 1 2 . 9 a 2— 1 6 a
2
d2 — 3 6 b9 c2 + 64 b2 d2
4 . xii — 2 6 x3 27 . 1 3 . xl 4 — 2 x7 + l .
2 2 — 2 2
729 6
5 .
(a 4 ab b 2
) (a 2 b ) 1 4 . n .
z 3 9 3
x6 5
x2y3
‘
1 2 6x 4 3
6 . 1 8x 9 x . 1 5 . a b a y .
7 . 8 m
1 4 2 56 n 8
. 1 6 . 4 8 x3 y 2 2 2
5 xy 1 4 0xy 3 .
8 .
1
a 4 x1 4 1 7 . 1 6 a7 72 a6 1 08 a
5 54 a
4 .
6 3 3
( m + n) -
4
9 . x 1 6 x y 64 y 5
. 1 8 . I
92 ADV A NC E D C O U RSE IN ALGE B RA
1 9 . R es o l ve a
9 5 1 2 i n t o th re e factors b y th e m e t h o d of 1 77 .
20 2 m 2
m 22 n1 0 1 024
‘
. a a . . .
21 .
(x 2 4 x) 2
3 7( x 2 4 x)+ 1 60 . 23 . m 3
m x 3
x .
2 2 2 z' '
z z
24 . a c 4 b2 c2 9 a d 6
3 b d .
25 ( m n )( r2 y
?
) n 2
)
26 .
( x 6 (x 9 (x
27 . a 2 — 4 b2 — a — 2 b .
28 .
(m n )( m 2
x 2
) (m x)( m 2
n 2
)
.
8 53903 —2 1 6
‘
29 .
(e 2 4
+ y
? 2
2
y 1 6 31 . a 3
b 3 2 7a 3y3
30 .
(x
2 9 x)2 4 ( x2 9 x) 1 40 . 32 .
( 2 x2
x 2
.
33 .
( m2
m)2 2 ( m2 m)( m 1 )+ (m
34 . 64 ax 3 3
+ 8 a 3 — 8x 3 -1 . 36 .
( x + 2 y) 3 — x x2 — 4 2
( y ) .
35 .
(4 a
2
b 2 36 b 2 37 .
(1 x 3
) (l 3
x . )
38 .
— 1 5
39 . a
4 43 . m S — m + 32 5
m 3 —32 .
—
40 .
( x3 + y
3
) 44 . a ( a c ) b( b c ) .
8m m) 2
m (m + p ) 2 —p )
3 3
(
2
41 .
(a ) a a 2 . 45 . n ( n .
5
a b5
9 3
42 . 1 8 a b 22 a
3
b 3
8 . 46 . x 8 x 6
x 8 .
( 7m ( m x) ( m mx 2
47 . 2 3 x 3
) 3 9 2 1 2 x ) .
2 24 2 1 44 2
48 .
( 4 a a (4 a 9) a
49 . m9 m6 6 4 m3 64 .
50 .
(x
2
y
2 8
) 4 xy 2 2
(x 2
y
2
) .
5 4 3 z 2 3 4 5
51 . a a b a b a b ab b
2
52 . 8
( n
3
n + 4 n
1 8 0 Fa ct ori ng by S ubs t i t ut i on
. .
1 . Fa c to r x
3
7x + l 0x + 6
2
.
mn be c ome s O w h en e q u al t o
‘
By 1 4 0, i f t h e expr e s s x i s put
a, the n x a is a fa c t o r .
Th e p o s i ti v e a n d n e ga t i v e i n te g ra l fa c t or s of 6 are 1 ,
2 , 3 , 6,
1 , — 2, — 3 , a nd — 6 .
I t i s b es t t o t r y t h e n u mb e r s i n th e ir or der o f a b s ol u t e ma g
n i t ud e .
If x 1 ,
th e e xp r e s s m n be c om e s 1 7 1 0 6 .
If x 1 ,
th e e xp r e s s i o n b e c o me s 1 7 1 0 6 .
94 ADVAN C E D C O UR S E IN ALG E BR A
1 81 . Fact ori ng of S y mm et ri cal E xpre s s i ons .
The m et h o d o f 1 80i s a d van t a ge o u s i n t h e fa c to ri n g of s y m

m e t r i c a l e xp r e s s i o n s 1 46 .
,
1 . F act or
(
2 2
( b( c ( (
2 2 2 2
a b c
) a
) c d ( b) a b c) b c a
) c d b)
.
Th e ry mme t ri c al wi th r e s p e c t t o a b
e xp e s s i o n is s , ,
an d 0 .
B e i n g o f t h e th i r d d e g r e e t h e o n ly l i te r al fa c to r s ,
w h i ch i t
can h a v e a r e t hr e e o f t h e ty p e a ; t hr e e o f t h e t y p e a + b; or
a b c an d a fa c t o r of t h e s e c o n d d e gre e
, .
P utt i n g a 0 th e e x p r e s s i on b e c om e s
,
2 2 f z
be cb b c e b, or 0 .
Th e n by ,
1 4 0, a is a fa c to r ; an d, by s y m m e tr y , b an d c
a r e fa c t o r s .
Th e e xp r e s s i o n , be i n g o f th e thi rd d e g re e ,
can h a ve n o ot he r
lit e ral fa ct o r ; but i t m ay h a v e a n umer i ca l fac t o r .
L e t t h e g i v e n e xp r e s s i o n ma be .
To d e t e r mi n e m ,
l et a b c 1 .
Th e n ,
—2 — 2 — 2 = m, or m= 6 .
Wh e n c e ,
th e gi v en e x p es s i o nr 6 a bc .
2 . F a c t o r x (y
z) y (z x) 2 (x y) 3 xyz
2 2 2
.
Th e e x pr e s s i o n i s s y mme t r i c a l w it h re s p e c t t o x y and z , ,
.
Th e o n ly l i t e ra l fa c to r s wh i ch i t can h av e a re t h re e o f t h e
t y p e x ; th r e e o f th e t y p e x + y ; o r x + y + z an d a fac t or of ,
t h e s e c on d d e g r e e .
I t i s e v i de n t t h at n e i th e r x y n or 2 i s a fa c t or , ,
.
P utt i n g x e qua l t o y t h e e x p r e s s i on b e c o m e s
,
x(y z
) W y) 3 W .
wh i ch i s n ot 0 .
Th e n x y i s n ot a
,
fa c to r ; and, by s y mme try ,
ne i t he r y z
n or 2 x i s a fa c t o r
. .
P ut t i n g x e q ua l to y z ,
th e e xpr s s i on e be c ome s
— 3 — z3 — 3 yz (y +
y z
)
=y +3 y 3 2
+ 3 y2 +
2 — 33 — 3 —
3 yz z — 3 ez = o
2 Z y z y .
T h en x , y z is a fa c t o r .
F A C T O R ING 95
Th e h e r fa c t o r mu s t b e o f th e s e c on d
ot d e g re e ; an d, as it is
s y mme t ri c al w i t h r e s p e c t t o x y a n d 2 i t , , ,
m u s t be o f th e fo rm
m (x 2
y
2
or n
(
xy yz
Th e firs t of th e s e c ann o t be a fa ct o r ; fo r, if i t wer e, t h e r e
w o ul d h e t e r m s i n v o l v i n g x , y 3 3
, an d z
3
i n t h e g i v e n e xp r e s s i o n .
Th e n, th e g i v e n exp r e s s i o n 2 n
( x y z)(xy + yz
To de t e rm i n e n, let x: 1 , y 1 ,
an d z 0
.
Th en ,
1 + 1 = 2 n, a n d n : 1 .
Th e n ,
t h e gi v e n e x p r e s s i o n 2
(x y 2
)( xy yz
3 . F a ct o r ab (a b) be (b — c
) ea ( c a ) .
Th e r
e xp e s s i o n i s cyc l o-s y m m e t r i c al w i t h r e s p ec t to a, b ,
an d c
.
It i s d e nt th at n e ith er a b n o r c i s a fa ct or
evi , , .
T h e e xp r e s s i o n b e c o m e s 0 w h e n a i s p u t e q u a l t o b .
Th e n a b is a fa c t o r ; an d by s y m me t ry b c an d
, , , c — a
ar e fa c t or s .
Th e r
e xp e s s i o n can h ave no ot h er l it e r al fa ct or, but m ay
h av e a n u me r i c al one .
L e t th e g i v e n e xp r e s s i o n m (a b )( b c) (c a
).
To d e t e r mi n e m, l e t a 2, 1 , b and c 0
.
Th e n ,
2 = — 2 m, a nd m: — 1 .
The n ,
t h e gi v e n e xp r e s s i o n ( a b)(b c
)( c a
)
.
EX ERC IS E 2 0
F a c to r t h e fo ll o w i n g
1 .
2 .
3 .
4 .
— 4 a bc .
2 — b
5 . a ( b ) .
6 o
7 .
8 .
9 .
( x y 2 )( xy yz + z x) xyz .
1 0 .
( x — x 3
> .
— b
(b
1 1 3
. a
) .
96 ADVAN CE D C O UR S E IN A LGE B R A
S OLU TION O F E QU AT IONS B Y FA CT OR IN G

1 82 . Con s i de r t h e e qu a t i o n
( 1 )
whe r e A B O m i n t e g ra l e xp r e s s i o n s W h i ch i nv ol v e th e
‘
, , , ,
ar e
un k n o w n n u mbe rs .
B y § 4 9 , if A X B X C X : 0, s om e on e o f t h e fa c t o r s A ,
B , C, ,
m u m
s t e q ua l 0 .
We obtai n i n th i s w ay a s er i e s o f e q u a t i on s
A = O, ( )
2
We w i ll now s h o w t h a t t h e s e a re e quiv al e nt 1 1 4 )
Any s o l ut i on of 1
( ) m ak es A X B X C X
’
i d e n t i c a l ly e qual
to 0 .
I t t h e n m ak e s at leas t one of th e fac to r s A, B , O, m

,
i d e nt i
c al ly e q ual t o 0; an d h en c e s a ti s fie s at l e as t on e o f th e e q ua
t i o ns
Ag a i n , an y s o l u ti o n of a ny o f th e e q ua t i on s ( )
2 m k A
' a es X
B X C X m i d e n t i ca lly e q ua l t o 0; an d h e nce s a ti Sfie s
The n (1 ) an d (2) a r e
,
e qu i v a l e nt .
It foll o w s fr om t h e a bo ve t h a t th e e q u at i o n
A xB X 0x 0
ma y b e by pl a c i n g th e fa c t o r s o f th e fi r s t me mb e r
s ol v ed s epa
rat el
y q
e u a l t o z e r o , a n d s o l v i n g t h e r e s u lt i n g e q ua t i o n s .
1 . S o l v e th e e q uat i o n 2x 2
x O .
F a ctori ng th e fi rs t me mbe r ,
th e eq u at i on bec ome s
x (2 x 1 ): 0
P l a c i n g t h e fa c t o r s r
s e p a at e l y eq u al t o 0,
x 0 °
an d 2x or x =1 ~
2
2 . S o l v e th e e q uat i o n x
3
4 x
2
x 4
F a c to r i n g th e fir s t m e mbe r 1 5 6,
( )(
2
x+ 4 ) (x or 1 x
98 ADVA NC E D C O UR S E I N ALGE B R A
l5 . x — 2 cx
2 1 6 . x + m x— 5
2
3 2
mx3 — 1 5 m5 : 0 .
1 7 2 — 3x
.
( x
4
1 8 . 27 x 3
+1 8 x 2 —3x
1 9 3 6 — x 2
. x + x
20 4 — l3x2 3
. x + 2x
— 4 —2 3 3
21 .
(x (x 22 .
( x ) + 8 x
23 . x — 4 —
2
(x
2 — 2 —3
24 .
( x 1 )( x (x
3
25 .
(2 x + 1 )
— 3 — 8
26 .
( x l 2
)( x )
1 83 . I t fo l l o w s fr o m 1 4 0 a n d 1 8 2 t h at
If the fi rs t member o f th e equa ti o n
A =0
is a r a ti o n a l i n tegr a l p o lyn omi a l i n vo lvi ng th e

a nd un kn o wn
n um ber x, a n d d i vi s i ble by x a , th e e q ua ti o n h a s a a s a r oo t .
F o r by 1 4 0, t h e fi rs t m e mbe r h as x a as a fa c t o r .
If A i s d i vi s i b le by ax b , t
t h e e q ua i o n h a s 9.
as a ro ot .
'
Ex . F i nd wh eth e r 3 a r oot o f th e e q u a t i on
D i v i d i ng t h e fir s t m e mber by3 x 2 , t h e q u o t i e nt i s 3
2
x 2x
'
+3 x + 1 ; t h e n, 3 a r oo t .
EX ERC IS E 2 2
F i n d w h e th e r :
1 . 4 is a r oot o fxB — xZ 1 9 x + 28 =0 .
2 .
—
g is a ro ot o i 6x + 3
3 .
i -i S a ro o t o f4 x3 l1 x2 — 1 4 x
4 .
— 5 is a r 00t o f 4 x4 + 2 2 3
x + 9 x2 — 8 x — 1 5 2 0 .
5 .
é is a r o ot o f 1 5 x4 — 1 7x3 -t- 7x2
6 .
— 3 i s a r oot o f 9 x4 + 2 6 x3 — 8 x2 —
l 1 x — 3 2 0
.
H IGH E S T C OMMON FA C T O R 99
IX . H IGH E S T C OMMON F A C T OR . L OW E S T
C OMMON M U L T IP L E
H IGH E S T C OMMON FAC T OR
In th e p res ent ch ap t er we c o ns id e r o nly ra ti on al
, an d i nt e gral e xp e s r
s i o ns w i th i n t e gra l n um e ri ca l co e fii ci e n ts .
1 84 Th e H i g h e s t Common F a ct or (
. C F ) o f t w o o r mo r e H . . .
e x p r e s s i on s i s t h e i r c o mm o n f ac t o r o f h i gh es t d eg ree
o r if s e v e r a l c o m m o n fa c t o r s a r e o f e q ua l ly h i g h d e g r e e , i t i s
th e on e h a vi n g th e n fim e r i ca l c oe ffic i e n t of g r e at e s t a bs o l ut e
v al ue i n it s te r m h i g h e s t d e gr e e of .
Th ere a re a l w a y s t wo fo rms o f t h e h igh e s t c o mmo n fa ct or o n e , of
w h i c h i s t h e neg a ti ve o f th e o th e r .
T us pr a b e i th e r a
d 2 2
h i n t h
,
e e x es s i o n s a ab a n b b or b , a
w i ll e xa ct l y d i vid e e ach e xp re s s i o n .
1 85 . Tw o r
e xp e s s i o n s a re s ai d t o b e p ri me to ea ch ot her
wh e n y i s t h e i r h i gh e s t c o mm o n fa c t o r
un i t .
I n d e t e r mi n i n g th e h i gh e s t c o m m o n fa c t o r r
o f e xp e s s i o n s , it
is c o n v e n i e n t to d i s t i n g u i s h t w o c a s e s .
1 86 . CASE I . W h en th e exp r es s i o ns a r e mo n o mi a ls , or p y
o l
n omi a ls w hi ch r ea d i ly c ed b y i n sp ec ti o n
ca n be f a tor .
1 . R e q i re d th e
q H . C . F . of 42 a
3
b i
,
70 af
bc, and 98 a
4 3
bd 2
.
i0
‘
Th e H c F . . . of 4 2, ,
an d 9 8 is 1 4 .
It i s e v id e n t p
t y i n s e c t i o n t h a t t h e e xp r e s s i o n o f h i g he s t
d egree w h i c h w i ll e x a c t ly d i v i d e a b , a bc, an d a b d , i s a b
3 2 2 4 3 2 2
.
Th e n t h e H ,
. C . F . o f th e g i v e n e xp e s s i o ns r is 1 4 a
2
b.
I t w ill be ob s e v e d , r i n th e abo v e r e s u l t th a t, th e ex pon ent of

ea ch le tte r i s th e lo w es t exp o n e n t w i th wh i c h i t o ccurs i n a ny of th e
g i ve n e xp r es s i o n s .
2 . R e q ui r e d t h e H . C F . . of
4 f 2 a 2 2
5 x y 45 x y an d 1 0say 4 0w y 2 1 0xy .
1 00 A DVAN CE D C O UR S E IN AL G E B R A
By 1 5 5, 1 71 , an d 1 73 ,
5 —4 2 2
(
2
xy 45 x y = 5 x y x 9)
an d 1 0x y + 4 0x y 3 z 2 2
2 1 0xy = 1 0xy
2 f
( x
2
+4 x 21 )
Th e H C F . . . o f th e n u m e r i c a l c oe ffi c i e nt s 5 a nd 1 0i s 5 .
It i s e vi d e nt by i n s p e c t i o n t h a t t h e H C F . . . of th e li t e r a l
p o rt i o n s o f t h e e xp r e s s i o n s i s xy (x
The n ,
th e H C F . . . o f th e g i v en e x p r e s s i on s i s 5 xy (x
EX ERC IS E 2 3 0
F i nd th e h i h es g t c ommo n fa ct o r of
1 64 x + 2 7 3 3 1 6x — 2 2
9 y , a n d 1 6 x2 + 24 xy + 9 y2
.
y , .
2 . 2x 3 — 1 2 x 2
+ 1 6 x , 3 x4 — 3 x3 — 36 x 2
and 5 x 5
+ 5 x4 — 1 00x3
‘
, .
3 . 1 25 m — 8, 13
0 m +
2
m — 2 a nd 25 m — 20m + 4
2
, .
4 . a
4 — 3 a2 — 28 , a
4 — 1 6
, and
5 . 2 x3 + x2 —6 x — 3 , 6 x2 + 1 9 x + 8 , a nd
6 2 7x3 — y3 , 2 4 3 x5 — 5 and 1 2 x2 — 2 5 xy + 7y2

.
y , .
7 + b + c
a
2 2 2 — 2 ab + 2 ac — 2 bc a
2
+ b — 2
c 2 — 2 a b, and
.
,
aQ — bz — c2 + 2 bc .
s . 27a 3
+ 1 35 a
2
o + 2 25 a b3 + 1 2 5 b3
,
s a
2
+ 2 ab — 2
5b , a nd
3 ac — 6 ad + 5 bo -1 0 bd .
9 . 4 x 4
+ 1 1 x 2
+ 2 5 ,
2 x3 — 9
x2
+ 1 4 x —1 5, a nd 2 x 3
+ x 2 — x +1 0 .
1 87 . CASE Wh en II . th e exp res s i ons a re p olyn omi a ls wh i ch

ca n n ot be r ea di ly fa c tored by i n sp ecti on .
L et A B b e t w o p ol y n o mi a l s , a rr an ge d a cc o r d i ng t o th e
an d
d e s c e n d i n g p o w e r s o f s o m e c o m m o n l e t t e r , a n d l e t t h e e x p o ne n t
i
o f t h a t l e t t e r i n t h e fi r s t t e r m o f A be n o t l o we r th an i t s e x
p o n e n t i n th e fir s t te r m ofB .
S upp os e th at , w h e n A i s d ivi d e d by B , t h e quot i e nt i s p , an d
th e r e m ai n d e r 0 .
W e w ill p r o v e t h at th e H C F . . . of B a nd O i s th e sa me as
th e H C F o fA a n d B
. . . .
The O pe rati on of d i v i s ion is s h ow n as fol lo w s :

1 02 ADVAN C E D C O U R S E IN ALG E B R A
H en c e th e H C F of G an d H i s th e s a me a s th e H C F
‘
. . . . . .
ofA and B .
B ut sin e c H e xa c tl y d i vi d e s G, H i s i t s e lf t h e H . C . F . of G
an d II
H
.
Th e r e fo r e H i s th e C F of A an d B
,
. . . .
W e d e r i v e fr o m t h e ab o v e t h e follo w i n g r ul e fo r t h e C F H . . .
o f t w o p o l y n o mi a l s A a n d B a rr a n g e d a cc o r d i n g t o t h e d e
, ,
s c en d i n g p o w e r s o f s o m e c o m m o n l e t t e r t h e e xp o n e n t o f th at ,
l et t e r i n th e fir s t t e r m o f A be i n g n o t l o we r th an i t s e xp on en t
i n t h e fir s t t er m o f B :
D i v i d e A by B .
If th er e be a r ema i n de r d i vi d e th e d ivi s or by i t a nd con ti n ue

th us to ma ke th e r ema i n d er th e d i vi s or , a n d th e p r ecedi ng d i vi s or
th e d i vi d e nd , un ti l th ere i s n o rema i n d er .
Th e la s t d i vi s o r i s th e H C F . . . r equi r ed .
No t e 1 . rtan t t o k e e p th e work th rough out i n d es cend in g

It i s i mp o
p o w e rs o f s o m e c o m mo n l e tt e r ; a n d e a c h d i vis i o n s h oul d b e co n ti n ue d
u n t i l t h e e xp o n e n t o f t h i s l e tt e r i n t h e fi rs t t e r m o f th e re ma in d e r i s l e s s
than i ts exp on e nt i n th e firs t t e r m o f t h e di i s or v .
No t e 2 If t h e t e r ms o f on e of th e e xpr ess i o n s h a ve a c o mm o n fac

.
t or wh i ch i s n o t a c o mmo n fact or o f t h e t e r ms o f t h e o th e r i t m a y b e ,
re mo ve d for i t can e v id e ntly fo rm n o p ar t ofth e h i gh e s t co mm o n factor .
In l ik e ma n n e r w e m a y d i vi d e a ny r e ma i nd e r b y a fact or w h i ch i s no t a
,
fa ct or o f t h e p r e c e d in g d i vi s or .
No t e 3 If t h e firs t t er m ofth e d ivi d e n d o r of a n y r e ma i n d e r is n o t

.
, ,
d i vis ib l e by t h e fi rs t t e r m o f t h e d ivi s o r i t m ay b e m a d e s o b y m ul t ip l y ,
i n g t h e d ivi d e n d o r rem ai n d e r b y a n y t e r m w h i ch i s n o t a fac t o r o f th e

d ivi s o r
.
No t e 4 If t h e firs t t erm o f a n y r em a i n d e r i s n e g a tive th e s i gn of

.
,
e a c h t e r m o f t h e r e m a i nd e r m a b e c h a n g e d ( S e e n o t e t o
y .
No t e 5 If th e g i ve n e xp r e s s i o n s h a ve a c o mmo n fa ct o r w h i ch can
.
b e s e en b y i ns p e ct i o n re mo ve i t a nd find th e H C F of th e r e s ul t in g
, ,
. . .
e xp r e s s i o ns .
Th e re s ul t mul t i p l i e d b y th e c ommon fact o r w ill b e t h e H C F of

, , . . .
t h e g iv en e xp re ss i on s .
No t e 6 Th e op e rat io n o f d i vis i on may us uall y b e abrid ged by t h e

.
us e o f d e a h e d t c c o e ffic i e n ts
H IGH E S T C OMMO N FA C T O R 1 03
1 . R e q ui re d t h e H C F . . . of
6 a
3
+ 7a b — 2
3 ab
2
an d 4 a
3
b+ 8 a
2
b 2 — 3 ab — 9 b4 3
.
We re m o v e th e fa c to r a fr o m th e fir s t r
e xp e s s i o n , a n d th e
fa c t o r b fro m t h e c
s e on d (Note
W e th e n fin d th e H . C F . . of
6 2
7a b — 2 3
3 b an d 4 a + 8 2
b -3 a b2 — 9 b 3
a + a .
S in ce 4 a
3
is n ot d i v i s i ble by 6 a
2
,
w e mul ti pl y t h e s ec on d
e xp r e s s i o n by 3 (No t e
4 3 2 — 2 — 3
a +8 a b 3 ab 9 b
6 z —
+ 7a b 3 b )1 2
2 3
b— 9
Q — 2 7b 2 a
z
(
3
a a + 24 a ab
3 z 2
1 2 a +1 4 a
‘
b — 6 ab
1 0a b g
3 a b
2
2 7b 3
S i n c e 1 0a b i s d i v i s i ble w e m u l t i pl y t h i s r e ma i n
2 2
n ot by 6 a ,
d er by 3 .
6 a
z
+ 7a b — 2 2
3 b )3 0 a b 9 ab — Z
8 1 b (5 b
3
2 2 3
3 0a b 35 ab 1 5b
-4 4 a b2 — 3
66 b
D i vidi n g t h e re m a i n d e r by 22 b 2
(No te s 2,
2 a + 3 b)6 a
2
+ 7a b — 2
3 b (3 a —b
2
6a + 9 ab
— 2 ab ‘
— 2 ab — 3b2
Th en ,
2a 3 b i s th e H . C . F . r e q ui red .
2 . R e qu i r e d th e H . C F . . of
2x — 3x3 —
4
x
2
+ x an d 6 x
4 — x 3
+3 x
2 — 2x .
R e mo v i n g t h e c o m mo n fa c t o r x (No t e an d u s in g De
fic i en t s ,
ta ch e d Co e f
2 —3 1 + 3
6 9 3 + 3
8 + 6 5
1 04 ADVA NC E D C O U R S E IN ALG E B R A
2 3
4
— 1 2 4 +
8 + 6 5
— 1 8 + 1 + 4
— 72 + — 9
-72
— 29
2 1
2 6
8 4
1 0 :
5
1 0 5
The la std iv i s or i s 2 x 1 .
M u l t i p l y i n g t h i s by x , th e H . C . F . of th e g i v e n e xpr e s s i on s
is x (2 x
1 89 . Th e H C F . . . of th r e e e xp r e s s i o n s may be foun d as
fo ll o w s :
L e t A, B , '
0 be th e e xp r es s i on s
an d
'
.
L e t G be t h e C H F
o f A a n d B ; t h e n , e v e r y c o m mon
. . .
fa c t o r o f G an d C i s a c o m m on fa c t or o f A, B , an d 0 .
B ut s i n c e e v e ry c om m on fa c to r o f t w o e x p r e s s i o n s e x a c tly
d i vi d e s t h e i r H . C . F . ev e ry c o mm o n fa c t o r of A, B ,
an d 0 is al s o a c omm o n fa c t o r of G a nd O .
Wh en c e ,
th e HC . . F . of G a nd C is th e H . C F . . of A, B ,
an d 0 .
H en c e , to fin d th e H . C F . . of th r ee e xp r es s i o n s , fi nd th e H . C . F .
o f tw o of th em, a nd th e n f
o th i s r e s ul t a n d th e th i r d exp r es s i o n .
W e pr o ce ed i n a s i mila r man n er i n d th e
to f H C F. . . o f a ny
n u mbe r o f exp r e s s i o n s .
EX ER C IS E 2 4
F i nd g
th e h i h e s t c ommon fact o r of:
1 . 4 x +4 x
2 — 3 an d 6 3
x + ll xz - x —6 .
1 06 ADVAN CE D C O U R S E IN ALG E B R A
B y § 1 73, x
2
+ x
2
B y § 1 69 , x
By 1 71 , x
3
( x
It i s ev i d e nt by i n s p e c t i on th at th e L C M
. . . oft hes e e xp r e s
s i on s is x (x ( x 3 )( x
EX ERC IS E 2 5
F i nd th e l ow es t common mul tip l e o f:
1 . x 2 — 35 , a n d x2 — 3x— 70 .
2 . 2 7a 4 + 6 4 a, l8 a
4
3 . 6 x + 7x2— 5 , 1 0x — 9 x + 2 ,
2 a nd 8 x — 1 2 x2 + 6 x
3 —1 .
4 . 3 ac + ad —
~6 bc — 2 bd
, ac — 4 ad — 2 bc + 8 bd , a n d 3 c — 1 1 cd — 4 d2
2
5 a +
. 4 b2 — 9 c
3 — 4 z
a b, a
2 — 4
b 2 — 9 ‘
c 2
+ 1 2 bc, an d
a
2
+ 4 b2
+ 9 c
2 — 4 a b — 6 a c + 1 2 bc .
6 . 8 m — s
n 3
, 4 m — 4 mu +
2
n
2
,
an d 1 6 m + m n
4 2 24
+n 4 .
7 .
— 1 9 x -30, a n d x3
1 93 . CASE W h en th e exp res s i on s

II . a re p olyn o mi a ls w h i ch
c a nn ot be r ea d i ly fa cto r ed by i n sp ecti o n .
Let A an d B be a ny tw o r
e x p e s s i on s
HC
.
L et F be t h e i r . . F .
,
and M th e i r L C M . . .
; a n d s up p o s e
th at A : a F , an d B 0E
Th en ,
A xB a bF
2
.
( 1 )
S i n c e F i s th e HCF . . . of A an d B, a an d b h av e no c o mmon
fa ct or s ; wh en c e ,
th e L . C M . . o f a F an d bF i s a bF .
Th at i s, M : a bF .
Mul ti pl y i n g e a ch of t hese e q u al s by F , w e h av e
F X M : a bF
"
.
( )
2
Fr om (1 ) an d A X B F x M ( Ax 4 ,
. 6 6)
Th at i s , th e p ro d uct of two exp r es s i on s is equa l to th e p r o d uc t

of th e i r H C F a nd L C M
. . . . . .
1 94 . I t foll o w s fr o m 1 9 3 t h at , to fin d th e L C M . . . of tw o
e xpr e s s i on s ,
D i vi d e th ei r p r o d uc t by th ei r hi gh es t commo n fa cto r .
LO W E S T CO MMON M UL T IPL E 1 07
O r, d ivi d e one o f th e exp r es s i o n s by th e i r h i gh es t c o mmon fa ctor ,
a nd mu ltip ly th e qu oti en t by th e o th er exp res s i o n .
Ex . R e qu i r e d t h e L . C M . . of
-8 x
+ 7y an d x — 2
9 xy2 3
+ 23 xy — 1 5y3 2
y .
By th e r ul e o f 1 8 8, th e HCF . . . of th e g i v e n r
e xp e s s i o n s is
x y .
D i v i di n g x
2
8 xy 7y by 2
x y, t h e q u o t i e n t i s x 7y .
Th en ,
th e L . C M
. . o f th e gi v e n e xp r e s s i on s i s
x — 7y (x — 2 —
(
3 2 3
9 x y + 2 3 xy
) 1 5y ) .
1 95 . It fo ll o w s fr o m 1 9 3 t h a t, i f t w o r
e x p e s s i on s a r e p ri me
to ea ch ot he r t h e i r p r o du ct i s thei r L C . . M .
1 96 . Th e L . C M . . of t hr e e r
e xp e s s i o n s m ay be foun d as
fo ll o ws :
L e t A, B , an d G be t h e e xp r e s s i on s .
L et M be th e L C M o fA a n d B ; t h e n e v e ry c om m on m ul
. . .
t i pl e o f M a n d O i s a c o m m o n mu l ti p l e o f A , B a n d 0 ,
.
B ut s i n c e e v e ry c o m m o n m u l t i p l e o f t w o e x p r e s s i o n s i s e x
a ct l y d i v i s i bl e by t h e i r L C M e v e ry c o mm o n m ul t i pl e o f A, . . .
B , an d 0 i s a l s o a c o mm o n m ul ti p l e o f M a n d 0 .
Wh e n c e , th e L C M o f M an d 0 i s t h e L C M o f A, B ,
. . . . . .
H en ce ,
to fin d th e L . C M . . o f th r e e exp r es s i o n s , fin d th e L . C M . .
of two of th e m, a nd th en f thi s
o r es ult a n d th e th i r d exp res s i on .
We p r o c e e d in a s i m il a r m a n n e r t o fin d t h e L . C . M . o f an
y
n umbe r o f e xp r e s s i on s .
EX E RC IS E 2 6
F i nd th e l ow es t co mmon mul tipl e of
1 . 8x — 6x —29 a d 6x —
n 3 7x — 7x + 6
2
.
2 6 3 2
b — 1 1 ab — 2
6 b3 and 6 3 — 5 a 2 b — 8 a b2 +3b 3
. a + a a
3 . 8 x — 22 x2 — 6 x
3
and 8 x6 + 6
5
x —l1 x — 2 3 4
x3 — 5 x2 .
4 . x4 — 2 x3 — 2 x2 + 7x — 6 and x4 — 4 x3 + x2
+ 7x — 2 .
5 4 a + 4 a — 4 3 a + 2o, 4
.
3 z
a
3
+ 20 a + 1 3
2
a — 1 2, a nd
4 o 3 + l 2 a z — 3 1 a — 60 .
6 . 6 x2 — 7x — 3 , 4 x3 — 4 x 2
+ 3 x —9 , and 4 x3 — l 2 x2 — x + l 5 .
X . F RA C T ION S
1 9 7 In t h e fra c ti on
.
:th ,
e d i vi d e nd a is c a ll e d th e n umera
5
tor, and th e di v i s o r b th e d en o mi n a tor .
Th e s y mb o l is t
o f e n us e d to rep res e n t a fracti o n ; th us , a b i gn i fie
s s
Th e r
n um e at or a n d de n o mi n ator are c alle d th e ter ms o f t h e
fra c ti on .
1 98 . A r a tion a l f c t
ra i o n i s a frac t i on wh o s e te r ms ar e r at i on al
an d i n t e gra l
A m on o m i a l i s s ai d t o be r a ti on a l w h en i t i s a r a t i on a l an d
i nte g ral r
e xp e s s i o n , o r a r a t i on al fr a cti o n .
A po l y n o m i al i s s a i d t o b e r at i o n al wh e n ea ch o f i ts t e rm s i s
r a ti o n a l .
1 99 . B y s 9 6,
Z
Th a t i s , if th e ter ms f f
o c
a ti o n be bo
ra th m ultip l i ed by th e sa me
exp r es s i o n , th e va l u e of th e fr a c ti on i s n ot ch a nged .
6 ac a
200 .
Th at i s , i fth e ter ms f fo c
a ti o n be b
ra o th d i vi d ed b y th e sa me
exp r es s i o n, th e v a lu e of th e fra c ti on i s n o t ch a nged .
+ 0” 0‘ + 0” 0‘
M
“ ’
2 01 . B 48
+b : 1; -b
+b
Th at i s, i
f th e s i gn s o f bo th ter ms f f
o c tiao n ra be ch a nged , th e
e i th e r
s i gn befo r e th e f c ti on
ra is n o t ch a nged ; b ut if th e s i g n o
f
one be ch a nged , th e si
gn befor e th e fr a c ti o n i s c h a ng ed .
If e i t h e r t e r m i s a p o l y n o m i al c a r e ,
m us t be t ak e n , on c h ang
i ng its S i g n, to c h an g e th e s i g n o f ea c h of i ts te rms .
1 1 0 ADVAN CE D C O UR S E IN ALG E B R A
Can c e l li n g t h e c o mm on fa c t o r 2 3
X a
f f
b c, w e h a ve
4 2 2
24 a b cx 3 a x
40 5 ed 3
x
3
27
2 . R e duce to i ts l o w e s t t er ms .
fi — Z x— 3
By 1 77 a n d 1 73 ,
x — 27
3
x
— 2 x— (
2
x 3 x x +1
b2 _a 2
2 — a2 — a
b )
By 2 02, th e s i g n s o f th e t e r ms of th e fa c t o r s o f th e n u m er a
tor can be c h an g e d w i th o ut al t e r i n g th e v a l ue o f th e fr a c ti on ;
and i n th i s w a y t h e fir s t fa c t o r of t h e n um e ra to r be c o me s t h e
s a m e a s t h e s e c on d fa c t o r o f t h e d e n o mi n a t o r .
b — 2
a
2 — a
) b+ a
If all th e fa ct o rs o f th e nume a o r t r a re c an c e ll e d ,
1 re mai ns to fo rm a
n um e a o r t r .
If a l l t h e fact o rs o ft h e d e n o mi n a t o r are cancell ed ,

it is a cas e o f e xa ct
di vi s i o n .
2 05 . CASE II . Wh en th e n umera tor a nd d enomi n a tor ca nn o t
be r ea di ly fac to r ed b y i nsp ec ti on .
By 1 84 , th e H . C . F . of tw o e xp r e s s i o n s i s their c omm on
fa c tor of h i g h e s t d e g r e e h av i n g ,
th e n um e r i c al c o e ffic i e n t o f
g r ea t e s t a b s o l ut e v a l u e i n i t s t e r m o f h i gh e s t d egre e .
W e t h e n h av e t h e fo ll o wi n g rul e :
D ivi d e bo th n umera tor a n d d en omi n a tor b y th ei r H . C . F .
Ga g — 1 1 2
7a — 6
Ex . R e d uc e
8 + t o i t s l o w e s t t e rm s .
2 a
2 — a — 3
B y th e r ul e o f 1 8 8 , t h e
2 —
H . C . F . of 6 a
3—
1 1 a
2
+ 7a — 6 a nd
2a a — 3 1 3 2 a — 3 .
F R A C T ION S I II
D i v i d i ng 6 a
3
1 1 a
2
7a 6 by 2 a 3 , t h e q u o t i e nt i s
2
3 a a 2 .
D i v i di n g 2 a
2
a 3 by 2 a 3 , t h e q u o ti e n t i s a 1 .
3 — 1 1 2
+ 7a —6 3 2 — a
Th e n 6 a a a +2
,
2 a
2 _ a _g
2 06 . R e du ct i on of :
1 Fract i on to an Int egr al or Mi xed E xp res
s i on .
A Mi xed E xp re s s i on i s y n o m i a l c o n s i s ti n g o f a r a t i o n a l
a p o l
a n d i n t e g r a l e xp r e s s i o n t og e th e r w i t h on e o r m o re
r a t i o n a l fr a c t i o n s e a ch o f w h i ch h a s l e t te r s i n i t s
d e n omi n a to r w h en i n i t s l o w e s t t e r m s
13 g 2w y
Th us ,
a + , a n d are mi x e d r
e xp e s s i o n s
y
.
c 3 x
2
6 x 1 5 x 2
1 . R edu c e to a mi x e d e xp r e s s i on .
3 x
B y t h e D i s t r ibu ti v e L a w fo r D i vi s i on
2 2
6 x + 1 5 x -2 6 x 1 5 x 2 2
+ 2x+ 5
3 x 3 x 3 x 3 x 3 x
A fra c ti on wh o s e d e n om i n at or i s a p olyn om i al m ay be r e
d uce d t o a n i n t e g r al o r m i x e d e x p r e s s i on by t h e o p e r at i o n o f
d i v i s i on i f th e d e g r e e
,
6 4 ) o f t h e n u me r a t o r i s n o t l e s s t h a n
t h at o f t h e d e n o m i n a t o r .
1 2x — 8 x2 3 —5
2 . R e du c e +4 x
to a mi x e d e xpr e s s i on .
2
4 x + 3
2
4 x + 3 )1 2 x — 2 — 5 — 2 3
8 x + 4 x
( 3 x
3
1 2 x + 9 x
— 8 x
2 —5 x
— 8 x
2
6
— 5 x
+ l
S inc e th e d i v i d e n d i s e qu al to th e p r o duc t o f th e d i vi s o r an d
q u o ti e n t , p l u s t h e r e m a i n d e r w e h a v e ,
1 2x — 8x2 3
+ 4 x
1 1 2 ADVAN C E D C O UR S E IN ALG E B R A
Th en , by t h e D i s t r i buti v e L a w fo r D i v i s i o n ,
1 2x — 8 x2 3 -5
+ 4 x — 5 x + 1
2 2 2
4 x +3 4 x +3 4 x + 3
— 5
— 3 x — 2 x + 1
+ 2
4 x 3
Th e n a r e mai n d e r o f l o w e r d e g r e e t h an t h e d i v i s or m ay be
,
wr i tt e n o v e r t h e d i v i s o r i n th e fo r m of a fra c ti on a n d th e ,
r e s u l t a d d e d t o t h e qu o t i e n t .
If t h e fir s t t e r m o f t h e n u m e r a to r i s n e g a t i ve a s i n E x 2 i t , .
,
i s u s u a l t o ch a nge th e s ign of ea ch te r m of th e n umer a to r c h an g ,
i n g t h e s i g n be fo r e th e fr a c t i on
5 x — 1
Thm ’
4 a + 3 4 a + s
2 07 R educt i on
. ofF ra ct i ons t o t h i r Lo e w es t Common D enomi
nat or .
To r e duc e fr a cti on s to t h e i r Low es t Common Denomi nat or

o e x p r e s s t h e m a s e q u i v a l e n t fr a c t i o n s h a v i n g fo r
( L C. D )
. i s t .
,
t h e i r c o mm on d e n o mi n a t o r t h e L C M o f t h e g i v e n d e n o m i . . .
n at o r s .
4 cd 3 m 5 n
Ex . Re u e
g, ?
an d t o t h e i r l o w es t c omm on
do r c 3 a
g
b 2 ab 4 a !)
3
d e n o m i n at
.
Th e L C . . M . of3 a
2
b, 23
ab
2
,
an d 4 a
3
b is 1 2 a
3
b 3
B y § 1 9 9 , i f t h e te rm s of a fr a c ti on be bo t h m ul ti p li e d by
th e s a m e e xp r e s s i o n , th e v al u e o f th e f r a c t i o n i s n ot c h a n g e d .
4 cd 3 m
M ul ti ply i n g bot h t erm s of by 4 7
a, bo t h t e r ms of
z
3 a
2
b 3
2 ab
5
both t e rm s h av e
2
by 6 a
f
b, and of by 3 b , w e
4 a
.
bm
2
1 6 d ed 1 8 a
2
1 5 bn
’
an d °
3 3
1 2 a
3 3
b 1 2 wb g
1 2 a b
It w i l l b e s een t h a t th e t e r m s of e a ch fr a c t i o n are multi

p l i e d by a n e x p r e s s i o n ,
w h i c h i s o bt a i n e d by d i v i d i ng th e
L C D by t h e d e n o mi n a to r o f th i s fr a cti on
. . . .
Wh e n ce t h e fol l o w i n g r ul e .
1 1 4 AD ANC V E D C O UR S E IN A L G EB R A
m+ l x— 2 2 x
2
+ x —1 3
2 Si mpl i fy ' +
w— 3
.
2
x +5 x +2 x — 1 5
Sin ce 93
2
+2m ( 90 th e L . C . D . is
x—
2
x +2 1 5 .
M ul t i pl y i n g th e t e m r s of th e firs t fr act i on by x 3, an d th e
r s
te m o f th e s e con d by a: 5 , w e h av e
c—
2
2 +x 1 3 c
x
2
+2 x 4 1 5 x
2
+2 x — 1 5 x + 2 x— 1 5
2
— — 2 — x —1
2( + 2
2
(w + 1 2( x 3 2+ (x w 5 2
g x + 32
A
2
x— 1 5
( )
x +2
x — 2 x
2 — 1 0— 2 9
93 — x +1 3
x + 2
2
w — 1 5
0
O<
§ 1 05 )
a7—
2
x +2 1 5
r tai n s s p r i n ci pl e s of ble
’
In ce ca e ,
th e 201 an d 202 en a us
to ch an ge th e f or m o f a fr act i o n t o one w h i ch is mo r e co n
v e n i en t fo r th e p u rp o s e s o f a dd i ti on or s u bt ract i on .
3 2 b+ a
3 0 S Imp 1 1 fy + 9
a — b — 2 2
b a
C h an g i n g t h e si gn s o f th e t e r m s i n th e s econ d d e n o mi n at o r ,
at th e s am e t i me ch an g i n g th e si g n b e fo r e t h e fr act i on
w e h av e, 3 2 b a
2 2
a b a b .
Th e L . C . D . is n ow a
2
b 2
.
Th e n’
a — b a
2 — b2 a
2 -b2
.
3 a + 3 b — 2 b — a 2 a +b
a
2 — b2 a
2 — b2
1 1 1
4 Simpl i fy
wt — w z
.
iv — — z — w -
( ?)
) (y )( y z
) ( z
)(
By 2 02, w e ch a n ge th e si gn of th e f a ct o r g : i n th e
a
s e c on d d en o m i n at o r ,
at th e sa me t i m e ch an g i n g th e si g n be fo r e
th e fr act i o n ; an d we ch a n ge th e si gn s o f b ot h fact o rs of th e
th ird d e no m i n at o r .
FR AC TI O NS 1 1 5
Th e ex p r e ssi on th en b e com e s
Th e L . C . D . is n ow
( a : g)(x z)(y z) th e n t h e r e sul t
(w —
u)(m— z
)( y
— z
) ( w —
u)(m— z
)(y — z
)
2
( x — y)( x - Z
) (x—
w —
s — z
) x—
( yX x— Z )
5 . Si mpl i fy 2 90 — 3
3 (c — 5 x— 3 2(x + 1 — — 5
2 x _3 ( 2 2 ( 3 x
2
x+ 1 x + 1
2x — x— 3 — 32
a3 +5 2w 2 — 4 5c +2
x +1 x +1
1 1 2 4
'
6 . Simpl i fy 2 4
1 — c
c 1 + oc 1 + x l + x
We fi r s t a d d th e firs t tw o fr act i on s ; t o th e r e s u l t w e a dd th e
th i r d fr act i o n a n d t o t h is r e s u l t t h e f o u r t h fr a ct i o n
,
.
1
1 — x 1 — x2
( )
2
1 — m 2
1 + 2 — a: 2
) l — az1 ‘
ac
4 -934
4 2 s
1 — x
‘
l + x
4 — x‘
) 1 — m 3
1 1 1 1
7 S I mp
o l
y +
a — l a +1 a —2 a +2
We fir st co m first b ine th e two fr a ct i on s ,
t h e n th e l as t t w o,
a n d t h e n a d d t h e s e r e s ul t s .
1
— 1 + 1 — 1 2 — 1
a a
) a
1
— 2 + 2 —2 2 — 4
a a
) a
1 1 6 ADVAN C E D CO UR S E IN AL G E B R A
2 4 2a g — 8+4 a
2 —4 6a — 1 2
z
2 — 1 2 — 4 2 z 4 — 5 2
a a ( a — l )(a — 4) a a +4
M U L T I PLI C AT I O N OF FRA CT I O N S
2 1 0 B y 3 0,. w e h av e t h e f oll o w i n g r ul e fo r t h e p r o d uct
o f t w o fr a c t o n i s
M ultip ly th e n ume ra to s r toge th e r fo r th e n ume a to r r f
o the
p ro d uct, a n d th e d en o mi na to s r fo r i ts d en o mi n a to r .
B y § 21 0
”
9 x C “c
1
21 1 . c x
b b l b
D i v i d i n g b o th n u m e r at o r an d d e n om i n a t o r by 0
a a
x c 2
b b + c
F r o m (1 ) a n d w e h a v e t h e f o ll o w i n g r u l e fo r mu l t i pl y i n g
a f r act i o n by a r a t i o n a l a n d i n t e g r a l e xp r e ssi o n :
If p os s i ble d i vi d e th e d eno mi n a to r of th e fra cti on by th e

,
exp r es s i on ; o th e r wi s e multip ly th e n ume ra to r by th e e xp r es s i o n

,
.
21 2 . C
o m m on f a ct o r s i n t h e n u me r a t o rs a n d d e n om i n at o rs
s h o ul d b e can ce ll e d be f o r e p e rfo r m i n g t h e mu l ti pl i ca t i on .
M i xe d e xp r e ssi o n s s h o ul d be e xp r e ss e d i n a fr a ct i on a l fo r m
209 ) b e f o r e a ppl y i n g t h e r u l e s .
3 4
1 0a y 3 b 510 3
1 . M u l t i pl y 2
by 3 2
9 bx 4 a y
1 0a y 3
X
3 b cs 4
3
3
2
2 X 2
5 x3 X a
3
ba y4
i
3
5 b oc 3
9 bad 4 a y 3 X 2 X 2
a
3
b90 y 2 2
6y
Th e f a ct ors can c e ll e d a re 2, 3 , a ,
3
b, 90 ,
2
an d y .
c— 4
— 2
2
90 4 2 93 c x 9
an d
90
2 — 4
2 2 —
0 4- 2 50
0 x 91 3 9
X
x
2
+ m— 6 c
c 90
2 —
4
2 a:— 6 — zc +4 a
‘ Z —9
>
< X
fi + x— 6 fl— 4
1 1 8 A D A NC V E D CO UR S E IN AL G E B R A
2 x + 2— 2x +3 3 x — 3 —
2
3 x
2
+1 3
x +1 fl— l
5 — 1 —1 — l
) x
x +l 1 0 2 x 5 x (x + 1 ) 2
m 3 — n3
3 . D i vi d e by m — n .
m +2
n
2
D ividin g th e n u me r a t o r by m n, w e h av e
m 3 — n3 m 2
mn n
2
m + 2
n
2
m +
2
7
1
2
2 2
4 . D ivide by a +b .
M u l t i pl y i n g t h e d en o m in ato r by a b, w e h ave
If th e n u me r at o r an di n at o r o f th e d i v is o r a e e xactly
d en om r
con t a i n e d i n t h e n u m e r at o r a n d d e n o m i n at o r r e s p ect i ve l y o f , ,
t h e d i v i d e n d i t f o ll o w s fr o m
,
21 0 t h a t th e n umera to r of th e
q u o ti e n t m a y b e o b t a i n ed b y d i v i d i n g t h e n ume r a to of t h e d i vi d en d r
‘
by th e n ume r a to r of th e d i vi o r ; a nd th e d en o mi n a to r of the s
q u o ti en t b y d i v i d i n g th e d en o m i n a to r of th e d i vi d e n d by th e
d en o mi n a to r of th e d i vi s o r .
" 2
+2y
’
9 x -4 3 x
5 D ivid e y by .
w
.
2 2
x y y
We h a v e,
2 2
(0 31
21 6 . B y § 2l 3, 1 : 1 x
b _é .
a a a
b
H e nce , the r ecip roca l of a fra cti o n i s th e fr a cti on i nverted .
C O M PL E X FRA CT I O N S
21 7 A Compl ex F
. ract i on is a f r act i on h av i ng on e or mo r e
f r act i on s in e it h e r or b ot h of i t s te m r s .
FR AC T IO NS 1 1 9
It is si mpl y a ca s e i n d iv isi o n o f fr a ct i on s ; i t s n u me rat o r

b e i n g t h e d i v i d e n d a n d i t s d e n o m i n a t o r t h e di v is o r
, .
21 8 . 1 . Si mpl i fy
C
b
d
a a d ad
_ a x
__
_ c bd — c bd — c
b
d d
It is o ft e n a d van ta g e o u s t o si mpl i fy a co m pl e x fr act i on by

m ul ti pl y i n g i t s n u m e r at o r a n d d e n o m i n at o r by t h e L C M o f . . .
t h e ir d e n o m i n at o r s
a a
b b
2 Si m p l i fy a a
2
.
— b
a a + b
Th e L C . . M . of a + b and a —b is b) .
M u l t i pl y i n g b o th te m r s by ( a b)(a b), w e h av e
b )— — b 2
ab —
2
a ( a + a ( a
) a + a + ab 2 ab
— b) ab +b +
2
a
2 — ab a
2
+b
2
In e xa mpl e s
l i k e t h e a b o v e i t is b e s t ,
to b e g in by simpl i fy ing
th e lowes t c o m pl e x fr a ct i o n t h u s ,
1 1 x +1 x +1 .
1
1
1 +
x x+ 1 + x 2 x +1
1 x +l
1
x
EX ERC S E 2 7 I
Re u d c e t t h ir l o e o w es t t e rm s by f ct r
a o in g
8 x3 1 25
1
2 x3 + x2 — l e x — 2 2 2 —
x 9 y +z 2 xz
21 — x — 1 0x 2
(x2 — 2 x — 63
) 1 5 xy — 2 0x — 2 1 y + 2 8
1 20 ADV A NC E D C O UR S E IN A LG E BR A
ofi + 28 a
3 3
b + 2 7b 6 2 x3 —5 x 2 — x+ 6
5
4 2
b2 + 8 1 b6 2 7— 3 6 x + 54 x3 — 8 x3
‘
a + 9 a
Re u d c e to th i r le o w es t t erms by fid
n in g th e H . C . F .
1 0x2 — 7x — 6 6 x3 — x2 — 1 1 x + 6
7 9 .
2 —
5x— 1 9 x3 — 1 8 x2 + 1 1 x — 2
.
3 — 4
4 x x
2 — c 3
‘
4 a
3
+ 1 3 a
2
b— 4 a b i
8
8 a 2
+ 1 4 ab — 1 5 b2 2 x3 — 7x2y — 1 e xy2 + 5 y8
Re d uc e ea ch o f th e f ll
o o wi n gt o a m ix e d ex pr e s s i on
9 x4 —2 x3 — 20 m + 5 n5
n 1 2
m —n —5
.
8 2
12 x 3 95
Si m f
p l i y th e f llo ow i n g
3 x — y—
1 4 . x 2x+ 2
1 ) 1 9 .
ot
n ,
”
3 3
a + 64 b — 4 b
1 5 .
_ 64
x ( a ) . 20
a
3
b3
a
4 _ n4 3 a
3 — 2
1 6 . 21 .
4 4 36 3
a + n a
2 mx
1 7 (2 m—3 x 22
— 4 m2
. .
4 x+5 m 2 m — n n2
5 x+ 7
1 8 3 90 + 4 23 .
2 5 x2 — 4
.
2x— 3 25 x2 — 2 0x + 4
2 ao — 6 ad -bc + 3 bd a
2 — 7 -
ab l- l 0 b2
24 x
3 a c + ad — 6 bc — 2 bd 1 0a 2 -
3 ab — b2 v
2 1 1
25
— 1 l — x
.
4 a 1 + x
5 a 26
2 a + 5 1 1
1
3 a — 2 l u - x2 1 + x2
m m 3 + 1 -4 3 m2 — 2 m — 4
27 +
em —i 5~ 2 m em 2 —
l 7m + s
1 1 1 1
2 3 4 5
2x 3y 3x 2y 29
x— 4
.
23 x+ 3 x— 3 x+ 4
x + 4 x + 4
2 4
3 a 3 a 6 a 1 2 a
31 .
+
a +b a
m 2
m 2 2 m3 n
32
mn -
.
m Q — i- niz
a
m + mn +
2
n3 m + m
4 1
n 2
+ n4
1 22 AD VAN C E D C O U R S E IN ALG E B R A
XI . F R A C TI O NA L A ND L ITE R A L E Q U A TIO NS
INV O LVIN G LIN E A R E QUA TI O N S

21 9 .S u pp o s e t h at a n e qu at i on w i th o n e u nk n o wn n u mb e r , ,
x h a s fr a ct i o n a l t e r m s
,
.
Tr a n s p o s e a l l t e r m s t o th e fi r s t me m b e r .
L e t t h e t e r m s i n t h e fi r s t m e m b e r be t h e n a dd e d u si ng fo r a ,
c o m m o n d e n o m i n a t o r t h e L C M o f t h e g i v e n d e n o mi n a t o r s ;
.
, .
a n d l e t th e r e s u l t i n g fr a ct i o n b e r e d u ce d t o i ts l o w e s t t e r m s
Th e e qu a t i o n w i ll t h e n b e i n t h e f o r m
g 0; ( 1 )
w h ere A an d B a re r ati on al and i n te g r a l ex p r e ssi o n s w h i ch
h av e n o co m m o n facto r .
I f B c o n ta i n s x, th e g i ve n e qu at i o n is ca ll e d a F ract i onal
E qu at i on .
By 1 1 7, (1 ) is eq u i v al e nt 1 1 4 ) t o th e g i ve n e qu at i on .
( T h ep ri c ip l d m tr t d i
n es e o ns 1 1 6 t 1 1 9 i clu i
a e n d 1 22 o n s ve , a n
o or f
h l d f r c t i l q u tia ona ) e a o ns .
, ,
E q u a ti o n (1 ) m ay be clea r ed offr a cti o n s 1 21 ) by m u l t i pl y

i n g b o t h m e m b e r s by B g i v i n g t h e e q u at i o n
,
A O .
( )
2
W e w i ll p ro v e e qu at i o n (2) e qu i v al e n t t o
no w
An y s o l u t i o n o f w h e n s ub s t i tu t e d for x mak e s i d e nt i ,
ca ll y e q u a l t o 0 .
Th e n i t m u s t ma k e A i d e n t i call y e qu a l t o 0
,
Th e n i t is a s o l u t i o n o f
,
A g a i n a n y s o l ut i o n o f
, w h e n s u b s t itut ed fo r x mak e s A ,
i d e n t ica lly e qu a l to 0 .
No w B ca nn o t e qu a l 0 fo r t h is v al ue o f x ; fo r i f A a n d B
b e ca me 0 for t h e s a me v a l ue o f x s ay x a t h ey w ou l d h a v e , ,
a: a a s a c o mm o n f a ct o r w h i ch is i mp o ssi b l e by 2 1 9 .
FRAC T I O NA L A ND L IT E R AL EQ U A T IO NS 1 23
H e n ce , an y s ol uti on of wh e n s ub s t i t u t e d fo r x, mak e s
i d e n t i call y e q ua l to 0
Th e n , i t is a s o l ut i o n of
Th ere fo r e (1 ) an d (2) a e e qu i v a l e nt
,
r .
22 0 A fr a ct i o n a l e q u at i o n m ay be cl e a r e d o f fr a ct i o n s by
.
mul t i p l y i n g b o t h m e m b e rs ~by a ny co m mo n m u l t i p l e o f t h e
d e n o m i n a to r s ; but i n t h is w a y a dd i t i o n a l s o l u ti o n s a e i n t r o r
d u ce d a n d t h e r e s ul t i n g e q u at i o n is n o t e q u i va l e n t t o t h e firs t
, .
Con si d e r fo r e xa m pl e t h e e qu a t i on
, ,
1
1 .
l + x 1 — fl
M u l ti pl y i ng b o th m e mb e r s by 1 x
2
,
th e L C . . M . o ft h e g iv e n
denom i n at o rs ,
w e h ave
1 — x — x = l — x2 or x
2 — 2x= 0
, .
F a ct o rin g th e firs t m e mb e r ,
x x ( an d x = 0 or 2
I f, h o w e v e r , w e m u l t pl y b o t h m e m b e r i s of th e g i ve n e qu a
i
t o n by (1 x (1
)
2
x , w e h av e
)
1 4 2
x 1
( + x )( l — x2
) .
T h en , 1 — x2 — x — x2 =1 + x — x
2 — 3
x , or x
3 —
x
2 —
2x =0 .
F a ct o rin g th e fi r s t m e mb e r,
a n d x = 0, — 1 ,
or 2
Th is g ive s th e a dd it i o n a l s o l ut i o n x : 1 ; a n d i t m a y be
ve r ifi e d by s ub s t i t u ti o n t h a t t h is d o e s n o t s a t is fy i
t h e g ve n
e q uat i o n .
2 21 . If bo th m e mb e rs o f a fract i on al eq u at i o n be mu l t i pl i e d
by any co mm o n m u l t i p l e of th e d e n om in at o r s , ii
t h e a d d t on a l
r o ot s i f
, any , i nt r o d u ce d mu s t s a t is fy t h e e qu at i o n f o r me d by
e qu a tin g t h is co mm o n mul t i p l e to 0 .
Th u s , i n 22 0 t h e a d d i t i o n a l
,
s ol ution 1 s atisfi e s th e eq ua
t ion 2
( 1 x
)( 1 x ) 0 .
1 24 A DVAN C D E CO U R S E IN ALG E B RA
If, t h e n , w e r e je ct al l s o l uti o n s w h ich s a tis fy t h e e qu a t i o n

f o r m e d by e qu at i n g th e co m m o n mu l t i p l e t o 0 w e s h all r e t a i n ,
t h e co rr e ct s o l ut i o n s .
2 22 f o ll o w s fr o m 21 9 t h a t i f a l l th e t e r ms o f a fra c
. It ,
t i on a l e qu a t i o n w i th o n e u n k n o w n n u m b e r b e t r a n s p o s e d t o
t h e fi r s t m e mb e r ; a n d a ll t e r m s i n t h e fi r s t m e mb e r be a dd e d
a n d t h e r e s ul t i n g fr act i o n r e d u c e d t o i t s l o w e s t t e r m
,
s ; a nd th e
n u me r a t o r O f t h is fr a ct i o n b e e qu a t e d t o 0 t h e r e s u l t i n g e q ua ,
t i o n is e qu i v a l e n t t o t h e fi r s t .
B ut i n m o s t ca s e s t h e a bo v e is n o t t h e s h o r te s t me th od o f
s o l u t i on .
By 220 a n d 22 1 w e m a y mu l t i pl y th e m e mb e rs o f t h e
,
g i v e n e qu a t i o n by t h e L M . C
o f t h e g i v e n d e n o m i n at o r s ; a n d
. .
i f w e r eje ct all s o l ut i o n s w h i ch s at is fy th e e q ua t i on fo r me d by
e q ua t i n g t h e L . C
M t o 0 o nl y t h e co r r e c t s o l u t i o n s w ill be
. .
,
r e ta i n e d .
22 3 . W e may n o w g i v e a r ul e fo r s o l v i n g an y fr act i o n a l e q u a
t i on ,
l e a d i n g to a li ne a r e qua t i o n w i th o ne u nk no wn n um b e r °
Clea r the equa ti on of fra cti o ns by multip ly i ng e a ch te r m by th e

L C M ofth e g i ve n d en omi n a to rs
. . . .
Tra n sp os e th e unkn o wn te rms to th e fi rs t me mbe r , a nd th e

kn own ter ms to th e s eco n d .
Uni te the si mi la r ter ms , a nd d i vi d e bo th membe rs by th e fl

co el
ci en t o f th e un k n o wn n u m be r .
2 5 2
1 . S ol ve the e qu a t i o n
- 2 2 —4
x x+ 2 x
M ul t i pl y i n g e a ch te rm by x
2 — 4 , th e L C . . M . of th e gi v en
d e n om i nato r s ,
w e h av e
Or, 2 x+ 4
T r a n s p o sin g , a n d un i ti n g te r m s ,
— 3 x = —1 2 and x =4 .
Si n ce 4 d o e s n ot s a tis fy t h e eq u at i o n 2
x 4 0, i t is t h e co r
r e ct s o l ut i on
1 26 AD VAN C E D C O U R S E IN AL G E B R A
F c t ri ng th
a o e fir t
s m e mb e r ,
x( l — x) = 0; an d x : O or 1 .
No w th e va u e x l 1 sa ti s fi es th e e qua ti on x
2
1 0 th en i t mus t be
r ej e c t e d ,
and th e on ly so l ut i on is x O.
2 5 3 4
4 . S ol ve th e e qu at i o n
x +8 x +9 x +1 0 x +6
Ad d i n g t h e fr a cti o n s in e a ch m e mb e r , w e h a v e
7x 58 7x 58
Si n ce 7x + 5 8 is a f acto r o f e a ch m em b e r , w e m a y pl ace it
e qu a l to ze o r
58
Th e n , 7x + 5 8 = 0, or x :
7
Th e r e ma i n i n g r o ot is g i v e n by
1 1
( x 8 ) (x + 9 ) (x l 0)(x
o r, (x 8 )(x (x l 0)(x
o r,
W h en ce , x 1 2 .
Nei th e r n or 1 2 sa ti s fi es t h e e qua i o n t
( x 8 )( x 9 )( x + l 0)( x 0 .
S o l ve qu a t i o n
2 x 1 x
2
x
5 . th e e 2
2 x
D i vid in g e a ch n u m e r a t o r by i t s c o r r e s p on d i n g d en om i nato r ,
we ca n w ri t e th e e qu a t i o n i n t h e f o r m
2 _ + 4 x 2 x+ 4
1 + + 1 = 2’ Or 0
_3
0
2 90 — 3 n+ 4 2 A n+ 4
Cl ea ri n g of fr act i on s ,
2 2 — 2 x2
x +8
wh en ce ,
x =4 .
So l ve th e f llo o w in g
EX E RC I S E 2 8
8 90— 1 1 7x + 4 3x
‘
1 2 91 3 — 5 3x+4 4 93 — 5
1 2
9 1 2 8 21 9 x+ 3 7
FR AC T I O NAL AND LI T E R AL EQ UAT IO N S 1 27
2 x 2 3 x + 4 2 x— 1 1
3' 5
4 w— 9 5 4 fl— 9 2 m+ e 3x— 2 6
3x
4 6'
_5
’
x x +8 1 —x 3 + x fl + 2 x — 3
5x+ 6
2x 1 23 x2 _1 0
7 .
+ 2
3x+ 5 7— 2 x 6 fl —J l x — 3 5
3 5 2 4
8
xL — Q fl +4 x + 1 2 fl — J6 fl — Jx + l2
x2 '
* 3 2x — 1 1
a + a
— 1 6 3 x2 + 6 x + 1 2 6x—1 2
— 3 +4 8x+ 2
m “
+
x
+ 1 .
xQ — x — Z
.
x + 1 x — 2
2 1 7 1
n
2 x — J 3x+ 2 6fl + x— 2 2
8 3 w 5
m
x — s x + 7 x — 9 x + 2
5 1 1 0 4
m
2x— 1 6x + 5 3x— 4 4 x+ 1
x + 1 x + 4 x + 2 x + 3
M + +
x — 1 x — 4 x — 2 x— 3
x+ 2 x — 3 4
m .
+ +
x +
=a
x — 3 x + 4 x + 2
1 6
7x +J m fl —J B +2 x1
2
fl + x— 6 fl — bx+ 8 fi — x — JZ
fl 2x+ 5
m a ’
i a
—l x — — 7 5 x — 7
m .
”
—
+
—
+
—
+
—
x
4
x 2 x 4 x 6 x 8
2 24 . P r oblems i nv ol
ract i onal E quat i ons l ea d i ng t o Li near
v i ng F ,
E quat i ons w i t h one Unk now n Number .
1 A ca n d o a p i e ce o f w o r k i n 8 d a y s w h i ch B ca n p e rf o r m
.
,
i n 1 0 d ay s In h o w m an y d ay s ca n i t be d o n e by b oth w o r k i n g
.
t o g e th e r
L et x n umb e r fd y required
o a s .
Th en,
1
x
th e p rt b t h n d i n n
a o ca o o e d ay .
1 28 ADV AN C E D C O UR S E IN AL G B R A E
Als o ,
1
: 2 th e p rt A c
a an do in one d ay ,
a nd z th e p rt B
a ca n do in o ne d ay .
1 0
1 1 1—
B y t h e c O n (1 i ti o ns , - o
8 1 0 x
9 x 40 .
W h enc e , r of d y r q uired
x n umbe a s e .
2 . s econd
Th e d i g i t o f a n u m b e r e x ce e d s th e firs t by 2 ; a n d
i f th e n u mb e r be d i v i d e d by t h e s um O f i t s d i gi t s th e qu o t i e nt ,
is 4 9 F in d t h e n u mb e r
. .
Let x th e fir s t d igit .
Th en , x 2 th e sec n d d ig it
o ,
a nd 2x 2 :2 t h e sum fth d ig its

O e .
Th e n umb e r i ts el f e q ua s l 1 0 i me t s th e fi
r t d igit p l us th e s e c on d th en
s , ,
l 0x (x or 1 1 x 2 t th e n umb er .
B y th e c nd i t i
o ons ,
1 1 x 2 34
2x 2 7
77x + l 4 : 6 8 x + 68 .
9 x 54 .
W hence , x 6 .
Th en , t h e n umb er is 6 8 .
EX ERC S E 2 9 I
1 . Th e a o o a f
d e n omin t r f r c ti n xc ee ds t wi c t h e n um r t r by 4 ; a o e e e a o
and if t h e n um r t r b
e a o i n c a d b y 1 4 a n d t h d n o mi n a t o r d e c r as d
e re se ,
e e e e
by 9 , t h e v a l u of th
e r c ti n is e f
F i n d th r c t i o n
a o
3
e f a .
pi c % % %
1
2 . A ca n do a e e of w o rk i n 3 h o urs ,
B in 3 h o urs , an d C in 3
h ours . y h ur
In h o w m a n i t b d n b y ll w rk i g t g t h r ?
o s ca n e o e a o n o e e
3 Th se c n d d i gi t f a n umb r f t w o gures xc d s th e r t b y 5
. e o o e o fi e ee fi s
a n d if t h n u mb r i n c r
e d b y 1 b d i i d d b y t h um f th d ig its
e , e as e , e v e e s o e
i n c rea d by 2 t h q u t i
se t i 3 F i nd th nu mb r
e o en s e e .
f
, .
4 Th n um r t r f
. e r c ti n xc d t h d mi nat r b y 5 If th
e a o o a a o e ee s e eno o . e
n um r t o r b
e a d e c r a d by 9 nd th d n min t r i n c r d b y 6
e e se a e e o a o eas e
th e um s f t h e r ul ti ng r c ti n
o n d th gi en ra c ti on is 2 Find
es f a
,
o a e v f ,
f
.
th e ra ction .
1 30 A AN DV C ED CO URS E IN A L GE B R A
S ce in
a
g
b
d o e s n ot s a t y is f th e e q ua t i o n x2 a
2 0, i t lg th e c rr c t
o e
l ti
so u on .
So lv e th e f llo o wi n g:
EX E RC IS E 3 0
— — 2
1 .
(x 2 a b)
bx 2
+ b
2 2 — b
g }
‘
c
z an n el
a
2 .
.
2 2
a a; b b
5 2 6 m
3
5x+ 2m 4 x— 3 m 2 090 — 2
7mx — 6m2
4 x+ 3 n 4 x 5 7
2 1 0 722
4 +
— um— 6
.
x + 2 n 3 92 — x ?
x n 2
— b)3 —
5 .
( m+ a ( a;
c — a bx —
‘
2 z
ar b —
6 a + h
x— b x — a
x — d x — b x — o bd x + b y w wL — fl q
7 + +
b c a a bc
a b a — b
8
x —a x — b x — c
9
x 1
a fl — 4 a2 2 a a fl — 4 a
2
x — a x +a 2 a m+ 1 9 w2
1
1 0
x + 2 a x — 3 a x — z
ax — 6 a
2
1 1 7 3
1 1 .
x — 2 a 6x+ a 3x— 8 a 2x— 3 a
1 2
4 x x 4 x x
x — 4 n x + n x + 4 n m+ 3 n
1 3 .
( 90 + c)
3 3(x + d )( x +
— m—
.
m+ m * —n x — m+ n x n
a b a — b
1 5 .
x — 2 b x— 2 a x — a — b
— 2 (1 m3 + 5 a2
1 6
rfl —
a Z x
aa w —3 r
a,
2
— a — b
1 7 . 3
—
.
x a x — b x + a + b
x — 2 n
m x+ n x + 6 n x + 3 n
x — n x + 2 n x — 6 n x — 3 n
1 9 .
F R A C T IONAL A ND LI T E R AL E Q UA T ION S 1 31
226 . Probl ems i nv ol v i ng Li tera l E qu at i ons , l ea d i ng t o Li nea r

E qu at i ons w i t h one Unk n ow n Nu mber .
P ro b . D i vi d e a i nt o t w o p art s s uch that m t i m es th e first

sh a ll ex e e c d n t i me s the s e c on d by b .
L et x th e firs t p art .
Th e n , a :
a th e s e c ond p art .
By th e c o n d i t i o ns , mac n a ( x) b .
mx : an — nx
+b .
b
Wh e n ce , 96
an
th e fi rst p art .
(I)
m
’
7
1
.
a m+ an — an _b
A1 8 0
m n m 7
7.
a m b
,
th e o t e h r p art .
( )
2
m n
Th e resul ts ca n b e us e d as fo rmul a:for s o lvi ng a ny prob l e m of th e

a b o ve f o r m .
Thus le t i t b e re quire d t o d ivi d e 2 5 i n to t wo p arts s uc h t h at 4 t i me s th e

,
firs t s h all e xc e e d 3 t i me s t h e s e c o n d b y 3 7 .
H r a 25 m 4 n : 3
e e, ,
z
,
z
,
and b 37 .
S ub s t i t ut i n g t h s v l u s i n e e a e ( 1 ) a nd
25 x
th e firs t p a rt 1 6,
7 7 7
25 X 4 37 1 00 37 63
a nd th e s e c o n d p art 9 .
7 7 7
EX ER C S E 3 | I
1 . Divi d e i nt o t w o p arts w h o s e quot i ent s h all b e m
a .
2 T w o m e n A a n d B a mil e s a p a r t s e t o ut a t t h e s a m e t i me a n d
.
, , , ,
t ra v e l t o w a rd s e a c h o t h e r A t ra vels a t th e ra t e o f m mil e s a n h o ur a nd
.
,
B a t t h e ra t e of n m il e s an h our H o w far w ill e a c h h ave trav ell e d wh en

.
h y
t e meet
3 . Divi d e i n t o th re e p arts s uch t h a t th e first s h all b e o ne -mth t h e
a
s e c o n d a nd o n e -nth t h e th ird
, .
4 . If A c a n d o a pi e c e o f w o rk i n a h o urs B i n b h o urs C i n 0 h o urs , , ,
a n d D i n d h o urs h o w m a n y h o urs w ill i t t ak e t o d o t h e w o rk if a ll w ork

,
to get her
1 32 AD V AN C E D CO UR S E IN A LG E B R A
5 . Wh a t pri n c ip a l at r pe r c e nt i nte re s t w ill a m o un t to a d oll ars in

t y ears
6 . In h o w ma n y y e ars w ill p d ollars am ount t o a d o ll ar s at r p er c ent
i n t e re s t
7 Divi d e a i n t o tw o p ar t s s uc h th at o ne s h all b e m t i me s a s muc h
.
a b o v e b a s t h e ot h e r l a c k s o f c .
8 A gro c e r m i x e s a p o und s o f c o ffe e w o rt h m c e nt s a p o un d b p o un d s

.
,
w or t h n c e nt s a p oun d a n d c p o un d s w or th 1 9 c e n t s a p o un d
,
F i n d th e c o s t .
p e r p o un d of t h e m i x t ur e .
9 . A w as m ti me s as old as B a y e ars ag o and will b e 72 t i me s as old ,
as B i n b y e ars F i n d t h e ir a g e s at pres e nt
. .
1 0 I f A a nd B ca n d o a pi e ce o fw o rk i n a d ays B ar l C i n b d ays
.
m
a n d A a n d C i n 0 d a ys h o w m a n y d ays w ill i t t a k e e a ch w o rk i ng a l o n e
,
‘
,
2 2 7 A li nea r
. equa ti on con ta i n i ng but o ne un kn own n u mbe r
ca nn o t h a ve mor e tha n on e r o o t .
E v e ry li n e a r t io n c on tai n in g
e qu a but on e u nk n o w n n u mber,
can be r e d uc e d t o t h e fo r m
x a .
I f p o ss i bl e ,
l et th i s eq u at io n hav e tw o d iffe re n t r oo ts , rl an d r 3 .
Th e n , by 1 1 0,
an d r2 a .
Wh e n c e , r1 r2 4,
B ut th i s i s i mp os s i b l e s i n c e by hy p oth e si s r1
, , an d r2 a r e di f
fe r e n t ; h en c e a li n e a r e q ua tio n c o n ta i n i n g but
, on e u n kno wn
n umbe r can no t ha v e m o r e than one r oo t .
r
1 34 AD V AN C E D C O UR S E I N ALG E B R A
23 0 . C on s i d e r th e e quat ion s
l:
13 y 5, ( 1
)
l x + y = 6 (D
It i s i d e n tl y i m p o s si bl e t o fin d a s e t of v a l u es o f a:an d y
ev
w h i ch sh a ll s a t isfy bo th ( 1 ) a n d
T w o e q uat io n s w h i ch e x p r e s s i n c o m p a t i bl e r e l at io n s b e t w een
t h e un k n o w n nu mbe r s i n v ol v e d a r e call e d Incon s i s t ent .
I f th ey e xp r e s s p o s si bl e r e l a ti on s b e tw ee n t h e unk n o wn
n umb e r s th e y a r e c a ll e d Cons i s t ent
,
.
231 . A s y s t e m o f e qu a t ion s i s ca ll e d S i mul t ane ou s wh e n e ach

c o n ta i n s t w o o r m o r e u nk n o wn n umbe rs , an d e v e ry e q uat ion
o f t h e s y st e m i s s a t i sfi e d b
y t h e sa m e s e t o r sets o f v a l u e s of
t h e u n k n o w n n u m be rs .
A S olut i on of as y s t e m of s i mul t an e o us e qua t ion s i s a s e t o f

val u e s o f th e u n k n o w n n u m b e rs wh i ch s a t is fi e s e v e ry e q u at io n
of t h e s y st e m .
232 . sy ste m s o f e q ua t ion s i nv ol v i n g tw o or m o r e un

T wo ,
k n o w n n um be r s a r e sai d t o be equi va le n t wh e n e v e ry s ol u t io n
,
o f e i ther s y st em i s a s ol ut ion o f t h e o th e r .
PR INCIPL E S U SE D IN S OL V ING S IM U L T ANE O U S

E QU AT ION S
2 33 . If for a ny equa t i o n o f a s y s tem a n e qui va lent equa ti o n be
ut
p , th e r e s ulti n s
g y s tem is equi va lent to th e firs t
.
A B,
L et
be equ at ion s i n v ol v ing tw o o r m o r e u n kno w n n umbe r s ; a n d

E F an e qu at io n e qu i v al e n t t o
To p r o v e the s y ste m o f e q u at ion s
A B,
E = E a
e qu i v al e n t t o th e first s y ste m .
S in c e e v e ry sol utio n o f (1 ) i s al s o a s ol u t ion of e ve ry

s o l u tion of t h e first s y s t e m i s a s ol u t i on o f th e sec on d .
S IM UL T ANE O US L IN E A R E Q UA T ION S 1 35
An d si n c e ry s o l ut io n o f
ev e i s a s o l ut io n o f e v e ry
sol u t i o n o f t h e s e c o n d s y s t e m i s a sol ut io n o f t h e fir s t
Th e r e f o r e t h e t w o s y s t e m s a r e e q ui v al e nt
,
I n li k e m an n e r th e th e o r e m m ay be p r o v e d fo r a s y st e m of
,
a n y n u mb e r of e q u a t io n s .
234 . Iffo r e i ther equa ti o n , in a s ys te m of two, we p u t a n equa

member s a r e th e s ums , o r d ifer e n c es ,
ti o n w h os e fi r st a n d s eco n d
r esp ect i ve ly , o f th e g i ven fir s t a n d s eco n d member s , th e r es u lti ng
s ys te m w ill be e qu i va le nt to th e fir s t .
v
A B,
L et
C’
D,
be e qua t i on s i n v o l v i n g t w o o r m o r e un kno w n nu m be r s .
To r o ve t h e s y s t e m o f e q uat io n s
p
A B,
A + 0= B + Q
i al e n t t o t h e first
e qu v sy s tem .
Any s o l uti o n o f t h e fir s t s y st e m wh en s ubst i t u ted fo r th e ,
u n k n o w n n u m be rs , ma k e s A e q u a l t o B , a n d 0 e q ua l t o D .
I t th en m ak e s A 0 e q ual t o B D 1 1 5 ,
Th e n i t i s a s ol ut io n o f th e s e c o n d s y s t e m .
B and A
,
'
Ag a i n , a n y s ol ut io n o f t h e s e c o n d s y st e m m ak es A e qu al to
O e q u al t o B D .
I t th e n m ak e s 0 e qual t o D 1 1 5 ,
Th e n i t i s a s o l ut io n o f t h e fir s t sy st e m .
Th e r e f o r e t h e tw o s y st e m s a r e e q ui v al en t
,
.
In lik e m an n e r, the fi r st s y st e m is e q u i v al e n t t o the s y ste m

A B,
A 0 B D .
23 5 . It may be pr o v e d , as in 234 , that if the e qu at ion s

(1 )
in v ol v e t w o o r m o r e u nk n o wn numb er s , an d any e qu ation b e
r e p l ac e d by an e qu at ion w h os e fir s t m e mbe r i s th e s um of any
o f th e gi v e n first me mb e r s a n d s e c o n d me mb e r th e s um o f th e
,
c o rr e s p o n d ing s e c on d me mb e rs th e r es ul t ing sy ste m w ill be

,
e q u i v al e n t t o the fi r st .
1 36 AD V A NC E D C OU R S E IN A L G E B RA
Th eab o v e i s al s o t h e cas e if the s ign s o f b oth me mbe rs in ,
a n y of t h e e q u at i o n s be chan g e d f r o m to
F or e x amp l e any e q ua t io n m ay be r e p l ac e d by t h e e qu at ion
,
—
A+ O E =B +D — F .
2 36 . If an y equa ti o n of a s y s te m be s o lved fo r one f

o th e
u n kn o wn n umbe s , r a nd th e va lue fo un d be s ubs ti tuted for th i s
u n kn ow n n umber ea ch o th e o th e r equa ti o ns th e r es u lti ng
in f ,
tem wi ll be equi va len t to th e firs t .
L et
B) ( 1
)
D2 ( )
2
be e qu at ion s i nv ol vi n g b e rs a:an d y
t w o un k n o w n n um , .
L e t E be t h e v a l u e o f as o bt a in e d by s ol v i n g an d l et
F G be t h e e q u at ion o bt a i n e d by s ubst i tut i n g E for a:i n
To p r o v e t h e s y st e m o f e quat io n s
: E,
(I
( )
3
F G,
e q ui v al e n t t o t h e first sy ste m .
W e k n o w that (3 ) i s e qu i v al en t t o h e n ce any s ol ut ion ,
o f t h e fir s t s y st e m i s a s o l u t ion o f (3
)
Ag ai n an y s ol ut io n o f th e fir s t s y s t e m ma k e s E i d en t i call y
,
e qu a l t o ac ; a n d a l s o m ak e s 0 e ua l t o D
q .
Th e n i t mu s t m ak e th e e x pr e s s ion o btai n ed b y pu tt i n g E fo r
x i n 0 e q ua l t o t h e exp r e s sio n o bta i n e d by p utt i n g E fo r a in
, , ,
D ; that i s i t mak e s F e qu a l t o G
,
.
Th e n a ny s ol ut io n of t h e fir s t s y st e m i s a l s o a Sol u t ion o f
,
th e s e c on d .
Ag a i n Si n c e (3 ) i s e qu i v al e n t t o
,
a n y s ol ut ion o f t h e
s e c on d s y st e m i s a sol ut i o n o f
Al so a ny s o l uti o n o f t h e s e c on d s y st e m m ak es a:i d e n ti ca ll y
,
e qu a l t o E an d al so m a k e s F e q u a l t o G
,
.
Th e n i t mu s t m a k e t h e e xp r e s sion o bt a i n e d by p u tt i n g : L for ‘
E i n F e q u al t o t h e e x p re s si on o bt a in e d by p utt i n g x fo r E
, , ,
i n G ; th a t i s i t m ak e s U e q ual t o D
,
.
Th e n a ny s ol ut i on of t h e s e c o n d s y s t e m i s a l s o a s o l u t io n o f
,
t h e first .
1 38 A D V AN C E D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A
2 . S ol ve the e qu at ion s
1 5 x 8 y 1 °
( 1)
1 0x — 7y 24 .
( )
2
M ul ti p ly i n g ( 1 ) by 2 ,
30x 1 6y 2 . 3
( )
Mul t i ply i n g (2) by 3 ,
3 0x 21 y 72 .
( )
4
S ubtra cti n g (4 ) fr o m 3 7y 74 , an d y 2 .
S ub s ti tuti n g y 2 in 1 5 (v 1 6 1 .
Wh en c e ,
1 5 a: 1 5 an d a: 1 , .
Th e a b o ve i s an e x a mp l e o f e li m i n a t io n by s ubtra cti on .
W e s p ea k o f a dd i ng a sys t e m o f e quat i o n s w h en w e m ea n pl a c i ng t h e
'
s um o f t h e fi r s t me mb e r s e q ua l t o th e s um o f th e s e co n d me mb e rs .
A bb r evi at i o n s o f t h i s ki n d are f re q ue nt i n Alg e b ra ; t hus w e s p ea k o f

m ul t ip ly i ng a n e quat i o n w h e n w e me an mul t ipl y i n g e a c h o f i t s t e r ms .
F r o m th e ab ove ex am p l e s ,
we hav e th e follo w i n g r ul e .
If n eces s a ry, mu ltip ly th e g iven equa ti o ns by s uch n umbers a s

w i ll ma ke the coefilci en ts of o n e of th e un k no wn n umbe rs i n the
‘
r es ulting equa ti o n s of equa l a bs o lute va lue .
A dd o r s u btra ct th e r es ulti ng equa ti o n s a cco r d i ng as the co e fil

ci en ts o f eq ua l a bs o lute va lue a r e o f un li ke o r li k e s ign .
If t h e c oe ffic i e n ts w h i c h a r e t o b e mad e o f e qua l a b s o l ute v a l ue a re

pri me t o e a c h ot h er e a c h may b e use d as the mul t ipli e r fo r th e ot h e r
,
e q ua t i o n b ut i f t h e y a re n o t pri m e t o e a c h o th e r s uc h mul tipli e r s s h o ul d ,
b e us e d a s w ill pro d uc e t h e ir l o w est c o m mo n mul tipl e .
Th us i n E x 1 t o mak e t h e c oeffi c i en ts o f y o f e q ual ab s o l ute v al ue

,
.
, ,
w e mul t ipl y ( l ) b y 4 a n d ( 2 ) b y 3 ; b ut i n E x 2 t o m ak e t h e c o e ffic i e n ts

.
,
o f x o f e qua l a b s o l ut e v a l ue S i n c e th e L C M o f 1 0 an d 1 5 i s 30 w e mul
,
. . .
,
ti p l y ( l ) b y 2 a n d ( 2 ) b y 3 .
II . E LIMINAT ION B Y S UB S TI TUT ION
7w 9 3! 1 5 ( 1)
S ol v e e qu at ion s
‘
23 9 Ex . th e
8y 5 x 1 7 ( )
2
Tr a n s p o s i n g 5 a; i n 8y 5x 1 7 .
Wh e n c e , y 5 a:
g
1 7 .
( )
3
S ubsti t ut i n g in 7a: 9
5 x 1 7
1 5 .
( )
4
S IM UL T AN E O US LIN E A R E Q UA T ION S 1 39
C l e ar i n g of f ract ion s ,
5 6 a; 9 (5 3—
52 1 7) 1 20 .
o} ,
5 6 a: 4 5 x 1 53 1 20 .
U n i t in g t e r ms , 1 1 at 33 .
Whe n c e , so 3 .
( )
5
1 5' 1 7
S ubst i tu ti n g a: y 4 ( )
6
8
By § 2 36 , given sys te m o f e quati on s i s e quiv al e nt to th e sys te m ( 3 )
th e
an d ( 4 ) o r s i n c e ( 4 ) i s e quiv a l e n t t o
,
t o t h e sys te m ( 3 ) a n d
By § 236 t h e sys t e m ( 3 ) a n d ( 5 ) i s e quiva l e n t t o th e sys te m ( 5 ) a nd
,
w h e n c e t h e give n sys t e m i s e qu ival e n t t o th e sys te m ( 5 ) an d

,
'
F r o m th e ab o v e e xa mp l e w e ha v e t h e follo w i n g r ul e : ,
F rom o ne o f th e gi ven equa ti on s fi

nd th e va l ue o f on e of the
un kn o wn n umbe s r i n terms o f th e o th e r ,
a nd s ubs ti tute th i s va lue
i n p lace o f a t numbe
th r i n th e o th e r equa ti on .
III . E LIMINATION B Y C OMPA R I S ON
2 F 1 6 ( 1)
S ol ve
Z
.
24 0 E x . . th e eq u at io n s
3 5 .
( )
2
Tran s p o s i n g 5 y in 2 (v 5y 1 6 .
5 y 1 6
Wh e n c e x
g
.
Tran s p o s i n g 7y i n 3 x 5 7y .
5 _7y
Whe n ce ,
a: ( )
4
3
y
5 1 6 5
: 7y
.
E q u at ing v a l ue s o f w, o
( )
5
2 3
C l e ar i n g of f ract ion s ,
1 5y 48 1 0 1 4y .
T ran s p osi n g, 29 y 58 .
Wh en c e , y 2 .
( )
6
1 0 1 6
S ubst i tuti n g y :
2 in a
g 3 .
( 7
By 23 3 , t h e give n sys te m o f e q uat i ons i s e quival e nt to th e syst e m ( 3 )

a nd ( )
4 or, s i n c e b y A X 4 § 66 ( 4 ) i s e quiv al ent t o
,
.
, , t o t h e sys t e m
( 3 ) a nd
1 40 A D V AN C E D C O U RS E IN A L G E BR A
B ut ( 5 ) i s e qu iva l e n t t o ( 6 ) s o t h at th e giv e n syste m is e quiv l a e nt to
th e sys t e m ( 3 ) a n d
By § 2 36 th e sys t e m ( 3 ) a nd ( 6) i s e quival e nt to
,
th e sys tem ( 6 )
a nd
F r om th e ab o v e ex am p l e ,
we hav e th e follo w i n g r ul e :
'
F ro m e a ch f
o th e gi ven equ a ti o n s , fi nd th e va lue o f th e sa me
unkn o wn n umbe r in te r ms of th e o th er , a nd p la ce th es e va lues
equ a l to ea ch oth er .
24 1 . If gi v e n e qu at io n s ar e n ot i n the fo r m a n: by 0,
th e
th ey S h o ul d fir s t b e r e du ced t o th i s fo rm, wh e n th ey m ay b e
s ol v e d by e i th e r m e th o d o f e l i mi n a t io n .
I n s ol vi n g f ract io n a l s i m ul t a n e ou s e q u at i on s w e a r e li abl e ,
t o g e t r e s u l ts wh i ch d o n o t sat i s fy th e gi ve n e q uat io n s .
By 22 1 , w e m u st r ej e ct an y s ol ut i on w h i ch s at i s fi e s th e
e qu at ion o btai n e d by e q u at i n g t o z e r o t h e L C M of . . .
giv e n d e no m i n at o r s .
24 2 . 1 . S ol ve the e qu at ion s
7 3
w+ 3 4
o .
(1 )
y +
x (y — 2 —
) y w < 5) 1 3 .
( )
2
M u l t i pl y ing each t er m of (1 ) by (ac 3 )(y 4)

— 7y — x= —1 9
7y + 28 3 x or 3 .
( )
3
F r om
— 2 x— x + 5 = — 1 3 5y — 2 x= —
xy y y ,
or 1 3 .
( )
4
M ul t ip l y i n g (3 ) by 2 ,
1 4 y 6 x 38 .
( )
5
Mul t i pl y i n g (4 ) by 3 ,
1 5y 6 a: 39 .
( )
6
S ubt ra ct i n g (5 ) f r o m y 1 .
S ub s t i t ut ing i n 5 2 a: 1 3 .
Wh e n c e ,
2 as 8, or x = 4 .
S i n c e x =4 and y :2 1 do n ot s ati s f y th e e qu ti
a on (x 3 )( y 4) 0,
th e s o l ut i on x 4, y 1 i s c orre c t
—
x +3y 1 3 a)
2 . S ol v e th e e qu atio n s 1 —
1
+
3l
1 -
1 2 AD V AN C E D C O UR S E IN ALG E B R A
74 — 37
A dd ing ,
a :
Wh e n c e , an d m= 2 .
9
S ubst i tut in g in 5
y 8 .
Wh e n c e ,
9
y 3 mm y l
l
°
9
EX ERC S E 3 2 I
So lv e t h e f oll ow i n g
{
08 x + 04 8 l
[:
. . . x+ y
l
a y 1 0
5 .
4
3 ax + 8 6 — 1
5 7 29 113
|
[ 3x y 9 Lv
— 4 2y + 3
i( m
2 J
9
3x— 4 y — 1 1 .
x
2 5
l x + 5 y+ 1
'
o w— l l y — 1 1
y)
— b 2 '
— 2 b2
)y : 2 a
1 2 .
y :
a 4 ah
a — b a + b (t
il — l) 2
S IM UL T AN E O US LIN E A R E Q UA T ION S 1 43
S IM U LTAN E OU S LINE AR E QU AT IONS C ONTAINING MOR E

TH AN TW O U N KNO W N N U M B ER S
24 3 . If we i n d e p en d en t si mul t a n e o u s e qua t io n s
h av e th r ee ,
c o n ta i n i n g three un k n o wn n umb e r s w e m ay c o mbi n e a n y tw o

,
o f th e m by o n e of th e m e th o d s o f e li m i n a t io n e xp l a i n e d i n
'
2 38 t o 2 4 0 s o a s t o o bt a i n a s i n gl e e q uat io n c o n t a i n i n g o n l y
,
tw o u nk n o w n n um b e rs .
W e m ay th e n c o mbi ne t h e r em a i n i n g e q u at ion w i th e i th e r
o f t h e o th e r t w o an d o bt a i n an o th e r e q ua t i o n c o n t a i n i n g t h e
,
s a m e t w o un k n o w n n umb e rs .
B y s ol v i n g t h e t w o e q ua t ion s c o n t ai n i n g t w o u n k n o w n n u m
b e r s , w e may obta i n th e i r v a l ue s ; an d s ub s ti tu t i n g th e m i n
e i th e r o f t h e gi v e n e q u a t io n s t h e v a l ue o f t h e r e m a i n i n g
,
un k n o wn n umbe r m ay be fo un d .
W e p r o c e e d i n a s i m il a r m a n n e r wh en t h e n u mbe r o f e qu a
t ion s an d o f un k n o w n n um be r s i s g r e a t e r th a n thr e e .
Th e m e th o d o f e li m i n at i o n by a dd i t i o n o r s u btr a cti o n i s u s u
a ll y t h e m os t c o n v e n i e n t .
I f any e quat i o n i s fra c ti o n al w e sh oul d reje c t a ny s o l ut i on w h i c h s a ti s

,
fie s th e e q u at i o n o b ta i n e d b y e qua t i ng t o z e r o t h e L C M o f t h e giv e n
. . .
d e n o m i n a t o rs
6x 4y 72 : 1 7 .
( )
I
1 . S ol v e th e eq u at ion s 9 33 7y — 1 6 z = 29 ( )
2
1 0x 5y 32: 23 .
( )
3
Mul ti p l y i n g (1 ) by 3 , 1 8 x — 1 2 y — 21 z : 51 .
( )
4
M ul t i pl y i n g (2) by 2 ,
l 8 x — 1 4 y — 32 z : 58 .
( )
5
S ubtr a cti ng ,
2y+1 1 z = 7 .
( )
6
M ul ti pl y i n g ( 1 ) by 5 ,
3 0x — 20y — 3 5 z z 85 . 7
( )
M u l t i p l y i n g (3 ) b y 3 ,
3 0x — 1 5y 9 2: 69 .
( )
8
S ubtr a ct i n g fr o m 5 y + 26 2 = -1 6 .
( )
9
M ul ti pl y i n g (6) by 5 l 0y + 55 z = —3 5 .
( )
1 0
M ul ti p ly i n g (9 ) by 2 ,
— 32 .
( 1 1 )
S ubtract i n g ,
3e: — 3, or z — 1 .
( )
1 2
S ub s t i t u t i n g i n 2y— 1 1 — 7, or y : 2 .
( )
1 3
S ub s ti tu ti n g i n 6 a: 8 7 1 7: 01 ‘
x 3 ' ( >
1 4
1 4 4: AD V A NC E D C O UR S E IN AL G E B R A
By 1 1 9 a nd 23 3 , t h e give n syste m o f e qu ati on s i s e qu iva le nt to th e

syste m a nd 5
( ) w h i ch by 2 3 5 i s e qu iv a l en t t o t h e sys te m
, ,
and or to th e sys t e m a nd
B ut ) ( 1 is e quiv l a en t to h a t t h e giv e n sy s te m
a nd ( 3 ) t o 8
( ) so t
i s e q uival e nt to t h e sys t e m a nd th i s by 2 3 5 i s e q ui va , ,
l e nt t o t h e syste m an d o r t o th e sys t e m an d
B ut t h e sys te m a n d ( 9 ) i s e qu iv a l e n t t o t h e sys t e m
an d w h ich by 2 35 i s e q uiv al e nt t o t h e sys t e m

, , a nd
T sys
1 2
he te m a nd 1i s e qui va l e n t to th e sys te m
( )2
wh i ch by t wo a ppli c a t i o n s o f 2 36 i s e quiv a l e n t to th e
and ( )
1 2 , , sy s
te m an d
I n c e rtai n c a s e s s ol u t io n may be ab r i d g e d by
th e a id oft —
he
ar t i fic e wh i ch is e m p lo y e d i n th e follo w i n g e x a mp l e .
u a; y 6
2 . S ol ve th e eq u at i on s
w y z 7 ( )
2
y z u 8 ( )
3
z a := 9
2
( )
4
A dd i n g ,
Wh e n c e ,
u + x +y+ ( )
5
S ub tra ct i n g ( )
2 fr o m u 3 .
S ub tr a ct i n g ( )
3 f r om a : 2 .
S ubtr a ct i n g ( )
4 f r o m y 1 .
S ubtracti n g (1 ) f r o m z : 4 .
EX ERC S E 3 3 I
So lve th e f oll ow i ng :
5 90 + y
— 4 z =— 5 .
1 . 3x— 5y — 6 z z — 20 . 3 .
x — 3y + 8 z — 27 .
x —
y _y — z 7
3 4 3 2 : 5y
a 26 .
y — z 1 3 7x + 6 2 = — 33
2
.
3 5 1 5 3 4
a + x x— y y
— 4
2 5 1 0
1 46 ADVAN C E D C O UR S E I N ALG E B R A
2 . A cr e w ca n r o w 1 0 m il e s i n 5 0 m i n ute s d o w n r
s t ea m , a n d
1 2 m il e s i n an h ou r a n d a h a l f a g a i n s t t h e s t r e a m F i n d t h e .
rat e i n mi le s p e r h o u r o f t h e c ur r e n t a n d o f t h e cr e w i n s t i l l
,
w at e r .
L et r o f mi l e s a n h o ur of th e cre w i n s till w a te r
x n u mb e ,
an d y n umb e r o f m i l e s a n h o u r o f t h e c urre n t .
T h en a: y numb e r o f mi l es an h o ur of th e c re w d o w n s tre a m
, ,
a nd a: y num b e r o fm i l es a n h o ur o f t h e c re w up s tre a m .
Th e n um b e r o f m i l e s a n h o ur r o w e d b y th e cr e w is e q ua l t o th e d is
t a nc e i n mil e s d ivid e d by th e t ime i n h o urs .
Th en , x + y : 1 0+
g
3
an d x- y _1 2 .
8 .
So l vi ng th es e e qua ti o ns , : 1 0, y
a 2 .
3 . Th e s um of t h e t hr e e d i gi t s mb e r i s 1 3
of a nu I f th e .
n u m be r d e c r e a s e d by 8 b e
, ,
d i v i d e d by t h e s um of i ts s e c on d
a n d t h i r d d i gi t s t h e q u o t i e n t i s 2 5 ; a n d i f 9 9
, be de d
ad t o th e
n umb e r t h e d i gi t s w i ll be i n v e rt e d
,
Fin d t h e . n um be r .
L et a: th e fi rs t d ig i t ,
y c
th e s e o n d ,
a nd z th e t h ir d .
Th e n ,
l o0x 1 0y z th e n umb e r ,
an d 1 00z 1 0y a : th e n umb e r w i th g
i ts d i i ts i nve rt e d .
B y th e con di t ions o fth e p r ob l e m ,
33 y z 1 3:
and I 1 0090 1 0y z 99 1 002 1 0y + x .
So l vi ng th es e e q uati ons , :
1 : 2, y z : 8, z 3; an d th e numb e r is 2 83 .
EX ERC IS E 3 4
1 . If 3 b ea dd e d t o r a t o r o a c
t h e nu m e
f e r t a i n fra ct i o n a n d 7 s ub ,
t ra ct e d from t h e d e n om in at o r it s val ue i s ; a nd if 1 b e s ub tracte d fro m

,
2
g
t h e n um e r at o r a n d 7add e d t o t h e d e n om l n a t o r i ts val ue I S
,
F i nd th e ,
5
fra c t i o n .
2 F in d t w o n umb e rs s uch t h a t o n e s h a ll b e n t i me s a s mu ch gr e at e r
.
t h a n a a s th e o th e r i s l es s th a n a an d th e q uo t i n t f t h e ir s u m b y th e ir e o
d i ffe r e n c e e ne l ’m h
S IM UL T AN E O US L IN E A R E Q UA T ION S 1 47
3 . gre at er o f t w o n umb e rs b e d i vid e d b y th e l es s t h e q u o t ie n t

If th e ,
is 1 a n d t h e re ma i nd e r 6
,
A n d if t h e gre a t e i n cre a s e d b y 1 4 b e d ivi d e d
. r, ,
b y t h e l ess d imi n i s h e d by 4 t h e q uo ti e n t i s 5 a n d t h e r e ma i n d e r 4
, , F i nd , .
t h e nu mb e rs .
4 A s um o fmo ney a t s impl e i nteres t a mount e d to

. i n 7y e a rs ,
a n d to 8 i n 1 2 y ears F i nd th e p ri ncip al a n d th e ra te
. .
5 A c e rt a i n n umb e r o f t w o d ig i ts e xc e e d s th re e t i m es t h e s um o f i t s
.
d ig i t s b y 4 If t h e d ig its b e i n v e rte d th e s u m o f t h e res ul t i ng num b e r

.
,
a nd t h g i ve n numb er e xc e ed s th re e t i me s t h e g i ve n numb er by 2 F i nd
e .
th e n umb e r .
6 A m a n i nves t s a c e r ta i n s um o fmon e y a t a c e rt a in ra t e o f i n t e res t

. .
I ft h e p ri nc ip a l h ad b e e n $ 1 2 00 gr e a t e r a n d t h e r a t e o n e p e r ce n t gre a t e r , ,
h i s i n co me w o ul d h a ve b e e n i n cre a s e d b y 8 1 1 8 If th e p ri nc ip a l h a d b e e n .
8 3 200 g rea t e r a n d t h e ra te t w o p e r c e n t gr e a t e r h i s i n c o m e wo ul d h av e
, ,
b ee n i ncre a s e d b y $ 3 1 2 Wh a t s um d id h e i nve s t a nd at w h a t ra te
.
,
7 T
. h e m i d d l e d i g i t o f a n u m b e r o f t h r e e fi g ur es i s o n e -h al ft h e s um o f
t h e o t h e r t w o d ig i ts If th e n umb e r b e d i vi d e d b y t h e s um o f i t s d ig its
.
,
t h e q u o t i e n t i s 2 0 a n d t h e re m a i n d e r 9 , a n d if 59 4 b e a d d e d t o t h e n u m
b e r t h e d i gi t s w ill b e i n ve r t e d
,
F i nd th e n umb e r . .
8 A cr e w ro w 1 6 %
. mil e s up s t re a m and 1 8 m il e s d ow n s tre a m i n 9
h o urs Th ey th e n ro w 2 1 m il e s up s tre a m a nd 1 9 %
. m i l es d o w n s tre a m i n
1 1 h o urs F in d th e rate i n mil e s an h our of th e s tre a m an d o f t h e cre w
.
,
i n s t i ll w a ter .
4
9 . A a nd B ca n d o a p i ece ofw ork i n E i— h ours A a n d C i n — h ours
5 1
,
.
,
l2 9
l
i
1—9
A a nd D in — h o u rs , an d B an d C in h ou rs . H o w ma n y h o u rs wi ll it
() 7
tak e e ach a l on e t o d o th e w o rk
1 0 . A an d B r un a ra c e o f 28 0 fee t . Th e firs t h eat, A g i ve s B a s t a r t
o f70 fe e t , and n e i th e r w ins t h e ra ce Th e s e co nd . h e a t A g ive s B a s t ar t
,
o f35 fe e t , an d b e a ts h i m b y 6 % s e c o nd s H o w m a ny fee t . ca n e a ch r un in
a s e ondc
1 1 . A B , , C, a nd D p l ay at c ard s . Aft e r B h as w o n o n e h a f o f A s
- ’
l
mo n e y , C o n e -h i d t r of B ’
Ds, o n e -fou r th of C ’
s , and A o n e -fifth of D s ,
’
t h e y h av e ea ch $ 1 0, e xce p t B w h o h as $ 1 6 . H o w much h a d ea ch at
firs t ?
1 2 . re-w h ee l o f a carriag e mak es a re vo l ut ions more th an th e
Th e fo
h in d -w h e e l i n tra ve ll in g 1 ) fe e t If t h e c ircum fe re n ce o f th e fo re -w h e l
. e
w e re i n cre as e d b y o n e -mt h a n d t h e c irc um f re n ce o f t h e h ind -wh ,

l by e ee
o ne -n t h t h e fore -w h e e l w o ul d m a k e c r
,
o l u t i o ns m o re t h a n t h e h i n d ev
wh e e l i n tra vell i n g d fe e t F i nd th e circumfere nce o f e ach w h e el

. .
1 3 . Th e r d igi ts o fa n umb er i s 1 4 Th e s um o f th e l as t
s um o f t h e fou .
th re e d i g it s e xc e e ds t wi ce t h e fi rs t by 2 T wic e t h e s u m o f th e s ec o nd
.
a n d t h ird d i g i ts e xc e e d s t h re e t i mes th e s um o f t h e fi rs t a n d fo ur th b y 3 .
A n d if 2 72 7 b e s ub tra ct e d fro m t h e n umb e r t h e d ig i t s w i ll be i n ve r te d

, .
F i nd th e n umbe r .
1 4 A a nd B r un a r ac e fro m P t o Q a n d b ack ; t h e d is ta nc e fro m P

.
t o Q b e i n g 1 08 y a rd s T h e fi rs t h e a t A r e a ch e s Q fi rs t a n d m e e ts B o n
.
, ,
h i s re t urn a t a p o in t 1 2 y a rd s fro m Q Th e s e c o n d h e a t A i n c re a s e s h is
.
,
s p e e d b y 2 y a rd s a s e co n d a nd B b y 1 , y a rd a s e co n d ; a n d n o w A
m ee ts B 1 8 y ard s fro m Q H o w m an y y ard s ca n e a c h r un i n a s e c o n d
.
1 5 A tra i n run ni n g fro m A t o B me e ts w i th a n a cc i d e n t w h ich d e

.
,
l ay s i t a h o urs It t h e n proce e d s at a rate on e nth l es s th a n i ts fo rme r

.
-
ra t e a n d arri ves at B 1 ) h o urs l a te H a d t h e accid e n t occurre d 0 mil e s

, .
n ea r e r B t h e tr a i n w o ul d h a v e b e e n d h o urs l a t e
,
F i nd t h e rate of th e
.
tra in b e fore th e a cc id en t a nd th e d is ta nc e t o B from t h e p oin t o f

,
d e t en t i on .
1 6 A man b uy s 60s h ares o f s to ck p art p ay i ng d ivid en d s a t th e rate o f

.
,
3 3 p e r c e n t a n d t h e r e m a i n d e r a t t h e ra t e o f 4 %
.
, p er c e n t If th e fi rs t .
p art h a d p a id d ivi d e n d s a t t h e ra t e o f 4 % p e r c e n t a n d th e o th e r a t t h e
,
ra t e of 3 3 p e r ce n t t h e t ot a l a n n ua l i nc ome w o uld h ave b e e n $ 1 2 l e s s

,
.
H o w ma ny s h a re s o f e a ch k i n d d i d h e b uy
1 50 ADVAN C E D C O UR S E IN ALG E BR A
Th e s y mb o l 00 is c a ll e d I nfini ty ; it s i mp ly s tan d s fo r t h at whi ch i s

g re a te r t h a n any n u m b e r , h o we ve r gre at .
24 8 . Int erp ret at i on of
C on s i d e r t h e se ri e s o ff a r c ti o n s
a a a a
wh e re ea ch d e n o mi n a to r a ft e r th e fi rst i s t e n t i m e s th e p rec e d
i n g d e n o mi n a t o r .
It i s e v id e n t t h a t , by
fi c i e n t ly c on t i n ui n g t h e s e r i e s th e
s uf ,
d e n o mi n at o r m ay be m a d e g r ea t e r t h an a n y a s s i g n e d n um be r ,
h o w e ve r g r e at a n d th e v alu e o f t h e fr a c t i on l e s s th an a ny
,
a s s i g n e d n u mb e r h o w e v e r s ma l l
,
.
I n o th e r w o r d s ,
If th e n u me ra to r o f a f c ti
rao n re ma i n s co n s ta nt, wh ile th e
d e no mi n a to r i ncr ea s es w i th o ut l i m i t, th e va l ue of ,
th e f c t
rai o n
app ro a ch es th e l i mi t 0 .
It i s c us t oma ry to e xp r e s s th i s p r i n c i p l e as fol l o w s :
a
0 .
00
It mus t b e cl e arl y rt
un d e s o o d th a t no li ter a l mea ni ng ca n be a ttach e d
to su ch r e s ul t s as
a a
oo a nd O
00
0
for th e r e ca n be no s u ch th i ng as d i vis i on , un l es s t h e d i vis o r is a fini te

numbe r .
If s u h c for ms o ccur in ma th e ma t i c al inve s t i g ati ons , th e y mus t be i n

t e rp r e t e d a s i n 2 4 7an d 24 8 .
24 9 . Int erp r et at i on of
By 4 4, 9 s i gn i fies a n u mber wh i ch , whe n mul ti pli ed by 0,

()
g es 0
i v .
B ut b y 3 7 a n d 4 0, if a ny n u mb e r be mu lti pl i ed by O, th e
r e s ult i s 0 .
H en c e ,
3 may be a ny n u mbe r wh at e v e r .
D IS C US S ION OF L IN E A R E Q UA T ION S 1 51
F or t h i s r ea s on th e fr a c ti on
8 is c al le d Indet e rmi nat e .
250 A . Funct i on o f a nu mb er i s a ny e xp r e s s i o n wh i ch con
t a i n s t h e n um b e r .
Th us t h e e xpr e s s i on 2 x 3 a v
,
2
5 a
2
is a fun c ti on of x .
25 1 Fu nct i on Not at i on
. .
A fun c t i o n ofx i s o ft e n r e pr e s e n te d by t h e s y m bol f rea d

“ -
f f u n c t i o n o f a
”
o r S i m p l
,
y fa
” “
.
I f i n a ny i n v e s t i g at i o n f(ac) s t an d s fo r a c e r t a i n fun c t i on o f
, ,
at t h e n wh at e v e r v a l u e a m a h r e r e s e n t s th e r e s u lt
, , y a v e f ( ) p
a ,
o bt ai n e d by s ubs t i t ut i n g a fo r a:i n t h e g i ve n f un c ti o n .
Th us i f f(x) = x + 3 x 2 t h e n
,
2
,
-
3
— 3
) — 2= — 2; e tc.
F unctions of x a re a s o l repre s e nte d b y t h e s y mb o ls F e tc .
TH E T H E O R E M OF L IM IT S
25 2 . If two fun ctio n s of th e sa me va r i a ble a r e s o r ela ted th a t,
as the va r i a ble ch a nges i ts v a lue , th ey a re equa l fo r ever y va lue
wh i ch th e va r ia ble ca n assu me, a nd ea ch app ro a ch es a ce rta in
li m i t, th en th e tw o li m i ts a r e e qu a l .
Let y an d z be fun c t i on sr i abl e a ; of a c ertain va an d l e t th e m
''
,
be e qu al fo r e v e ry v al ue w h i c h t h e v a r i abl e x can as s u me , an d
a pp r oa ch t h e l i m i t s y an d z r e s e ct i v e l y
p
' ,
.
' '
T o p r ov e t h a t y
L et y — y = m, a nd z -e =u .
Th en , m a n d n a r e v a r i abl e s wh i ch ca n be m a de l e s s t h an
an y a s s i g n e d n u mb e
r h o w e v e r s mal l ,
Th en m — n i s e i th e r z ero o r e l s e a v a ri abl e wh i ch can be
' ' ''

, ,
ma d e l e s s t h a n a ny a s s i g n ed n um be r h o w e v e r s mall , .
B ut m n —z fo r b hy ot he s i s
y y z y z ; y p y
''
l
, ,
an d e q ua l
'' ''
z a re .
S in ce y z is n o t a v ar i abl e , m n is no t a v ari abl e .
Th e n , m n i s 0; an d he n ce i ts e qu al , y z i s O, or y = z .
1 52 ADVAN CE D C O UR S E IN AL GE B R A
PR OPO S ITIONS IN R E GAR D T O L IM IT S

25 3 . Th e l im i t f th e
o m of a co ns ta n t a n d a
su va r i a bl e i s th e
su m of th e c o ns ta nt
'
L et a be a c o n s tan t
a n d th e li mi t of th e va r i a ble
,
a n d at a v a r i a bl e
.
w h o s e l i mi t i s '
11 3
Th en , a
b — : ca n be m a d e l e s s th a n
a an y a s s i g n e d n umbe r,
h r
Wh c ( '
o w e ve
) en
s
e,
ma l l
x a
(a: ) whai c h e qu al s m — a:c an
,
' , be m a d e
l e s s th an
Th e n ,
w
an
' y
a
a s s i g ne d
i s t h e li m i t
n u m be r h o w e v e r s m al l
o f a:
,
a .
.
25 4 . Th e li m it o f th e su m of a ny fi n i te n umber o f var i a bles is

th e su
L et
m of th ei r l i mi ts
y, z m be
.
v ar i a bl e s wh os e l i mi ts ar e
'''m
m, y , z ,
' ' 'm

, , ,
r e s p e c t i v el y .
Th e n w - a3 — z — z ca n b e m ade l e s s t h an a ny
, , y y, , ,
a s s i g n e d n u mb e
Wh e n c e ,
r h ow e v e r
,
( CU — x
)
s m all .
(z
') — z
ca n
Th e n ,
'''
be m a d e l e s s t h an
w +y + z +
a ny a s s i g n e d n u m b e
i s th e l i m it of x
r h o wev er
+y +
,
2
s mall .
( 1 )
25 5 Any t w o c o r r e s p o n d i ng p o s i t i ve s i gn s , in 25 4 ,
'''
.
m a y be ch an g e d to n e ga t i v e .
Th us i s th e l i m i t ofx —
,
93 y z y+ z
256 . T he l imi t of th e p ro d u c t of a c on s ta n t and a va r i a ble is

th e c o n s ta n t mult ip li ed
' by th e li mi t of th e va r ia ble .
L et
Th e n a (r
a , x, a n d x
,)
x or a r
’
h
,
av e
'
a x ca n be m a d e l e s s t h an a ny a s s i gn e d
th e s a me
,
m e an i n g as in 25 3 .
n um b e r h o we v e r s m al l
,
Wh e n c e a x i s th e l i mi t o f a m
,
' .
25 7 Th e li mi t o f th e p r o d uc t of a ny n u mber ofva ri a bles i s th e
'''
.
p r o d u ct of thei r l i mi ts
' '
.
L et x,
y,
r e s p ec t i v e l
y;
z ,
an d
m , be
l et
v a r i a bl e s
x a : l, y y
h av i n g
m, z
'
t h e li m i t s x , y
—z n,
,
z ,
m
,
Th e n l m n m , , , , ,
ca n be ma d e l e s s t h an an y a s s i gne d n umbe r,
ho we v e r s mal l .
261 . l . Th e l e n g t h of a fi e l d i s 1 0 r o d s an d i t s b r e a dt h 8
,
r o d s ; h o w m a n y r o d s mu s t b e a dd e d t o th e b re a d t h s o t h at th e
a re a ma b e 6 0 u r e r od s
y s q a
Let :
a numb e r o fr o d s t o b e a d d ed .
B y th e c o nd i t i o n s , 1 0( 8 x :
2
)
60 .
Th e n 8 0 + 1 0x = 6 0, or x : —2 .
By § 78 , a dd in g — 2 ro d s i s th e s a me t h i ng as s ubtr a cti ng 2 ro d s .
H en ce ,
2 ro d s mus t b e s ub tra cte d from r
th e b e a d h i n t ‘
o rd e r th a t th e
r
a ea m ay b e 60 s quar e ro d s .
Th e a b o ve pr ob l e m i s i mp o s s ib l e ari t h me ti cally ; for t h e r

a e a of th e
field is at p r r o ds ; a nd i t is i mp o s s i bl e t o make i t 60
re s e n t 80 s qu a e
s qua re r o d s b y a d d i n g a n y t h i n g t o th e b r e a d th .
If w e s h o ul d m o d i fy th e p ro b l e m s o a s t o rea d
“
Th e l e ng th o f a fi e l d i s 1 0 r o d s a n d i ts b re a d th r o d s ; h o w m a ny
,
rod s m us t b e s ubtr a cted from t h e b re ad th s o th at th e are a may b e 60

s q ua re ro d s
a n d l e t x d e n o t e t h e n um b e r o f r o d s t o b e s ub t ra c te d w e s h o ul d fin d x 2 ,
.
A l s o if w e h a d s ol ve d t h e g i ve n p r o b l e m b y l e tt in g :
, 1 ; d e n o t e t h e n um
b e r o f r o d s t o b e s ubtra cted w e s h o ul d h a ve fo und a: 2

, .
2 . A is 35 y ear s o f ag e a n d B 2 0; i t i s r e qui re d to d et er
,
m i n e t h e e p o c h at wh i c h A s a g e i s t w i c e a s gre at a s B s ’ ’
”
L e t us s up p o s e t h a t t h e r e qu ire d e p o ch i s a:y e a r s afte r th e p res e n t

d ate .
B y th e c o n d i t i o ns ,
35 a : 2 ( 2 0
Th en ,
—5 .
By 56 , 5 y ea rs f
ater i s t h e sa me t h i n g as 5 y e ars before th e p r es en t
d at e .
Th e re fore , th e re qui re d ep o ch i s 5 y ea rs b e fo re th e p res ent d ate .
If we h a d s up p os e d th e re quired ep o ch t o be a :y e ars befo r e th e p re s en t

d ate , w e s h ou ld h a ve fo un d : 5
a .
F rom th e d i s c us s i o n of th e abo v e p r o bl e ms ,
w e i n fe r th at a
n e gati ve r e s ul t may be o bt ai n e d :
1 . In c on s e qu en c e o ft h e fa c t th at th e p r obl e m i s ar i th m e ti
c ally i mp o s s i bl e .
2 . In c on s e q u e n c e of a w r o ng
c h oi c e bet w e e n t w o p o s s i bl e
hy p oth e s e s as t o th e n a t u r e o f t h e u n k n o w n n u mb e r .
Q UA T ION S
’
D IS C US S ION OF L IN E A R E 1 55
In th e fir s t c a s e i t i s u s uall y p o s s i bl e t o fo r m an an a l og ous
,
r o bl e m w h o s e c o n di ti o n s a r e s a t i s fi e d b t h e a b s o l ut e a l u
p , y v e
o f th e n e g a t i v e r e s u l t by a tt r i but i n g t o t h e u n k n o w n n umbe r
,
a q ual i t y t h e o pp o s i t e o f t h a t w h i c h h a d b e e n a tt r i but e d t o i t .
In e i t h e r c a s e a p o s i ti v e r e s ul t m ay be o bta i n e d by a tt ri but
,
i n g t o th e un k n o w n num be r a qual i ty t h e o pp o s it e o f t h a t w h i c h
h a d be e n a tt r i but e d t o i t ; a n d t h e equa ti on s a n s w e r i n g t o t h e
n e w c on d i t i o n s m a y be d e r i v e d fr o m t h e o l d e q ua t i o n s by
c h a n g i n g t h e S i g n o f t h e un k n o w n n umbe r w h e r e v e r i t o cc ur s .
S i m i l a r c o n s i d e r at i o n s h ol d i n p r o bl e m s i n vo l v i n g t wo o r
m o r e un k n o w n n um be r s .
A n e g ati ve r e s ul t s o me t i me s i n d i c at e s t h at t h e p r obl e m i s
i mp o s s i bl e .
3 . If 1 1 t i me s t h e r s on s i n a c e rta i n h o us e
n u m be r of p e ,
i n c r e a s e d by 1 8 b e d i v i d e d by 4 t h e r e s u lt e q u a l s t w i c e th e
, ,
n u m b e r i n cr e a s e d by 3 ; fin d t h e n um be r .
L et x t h e n um b e r .
1 1 a : 1 8
B y th e c o n d i t i on s ,
2 a : 3 .
4
Wh enc e ,
a n d at :
Th e ne g at i ve re s ul t sh ow s th a t th e p rob l e m i s i mp o s s i b l e .
2 62 . A p r obl e m m a y al s o b e i m p o s s i bl e w h e n t h e s o l ut i on
i s fr a c t i o n al, or z e o r .
1 . A m a n h a s tw o k i n d s of m o n e y ; di m e s an d c e n ts . Th e
to t a l n umb e r of c om s IS 23 , an d th e i r v alu e 3 7 c e nt s . H ow
ma ny h a s h e of e ac h ?
Let x n umb e r o f d i me s .
Th e n ,
23 a; n um b e r o f ce n t s .
Th e a :d i me s ar e wo rth 1 090 ce n t s th e n ,
b y th e co n d i t ions ,
1 4
1 0x + 2 3 — x : 3 7; a nd s :
9
r
Th e f a ct i o n a l re s ul t s h o w s t h a t th e p ro b le m is i mp o s s ib le .
2 . Th e d en o mi n ato r of a fr a c t i o n
c e x e eds t h e n u m e r at o r by
6; an d i f 2 be added t o th e n um e ra t o r t he ,
v a l ue o f t h e fr a c t i o n
is Fin d t h e fr a c t i o n .
1 56 ADVA NCE D C O UR S E IN ALG EBR A
L et x t h e n ume rat or .
Th en : 6 t h e d e n o mi n a o t r
‘
, a .
90 2 1
B y th e c on d it io ns ,
x 6 3
Wh en c e ,
Th e res ul t s h ows th at th e p rob l e m is i mp o s s i b le .
TH E PR O B L E M OF TH E ,
C OU RIE RS
2 63 . Th ed i s c us s i on o f t h e fol l o w i n g p r obl e m s erv e s to

fur th e r i llu s t r at e th e i n t e r p r e ta t i on o f n e g at i v e a n d z e r o re s ult s ,
b e s i d e s fur n i s h i n g an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f i n fi n i t e an d i n d ete rmi

n a t e r e s ul t s .
Th e P robl em of t h e Cou ri er s T w o c o u r i e r s A a n d B ar e
.
t r a v e l l i n g al o n g t h e s a m e r o a d i n t h e s a m e d i r e c t i o n R R a t
,
,
,
'
,
t h e r a t e s o f m a n d n m i l e s an h o u r r e s p e c t i v e l y I f a t a ny ,
.
ti m e s ay 1 2 o c l o c k A i s a t P a n d B i s a mi l e s be y o n d h i m
’
, , ,
at Q ,
af t e r h o w m a ny h o ur s , a n d h o w m an y m i l e s be y o n d P ,
a r e t h ey t og e th e r
R Q R
'
L et A an d B m e et so h our s aft er 1 2 o
’
cl ock , an d y m i l e s
be y o n d P .
Th ey w ill t h e n m e et y am il e s be y o n d Q .
S i n c e A t rav e l s mac m i l e s , a n d B n os m i l e s , i n :
1 :h ou r s , w e
h av e y mx,
y
— a = nx .
S ol vi n g th e s e eq u at i on s , we ob ta i n
a a m
x : ,
an d y :
m — n m — n
We w i ll no w d i s c us s th e s e r e s ul t s un d e r d i ffe r e n t hy p oth e s e s .
1 . m n .
In t h i s c as e, th e v a lu e s o f x an d y a re p os i ti ve .
Th i s m e a n s t h at t h e c o u r i e r s m e e t at s o m e t im e f
ater 1 2,
at
s o me p o i n t to th e r igh t o f P .
1 58 ADVAN CE D CO UR S E IN A LGE B R A
5 .
In th i s ca s e ,
th e v al ues o f a an d y t a k e t h e fo r m 9 , an d a r e
O
i nd etermi n a te
Th i s m ea n s t h a t any v a lu e o f a: w h a t e ve r w i t h
, th e c orr e
s p on d i n g v a l ue o f y, is a s ol ut i o n o f t h e p r o bl e m .
Th i s w i t h th e hy poth e s i s m a d e ; fo r i f m n an d
ag ees r ,
O t h e c o ur i e r s a r e t o g e t h e r a t 1 2 o c l o ck a n d t ra v e ll i n g a t
’
a , ,
t h e s a me r a t e ; a n d t h e y al way s h a ve be e n a n d al w a y s w ill ,
b e t o g e th e r .
Th us a n i n d eter mi na te r es ult i nd i ca tes tha t the number of s olu~

,
ti o ns i s i n d efini tely grea t .
EX ERC IS E 3 5
.
Int e p r re t th e n eg ative res ul ts and mo d ify th e en unc iat ion acc ord ingly , ,
in t h e fo ll o wi ng
1 . I f t h e l e ng th o f a fi el d i s 1 2 r o d s a n d i ts w i d th 9 r o d s ,h o w many ,
ro ds mus t b e s ub tra ct e d fro m t h e wid t h s o t h a t th e area m ay b e 1 4 4 s quare

r ods ?
2 . A i s 44 r
y e a s o f age , a n d B 1 2 y ea rs ; h ow man y y ears a go w as A
th r ee t i me s a s o ld as B
3 . A ’
s a ss e s a re t d oub l e th o s e
Wh e n A h as ga ine d $ 2 50 and B of B .
,
3 1 70 A s a s s e t s ar e fi ve t i mes t h os e o f B
,
’
F ind th e as s e ts of e ach . .
4 A c i s t e rn h as t w o p ip es
. Wh e n b oth ar e Op en i t i s fi ll e d i n 7%
.
,
h o urs ; a n d t h e fi rs t p i p e a l o n e ca n fi ll i t i n 3 h ours H o w ma ny h o urs .
d o es th e s e c o n d p i p e t ak e t o fi ll i t
5 A a n d B a re t ra ve ll i n g d ue e as t a t t h e r at es o f 4 %
. a nd 3 % mi l es a n
h our re s p e ct ive l y
,
A t n o on A i s 5 mil es d ue e as t o f B H o w many
.
,
.
m il es t o t h e e a s t o f A s p os i t i o n a t n oo n w i ll h e o ve rt a ke B
’
6 A h as 3 72 0 a n d B 3 300 A ft e r A h as g a i n e d a c ert ai n s um an d
.
, .
,
B h as g a ine d t wo-th i rd s t h is s um A h as t h re e t i mes as much mon ey as B , .
H o w m uch d id e ach ga i n
In ea ll o w
ch in g i n te rpre t t h e s ol uti on :
o ft h e fo ,
7 Th e n u mb e r o f a p pl e a n d p e ar t re es i n a n orch ard i s 23 ; a nd s e ve n
.
time s th e numb er o f app l e tre es p lus t w ice th e n umb e r o fp ear tre es equal s
.
82 . H o w m any a re t h er e o f e a ch k i n d
8 Th e n umb e r o f s i l ve r c o i ns i n a p urs e e xc e e ds th e n umb e r o f g ol d
.
c o ins b y 3 A n d five t i me s t h e n umb e r o f S i l ve r c o ins e xce e d s t h re e ti mes

.
t h e n umb e r o f g o l d c o i n s b y 3 H o w many a r e t h e re of ea ch ki n d .
D IS C USS ION OF L IN E A R E Q UA T ION S 1 59
9 . Th e num e a o r t r o f a fracti o n is fo u r t imes th e d en omi n at or ; a n d i f

t h e num e ra t o r b e d i mi n i s h e d b y 9 , an d th e d e n om in a t o r b y 1 5 t h e val ue ,
o ft h e fract io n i s F i nd th e f a c i on r t .
1 0 . A is a y ea rs old , a n d B b y ea rs . A fte r h o w m any y e ars wi ll A b e

n ti mes as O l d as B
D is cus s t h e s o luti on i n th e c a s es wh en n 1 and a is n o t e q ua l t o b,
a nd wh en n 1 a nd a b .
1 1 . Wh at n um b e r mus t b e add ed to bo h t terms o f th e r

f a ct i o n 9 t o
b
make i t e q ua l
3(
?
D is cus s l t
t h e s o u i o n in th e c ases wh en and c is n o t e q ua l to d ,
; Z
z
wh e n c d a nd
g is n o t e q ua l to
g , and wh en 6 d a nd
1 2 c ouri e rs A a n d B are t rave ll ing al on g t h e s ame ro ad i n th e

. Tw o , , ,
i n th e sa me d ire c ti o n a t t h e ra t e s o f m an d m" m i l e s a n h ou r r es p e c
,
’
,
t i ve ly B p a s s e s a c e rta in p o i n t n h o urs aft er A H o w m a ny h ours a ft e r

. .
B p ass e s t h is p o in t w ill h e o ve rt a k e A
D e te rmi ne fo r w h a t va l ues o f t h e l e tters th e s o l ut i o n i s p os itive n e ga ,
t ive z e ro i mp oss ibl e a n d i nd e t ermi n ate a n d d is cus s th e s olut i o n i n e a ch

, , , ,
ca s e .
1 3 Th e c i rcumfe re nc e o f t h e fo r e -
. w h e e l o f a c a rr i a g e i s a fe e t a nd o f ,
t h e h i n d -w h e e l b fe e t H o w fa r w ill th e c a rr i a g e h a ve t rave ll e d w h e n t h e
.
fore - w h e e l h a s mad e n r e vo luti on s mor e th a n t h e h i nd -wh e e l
D iscus s l t
th e s o u i o n i n th e fo o w i n ll g c as es
1 n =0, a a nd b un eq ua l 2 =b,
'
not e l to z ero 3 u z b, 0
. . . a n qua . . n2 .
I ND E TER MINA TE FOR M S

O
2 64 The i n d et e rmi n at e fo r m d oe s n o t al way s r epr e s e nt
6
.
a fr a c ti on wh i c h m ay h a ve a n y v a l ue wh ate ve r .
T ak e ,
fo r e x a mp l e , th e fra c t i o n
If x a, t h e fr a c t i o n t ak e s th e fo r m
3.
D i v i d i ng b o t h n u m e ra t o r a n d d e n o mi n at o r by x a,
x — a
2 2
m+ a
x —
2
ax :
a
( 1 )
wh i ch h old s so lon g d
a s a: o e s n o t e q ua l a 1 1 5,
1 60 ADVAN CE D C O URS E IN AL G E BR A
Th e s e on c d me m be r of ( 1 ) app r oa che s t h e l i mi t 2 whe n it
a pp r oa ch e s t h e li mi t a .
2
x a
“
Th e n ,
a pp r o a ch e s t h e li mi t 2 when :
a a proa
p ch e s th e
C
IT
9
—4 1 $
li mit a .
2 _“2
We call th e l i mi t app r oa C h e d b y th e fra ct i On
x
wh e n x ap
x 2 — ar
p ro a ch es t h e i m i l t a, t h e va l ue of th e fr a ct i o n wh e n x a .
In a n y s i mi a l r c as e w e d ivid e ,
b oth t e r ms of th e f a r cti on by t h e ex
r
p es s io n w h ich ma k es e ach t e rm va n is h ,
an d find th e i mi t l r
ap p oach e d by
th e es ur lt .
In th e p r ob l e m of 2 64 , t h e res ul t
3 was t
ob a in e d in cons e que n c e of
t wo i nd ep e nd e nt h yp o th es es , one ca us i n g th e nume a o r t r to v ani s h ,
an d th e o t h er t h e d e n o m in at o r; an d in a ny s i mi l ar cas e we s h ou ld find
th e res ul t
3 s us c ep t i b l e of th e s am e in t e r p r e t a ti o n .
B ut i n t h e ab o v e e x a mp e , l th e res ul t
3 is t
o b a i ne d in c ons equence of
th e s a me h yp oth es i s c a us in g b ot h nume a o r t r an d d en omi nator t o vanish .
00
2 65 . Th e Indet e rmi nat e F orms —
, 0X 00 , a nd 00 oo .
00
I—
ix
F x
1 . To fin d t h e l i mi t ch e d a pp o a r by t h e fr a c ti on ,
{i
wh en a:i s i n d efi n i t ely i n c r e a s e d .
D i v i d i n g e a c h t er m o f t h e fra c t i on by x, we h av e
24 8 ) = g
l im l +2x li m 0
6
3+5m 3 5
6
xé w x é w
+5 Q + 5
:
1:
lim
We use th e n o a t ti o n fo r th e wo d s r “
th e l imi t wh e n a:i s i n
xi “
li m
l I ncre as e d o f a nd th e n o ta ti on
d e fi ni t e y fo r t h e w o rd s
”
th e “
li m i t as ita pp r oa ch es a o f
x a
,
.
”
In t h e ab ove e x m p l e t h e fra ct i o n t a k e s th e i n d e t ermi n a t e fo rm 33

a ,
wh e n a:Is In d e fin i t e ly I n cre a se d
00
.
In a ny s im il ar ca s e w e d i vi d e b o t h n um era t o r an d d e nomi na t or o f t h e
,
fra ct i on by th e h igh es t p o w er o fat .

1 62 ADVAN C E D C O UR S E IN AL G E B R A
D IS CU S S ION OF TH E S OL U T ION OF A S Y S T E M OF
S IM U L T A NE O U S L INE A R E Q U A T ION S
2 66 . A y s t e m o f s i mul ta n e o us e q uat i o n s i s s aid t o be Inde

s
t ermi nat e w h e n th e n um b e r O f s o l ut i on s i s i n d e fi n i t e ly g r e a t .
26 7 An y s y s t e m o f t w o s i m ul t a n e ous l i n e a r eq u at i o n s , i n
.
v o l v i n g t w o un k n o w n n u m b e r s , c a n b e r e d u c e d t o t h e fo r m
“ Ix bl y CI )
( 1 )
az m 623’ :2 C2 3 2
( )
w h ere cl a 2 b2
a], b1 , , , ,
an d c2, m ay h av e a ny n um e ri c a l v al u e s
w h at e ve r e x c e pt t h a t
,
d l, b1 , a 2, a n d b2 c ann ot be z ero .
By E x 3, . 2 4 2, t h e s o l ut i o n o f t h e a bo v e s y s tem is
a l b2 a gb1 a l b2 a gbl
Th e s e fr a c ti on s h av e d e fi ni te v alu e s a s lon g as a l b2 do es n ot
e qu al a g b l .
W e w i ll n ow d i s cus s th e v a l ue s o f x an d y w h en
a l bg a 2b1 . A
( )
( 1 ) If bgc1 bl cz i s n ot z e o , a:i s r i nfi n it e
F r o m (A) ,
a2 ( )
B
1
9 1 bi cz C
Th e n :c2‘1 1 Ci a z 02651
51
( ( )
l
S i nc e n ei t h er a1 ,
b1 , n or bl e2 b2c1 i s z ero ,
ez a l cl a 2 is n ot
z e ro .
Wh e n c e y i s a l s o,
i n fi n i t e .
B y a i d o f e qu a t i o n (B ), th e g i v e n e qu a t i o n ( )
2 c a n be wr i tt en
fl x + bgy z cg, or
b1 b,
by mul t i p ly i n g ea ch t e r m by
62
Th u s ,t h e g i ve n e qu a t i o n s ar e i n cons i s ten t ; fo r , by we
h a ve a l e: bl y cl .
D IS C US S ION O F L IN E A R E Q UA T ION S 1 63
H en c e , infi ni te res ults s h ow th a t th e gi ven e q ua ti o n s a re i ncon
( )
2 I f bye1 bl c2 i s z e ro ,
90 tak e s t h e fo r m
3 , an d m ay h av e
any v a l ue w h at ev e r for i n th i s
c a s e w e h av e t w o i n de
n d n t h o th e s e s o n e c a u s i n g th e n u m e r a t o r t o b e c o m e z e r o
p e e yp , ,
a n d t h e ot h e r t h e d e n o mi n at o r ( C o m p a r e .
In th i s c a s e by (C ) 02a 1
,
cl a 2 i s a l s o z e r o ;
,
s o t h at y i s
i n d e te rmi n a t e .
F r om th e e quations b c1 bl cg 0 a nd cya l cl a 2 0 we h av e
g ,
b1 02 0251 1
b2 , an d a 2 .
Ci 01
Th e n t h e gi ve n e quat i o n ( )
2 c a n be w r i tt e n
a Ic, b c2
= + bi y =
é
—
x + 022 01 a1 x
‘
y ci i
:
( 1 1
w h i c h i s th e s am e a s
W e th u s h av e a s i n g l e e q ua t i o n to d e te rmi ne tw o u nk n o w n
n u mbe r s .
H en c e, i n d eter mi n a te r es ults s h o w th a t th e gi ven equa ti on s a re
n ot i nd ep end en t .
S i mil ar c o n s i d e r at i o n s h o l d fo r an y s y s te m of Si m ul t a n e o u s
li ne ar e q uat i o n s , i nv ol v i ng m o r e t h a n t w o u n k n o w n n u m be s r .
2 68 . We w ill i l lu s t r at e t h e p r i n c i p l e s of 2 67by a n e xamp l e .
C on s i d e r t h e s y s te m o f e quati on s
a l m'
1 "
M 01 2 di y
d 2x b2?! C22 d e:
a s” bay 1 '032
‘
d3 :
S o l v i n g , w e fin d
d l b2c3 d i b3 02 d 2b3cl d 2b1 03 61 361 02 d 3 b2cl

“1 5203 (1 1 53 02 092 5301 a 2b1 03 a 3 bl c2 a s bz ci
w ith r e s ul ts o f s i m il a r fo r m fo r y an d 2 .
We w ill n o w u s e e uati o n
q ( 1 ) as a f mu la
or fo r fi nd ing th e
v a l ue o f a :i n th e fo l l o w i n g s y s te m o f e quat i on s .
3 a: 2 a; z 5,
2 x 3
+ y — 2 z z — 1
,
x 5y 3 z 6 .
H ere , b, = — 2
,
dl =
=5 , (1 2 .
c2 : 2,
d2 = — 1 , b3 : — 5,
S ub s t itut i n g t h e s e v al ue s in we h av e
45 — 1 8 0
’
2 7— 3 0 — 3 0
an d th e s a m e r e s ul t w ill b e fo un d fo r y an d z .
Th e i n d e t e r mi n at e r e s ul t s s h ow t h at t h e g i ve n e quati on s a r e
n ot i n d e p en d en t t h i s m ay be s e e n by ob s e r v i ng th at
t h e fir s t e q uat i o n i s t h e s um o f t h e s ec o n d a n d t h i r d .
In th i s c as e a:m ay h a ve a ny v a l ue w h at eve r
, .
We wi ll n ow apply fo r mul a (1 ) t o t h e fo l lo w in g s y s te m :
2 x 5
+ y — 3 z 8,
x— 4 y + 2 z 3,
3 x + y m= — 2
= 2 , bl = 5 , Cl = _ 3 , d 1 : 8 ,
a1 b2 = _4 ’
a 3 = 3, C3 = — 1 , d 3 = — 2 .
S ub s t it u ti n g t h e s e v a lu e s in we h av e
32 — 1 6 26
00
3
8—4 -3 6 O
a nd th e s am e
r e s ul t w il l be foun d fo r y an d z .
Th e i n fi n i t e r e s ul t s s h o w t h a t t h e g i v e n e q u at i o n s a r e i n co n
s i s tent th i s m ay b e s e e n by o b s e r v i n g t h a t t h e s u m
o f t h e fir s t t w o e q ua t i o n s g i v e s 3 a: y z 1 1 wh i l e th e t h i rd ,
r e q ui r e s t h at 3 a: y z s h oul d e q ual 2 .
269 . Number of S o l ut i ons of a S y s t em of S i mult ane ou s Line ar

E qu at i ons .
If w e h av e a s y s te m ofm i n de pe n d e n t a n d c on s i s t en t s i m ul
t a n e o u s l i n ea r e q uat i o n s , i n v o l v i n g m u n k n o w n n u mb e r s , w e
may e l i mi n a t e m 1 o f th e u nk n o w n n u mbe r s , an d o bt a i n a .
s i n gl e li n e ar e
qu a t i on i n v ol v i n g one u nk now n numbe r .
X IV . GRA P H IC A L RE PRE S E N T A T ION
2 70 . R ect angu l ar Co-ordi nat e s of a Poi nt .
sa )
L et XX ' ' an d Y Y be s t r ai g ht li n es , i n t e r s e ct i n g at ri g ht
an gl e s a t
h or i zon tal
0 ; O Y be i n g a b o v e ,
a n d e xt e n d s t o th e
an d
ri g ht
01
,
"
an d
be l o w ,
0X ''
XX wh e n 0X
t o t h e l e ft, of 0
is
.
L e t P I be an y p o i
i n t h e p l an e
n t .
of XX a nd YY , and d ra w
li n e P IM e
p pr e n d i c u l ar to X X
0M
‘
Th e n , an d JII P 1 are c a ll e d th e re c ta ngula r or di n a tes o f

co-
P I ; OM i s
Th e li n e s
c all e d
XX ' 'c
and
th e a bs
YY
cis s a ,
are
a nd
all e
IMP 1 t h e
d th e
or d i n a te
a xi s o f X
.
a n d a xi s of
Y, re s
p e ct i ve ly ; an d O th e or i g i n .
We e xp e s s r t h e fa c t t h at t h e ab s ci s s a of a p o i n t i s b, an d i ts
or d i n at e a,y i n g t h a t fo r t h e p o i n t i n q ue s t i on a: b a n d
by sa , ,
y = a o r m o r e
,
c o n c i s e l y w e s p e a k o f
,
t h e p o i n t a s t h e p o i n t
( b a
, ) whe r e th e fir s t t e r m i n p a r e n t h e s e s i s u n de r s t oo d t o b e
th e ab s ci s s a an d t h e s ec on d t er m t h e o r d i n a te
'c
,
.
2 71 . Let M a n d N be p o i n t s o n 0X a nd 0X ,
r e s pe ti v e l y ,
u ch th at
s 0M : 0N : b ; d ra w li n e s
an d P 1 P, an d P 2 P 3 t h r o u gh
M and N, re s pec ti v e l y ,
e
p pr e n d i c u l a r t o XX mak i n g
G R APH IC AL R E P R E S E N T A T ION 1 67
Th e n ,
ea ch of t h e p o i n t s P 1 , P 2, P 3, a n d P 4 w i ll h av e i t s
a bs c i s s a e q ua l to b, a n d i t s o r d i n at e e q ua l t o a .
To a v oi d this a m bi g u it y ,
ab s c i s s as m ea s u r e d t o t h e ri gh t o f
0 a re c o n s i d e re d an d t o t h e left, a n d o r d i n a t e s m ea s ur e d
a bo ve XX a re c on s i d e r e d an d belo w,
Th e n th e c o o r d in ate s of th e p o i n t s w i ll be as fo ll o w s :
P I7 (br ); 29
P _a
a P 3I ) i P 4 : ( )
b
It is und e rs t o o d , i n th e ab ov e c o nve nti on res p e ct in g g

s i ns , th a t th e
fig ure p l a ced th a t 0X i s h ori z

'
is so o nta l , a nd exte n ds t o th e r i gh t o f0 .
If
u pon YY ,
a p o i
'
n t
i ts
li e s
a bs
up o n
ci s sa
XX
is
,
z ero
its
.
or d i n at e is z ero
; and i f it li e s
Th e c o o r d i n at e s o f t h e o ri gi n ar e ( ,
0
272 . Pl ot t i ng Poi nt s .
To p lot a p o i nt w h e n i t s co-o rd i na t e s ar e g i v e n , l ay Of
f th e
ab s c i s s a t o t h e r i g h t o r l e ft o f 0, a cc o r d i n g a s i t i s or
an d
abov e o r
then
'
d ra w a p e r p e n d i c ul a r e qu al i n l e n gt h t o
,
be l o w XX a c c o rd i n g a s t h e o r d i n at e i s
th e
or
o rd i nat e ,
Th us
,
t o pl o t t h
'
e
'
p o i n t 3 ,
l ay O f f 3 u n i t s t o t h e l e ft o
0 u p on XX , an d t h e n e re c t a p e rp e n d i c ul a r 2 u n i t s i n l e n gt h
f
abo v e XX .
GR APH OF A LI NE AR E QU A T ION INVOLV ING TW O
UN KNO W N NU M B E RS
2 73 . Con s i d e r th e e qua t i o n y a: 2 .
If w e gi v e a ny n ume r i c al v a l ue t o x, w e m ay , by ai d o f th e
r e l at i o n y x 2 , c al c ul at e a c orr e s pon di n g va lu e for y .
If
If y = 3 ( )
B
If x = 2, i
If x = 3, y = 5 .
( )
D
If x = — 2, = 0
‘
y .
If m= —3, y = — 1 ; e tc .
( G)
1 68 A D V A NCE D C O UR S E IN ALG E B R A
No w l e t th e s e be r e ga r ded as th e co—
o rd i n at e s o f p oi n t s ; an d
l e t t h e p o i n t s b e p l o t t e d , a s e xp l ai n e d i n 2 72 .
' c
Th e y w i l l be fo un d to l i e o n a c e r ta i n li n e , G D, wh i ch is
c al l e d t h e Graph o f th e gi ve n e qu a t i o n .
By a s s umi n g fracti onal val ue s for x, w e may o b ai n t r

i n t e me d i a te p oi nts
o f th e graph .
2 74 .W e s ha ll al w a y s fin d th at a l i n ear e quat i o n i n v o l vi n g ,
tw o unk n o w n n um be r s h a s a s t ra i gh t li n e for a g r ap h ; t h i s
,
m ay b e p ro v e d as foll o w s :
E v ery ch e quat i on c an be p ut i n th e
su fo rm y ax b.
W e wi ll fir s t s h o w t h at t h e g r a p h o f y ax is a s t rai g ht l i ne .
Th e e q ua ti o n y e is
ar s at i s fi e d i f
a; O an d y 0; h e n c e t h e g rap h o f ,
y = a x p a s s e s t h r oug h 0 .
L e t A a n d B be an y o th e r t w o p o i n t s
o n t h e g r a p h ; d r a w l i n e s 0A a n d O B ;
a l s o l i n e s A C a n d B D p e r p e n d i c ul a r t o
’
,
0X .
Sinc e A an d B are on t h e g r ap h ,
A 0 = a x 00, and BD = a X 0D .
AO a )
The n ,
c
s in e e a ch of t hese e q ual s a .
00 0D
Th e n t r i an gl e s 0A 0 and OB D ar e s i mi la r ; an d 0B c oin c i de s
,
w it h 0A .
Th e r e fo r e all p oi n t s i n th e gr aph o f y a re ar e i n a s tr ai gh t
,
li n e p as s i n g t h r ough 0 .
Now th e g r ap h o f y = a x + b can be o bt a i n e d fr o m t h at o f
y a m b y i n cr ea s i n g th e o r d i n a t e o f e a c h p o i n t o f t h e r
g pa h o f
y as:by b .
H en c e ,
th e g ra ph of y ac
e b is a s t ai gr ht l i n e p a ra llel to
th e g r a p h of y ax .
It fo ll o ws from t h e a b ove th at th e grap h s ofy ax b an d y ax c
a re p a ra ll e l .
C
2 75 . A s trai gh t l i n e i s d e te rmi n e d by a ny t wo o f i ts po i n t s .
1 70 A DVAN C E D C O U RS E I N ALG E B R A
I NT E RS E C TION S OF GR APH S
2 77 C on s i d e r th e
. e q u a ti o n s
a: 2y 4 . C
( )
D
L e t AB be th e gr a p h o f 3 x — y = — 9 ,
a n d CD t h e g r a p h o f a: 2 y 4 .
L e t AB an d OD i n te r s e c t at E .
S in c e E li e s on ea ch g ra ph , i t s co
o rd i n a te s mu s t s a t i s fy bo th g i v e n e q ua
t i o n s ; h e n c e to fin d t h e co-or d i n at e s o f E we
, ,
s ol v e th e giv e n
e q u a t i on s .
In th i s ca s e ,
th e s ol u t i o n is x: 2 , y = 3 ; a n d i t m ay be
v eri fi ed i n th e fi g u r e t h at th e s e a re t h e c o o r d i na te s o f E .
H en c e
,
if th e g pr a h s o f y a n tw o l i n ea r equa ti o n s , w i th two
un kn o w n n umbe r s , i n ters e c t, th e co -o r d i n a tes f
o th e p o i n t o i
f nter
se cti on for m a s o lu ti o n o f th e s ys te m of e qua ti o ns r ep r es en ted by
th e gr ap h s .
EX ERC IS E 3 8
V erify th e p i n ip r c l e of 2 77i n th e fo ll owi ng s ys te ms

-- - 24 5x— 4 y 0
{
I 5 y z . 2 .
3 .
3x— 2y 2 — 5 . 7x + 6 y z — 29 .
3 x + 7y 5 r
9 a:+ 1 4 y = — 2 5
{
2 . .
2 4
8 a +3y z — 1 8 . 3 x — 4 y = 22 .
2 78 . Graph s of Incons i s t e nt a nd Indet e rmi nat e Li near E qu a

t i ons , w i t h t w o Unknow n Numbers .
C o n s i d e r t h e e qu at i o n s
X
Th e e qu a t i o n s ca n b e w r i tt en ,
y —
2
x
2
’ an d y = § x
2 4
and it w as s h ow n in 2 74 t h at th e g raph s
o f t wo e q u a ti o n s o f t h i s fo r m ar e p a r a ll e l .
G R APH IC AL R E P R E S E N T A T ION 1 71
The giv e n e qu at i on s ar e i n c ons i s tent ; an d w e s h all alw ay s

fin d t h at tw o i n c o n s i s t e n t e q u a t i o n s w i th t w o u n k n o wn n um ,
be r s a r e r e p re s e n t e d by p ar a l l e l g r ap h s
,
.
Aga i n c on s i de r t h e e q uati on s
,
x — 2 : 5
y .
x —4 =1 0
y .
In th i s c as e ,
t h e gr ap h s c o i n c i de .
Th e g i v e n e qu at i o n s a r e n o t i n d ep en d en t ;
an d i n a n y s i m i la r cas e ,
we s h o ul d fin d
t h at t h e g r a p h s w e re c o i n c i d e n t .
Graph i cal R epres ent at i on of Li near E xp re s s i ons i nv olvi ng

one Un known Number .
Con s i d e r t h e e xp r es s i o n 3 x 5 .
P ut y = 3 x + 5 ; an d l e t t h e g ra p h of
this e qu a t i on be fo un d as in 275 .
5
P utt i n g y 0, a: t h e n th e g r ap h
3
out s XX
3 un i t s to th e l e ft of 0 .
c uts
P u tt i n g
' O, y
a: 5 ; t h e n th e g r ap h
Y Y 5 un i t s a b o v e 0 .
Th e g rap h i s t h e r
st ai g ht l i n e AB .
It w as s h ow n in § 274 th a t th e graph of a l inea r e qua t io n , w i th tw o

un k n o wn numbe rs ,
is a s tra igh t l i n e .
28 0 Graph i cal R epre s e nt at i on ofR oot s

.
Co n s i d e r t h e e q uat i o n a re b O .
( 1)
To fin d t h e gr a p h o f th e fir s t m e mbe r , p ut y ax b .
( )
2
Th e a bs c i s s a o f t h e p o i n t i n w h i c h t h i s gr a p h i n t e r s e c t s 0X ,
m u s t, w h e n s ub s t i t u t e d fo r a:i n m ak e y 0.
Th en i t mak e s t h e fir s t m e mbe r o f ( 1 ) e qual

,
to z er o ,
an d is
t h e r e fo r e a r o ot o f t h e g i ve n e q ua t i on .
H en ce , th e a bs ci s s a of th e p o i n ti n w h i ch th e gr ap h of th e rs t fi
member of a n y li n ea r e qu a ti o n , w i th o ne u nkn o wn n umber, i n ter
se cts XX i s th e r o ot o f th e equa ti o n .
1 72 ADVA NC E D C O UR S E IN A LGE B R A
C ons id er , fo r mp l e , t h e e qua tio n 3 a: 5

e xa 0 .
Th e gra p h o fth e fi rs t me mb e r w a s fo un d i n 2 79 .
5
Th is in t e rs e ct s XX ’
at th e p o i n t A , wh ose ab s ci ssa is ; a nd t h e
g
roo t o fth e e qua ti o n i s
g
EX ERC IS E 3 9
V erify th e princip l es of 278 i n th e fou r fo llo wing s y s te ms

3x+ 4 y z 1 6 . 2 a: 7y = 1 4 .
3
3x+ 4 y z —1 6 . 4x— 1 4 y 2 28 .
2x 5y : 0 . 5 93 + 6y =1 5 .
4
6x— l5y = 30 . 1 5 x + 1 8 y = 45 .
Pl ot th e graph s o f th e firs t m emb ers o f th e fo ll ow i n g e qua t i ons , an d
i n e a ch cas e ve r ify th e p r inc ip l e o f 2 80:
5 . 2 x + 7= 0 . 6 . 5 95
1 74 ADVAN C E D C O UR S E IN A LGE B RA
etc .
I n t he s e res u l ts , we o bs e r ve t h e fol l o w i n g l aw s :
1 . Th e nu mbe r o f t e rm s i s g r e a t e r by 1 th a n t h e e xp on e nt o f
th e b i n o mia l .
2 . The e xp o n e n t o f a i n th e firs t term i s t h e s a me as th e

e xp o n e n t o f t h e b i n om i al , and d e c r e a s e s by 1 in ea ch su cc e e d
i ng term .
3 . Th e e xp o n e n t o f x i n th e c
s e on d term is 1 , an d i n c r e as es
by 1 i n e a c h s uc c e e d i n g t e r m .
4 Th e c o e f
. fic i e n t o f t h e fi rs t t e r m i s 1 , an d th e c o e ffici e n t of
th e c
s e on d t e rm i s t h e e x p o n e nt o f t h e bi n o mi a l .
5 . I ft h e c o e ffi c i en t o fa n y t e r m be m ul t i pl i e d by t h e e x p on e n t
of a i n t h a t t e r m, an d th e r e s ul t di vid ed by t h e e xp o n e n t o f x
i n t h e te rm i n cr e a s e d by 1 , t h e q uo t i e n t w i ll be t h e c oe f
fic i e n t
o f t h e n e xt fo ll o w i n g t e r m .
'
W e w i ll now p r o ve by M a t h e mat i c a l In d uc ti o n (No t e , 1 34 )
t h a t th e s e l a w s h ol d fo r a ny p o s i ti v e i nt e g r a l p o w e r o f a + x .
As s ume th e l a w s t o h ol d fo r ( a wh e re n is a ny
p o s i t i ve
i nt e g e r .
—
33 + { i l j )a
n-1 L l —2
Th e n ( m)
i
a n rt 2
,
a a na x
L et P , Q ,
an d R d e n ot e th e c o e ffic ie n t s o f th e t e rm s i n v ol v
i ng r e s e c t i v e l y i n th e c d
+1
,
and p , s e on
m e mbe r of th us ,
'l x
( )
” ” n
a x a na
oo . 2
( )
Mul t i ply i n g b o th m e mbe r s by a x, w e h av e
—r r-
I-l —l
(
u +1
Qa
r +2
)
n+l
a x a na x
n n
x Ra n~ r
x
—r +I —r —1
Qa
r +2
+ a x
n
+ Pa n
xf +
n
x +
"+ 1
( l )a "
‘
a n x
—r n -r - l
( + Q)a + ( Q + R )a
3 +l r +2
1 n
x
r
x +
INVOL U T ION AND E VOL U T ION 1 75
Th i s r e s ul t i s i n a cc o r d an c e w i t h t h e s eco nd th i r d an d four th , ,
l aw s .
S i n c e th e fift h l a w i s a s s um e d t o h o l d w i t h r e s p e c t to t h e
s e c o n d m e mbe r o f w e s h al l h a v e
—
Q _ P ( n r )
r +1 r +2
Th e r efo r e ,
Q+ R r + 2 n — r
P + Q Q (n + 1 ) r +2
n — r n — r
n — r
Whe n c e . e+ R : P .
B ut n r i s th e e xp on e n t o f a i n t h a t t e rm of
( )
3 wh o s e co e f
fi
c ie nt i s P + Q ,
and r 2 i s th e e xp o n e n t o f x i n c r e a s e d by 1 .
Th e re fo r e ,
th e fifth la w h ol d s w i th r e s p e c t to
H en c e, i f th e l a w s h o l d for any p o w e r o f a x w hos e e xp o
n en t is a p os i t i ve i nte g e r t h e y a l s o h ol d fo r
, a p o w e r w hose
e xp o n e n ti s g re a te r by 1 .
B ut t h e l a w s h av e bee n h o w n t o h ol d fo r (a
s an d h en ce
t h ey h ol d for (a x) ; an d s i n c e t h e y h ol d fo r (a h ey
5 5
x
) t,
h ol d fo r (a x) ; an d s o o n
6
.
H e n c e t h e y h o l d w h e n th e e x p o n e n t i s a n y p o s i t i v e i n t e g e r
, .
By a i d o f th e fi ft h l aw t h e c o e f fi c i e nt s o f th e s ucc e s s i v e
,
te r ms a fte r t h e s e c o n d i n th e s e c on d m e mbe r o f
,
m ay be
r e adi ly f oun d ; t h u s ,
4
1 2 3
Thi s r e s ul t i s c all e d t h e B i n omi a l T heor em .
In p l a c e o f th e d e n o m i n a t o s 1 2 1 2 3 etc i t i s c us t oma ry t o
r .
Th e s y mb o l mre a d
, , .
,
w r i te [2 [3 e t c
, , .
fa cto r i a l n s i gn i fie s t h e p ro d uct
,
“
,
”
of th e n a t ura l n um b e rs fro m 1 t o n i n cl us i ve .
1 76 ADVAN C E D C O URS E IN ALG E B R A
28 6 . In e xp a n d i n g e x p e s s i o n s r by t h e B i n o m i a l The o r e m, i t
is c o nv e n i e n t to o bt a i n th e fi c i e nt s o f t h e
e xp o n e n t s a n d c o e f
t e r m s by ai d o f th e law s of 28 5 , w h i c h h a ve bee n p r o v e d to
h old fo r a ny p o s i ti v e i n t e gra l ex p o n e n t .
1 . E xp an d ( a x
)
5
.
Th e e xp o n e n t o f a i n th e fir s t ter m i s 5 , an d dec r ea s e s by 1
in ea ch su cc e e d i n g t e rm .
Th e e x po n e n t o f x i n th e se c on d t erm i s 1 ,
an d i n c r e a s e s by
1 in ea cc e e di ng t e rm
ch su .
Th e c oe f fic i e n t o f t h e fi r s t t e r m i s 1 ; o ft h e s e c on d 5 ,
.
Multi p ly i n g 5 t h e c o e ffic i e n t o f t h e s e c o n d t e r m by 4 th e
,
.
, ,
e x p o n e n t o f a i n t h at t e r m a n d di v i d i n g t h e r e s ul t by th e ,
e xp on e n t o f x i n c r ea s e d by 1 o r 2 w e h av e 1 0 a s t h e c o e f fic i e n t
, ,
o f th e t h i rd t e r m ; a n d s o o n s .
‘
1
Th e n (a x) a ,
5 5
5 d x
4
1 0a g
x
2
1 0d 2
x
3
5dx + 4 ‘
5
x .
I t w ill b e Obs e rve d th a t c oeffic i e nts o f t e rms e qually dis ta n t from

th e
th e e n d s o ft h e e xp a n s io n a r e e qua l t h is l a w w i ll b e p rov e d i n 2 88 .
T hus th e c oe ffi ci e n ts o f th e l a tt e r h al f o f a n e xp a ns io n may b e w ritte n

o ut fro m t h e fi rs t h a l f .
I f th e c
s e on d t e rm of t h e bi n o mi al i s h oul d be
n ega ti ve, it s
en clos e d ,
n e g at i v e s i g n a n d a ll i n p a r e n th e s e s b e f
,
o r e a p pl y in g
th e l a w s ; i n r e d u c i n g, c ar e m us t be t a k e n t o a p ply t h e p r i n c i
p l e s O f § 1 3 0 .
E xp a n d — x
(
6
2 . 1 )
<
1 — x
) r
-1 5 —x
) + 1 5 o
1 4 — x
)
2 - 20 -1 3 -x 3
)
-
+1 5 l
2 -x 4 — x 5 — -x 6
o
) +6 o
1 ) I )
— — 6x — — 4 5 6
+1 5
2 3
1 + 1 5x 2 0x x 6x + x .
If th e fi rs t te rm of th e b i n om i a l is a n u mb e r r
e xp es s e d in Arab ic
n um e a s r l i t is t t o w rite t h e e xp on e nt s a t fi rs t w i th out
co n v e n i e n r e d uc
t ion th e re s ul t s h oul d a ft erw ard s b e re d uce d t o i ts s i mpl e s t form .
If e i th e r t e r m of t h e b i n o m i al h a s c o e ffic i e n t o r e xp on e n t
a
ot h e r t h an un i ty i t s h oul d ,
be e n cl o s e d i n p a r e nt h e s e s b e fo re
a pp ly i n g t h e l a w s .
1 78 ADVAN C E D C O UR S E IN A L GE B R A
H en c e , th e rt h t e rm
— 1 ( 1 )
)
In fi n d in g a ny t e r m o f a n e xp an s i on i t i s c on v e ni en t to obta i n ,
th e c o e ffi c i e n t a n d e xp o n e nt s o f t h e t e r m s by t h e abo v e l aw s .
Ex . F in d th e 8 t h t e rm of
(3 a
W e h av e , (3 a
5 1 1
b) a
) b )]5 n
.
Th e e xp o n e n t o f
5
b ) is 8 1 ,
or 7 .
Th e e xp o n e n t O f ( 3 a
) i s 1 1 7, or 4 .
Th e fir s t fa c t o r of th e n um e ra t or is 1 1 ,
an d th e l a s t fa c t o r
4 1 ,
or 5 .
Th e l a s t fa c t o r of th e d e n om i n at or is 7 .
Th e n, t h e 8 th t e rm 4 — b5 7
3 )
330(8 1 a
4
) 12 35
) 2 6730a b 4 35
.
Ift h e te rm of th e b in o mia l i s n e ga t ive i t s h o uld be e ncl os ed

s e on dc , ,
S ign a n d all i n p aren th e s es b e fore a ppl y i ng th e l a ws

, .
If e i th e r t e rm o fth e b i n o mia l h as a c o e ffici e nt o r e xp o n e n t o th er th a n

un i ty i t s h o ul d b e e nc l o s e d i n p aren th es es b e fo re a pp l y i n g t h e l a ws
, .
28 8 . M ul ti ply i n g bot h c o e ffic i e n t t e r ms of th e ,

in 28 7,
by t h e p r o d u c t o f t h e n at ur a l n um be r s fr o m 1 to n — r +1 ,
fic i e nt o f th e r th t e r m be c om e s
i n c l us i ve t h e c o ef ,
— 1 -2 n — r
(
l r x1 m
+1 )
To fin d t h e c oe ffic i e n t of th e rt h t e rm f m th ero en d, wh i ch
c
s in e th e n umbe r o f t e r m s is n 1 ,
i s th e [ n (r 2)] t h fro m
th e be g i nn i n g , w e p ut i n t h e ab o v e fo r mul a n r 2 for r .
Th e n , th e c oe ffic i e n t o f th e r th t erm from th e e n d i s
H en c e , i n th e exp a n s i o n o f th e co effici ents of terms

equi d i s ta n t fr o m th e en d s o f th e exp a n s i o n a r e equa l .
I NVOL U T I ON AND E VOL U T ION 1 79
28 9 . Propert i e s of Coef
fici nt s e i n t h e E xp ans i on of a ( x )
”
1 . P u tt i n g i n 28 5, a : 1 an d x 1 ,
we h a ve
+1 .
I_ 2
Th a t i s , th e su m of th e coe fii ci
‘
en ts ,
i n th e exp a n s i o n o f
is equa l to
II . P utt i n g
'
in a 1 an d x 1 we h av e
,
_
I 2
L3
L2 B
Th at m of th e coefii ci en ts of th e o dd
i s , th e su ter ms i s equa l to
fici en ts of th e even ter ms

th e s um of th e c o ef .
29 0 Th e Great es t Coeffici ent i n t h e E x

.
p a ns i on of (a
28 7 th e c o e ffi c i e n t Of th e 1 h e r m, i n t h e
By .
( r
)t t e xp a n
s ion o f a ( is
L : 7
Th i s is o bt a i n e d by m ul t i p ly i n g th e c oe ffic i e nt of th e rth
— +1 +1
t e rm by
n r
,
0r
n
_1 .
T r
Th e l att e r d e cr e a s e s as r i n c re a s e s
e xp r e s s i o n .
fi c i e n t s c o mm e n ci n g
It i s e v i d e n t th at t h e s uc c e s s i v e c o e f ,
w it h t h e fi rs t te rm w i ll i n c r ea s e n um e r i c al ly s o l on g a s
,
n
is 1 .
I . S upp o s e n ev n e ; an d le t n = 2 m, wh e r e m is a p o s i t i v e
i n t e g er .
n — r +1 2m — r
+ 1
Th en be c o me s
7
‘
2m— T + 1 m
If r = m+ 1 , be c o me s ,
and is < 1 .
r m+1
Th e n ,
th e g r e a te s t c oe ffic i e n t w ill be w h e n r m 1 .
As th e n u mbe r o f t e r m s i n t h e e x a n s i o n i s 2 m 1 i t fol
p ,
l o ws th a t t h e m i d d le t e r m h a s t h e g r e a t e s t c o e f
fi ci e n t .
II . S up p o s e n o dd ; an d l et u 2m 1 ,
wh e r e m is a p o s i
t i ve i nt e g e r .
—1 2m
70 r +2
Th e n ,
be c o m e s
i
2m m
r + 2 m+2
If r = m, be co me s ,
an d is > 1 .
r m
2m 7+ 2
=m+1 be c o m es
If r ,
2 and e q u al s 1 .
2 7
71 - 6
7 -2 m
If r = m + 2, b e c o me s an d is < 1 .
r m+2
Th er e w ill th e n be two t e r m s h a v i ng t h e gr e at e s t c o e ffic i e n t ;
t h o s e wh e r e r m 1 a nd r m 2 .
EX E RC IS E 4 0
E xp an d t h e fo ll o wing
5
1 .
2 c3
4 .
( a w . 7 (2. a
2
b 3 6
) .
3 m4 xz 6
)
7 8
2 .
3
5 .
(x y) . .
ny
m 4
)
2 5 2
2
i
5 2 6 5
( )
a x n
y 9
)
2
3 6 1 + 96 .
4 W n m
E xp an d t h e fo ll o wi ng t o five te rms
(m
2 2
1 0 .
( x y)
9 . 1 1 .
( ab 1 2 .
E xp a n d th e fo ll ow i ng
1 3 .
(2 x
2
x 1 6 .
(2 x 2
+ x
1 4 .
( 4 a
2 3 ab
2 3
b ) . 1 7 .
( 1
(m — 3 x
2
1 5 .
( 1 3 x +2 x 2 4
) . 1 8 .
F in d th e
1 9 . 8th t erm o f ( a 20 . l oth t e rm o f ( 1 7 1 4

0
1 82 A D VAN CE D C O U RSE IN AL G EBR A
T h e n t o fin d a ny r oo t of a f ract i on e a ch of w h o s e te r m s i s
, ,
a pe r f e ct p o w e r of t h e s a m e d e gr e e a s t h e i n de x of t h e r e qu i red
r oo t extra ct th e r equi r ed r o o t of bo th n umer a tor a nd d eno mi n a tor

, ,
a n d d ivi d e th e fi r s t r es u lt by th e s eco n d
Ex .
9
64 c
S Q UA RE R OO T OF A P O LYN O M IAL
C
29 4 . In 1 68 , w e gav e a r ul e fo r fi n d i n g th e s qu ar e r oo t of
a t r i n o mi al pe rf e ct s qu ar e ; an d , i n 1 70 of an e xp r e s si o n of ,
th e fo r m
wh i ch coul d b e s een , by i ns pe ct i on , t o be a pe r f e ct s qu ar e .
We wi ll n o w co n s i d e r t h e m et h o d of fi n d in g th e s qu ar e r oo t
of an y p oly n o mi al pe r f e ct s qu ar e .
L et A an d B be r a t i o n al a n d i nte gr al e xp r e ssi o ns
a n d s u pp o s e t h e m t o be arr an g ed i n t h e s a m e o r de r of p o w e r s
of s ome c o m m o n l ette r , : 13 .
L et t h e e x p o n e n t of a:i n th e l a s t te rm o f A be g r e a te r , o r
l e s s , t h an i t s e x p o n e n t i n t h e fi r s t te rm of B acco r d i n g a s ,
A an d B a r e a rr an g ed in de s ce n d i n g , o r a s ce n d in g, p o w e r s
of x .
By § 1 3 1 ,
W h e n ce , (A B) 2
A 2
2 AB B 2
.
If th e e xp r e s s i o n 2 A B + B b e a rr an g ed in t h e s a me o rde r
2
‘
of p o w e r s of a:a s A a n d B , i t s fi r s t te rm mu s t be t wi ce th e
p r o d u ct of t h e fi r s t te rm of A an d t h e fi r s t te r m of B .
H e n ce t h e fi r s t te r m of B may be o bt a i n ed by d i v i d in g th e
,
fi r s t t e rm o f 2 AB B by t w i ce th e fi r s t ter m of A
2
.
B y t h e expr e ssi on firs t t e r m of A i n t h e ab o ve d iscussi on w e

“
,
”
,
me a n th e su m of all th e te rms of A c ontain in g th e h igh est or lowes t , ,
a cc or d i ng as A i s a rr an g e d i n d e sc e n d i ng or as cending
.
po we r of x , , ,
po we rs of 90 .
T hus , if A ax4 bx‘ 05123, r

th e fi s t te rm of A is ( a b)x‘.
INV OL U T I O N AND E V O L U T I O N 1 83
A si mi l a r mean in g is a tt a c h ed t o th e e x pre ssion s “

l ast te rm of A ,
”
an d fi rs t te rm of B
“
.
”
29 5 W e w i ll n o w co n s i de r a n
. e xa mple .
R e qu i r ed th e s qu a re r o o t of
24 x — 1 2 ‘
a
3
Ar r a n gi n g t h e e xp r e ssi o n a cco rd i n g t o th e de s ce n d i n g p o w e r s
o f ac, we ar e t o fin d a n e xp r e s s i o n w h i ch , w h e n s qu ar e d , w i l l
p ro d uc e 4 x
4
1 2 x
3
7x + 24
2
x+ 1 6 .
It is d e n t fro m 1 34 t h at th e fi r s t t e rm of th e e x p r e s s i o n
e vi
i s th e s q u a r e of t h e te rm c o n t a i n i n g t h e h i g h e s t p o w e r of a:i n
th e s q u a r e r oo t .
H e n ce t h e ter m co n t a i n i n g t h e h i gh e s t p o w e r of a:i n t h e
,
s qu a r e r oo t mu s t be th e s qu ar e r oo t of 4 : 3
4
or 2 x
2
, .
D e n o ti n g th e te r m of t h e r oo t al r e a d y foun d by A an d t h e ,
r e m a i n d e r of t h e r oo t a a n ed in de s ce n d i n g p o w e r s of
,
rr g
by B w e h a v e
,
A Z — 790
(
2
+ B )
—l 2 x3
, ( 1 )
By 29 4 , t h e fi r s t t e rm of B may b e o bt a i n ed by d i vi d i n g
th e fi rs t t e r m of 1 2x 3
,
b y t w i c e A , o r 4 92 ;
2
t h a t i s , th e
fi rs t t e r m o f B i s 3 : 13 .
H e n ce t h e fi r s t t w o te rm s of th e r oo t ar e 2 x 3 x
'
2
'
.
,
D e n o t i n g th i s e xp r e ss i o n by A an d t h e r e ma i n d e r of ,
th e
r oo t , a r r a n g e d i n de s c e n d i n g p o w e r s of x b B w e h a v e
y , ,
— A "
2
— 4 a:
“ - —3 2
)
3
1 2 91 3 a3
— — — 4 x4 — 1 2 x3 + 9 w2
( )
4 3
4 x l2 x
' be obt ed by d i i d ( )
2
By
th e
29 4 , t h e
fi r s t t e rm of 6 x by
fi r s t t e r m of
i c th e — 1 2
,
B m ay
'
tw e fi st e of ' ai n
r t r m
v i ng
A,
o r 4 x ; t h a t i s t h e fi r s t te r m
2
B i s —4
,
of .
He nce, t h e fi r s t t h r ee te rms of t h e r oo t are 2x 2

3w 4 .
1 84 A DVA NC E D C OU RS E 1 N A L G E BRA
D e n o ti n g th i s e xp r e ss i o n by A a n d t h e m a i n de r of
"
,
re th e
r oo t a r r a n g e d i n d e s ce n d i n g p o w e r s o f c
"
,
c b
y ,
B ,
we h a ve
-2 4 a: 1
+ 6 —
( 2 x
z’ —
i a3
Z
- 3— 3—
4 33
4—
1 2 96 7x + 24 2
x+ 1 6 (4 x —
4
1 2x 7x + 24 2
x+ 1 6)
0 .
He n ce, th e e qu i r ed s qu ar e r oo t is 2 3 4
'
r x .
29 6
Th en
.
,
'
L e t th e la s t
A =A + O,
t e rm
an d
of A be 0 .
0 2
.
T h e re fo r e ,
—A '( 2
= A + B) 2 — A 2 — 2 AO ' 0 2
— A 2
A
] ( 2 +
In l i k e m a n n e r, i f C "
d en ote s th e l a s t t e r m of
A H
[( A _Am A 09 0 ;
(
r 2
(
r 1
r
B ) ] 2
an d s o on .
T h a t i s any r e ma i n de r aft e r th e fi r s t may be o b ta i n ed by

,
s u bt r a cti n g f ro m t h e p r e ced i n g r e m a i n d e r a n e xp re ss i o n w h i ch
i s fo r m ed by d ou b li n g t h e p a r t o f t h e ro o t a l r ea d y fou n d ,
a dd i n g t o i t t h e n e xt te r m of t h e r oo t a n d mu l t i p ly i n g th e ,
'
r e s u l t b y t h i s te r m .
2A
'
Th e e x pr e ss i o n s 2 A 2 A e t c a re c a ll e d tr i a l -d i vi s ors a n d 2 A
e tc .
, c o mp l
,
e te
,
d i vi s o rs
.
.
, C , ,
29 7 . I t i s cu s t o mary t o a r ran g e t h e work a s fo ll o ws t h e ,

co m
l
p e te d i vi s o r s a n d r e ma i n d e r s be i n g f o r me d by t h e r ul e of 29 6
4 w — l2x3 ‘
7x + 24 2
x —
2
3 x— 4
x + 1 6 |2
1 st R em .
4 x
2 — 6 x 4 Z d R em .
T o o id n
av l ss r ep e titi o n th e l a s t th re e te r ms of th e fi rs t r emai n
ee d e ,
and th e l as t t wo t e r ms of th e se c o nd ma y be o mi tte d , .
1 86 ADVAN C E D C O U RSE IN ALG E B R A
He n ce ifa , p o i n t be p la ced o ve r eve ry s e c o n d d i g i t of a n in teger,

un i ts p la c e, th e n umber ofp o i n ts s h o ws th e n u mber
’
beg i n n i ng at th e
d
of gi i ts i n i ts s qua r e r oo t
.
3 00 . I f a i s a n i nt e g ra l pe r fe ct s qu a r e t h e n ,
2n ’ w h e re n is
1 0
a ny p o s i t i ve i nt e g e r i s a l s o a pe r fe ct s q u a r e
,
.
a
B ut
,
is a n u mbe r w h o s e d e mm a l p ar t o t
c n ai n s a n even
nu mbe r of d i gi t s an d w h i ch d i ffe r s fr o m
,
a o n ly in th e p o s i tio n
of i ts d e ci m al p o i n t .
H e n ce , a p o
be p la ced over every s eco nd d i g i t of a ny
if i n t
n umber , beg i nn i ng a t th e u n i ts
’
p la ce a n d e xte n di ng i n e i th er
d i r e c ti o n, th e n umbe r of p o i n ts s h ows th e n umber of d igi ts i n i ts

s qua r e r o t o .
3 01 . L et a, b, an d c r e p r e s e n t p os i t ive i n te g e r s .
We h ave,
-— - -
a l b l e
z — 2
t a
z
2 a 2 a 2 a
Th at t h e r e m a i n de r o bt ai ne d by s u bt racti n g a f r o m
is, if 2
v i d e d by 2 a t h e quo t i e n t i s g re a te r t h a n b
2
( a b c
) b e d i ,
.
In li k e m a n n e r i f t h e r e m a i n de r o bt a i n e d by s u bt ra ct i n g a
2
,
fr o m (a b) be d i v i d e d by 2 a , t h e q uot i e nt i s g re a te r t h a n b
2 o
3 02 . We w i l l n o w co n s i de r e xa mpl e an .
R e q ui r e d th e s q u a re r oo t of 1 071 9 076 .
P o i n t i n g th e nu mbe r i n acco r d a nce w i th th e r ul e of 299

w e fin d t h a t t h e r e a r e fou r d i g i t s i n i ts s qu a r e r oo t .
S i n ce t h e n u m be r i s b et w e e n 9 000000 a n d 1 6000000 t h e ,
s qua r e r oo t i s bet w e e n 3 000 a n d 4 000 .
T h a t i s t h e fi r s t d i g i t of t h e r oo t i s 3
,
.
L e t a r ep r e s e n t t h e n u mbe r 3 000; b th e s e co n d d i gi t of th e
r oo t m u l t i p l i e d by 1 00; a n d c t h e n u mb e r c o n s i s t i n g of t h e
,
l a s t t w o d i g i t s of t h e r oo t i n t h e i r o r d e r .
T h e n a b 6 r e p r e s e nt s t h e r oo t ; n o w
,
INV O LU T I O N AND E V O L U T I O N 1 87
By 3 01 ,
th i s i s g r e a t e r t h an b
H e n ce b i s a ,
m u l t i p le of 1 00 l e s s
t h an
A s s u m e t h e n b 200 , ,
.
'
T h e n th e fi r s t t w o d i g it s of t h e r oo t w oul d be 3 2
,
' .
L e t a r e p r e s e n t t h e n u mb e r 3 200; b t h e t h i r d d i gi t of th e
'
,
'''
r oo t m ul t i p li e d by 1 0; a n d c t h e l a s t d i g i t of t h e r oo t
T h e n a b 0 r e p r e s en t s t h e r oo t ; n o w
,
.
74
'
.
6 4 00 64 00
By 3 01
'
th i s is gr e a te r t h an b
'
,
.
H e nce b i s a mu l t i p l e of 1 0 l e s s th an
,
A s s u m e th e n b : 70 , ,
.
T h en , th e fi r s t t h r ee d i gi t s o f th e r o o t wo u l d be 3 27 .
L e t a r ep r e s e n t th e n u m be r 3 2 70, an d b th e l a s t d i gi t of
" "
t h e r oo t .
Th en , a "
b r ep r e s e n t s t h e r oo t n ow ,
"
n
(a by a
re
1 071 9 076 1 069 2 9 00 2 61 76
4
n
2 a 654 0 654 0
By 3 01 ,
th i s is g r e ate r th an b "
s s um e , th e n b
a ,
"
4 .
S in ce (3 27 1 071 9 076 , t h e re qu i r e d s qu a r e r oo t i s 3 274 .
3 03 . We h av e
— a
'(
wi t h
2
=
th e
a + b+
n
1
o t at i o n o f
)
c
2
( a + b)
3 02,
2
— a
2 — 2 ab — b2
— a2
]
S i mi l arly
(
a
ll
b " 2
) a
l l2
[( a
l
b l
c
l
)
2
a
‘
ll
] a
!
b b )
l ' .
T h at is, a ny re fi r s t m ay be o bt ai n ed b y
mai n de r a ft e r th e
s ubtr a ct i n g fr o m t h e p re ced i n g r e m a in d e r a n u mbe r wh i ch
i s f o rm ed by d ou bl i n g t h e p a r t of th e r o o t a l r e ad y o bt a i n e d ,
a dd i n g t o i t t h e n e x t r o o t d i g i t fo ll o w e d by a s m a n y ci p h e r s a s
th e re a r e d i gi t s i n t h e r e ma i n de r of t h e r o o t an d mu lt i p ly i n g ,
t h e r e s u l t by t h e l a tt e r n um b e r
Th e n umb e r s r e pr e s e n t e d b y 2 a 2 a e tc .
.
a re c a ll e d tri a l-d i vi s o rs
,
'
, .
, ,
a n d t h o s e r e pr e s e n t e d b y 2 a co mp lete d i vis ors

’ ’
b 2 a b e tc , , .
, .
1 88 A DVAN C E D C O U R S E I N ALG E BR A
3 04 . Th e w o r k of p l e o f § 3 02 m ay b e a r r an ge d
th e e xa m
as fo ll o w s t h e ,
c o mp l e t e d i v i s o r s a n d r e m a i n de r s be i n g fo r m e d
b y th e r ul e of 3 03
2
a 9 000000
l st C o mp . D iv .
,
6
2d C o mp . D iv .
,
3d C o mp . D iv .
,
65 4 0
O mi tt i n g t h e ci p h e r s fo r th e s ak e of b r ev i t y ,
an d c on de n sin g
th e o pe rati o n ,
it w il l s t an d as fol l o ws
1 071 9 076 3 274
We th e n h a v e th e fo ll o w i n g r u l e fo r e xt r a ct in g the s qu a r e
r oo t of a n i n t e g r al p e rf e ct s qu a r e
S ep a ra te th e n umber i n to p er i o ds by p o i n ti ng e very s e c n d o d ig i t,
begi nn i ng w i th th e un i t s
’
p la ce .
F i n d th e g r ea te t qu a r e i n th e l efs s
t- h a n d p e r i o d , a n d w r i te i ts
squ a r e r o o t a s th e fi r t d ig i t o t h e r oo ts; s u btr a t th e s q ufa r e o th e c f

s f
fi r t r oo t-d ig it r o m th e left-h a n d p er i od , a n d to th e re ult a nn ex s
th e n ext p er i o d .
D ivi d e th i s re ma i n d er, o mi tti ng th e la s t d i gi t, by tw i c e th e p a r t

of th e r oo t fo und a nd a n nex th e quo ti ent to th e r oo t
a lr ea d y , ,
a nd
a ls o to th e tr i a l d i v i s o r - .
M u ltip ly th e c o mp le te d i vi s o r by th e r oo t-d ig i t la s t o bta in ed ,

a nd
s u btr a ct th e p r o d uc t fr o m th e r e ma i n d e r .
1 90 AD VA N C E D C O U RSE IN ALG EBR A
We h av e, ( a b) 2
a
2
2 ab b2
W h e n ce ,
2 a 2 a
T h at is (a + b) a d i v i ded by
,
2 2
,
2 a, wi ll g i v e t h e l a s t n
2
d i gi t s of t h e r oo t i n cr e a s ed by
,
a
2
W wi l l
e n ow p ro v e th a t 3 *
i s l e ss th an s o th a t, by neg
2 a
l e ct i n g t h e re mai n d e r ari s i n g fr o m th e d iv i s i o n w e o bt a i n ,
th e
p a rt of th e r oo t re qu i r e d .
By h y p oth e s i s , b o ntai n s n d i git s

c .
T h en ,
b ca nn o t c o n t a i n m o re t h a n
2
2n di git s .
B ut a co n t a i n s 2 n 1 di gi t s .
2 2
b
He n ce ,
i s l e ss t h an 1 ; a nd th e r e fo r e i s les s th an
a fia
I f t h e n t h e (n + 1 )th re ma i n d e r be d i v i d e d by t w i ce t h e
, ,
a r t of t h e r oo t a l r e a d y f o u n d t h e r e m a i n i n g n d i g i t s of t h e
p ,
r oo t m a b e o b t ai n e d
y .
Th e me t h od ppl i s t
a e o th e squ r root of any numb e r
a e .
Ex . R e qu i r ed th e s q u a r e r oo t of
63 3 8 7
6 1 76
35 28
3 03 1
W e o bt a in th e fi r s t th r e e d i g i t s of t h e r oo t by th e o rd i na ry
m e t h o d , a n d t h e o t h e r t w o by t h e m e t h o d of 3 06 ; t h a t i s ,
by d i v i d i n g th e t h i r d r e ma i n d e r by t w i c e t h e p a rt of ,
t h e r o o t a l r e a d y o bt a i n e d o r ,
Th e r e qu i re d r o o t i s 076, o r .
INV O LU T I O N AND E V O L U T I O N 1 91
C U B E R OO T OF A P O LYN O MIAL
3 07 In . 1 76, w e g a v e a m e t h o d fo r fi n d i ng th e c u be roo t ‘
'
of a n y e xp r e s s i o n of t h e fo r m C
a — —
3 2 2
or 3 a b+ 3 ab b3
.
W e w i l l n o w co n s i d e r t h e m eth o d of fi n di n g th e cu be r o o t of
a ny p o ly n o mi a l pe r fe ct c ube .
L et A a n d B h a ve th e s ame m ea n i n g s a s i n 29 4 .
By 1 35 , ( A B) = A 3
.
3
3A 3 2
3 AE 2
B 3
.
W h e n ce , ( A B) 3
A 3
3A B 2
3 AB 2
B 3
.
I f th e e xp re ss i o n 3 A B 3 AB B be a r r a n ge d i n th e s a m e
2 ? 3
o r de r of p o w e r s o f x a s A a n d B i t s fi r s t t e r m m u s t be t h re e ,
t i me s th e p r o d u ct of t h e s qu a re of t h e fi r s t t e r m of A a n d t h e
fi r s t t e rm of B .
He n ce th e fi r s t te r m of B m ay be obt a i n ed by d i vi d in g th e
,
fi rs t t e r m of 3 A B 3 AB + B by th r ee t i m e s t h e s qu a re of
2 2 3
th e fi r s t te r m of A .
3 08 We w i ll n o w co n s i de r
. a n e xa m p le .
R e qu i red t h e cu b e r oo t of
— 5 — 6
4 0x 3
6x 64 + x — 96 x .
Ar ran gi n g t h e p r e ss i o n a cco r d in g t o t h e de s ce nd i n g p o w e r s
ex
of we
x, a re t o fin d a n e xp r e s s i o n w h i ch w h e n c ube d w il l , ,
p r o d uc e x —
6
6 x
5
+ 4 0 x — 96 3
x -6 4 .
It e v i de n t f ro m 1 36 t h a t th e fi r s t t e r m of th e e xp re s s i o n
is
i s t h e cu be of t h e t e r m co nt a i n i ng t h e h i gh e s t p ow e r o f x i n t h e
c ube r oo t .
H e n ce t h e t e r m co n t a i n i n g t h e h i gh e s t p o we r of x i n th e cub e
,
r o o t m u s t b e t h e cu be r o o t o f x
“
or ,
D e n o t i n g t h e t e r m o f t h e ro o t a l re a d y fou n d by A a nd t h e ,
r e m a i n d e r o f th e r oo t a rr a n g e d i n de s ce n d i n g p o w e r s of x by
, ,
B we h av e
,
A — A3 = 6 —
4 0x — 9 6 x — 64 — 73
( ( )
3 5 3
+ B ) x 6 x + x
— 6 —96 x —
( 1
5 3
x + 4 0x 64 .
)
1 92 AD VA N CE D C O U RS E IN ALG EBR A
By 3 07, t h e fi r s t te rm of B may be ob t ai n ed by di v i d in g
th e fi r s t t e rm of 6x 5
of A, o r
,
by t h r e e t i m e s t h e s qu a r e
3 x ; t h a t i s t h e fi r s t t e rm of B i s
4
,
2x .
He n ce t h e fi r s t t w o t e r m s of t h e r oo t a r e x
'
2
, 2x .
D e n o t i n g t h i s e x p r e s s i o n by A an d t h e r e mai n d e r of th e
r oo t a r r a n g ed i n d e s ce n d in g p o w e r s of x, b
, y B ,
w e h a v e
,
'
( A r
B
I 3
_ A 13
)
— x6 5 3 -64 — 2 — 2x 3
6 x + 4 0x -9 6 x
( x
)
— 6 — 6 3
x —
6 — —
(
5 —
+ 4 0x
4
x x 96 64 x 6 x
5
+ 1 2x
3
8x)
'
— 1 2 x + 4 8 x — 9 6 x — 64
4 3
.
( )
2
T h en ,
th e fi r s t t e r m of B m ay b e o b t a i n e d by d i v i d i n g t h e
fi r s t te rm of
4
1 2
'
te r m of A o r 3 x ; th a t i s , t h e fi r s t te r m of B i s
,
by t h r e e t i m e s t h e s qu a r e of t h e fi r s t
’
4 .
H e n ce , th e fi r s t th r ee te r m s o f t h e r oo t a re x2
2 x 4 .
D en o t i n g th i s e xp r e ss i o n by A , an d t h e "
re ma i nd er of th e
r oo t ar r a n g ed i n de s c e n d i n g p o w e r s o f x, b h av e
’
, y B we
N 3
(A ll
B ) A H3
x — -9 6 x — - x2 —
(
6 5 3
6 x + 4 0x 64 2x
He n ce ,
th e re qu i r ed c ub e r oo t is x
2
2x 4 .
3 09 . L e t th e l a s t te rm o f A be ’
''
T h en
' A A O;
’
,
w h e n ce ,
( A ) ( B 3
A = A
3
B) 3
A 3
3A 0 2
3 AO ’2
C 3
[( A B) 3
A 3
] ( 3 A 2
3 AO + 0 2
X} .
In l i k e m ann e r, i f C "
d e n o te s th e la s t te rm of A "
,
l 3 _ A +3A C
l2 l H
0 !2
C H
B ) ) ;
and s o on .
T h at fi r s t may be o bt ai n e d by
mai nd e r fte r
“
i s, th e
I
a ny re a
s ubt r a ct i n g f ro m t h e p r e ce d i n g r em a i n d e r a n e xp r e s s i o n w h i ch
i s f o r m e d by a dd i n g t o g e th e r t h r e e t iin e s t h e s q ua r e o f t h e
p a rt o f t h e r oo t a l r ea d y fo u n d t h r e e t i me s t h e p r o d u ct of t h e ,
p ar t of t h e r oo t a l re a d y f o un d by t h e n e xt t e r m of t h e r o o t ,
a n d t h e s qu a r e of t h e n e x t t e r m of t h e r oo t a n d mu lt i p ly i n g ,
th e s u m b y t h e l atte r t e r m .
1 94 ADVAN C E D C O U RS E IN AL G EBR A
'
I n li k e m an n e r ,
3A "2
= 3 A O "
(3 + 2 et c .
Th a t i s , if th e la s t te r m of th e exp r e ss i o n wh i ch i s a d d ed to a ny
tr i a l-
d i vi sor be d o u ble d , th e s
r e u lt, a dd ed to th e co r r esp on d i ng
c o mp lete d i vi s o r, w i ll gi ve th e next tr i a l-d ivi or s .
Th u s, in t h e e xa mpl e of 3 1 0, i f w e ad d t o th e fi rs t c o mpl et e d i vi sor

3 x4 6 x3 4x 2
,
th e e x pre ss ion 6x 3
8x 2
,
th e r e s ul t , 3 x4 1 2 x3 + 1 2 x2 ,
is t h e n e xt t r i al -d i vis or .
C U BE R OO T OF AN A R ITH M E T I C AL NUM BER

Th e t e rm “
n umber ,
”
i n th e follow ing di sc uss ion sig nifi s ,
e a pos iti ve
i nt e g ral or d e c im l p rf ct c ub a e e e, e xpr e ss e d i n A r b i c num r l s
a e a .
31 2 . Th e c u be r oo t o f 1 000 i s 1 0; of 1 000000 i s 1 00; e t c .
He n ce , t h e cu b e r o o t o f a n u m b e r b e t w e e n 1 a n d 1 000 i s be
t w e e n 1 an d 1 0; t h e cub e r o o t of a n u mb e r bet w e e n 1 000 a nd
1 000000 i s bet w e e n 1 0 a n d 1 00; etc .
T h at i s, th e o o t of a n i n t e ge r of
cub e r on e, t w o o r th r e e
,
d i g i t s con t a i n s o n e d i g i t ; th e cu be r o o t of an i n t e g e r of fou r ,
fiv e or s i x d i g i t s c o nt a i n s t w o d i g i t s ; e t c
,
.
H e n ce if a p o i n t
, be p la c ed o ver eve ry th i r d d ig i t of a n i n teger,
u n i ts p la c e, th e n umber of p o i n ts s h o ws th e n um
’
beg i n n i ng at th e
be r of d ig i t s i n i ts cube r oo t .
a
31 3 . If a is an i n te g ral pe r fe ct cu be , t h e n - 3 w h e re n is a ny
1 0 ”
p o s i ti v e i n e ge r, 1 s a l
t so a pe r fe ct cu be .
a
B ut is a n u mb e r , th e n u mbe r of d i gi t s in w h o s e de ci mal
p a r t is d i v i s i b l e by 3 an d w h i ch d i ffe r s fr o m
,
a on l y in th e
p o s i t i o n o f i t s d e ci m a l p o i n t .
T h e r e f o re ,
i f a p o i n t be p la ed o ver c e very th i r d d ig i t o f a ny
n umbe r ,
’
beg i n n i ng a t th e un i ts p la e c a nd exten d i ng in e i th er
c
d ir e ti o n , th e n umbe r of p o i n t s sh o ws th e n umber of d i gi ts i n i ts
cube r oo t .
31 4 . L et a, b, an d c r ep re s e n t p o s i t i v e i n te g e r s .
INV O LU T I O N A ND E V O LU T I O N
‘
1 95
T h en ,
W 2
3 a
’
( +
b c
3 a 3 a
2
T h at is i f , e ma in de r o bt ai n ed by s u bt ra ct i n g a fr o m
th e r
3
( a b c
)
3
b e d i v i ded b y 3 a
2
t h e quo t i e n,
t i s g r e a t e r t h a n b .
S i m i la r ly i f t h e r e mai n d e r o bt a i n e d by s u bt r a ct i n g a f r o m
,
3
( a b )
3
b e d i v id e d b
y 3 a
2
t h e q u o t i e n t i s g re a t e r t h a n b
,
.
31 5 . W e w i ll now c n o s i d e r a n e x a mp l e .
R e qu i r ed t h e cu be r oo t of 97 4 54 9 1 4 5 6 .
P o i n t i n g t h e n u m be r o d a nce w i th th e r u l e of 3 1 2,
in a cc r
w e fin d t h a t t h e re a re f o ur d i gi t s i n i t s cub e r oo t .
S i n c e t h e n u m be r i s b e t w e e n 8 000000000 a n d 2 7000000000,
t h e cube r o o t i s be t w e e n 2000 a n d 3 000 .
T h a t i s t h e fi r s t d i gi t o f t h e r o o t i s 2
,
.
L e t a r e p re s e n t t h e n um be r 2 000; b t h e s e co n d d i g i t of t h e
r o o t m u l t i pl i e d b 1 0 0 a n d c t h e n u m be r c o n s i s t i n g of t h e
, y ;
l a s t t w o d i g it s of t h e r o o t i n t h e i r o r de r .
T h e n , a b 6 r e p r e s e n t s th e r o ot ; n o w ,
( a b 0
3
2 d
a
9 74 5 4 9 1 4 56 8 000000000
3 a
2
1 2 000000
1 74 5 4 9 1 4 5 6
1 45 .
1 2 000000
By 31 4, th i s i s gr e a t e r t h a n b .
H e n ce , b i s a m u lt i ple of 1 00 l e s s
th a n
As s u m e t h e n b,
1 00 ,
.
'
T h en t h e fi r s t t wo d i g it s o f t h e r oo t w o uld be 2 1 .
'
,
L e t a r e p r e s e n t t h e n umb e r 2 1 00; b t h e t h i r d d i g i t of ’
th e
'''
r oo t m ul t i p l i e d b
y 1 0 ; a n d c t h e l a s t d i g i t o f t h e r o ot .
Th en a ,
''
b c r e p re s e n t s t h e r oo t ; n o w ,
'
"
( a b a 9 74 5 4 9 1 4 5 6 9 2 6 1 000000
2
3 a 1 3 23 0000
1 96 AD VA NC E D C O U RSE IN A L G EBR A
'
By 31 4,
' th i s i s gr e a t e r t h a n b .
H e n ce
A ss u m e ,
,
b is
th en b
a
30
,
'
m ul t i pl e o f 1 0 l e ss
x .
th an
T h en ,
t h e fi r s t t h r e e d i g i t s of th e r oo t w oul d b e 21 3 .
L et a
"
re p r e s ent th e n u mbe r 2 1 3 0, an d b "
th e l a s t d i gi t of
th e r oot .
Th en , a
"
b "
r ep r e s en t s th e r oo t ; n ow ,
'
'
" " 3 "3
t a b 2 a 9 745 4 9 1 4 5 6 9 663 5 9 7000
3 a
2
1 3 6 1 0700
81 89 4 4 56
6
1 3 6 1 0700
a ss um e , t h e n , b
” "
By 31 4 , th i s i s g r e at e r t h a n b 6 .
Th en ,
s i n ce 9 74 5 4 9 1 4 5 6, th e r e qu i r ed cub e r oo t i s
21 36 .
31 6
'' We h av e w i th th e o tati o n of 3 1 5,
. n
(
3 3
( ) + b)
’
a +b + c a
— a3 -3 a 2b — 3 ab — b32
3
]
S i mi l ar l y ,
( a
n
b n 3
) _ a
ns
b y
d
iz
+g a
r
b +b
r r2
)b
y
.
T h at is, a n y r e m ai n
de r a fte r t h e fi r s t m a y be o bt ai n e d by
s u bt ract i n g f ro m th e p r e ce d i n g r e mai n de r a num b e r w h i ch i s
f o r m e d by t a k i n g t h re e t i m e s th e s qu a re of t h e p a rt of th e r o o t
a l r e a d y o bt a i n ed a dd i n g t o i t t h r ee t i m e s t h e p r o d u ct of t h e
,
r t of t h e r oo t a l r e a d o b t a i n ed b t h e n e x t r o o t-d i i t f l
p a y y g o
l o w e d by a s m an y ci p h e r s a s t h e r e a r e d i g i t s i n t h e r e mai n d e r
of t h e r o o t p lu s t h e s qu ar e of t h e l atte r n u mbe r a n d mul ti ply
, ,
i n g t h e r e s ult b t h e l a tt e r n u mb e r
y .
T h e n umb e r s r e pr e s e n t e d b y 3 a 2 3 a 2 e t c a r e c all e d tr i a l -d i vi s or s
a n d t h o s e r e pr e s en t e d b y 3 a 2 3 ab b2
3 a 2 3 a b b 2
,
e tc
’
co m
,
,
.
''
,
’ ’
, .
,
,
p lete d i vi s ors .
3 1 7 Th e . w o r k of th e e xa mp l e of 3 1 5 m ay be arr a n ge d a s
fo ll o ws t h e c o m p l ete d i v is o r s an d re mai nd e r s b ei n f o med by
, g r
th e rul e of 31 6 .
1 98 ADVAN C E D C O U RSE I N A LG EB R A
F i nd th e gr ea tes t cu be i n th e left-h a n d p er i o d , a n d w r i te i ts cube

r o o t a s th e fi r s t d i gi t of th e r oo t ; s u btra ct th e c u be of th e fi r s t r oo t
d ig it fr om f
th e le t-ha n d p er i o d , a n d to th e r e ult s a n nex th e n ext
p er io d .
D i v i d e th i s re ma i n d er by th r ee time s th e s qua r e of th e p a r t of
th e r oo t a lr ea d y fo un d ,
w i th two cip h er s a nn exed , a nd wr i te th e
qu o
ti e n t a s th e n ext d ig i t of th e r o ot .
A dd to th e tr i a l-d i vi so r th r ee ti me s th e p r o d u ct of th e la t s r oo t
d i g it by th e p a r t of th e r o o t p r e vi o u ly o un d , w i th on e cip h er s f
a n n exe d , a n d th e qu a r e of th e la s t r oo t s
-d i i t
g .
M ultip ly th e co mp le te d i vi o r by th e d ig it o th e r oot la s t s f
o bta ined a nd s ubtr a c t th e p r o d uct fro m th e r ema i nd er
, .
If o th er p er i o d s r ema i n, p ro c eed a s befo re ta k i ng , th r ee ti mes

th e s qua r e of th e p a rt of th e r o o t a lr ea dy fo un d , w i th two cip h er s
a n nexed , f or th e n ext tr i a l-d i vi sor .
No te 1 , 304 , a ppl ie s w it h qu l for c t th b o rul

e a e o e a ve e .
If any root-d i g it i s 0 an n e ,
x t w c i p h rs t
o th t r i l-
edi i s or o e a v , a n d ann ex
to th e r e ma i nd e r th e n e xt p e r io d .
31 8 . W i th
3 a
'(
2
=3
th e n
a
o t a t i o n of
b) = 3
2
a
2
3 1 5,
+ 6 ab + 3 b
2
In l ik e ma nn e r,
3 a
"2
:
r 3 a
''
2 'W)
''( ' 3 a b b 2
3 a b 2 ; et c .
T h at i s, h
if f
t e i r t n u mbe r s a nd th e d o uble of th e o
s ec n d n u mber
r e qui r ed to c o mp lete a ny tr i a l-d i vi s o r be a dd e d to th e co mp lete
d i vi s or ,
th e r es ult, w i th tw o cip h e r s a nn exed , w i ll g i ve th e n e xt
tr i a l-
d i vi sor .
31 9 W e w i l l n o w s h o w h o w t o o bt ai n
. th e c u b e r oo t of a
n u mb er w h i ch i s n o t i nte g ral .
R e q u i r e d t h e cub e r o o t of 1 07 4 1 8 24 .
1 073 74 1 8 24
We h aV e,
3
V 1 073 . 74 1 8 24 _
1 000000
1 024
29 3
1 00
Th e work m ay be a r ra n g e d as f o ll o w s :
IN V O L U T I O N A ND E V O L UT I O N 1 99
1 07374 1 8 24
30000 73 74 1
600
4
3 0604 61 208
600 1 25 3 3 8 24
8
3 1 2 1 2 00
1 224 0
1 6
3 1 33 4 5 6 1 253 3824
'
H e r e th e se c o nd roo t-d ig it i s 0 ; w e th e n a nn e x t w o i ph e r c s to th e
r l sor 300 nd
t i a -d i vi x to
,
a a nn e th e r e m a i n d e r th e n e xt p e r i o d , 741 .
Th s e c o nd t r i l d i is or i for m d b y t h r ul e of
e a - v 31 8 s e e .
A d d in g t t h c o m pl t d i is or 30604 t h fi rs t n u mb r 600 nd t w i c e
o e e e v e e , ,
a
th es c on d n umb r 8 r q uir d t c ompl t e th t ri l-d i is or 30000 w e

e e , ,
e e o e e a v ,
h 3 1 2 1 2 n n xi g t w c iph rs t o th is th e r s ul t i 3 1 2 1 200
a ve a e n o e , e s .
H e n ce ,
u m be r be p o i n t e d i n a cco r d a n ce w it h t h e r ul e
i f an y n
o f § 3 1 3 t h e r ul e of § 3 1 7 m ay be a pp li e d t o t h e r e s u lt a nd
, ,
t h e de ci ma l p o i n t i n s e r ted i n i t s p r o p e r p o s i t i o n i n t h e r oo t .
3 20 A f te r
. d i gi t s of t h e cu b e r oo t of a n i n te g r a l p e r
n 2
f e e t cube h a v e be e n foun d by t h e r u l e o f 3 1 7 n m o r e m ay be ,
o bt ai n e d by d i v i s i o n s u pp o s i n g 2 n 2 t o be t h e w h o l e n u mbe r
,
.
F o r l e t a r e p r e s e n t th e i n t e g e r w h o s e fi r s t n 2 d igi t s are
t h e fir s t n 2 d i g i t s of t h e r oo t i n t h e i r o r d e r a n d w h o s e l a s t ,
n d i g i t s a r e ci p h e r s a n d b t h e i n t e g e r c o n s i s t i n g o f t h e l a s t n
,
d i g i t s of th e r oo t i n t h e i r o rd e r ; th e n a + b r e p re s e n t s th e r oo t ,
.
We h ave , ( a b) 3
a
3
3 a
2
b 3 ab
2
b3
.
W h e nce, 2
3 a
2
a 3 a
T h at i s, ( a + b)
3 — a3
,
d ivi de d by 3 a ,
’
wi ll g i v e t h e la s t n
2 3
b b
di gi t s of th e r oo t ,
i n cre a s e d by —
2
a 3 a
B y h y p o th e s i s , b o t s n d i g it s c n ai n .
Th e n ,
2
b cann o t co n t a i n m o r e t h a n 2 n d i gi t s :
200 ADV A NC E D C O U RS E IN A LG E BRA
B ut o t
a c n ai n s 2 n 2 d i git s ; an d h en ce i s l e ss t h an
a
2
3 2
b 1 b
Ag ai n , L
a
g
—
g; x
g
——
cl
; an d S i nc e
a
;
is l e ss t h an
1 6
, an d
s a
b 3
1
l e ss t h an 1 , 2
is al s o l e ss t h a n
3 a
2 3
b b
T h e re fo r e ,
—
-
+ 2
i s le s s t han
a 3 a
I f, t h e n th e (n 2)th r e ma in d e r be d i vi ded b y t h r ee t i m e s
,
th e s q u a r e of t h e p a r t of t h e r o o t al r e a dy fou n d , t h e r e ma i n i n g
n d i g i t s of t h e r oo t m ay b e o b t a i n ed .
Th e me t h o d a ppl i e s t o th e c ub e root of a n y n umbe r .
Ex . R e qu i red th e cu be r o o t of 1 4 5 2 64 88 65 3 1 1 064 .
1 4 52 64 8 8 65 3 1 1 064
3 00 4 52
30
1
33 1 33 1
30 1 21 6 4 8
2
3 63 00
9 90
3 72 9 9 1 1 1 89 7
990 9 75 1 8 65
1 8
3 83 0700
678 0
383 74 8 4 76 74 9 68
6 78 0
8
1 9 22 1 3 6 0
1 54 76 1 3 1
202 ADVAN C E D C O U RSE IN ALG EBR A
ANY R OO T O F AN AR I T H M E T I C AL NUM BER

Th e t e r m n um be r , follo w i n g d i s c uss io n s ign ifie s a pos iti ve
”
i n th e , ,
i nt e g r a l or d e c im a l p e rf e c t po w e r of t h e d e g r e e d e n o te d b y t h e i n d e x o f
,
t h e r e qu i r e d roo t e xpr e ss e d i n A r a b i c n u me r a l s
,
.
3 23 . I t may be p r o v e d, a s i n 2 9 9 3 00 3 1 2 a n d 3 1 , , ,
3, t h at :
If a p o i n t be p la c e d o ve r eve r y n th d i g i t of a n y nu mber ,
beg i nn i ng at th e u n i t s ’
p la ce a nd exten d i ng in e i th e r c
d i r e ti o n, th e
nu mber of p o i n ts s h o w s th e nu mber of d i g i ts i n i ts n th r oo t .
3 24 . L et a, b ,
c, a n d n r ep r e s e n t p o s i t i v e i nt e ge r s .
By 28 5 ,
— an
[ a + ( b — a"
n —l
na
Th a t i s , i f th e re s ubt ra cti n g a f ro m
m ai n d e r o bt a i n e d by .
"
—1
( a b c ) b e d i v i d e d by n a
"
,
t h e qu o t i e n t i s g r e
n
a t e r t h a n b .
I n l i k e m an n e r i f t h e r e m a i n d e r o bt a i n e d by s ubt r a ct i n g a
"
,
f r o m ( a b) be d i v i d e d by n a
" l
t h e q u o t i e n t i s g r e a te r t h a n b
n ‘
,
.
3 25 . Itden t fro m
is e vi 3 2 3 a n d 3 24 , t h a t t h e n t h r o o t of
,
a p o s i t i v e i n t e g r a l p e r f e c t n t h p ow e r m ay be fou n d by a p r o c e s s
s i m ilar t o t h a t e m p l oy e d i n 3 02 a n d 3 1 5 .
Th e g e n e ra l r ul e w i ll be as f o ll ow s :
.
P o i n t th e nu mber i n a cc o r d a n c e w i th th e r ul e of 3 23 , a nd le t
th e n umber of s
d ig i t i n th e r oo t be m .
F in d th e gr ea te t p er s
fe c t n th p o wer i n th e left-h a nd p eri o d a nd ,
fi r s t d ig it of the r oot
w r i te i ts n th r oo t a s th e .
R a i s e th e p a r t of th e r oo t a lr ea d y fo un d w i th m 1 cip h er s ,
a nn exe d to th e n th p o we r a n d s u btra ct th e r e s u lt fr o m th e g i ven

, ,
n u mbe r .
R a i s e th e p a r t of th e r oo t a lr ea d y fo u nd , w i th m - 1 cip h er s
a n n exe d , to th e n — 1
( ) p
th o w er ,
a n d m u ltip y
l th e r es u lt by n .
D i v i d e th e re ma i n d er by th i s n u mbe r .
If th e qu o ti en t i s a n umber w h o e i n tegr a l p a r t co n ta i n m 1 s s
s
d i g i t w r i te i ts fi r s t d i gi t a s th e n ext d ig i t o th e r oo t o th e r wi e,
,
f s
wr i te 0 a s th e n ext r o o t-d i gi t .
I NV O LU T I O N AND E V O LUT IO N 203
R a i s e th e p a rt of th e r o o t a lr ea dy fo un d , wi th m — 2 cip h e r s
a nn exed , to th e n th p o wer , a n d s ubtr a ct th e r e s ult fr o m th e g i ven
n umber .
Th e ab v eo p r o ce ss is t o be
ep e ated u n t il t h e r e i s n o r
r e ma i n d e r ; t h e on ly ch an g e b e in g t h at i n t h e s u cce ss i v e ,
a pp l i cat i o n s of t h e r ul e m 2 m 3 e tc a r e w r i tt e n i n pl ace
, , ,
.
,
of m 1 i n th e fo urth s i xt h a n d s e v e n t h p ar ag ra p h s
, ,
.
Th e r ul e may b e us e d t o find th e nth roo t of a n y numb e r .
E x F i n d th e
. cu b e r oo t of
In th is ca s e, n 3 a nd m 4 .
3 4 55 04 1 55 9 3
3 000 3
2 7000000000
3 x 3 000 2
3 200 3
3 2 76 8 000000
3 x 3 200 2
3 072 0000fl 24 1 5 5 9 3 (5 0+
3
3 25 0 3 4 3 281 25 000
3 25 7 2 3
: 3 4 5 5 04 1 55 9 3
Hen ce t h e r e qu i r ed r oo t i s
,
S o me of th e c ip h e rs m ay b e o mi tte d i n pr ac ti c e .
It s o m e t im e s h a pp e n s t h a t o nr a i s i ng t h e p a r t of th e roo t a lr e a d y foun d
,
t o t h e nt h po w e r t h e r e sul t i s g r e a t e r t h a n t h e g ive n numb e r ; i n s u c h a

,
c as e th e d ig it of th e root la s t obta ine d is to o great an d o n e l ess mus t b e

, ,
s ub stitute d for i t .
3 26 . L et m a n d n be p o si t iv e in te ge r s , a nd a a pe r fe ct p o w e r
of th e d e gr ee mn .
( ca
"
By 1 5 7, n
a, ( 1 )
an d ( )
2
R ai s i n g b o t h me m be r s of (2) t o th e n th p o w e r,
Cl .
( )
3
F r om ( 1 ) an d by 1 63 ,
fo r e a ch o f th e s e e xp r e ss i o n s i s t h e m ut h r o o t of a .
204 AD V AN C E D C O U RS E IN A LG E BRA
T h at i s , th e mnt h r o o t of a 1 6 2) e qua ls th e mth roo t o f the

n th r oot of a .
Th e a b o ve is on l y t rue of p r i nc ip a l roo ts .
I t foll o w s fr o m th e ab o v e t h at t h e fou r th r oo t of a pe rf e ct
p o w e r o f t h e f o u rth d e gr ee e qu a l s th e s qu a r e r o o t o f t h e s qu ar e
r oo t o f t h e e x p r e s s i o n .
T h e s i xt h r oo t of a pe r f e ct p o w e r of th e s i xth d e gr ee e qu a l s
t h e cu be r oo t of t h e s qu a r e r o o t of th e e x p r e ss i o n ; e t c .
I n l i k e m a n n e r i f m, n , a n d p a r e p o s i t i v e i n te g e r s , a n d a
,
a p e r f e ct p o w e r of th e de g r e e mnp ,
an d so on .
3 2 7 L e t m,
. n , an d r be p o s i t i v e i n te ge r s a n d , a a ra ti o n al
n u mbe r w h o s e mth p o w e r i s p o s i ti ve i f n i s e v en .
By 1 5 7,
R ais i ng b o t h me mbe r s t o th e r th p o w e r, w e h av e
( 1 )
r
a .
Al s o , ( )
2
m
F r om ( 1 ) an d ( V d y (
fi r
T ak in g th e n r th r oo t of b o t h m e mb e r s
Va m
" V’
m"
an d
’"
V a a .
Th i s m n s t h ea at th e pri n c ip a l nth root of a

m is e qu l a t o th e
urt h roo t of m a
?
Th
( e r l th e ore ms of e voluti o n i n
g ene a 1 63 1 64 1 65 2 9 2 , , , , ,
2 9 3 , 326 ,
a nd 3 2 7 w e r e t h e r e pro ve d o n l y for p r i nc ip a l root s
,
.
That o f 326 is onl y true for suc h roots .
Th e o t h e r s a r e t rue fo r c e r t a i n v a lue s of t h e roo t s wh i c h are not p ri n

ci p al roo ts ; t ak e for e xa mpl e t h e e q ua t i o n
, ,
If n = 2 , a = 4 , b = 9 i t b e com es V 4
,
x 9 = V4 x V9 .
l as t e q ua t i on i s t r ue w h e n th e va l ue 6
Th e i s t ak e n for V4 x 9, 2
for fl and 3 for V 9 a l s o w h e n th e va l ue
, ,
6 i s t ak e n for V4 X 9,
2 for V4 an d 3 for V 9 )
,
.
2 06 ADVAN C E D C O U R SE IN ALG EBR A
XVI . I NE Q U A L I TI E S
3 28 . s t ate m e n t t h a t o n e of t w o e xp r e s
An Inequa l i t y i s a
s i o n s i s g r e a t e r o r l e s s t h a n a n o th e r .
Th e F i r s t M ember of a n i n e qu ali ty i s t h e e x p r e ss i o n t o t h e
l e ft of t h e s i g n o f i n e q u al i t y , a n d t h e S e c o n d M e m ber i s t h e
e xp re s s i o n t o t h e r i g h t o f t h a t S i g n
,
An y t e r m o f e i t h e r m e m be r o f a n i n e q u ali ty i s ca ll e d a ter m
o f t h e i n e q u ali ty .
T w o o r m or e i n e q u ali t i e s a re s a i d t o s u bs i s t i n th e s a me s en se
w h e n t h e fir s t m e mbe r i s t h e g r e at e r o r t h e l e ss i n bo t h .
T h u s , a b a n d c d s u b s i s t i n th e s am e s e n s e .
PR O P ER T I ES OF IN E Q UALI T I ES
3 29 . A n i n e qua li ty w i ll c o n ti n u e i n th e s a me s fter th e
s en e a
sa me n u mber ha s be en a dd ed to , or s u btr a cte d fr o m both

,
me mber s .
T h i s fo ll ows f ro m 23 w h i ch ,
is s u p p o s ed t o h o l d fo r all
v a l u e s of t h e l e tt e r s i n v o l v e d .
330 . I t fo ll o w s f r o m 3 29 , th at a t e rm ma y be s s ed
tr a n p o
fr o m on e membe r of an i n eq ua l i ty to th e o th er by ch a ngi ng i ts
s ig n .
If th e s ame te r m app e ars i n b ot h m e mb e r s of an q

i n e ual it y ff c t
a e ed
w it h th e s a me S i g n, i t may b e c anc ll e ed .
3 31 . If th e s ig n s of a ll s of
th e ter m an i n equa li ty be ch a nged ,
th e s of in eq ua li ty
ig n mus t be r evers e d .
F o r co n s i d e r t h e i n e q u ali t y a b c d .
T r a n s p o s i n g e v e ry te r m , d c b a . 3 3 0)
T hat i s ,
b a d c .
3 32 . L et a b be a p o s i t i v e n u mbe r .
T h e n (a , b) b b ; t h at i s a b ,
.
Ag a i n , le t a b be a n e g a t i v e n um be r .
T h e n (a ,
b) b b ; t h at i s , a b .
IN E Q UALI T I ES 2 07
333 An i n equa li ty w i ll c o n ti n ue i n th e s a me s e n s e after bo th

.
member s h a ve be e n m ultip li e d o r d i vi d ed by th e s a me p o s i ti ve
n umbe r .
F or c n o s ider t h e i n e q ua l i ty a b .
By 33 2, a b is a p o s i t i v e n u mb e r .
He n ce, ifm is a p o s i ti v e n u mbe r e a ch of ,

th e n u mbe r s
a b
m (a b) an d
m
a b
o r, ma mb a nd is p o s i ti v e
g
.
a b
T h e re fo r e ma mb, and
— o
m m
,
33 4 . I t fo ll o ws fr o m 331 and 33 3 th a t if bo th m ember s of

an i n equa li ty be mu ltip li e d d i vi d ed by th e
or s a me n ega ti ve n um
ber, th e s ign of i n equa li ty mus t be r eve r ed s .
335 . If a ny n umber of i n e qua li ti e s s ubs i s tin g i n th e s a me

,
s en se be a dd ed me mber to member
, ,
th e r e s ulti ng i n e qu a li ty w i ll
a l s o s ubs i s t i n th e 8a me s en s e .
''
F o r co n s i d e r t h e i n e q u a l i t i e s a
''
" "
b a , b, a b ,
T h e n e a ch o f th e n umbe r s a — b , ,
a — b
,
a
" — b"
,
m ,
is
p o sitiv e .
T h er e fo r e th e i r , s um
b+ a
1 _ br a
n
is ap o s itiv e
W h e n ce ,
n u mb r
a + a
e
'
.
a
"
b b
' ”
b
3 36 . I f tw o i n e qu a l i t i e s , s ub s i st i n g i n th e s am e s e n s e be ,
s ubtr a c ted me mbe r f ro m m e mbe r t h e r e s ult i n g i n e q u a l i ty d o e s
''
,
T h u s i f a b an d a ''
n o t n e ce ss a r ily s u b s i s t i n t h e s a m e s e n s e
b t h e n u mb e r s a b an d
.
a b ar e
'
, ,
p o s i ti v e .
'
B ut ( a b ) a o r i t s e q u al
( ( a a
'
) ( b m ay
b e p o s i t i v e n e g a t i v e o r z e ro ; a n d h e n ce a
,
t h an , l e s s t h a n o r e q u al t o b b ,
,
'
.
a m a y b e gr e a t e r
208 A D VAN CE D C O U RSE IN AL G EBRA
'
33 7 If a
. b '' e of
an d a b, and a ch th e n u mbe r s a, a
'
,
b b, is p o s i ti v e t e h
'
n
'
bbu
'
, , ,
d a
F or sin ce a b ,
p o si t
a b, a , and b a re iv e n umbe r s , e ach
O f th e n u mbe r s :
(
y
(
r
a a b ) an d b a b)
is p o s i t iv e .
' ' ''

Th en ,
an d
''
Th en by 3 3 5, d a ab ab bb .
W h en ce ,
d a bb .
''
I f w e h av e a n y n u mber of i n e qu al i t i e s s u b s is t in g in
3 38
' '
.
th e s a m e s e n s e a s a > b a b a "
,
b " m , a n d e ach of th e, , ,
' bb '
n u mbe r s a , a , a , , b b , b , m , i s p o s i ti v e, t h e n
" m "
,
''
b aa a
" ”
F or by 33 7 da bb .
'bb '
" "
Al s o , a b .
Wh e n ce , b aa a
" "
337
'
C on t i n u i n g p o e s s wi t
th e e ni r c h th e r mai ng i n e qu al i t i e s w e
,
obt a i n fi n ally o aa a
"
33 9 I t fo ll o ws fr o m
. 33 8 th at, i f a i s b an d ,
a an d b ar e
p o s i t i v e n u mb e r s , a n d n a p o s i t i v e i n t e g e r, t h e n
>b
" "
a
34 0 . If n is a p o s i ti v e i n te ge r, an d a a nd b pe r f e ct n th
p o w e r s s u ch th a t a is b ,
th en
{ /b .
{ 7a w e r e
F or , i f { 7b r a i s i n g b o t h m e mb e r s t o ,
th e n th
p o w e r w e s h ou l d h av e a b
,
. 3 39 )
An d , i f \ /d { /b a w ou l d b e e qu al t o b
n
.
,
B oth of th e s e c on cl u s i o n s are o t
c n r a ry to th e h y po t h e s i s
th a t a is b
.
H e n ce, { 70
4 { 7b .
21 0 A D VAN CE D C O U RS E IN ALG E BR A .
5 . P r o v e th a t ,
i fa an d b a re un e q ua l p o s i t i v e n u mbe r s ,
3 3 2 g
a b a b ba .
W e h av e (a o r, a
2 — 2 ab +b >0
2
.
T r an s p o s i n g a b, a
2
ab b 2
ab .
M u lt i ply i n g b o th m e mb e r s by t h e p o s i ti v e n u mbe r a b ,
s 3 2 i
a b a b bd .
6 . P r o v e th a t ,
if a , b,
‘
an d c ar e u n e qu al p o si t ive n u mb e r s ,
2 (a 3
b 3
c
3
) a
2
b ba 2
b % 0b
2 2
0a a c
z
.
B y E x 5, . a
3
b 3
a
2
b b a, 2
3 s z 2
b o bc 6 0,
3 3 2 2
a nd c a c d a o .
A dd i n g, 2 (a 3 3
b 3
0
) a
2
b ba 2
bc 2
e
2
b4 g
c a a e
g
.
EX E RC I S E 4 2
F i nd t h e l i mi t s of x i n th follo wi ng : e
— 71 > 4 — 5
1 .
( x
2 x ( 2 x )( x
— 3x 3
2 .
( 2 )(
3 .
( x— l )( x
4 . a
2
(x b 2
(2 x 1 ) d b, i f a b i pos iti e
2 s v .
x — m x + e po s it i v
n
5 +2 > i fm a nd n a r nd m e a n .
m
.
F in d th e l imi t s of x an d y in th e follo win g :

45 7x — 4
5x+ 6y < .
> 41y .
6 7
3x — 4 y =— 1 1 . 3 x + 7y = 3 5 .
8 . F i n d t h e l im i t s of x wh en
3 56 l 1 x, an d 5 x + 2 3 < 20x + 3 .
9 . If c r t i n p siti i nt g r pl us 1 4 i g re t e r t h n 1 3
6 t ime s a e a o ve e e , ,
s a a
t i m s t h i n t g r m i nus 6 3
e e e d 1 7t i m s t h i t g r m i nus 2 3 i g r t r
e , , an e e n e e , ,
s ea e
th an 8 t i m s t h e i t g r pl us 3 1 w h t i t h i t g r
e n e e , ,
a s e n e e
1 0 I f 7 t im s t h
. n u mb r of h u
e s i ec r t i n i ll g pl us 3 3 i
e o se n a e a v a e, ,
s
l ss t h n 1 2 t im s t h n um b r m i us 8 2
e a e d 9 t i m s th n u mb r m i n us
e e ,
n , an e e e ,
4 3 i l ss t h a n 5 t i m s th u mb r pl u 6 1 h w m y h ous s t h r 3 ‘
,
s e e e n e , s , o an e ar e e e
IN E Q UALI T I ES 21 1
1 1 A fa r me r h a s a numb e r of c o w s s uc h th at 1 0 time s th e i r numb e r

.
,
pl us 3 i s l e ss t h a n 4 t ime s t h e n umb e r pl us 79 a n d 1 4 t ime s t h e ir n um

, ,
b e r m inus 9 7 i s g r e a t e r t h a n 6 t i me s t h e numb e r m i nus 5

, , H o w man y , .
c o ws h as h e
1 2 . B et w e e n w h at l imit i ng val ue s of x is x2 3x 4
1 3 . B et we e n w h a t l i mi tin g v a l ue s of x i s 2 x 2
1 3x 24
1 4 . B e t wee n wh a t l im iti ng va l ue s of x is 6 x 2
1 9x 1 0
Prove t h at , fo r a ny v a ue l s of x,
x — 49
—
1 5 . 9 x2 + 2 5 st 30x . 1 6 . x x ( 2 E
.
P rove th at for ,
a ny va ue l s of a a nd b ,
1 7 .
( 4 a + 3 b)( 4 a 3 b) { 6 b(4 a 3 b) .
2 e
1 8 . a 4 4
b st 2 ab a ( ab b ) .
Pro ve t h a t ,
i f all t h e l e tte r s r e pr e s ent un e qua l pos itive n u mb e rs ,
1 9 . a
3
a
2
b a b2
b3 > 2 ab a ( b) .
2
20 . a
2
+ b +
2
6 > ab bc + ca .
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 z Q
21 . a b b c o a a bc b ca e ab .
22 .
(a + b + c
23 . a
2
b ab
z
We be 2 2
o a ca
2 6 a bc .
24 .
( a
2
b 2
c )( x
? 2
y
2
( ax by cz )
‘
3 .
21 2 ADVAN CE D C O U RSE IN A L GE B R A
X V II . S UR DS . TH E O R Y O F E X PO NEN TS
34 2 . Meani ng V2 of .
I t i s i m p o ss i bl e t o fin d a ra t i o n al n u mbe r 51 ) wh o s e
s qu ar e s h a ll e q u al 2 ; b u t w e can fin d t w o r a t i o n al n u m b e r s ,
wh i ch s h a ll d i ffe r f ro m e a ch o th e r by l e s s th an a n y a ss i gn e d
n u m be r h o w e v e r s m al l, w h o s e s qu ar e s s h al l be l e ss , an d g r e a te r
,
t h an 2, r e s pe ct i v ely .
F o r , w r i ti n g t h e s qu ar e s of th e c o ns e cu t i v e i n te ge r s 1 , 2 e t c ,
.
,
2 2
w e h av e 1 1 2 ,
4 , e tc .
He n ce 1 an d 2 a r e t w o n u m be r s w h i ch d i ffe r b y 1 an d
, ,
wh o s e s q u a r e s a r e l e s s a n d gr e a t e r t h an 2 r e s p e ct i v e ly ,
.
Ag a i n ,
etc .
H e n ce , an d a re tw o n u mb e r s w h i ch di ffe r by 1 .
,
an d
w h o s e s qu a r e s a r e l e sS an d g r e a t e r t h an 2, r e s p e ct i v e l y .
Ag a i n , et c .
He n ce , an d ar e t w o n um b e r s w h i ch d i ffe r by 01 , .
an d w h o s e s q u a r e s a r e l e s s an d g r e a t e r t h a n 2 r e s p e ct i v e ly ,
.
B y s uffi ci e n t l y co n t i n u i n g t h e ab o v e p r o ce s s w e can fin d t w o ,
n u m b e r s w h i ch s h a l l d i ff e r f r o m e a ch o t h e r by l e ss t h a n a n y
a ss i gn ed n u mb e r, h o w e v e r s m all , w h o s e s qu a r e s s h a ll be l e s s
a n d g r e ate r t h a n 2, r e s p e ct i v e l y .
343 . s u cce ss i v e n u mb er s i n t h e i ll u s tr at i o n of § 3 4 2
Th e ,. ,
w h o s e s qu ar e s a re l e s s t h an 2 a r e 1 ,
e tc ; a n d t h e
,
.
n u mb e r s w h o s e s qu a r e s a r e g r e a te r t h a n 2 , a r e 2 e tc ,
.
I f e a ch s e r i e s be co n ti nu e d t o r te r m s , t h e d i ffe r e n ce bet w ee n
t h e r th ter ms of t h e t w o s e r i e s i s
1 0
r- 1 ’
1 0
wh i ch can be m a de l e s s th an a ny a s s i gn ed n u m be r, h o w e v e r
s m all by s uffi ci e n t ly i n cr e a s i n g r
,
.
T h e r e fo re t h e r th t e rm s of t h e t w o s e r i e s a pp ro ach th e same
,
l i mi t w h en r i s i n d e fi ni t e ly i n cr e a s e d .
21 4 AD VAN C E D C O U RSE IN AL G E B R A
O P ER A T I O N S INV O LVING S U RD S
348 . It is n ceed e fi n e Add i t i o n an d M u l t i pli ca ti o n
s s a ry to ,
w h e n an y o r all of th e n u m b e r s i n v o l v ed a r e s ur d s .
L et n a n d p be p o s i t i v e i n te g e r s .
L et a be a r a ti o n al n umb e r w hi ch i s n o t a p e r f e ct p o w e r of
th e n t h d e gr e e a n d i s p o s i t i v e i f n i s e v en
,
.
L et b be a r a t i o n al n u mbe r w h i ch i s n o t a p e r f e ct p o w e r of
t h e p th d e gr e e , a n d i s p o s i t i v e i fp i s e v e n .
L et a , a , m a , m b e a s e r i e s of r at i on al n u mber s w h o s e
, , , , ,
nt h p ow e r s a r e l e s s th a n a , a n d m, m , a s eri e s
w h o s e n th p o w e r s a r e gr e a te r th a n a , s u ch th a t
a 1
l~ a1 — 1 ,
a1 2
l~ a2
l —l
L e t b1 , b, , m ,
b, , m be a s er i e s of
,
ra t i o n al n u m be r s wh o s e
p th p ow e r s a r e l e s s t h an b a n d ,
m ,
m ,
a s e ri e s
'
w h o s e p th p o we r s
b 1 ~ bl = 1
ar e
2
l
g rea er
b 2 ~ b2 =
t th an b s u ch
,
th a t
-l
)
Th en t o a dd t o { /a , is t o fin d t h e l i mi t, wh en r i s i n de fi
n i tely i n cr e a s e d , of a, b, .
To multip ly a by Vb is to fin d th e li mi t, wh en r i s i ndefi
n i t e ly i n cr e a s ed , of a, X b, .
34 9 . A m e an in g s i m i la r t o
tta ch e d to a nyth e a bove is a
e x p r e ss i o n w h i ch i s n o t a r a t i o n a l n u m b e r , a n d w h i ch i s t h e
,
re s u l t of an fi n i te n u m b e r of t h e f o l l o wi n g O p e r a t i o n s p e r
y
fo rm e d u p o n o n e o r m o r e r at i o n a l n u mbe r s , p r o v i d e d th at, i n
a n y i n d i ca t e d r oo t , t h e n u m b e r u n d e r th e r a d i ca l s i gn i s p o s i
t i v e i f th e i n de x of th e r oo t i s e v en :
A dd i t i o n ; S u bt r act i on ; M u l ti p l i cat i o n ; D i vi s i o n ; r ais i n g t o
a n y p o si t i v e i n te gr al p o w e r ; e xt r act i n g a n y r oo t .
35 0 . W e w ill t o p r o v e th e l a ws of
n ow S h ow 1 2 an d
h ow
1 4 w h e n a n y o r all of th e l ett e r s i n v o l v ed r epr e s e nt s ur d s
,
.
L e t i t be r e q ui r e d for e xa m p l e t o p r o v e t h e C o mmu t at i v e
, ,
L a w fo r M u l t i pl i ca t i o n 1 4 ) w i t h r e s p e ct t o t h e p r o d u ct
of t w o s u r d s { Vii a n d { 7b, w h e r e n , p , a , a n d b h av e th e s ame
,
m e a ni n g s a s i n 3 4 8 .
S UR D S . T H E O RY O F E X PO N E N TS 21 5
O r, to p ro v e
Wi th th e n o t at i o n of 3 4 8 { /d X \ /b i s t h e l i mi t, w h e n r i s ,
p
i n d e fi n i t e ly i n cr e a s e d o f b , ,
.
Al s o , { /b x { 7a i s th e li m i t, w h e n r i s i n d e fi ni t e ly i n cr e a s ed ,
of b,. x a, .
By 1 4, si n ce a , an d b, are r a t i o n al n u mber s ,
a, X b, = b, X a, .
Th en ,
a, x b,. and b
f un ct i o n s of r w hi ch are e q ua l
, x a , a re
fo r e v e ry p o s i t i v e i n te g r a l v a lu e of r ; an d by 25 2 t h e i r , ,
l i mi t s w h e n r i s i n d e fi n i t e l y i n cr e a s e d a r e e qu al .
H e n ce ,
Th is pl y mea ns t h a t th e pro d uc t of t h e prin c ip a l nth roo t of a
S im
34 7) b y th e pr i n c i p a l p th roo t of b is e qua l t o th e pro d uc t of t h e pr in c i
p al p th roo t of b b y t h e pr i n c i p a l n th roo t of a ( C o m p a r e .
A si mi l a r i nt e rpre ta t io n m ust b e g i ve n to e ve ry r e sul t i n vol vi n g surd s .
I n li k e m a n n e r th e r e m a i n i n g l a ws o f
,
1 2 a n d 1 4 m ay b e
p r o v ed t o h o l d, w h e n a ny o r a ll of t h e l ette r s i n v o l ve d r e pr e
s e n t s urd s .
35 1 . S i n ce t h e r emainin g re s u lt s of C h a p . I, an d th e r e s ul t s
in C h a p s II t o X V I i n cl u s i v e a r e f o r ma l co n s e q u e n ce s of th e
.
, ,
l a w s of 1 2 a n d 1 4 i t f o ll o w s t h a t e v e r y s t a t e m e n t o r r ul e
, ,
i n t h e s e ch a pt e r s i n r e g a r d t o e x p re s s i o n s w h e r e a n y l e tt e r
,
i n v o l ve d r e p r e s e n t s a ny r a t i o n a l n u m be r h o l d s e qu a l ly w h e n ,
th e l ett e r r e p r e s e n t s a s u r d .
Thi s is a lso th e c s a e w h en th e l ette r r epre s e nt s any n umb e r of th e

form d es c ri be d in 34 9 .
APP R OX IMA T E R OO T S
352 . An y one of th e s u cce ss i v e u mbe r s i n
n , th e e xa m pl e of
3 4 2, i s c al l ed a n app r xi o ma te s qua re r o o t of 2 .
I n g e n e r a l , a ny on e of t h e n u m be r s d l , a 2, e t c .
,
or e tc .
,
in 3 4 5 , i s c al l e d a n app r o xi ma te n th r oo t of a .
3 53 . T h e s u cce ss iv e nu mbe r s ,
i n th e p l e of § 34 2, w h o s e
e xa m
s qu a r e s a r e l e s s t h an 2 may be ,
o bt a i n e d by r e ga r d in g 2 a s a
pe rfe ct s qu are , a nd a pp l y i n g t h e r ul e of 3 04 .
21 0 AD V AN CE D C O U RS E IN A L G EBR A
28 1 4 00
2 8 24 1 1 9 00
1 1 29 6
Th e p r o ce ss may be co n t i n u ed t o a ny de si r ed e xte n t .
I n l i k e m a n n e r t h e r ul e of 3 1 7 m ay be u s ed t o fin d an
a pp r o x i m a t e cu be r oo t of a n u m be r (No te , 31 2) w hi ch i s n o t
a pe r f e c t cu b e ; an d t h e r u l e of 3 25 m ay be u s e d t o fin d a n
a pp r o x i m a t e n t h r o o t of a n u mb e r (No t e 3 23) w h i ch is n o t a
,
pe r f e ct p o w e r of t h e n th de gr ee .
Th e co n s i de ra t i o n s i n 3 06 a n d 3 20 a ppl y e qu a l ly t o a p
p r o x i m ate s qu a r e a n d cu be r oo t s .
35 4 . To find pp r o xi mate r oo t of a f ract i o n w h o s e te rm s

an a
a r e p o s i t i v e i n t e g e r s e xp r e ss ed i n Ar a b i c n u me r a l s , w h o s e
d e n o m i n a t o r i s , a n d wh o s e n u m e r at o r i s n o t a pe r f e ct p o w e r
,
of t h e d e g re e d e n o ted by th e i n de x of th e r e qu i red r oo t w e ,
m ay d i v i d e t h e r e qu i re d a pp r o x i m ate r oo t of t h e n u me r at o r b y
th e r e qu i r ed r oo t o f th e de n o m i n a t o r
I f th e de n o mi n a t o r i s n ot a p e r f e ct p o w e r of t h e d e gr ee
d e n o ted by th e i n d e x of t h e r e qu ir e d r oo t t h e f ract i o n s h ou l d
,
be r ed u ce d t o a n e qu i v a l e n t f ra ct i o n w h o s e de n o mi n at o r i s a
p e r fe ct p o we r of t h i s de g re e .
T h u s l e t i t be r e qu i r e d t o fin d th e s qu ar e r oo t of app roxi
,
m a te l y, t o fo ur d e ci ma l p l a ce s .
2: 24 4 9 4
. 61 23
8 1 6 4
I
E X E RC S E 4 3
F in d t h e a pproxi mate l
va u e of ea c h of th e followi ng t o five d ec imal
pl a c e s :
1 . V5 . 3
. V 85 1. .
21 8 A D VAN C E D CO U R S E IN AL G EBR A
1 ’
T h at 5
is, ( ) a ?
a ”
.
'
B
\ /a
q
I
W h e n ce by 1 5 7, a
Q I p
.
17
We s h all th e n d fi e e n 4 6 as b e i n g t h eqth r oo t of a ”
.
5
i
3 3 3
mp l e , Va " 7
Va Va
.
f
F or
”
etc
‘
e xa a a : a
; ; ; .
1’
We sh ll t h rough out th e r e m
a ain d e r of th e w ork r ega rd a 5 as b e in g th e
c ip a l qth roo t of u
p rin
p
3 59 Meani ng of a Z e ro E xponent
. .
R e qui r e d t h e m e an i n g of a “
‘
.
By 3 5 6, if m i s an y r a ti o n al n u mbe r
’” 0 m+ o m
a X a a a
m
0 a
Wh e n ce, a 1 .
m
a
We S h a ll t h e n de fi n e a
0
as bei ng eq u al t o 1 .
3 60 . Meani ng of a Neg at iv e E xp onent .
R e qu i r e d th e m e an i n g o f a , w h e r e ”
8 re p re s ent s a p o si t i v e
i n te g e r o r a p o s i t i v e fr a ct i o n .
By 3 5 6, a
“
X a
“
a
o
1
1
W h e n ce , a
“
8
a
W e s h all t h e n de fin e a as be i n g e qu al t o 1 d iv i ded b y a
”
.
1 ~
4 1 l
—
F or e xa mpl e , 2
‘
a
a
36 1 I t fol l o ws fr om 3 60 th at
.
An y fa c to r of th e n umera to r of a fra cti o n ma y be tra n sferr ed

to th e d en omi n a to r, or a ny fa cto r of th e d en o mi na tor to th e
nume ra to r if th e s i gn of i ts exp o nen t be ch a nged
,
.
2 3
a b
Th us , 4
m ay be w r i tte n i n t h e fo rm s
cd
3 2 3 —l 2 —4
b a b c a d
’
e tc
2 4’ i -
3
cd d b
‘
a c
S U RD S . TH E O RY O F EXPO N E N T S 21 9
36 2 W e w i l l no w p r o ve t h a t, w it h th e d e fi n i t i o n s of
. 3 58
a n d 3 6 0, e q ua t i o n 35 6, h o l d s fo r al l r a t i o n al v a l u e s o f m ,
a r e r a t i o n al n u mb e r s o r s u r d s
m
n, a n d a p r o v i ded t h a t a an d a
”
’
, .
I t wi ll b e u n d er s t oo d th a t i n al l fr a ct i o na l e x p o n e n t s , th e ,
r e s u l t s a r e l i mi ted t o p r i ncip a l r oo t s .
I L et m a n d n be fr acti o n s of t h e fo rm 1 3 a n d K r e s pe ct i vely
.
, ,
q s
wh e r e p , q, ,
r a n d 3 r ep r e s en t p o s i t i ve i n te g e r s .
p r
By 3 5 8,
—
Va Va
“
9 “
“
x r
3 2 7)
1 65 )
8 5)
M r 2
2 r
9‘ 9
a a
W e h av e n o w p r ov ed t h a t 3 5 6, h o ld s wh e n m an d n
r e p r e s e nt a n p o si t i e r a t i o n a l n u m be r s
y v .
II . L e t m be t i o n al a n d p o s i t i ve,
ra an d le t n q, wh er e q
is ra t i o n al , p o s i t i v e , an d l e s s th an m .
By 85 , or 3 62, I, a
“ ‘
9
X a 9 " W W a
m
Wh e n ce , a
m "
—9
? i
a : a
m
X a
‘
T h at is ,
a
m
X a
" W
I n l i k e m a nn e r t h e l a w m ay b e p r o v ed t o h o l d wh e n n i s
r a t i o n al a n d p o s i t i v e , a n d m w h e i s a t i o n a l p os i t i ve,
p, e r p r ,
an d l e ss t h an n .
III L et m be r at i on al a n d p o s i t iv e a n d
.
,
let n q, wh ere q
is r a t i o n a l, p o s i t i v e , a n d g re ate r t h a n m .
m 1 1 m-a
B y s 3 61 x “
36 2, II ) :
‘
, a a a
m ”
a
‘
ma q
a
In l i k e m a n n e r, th e l a w m a y b e p r o v ed t o h o l d wh e n n i s
ra t i o n al an d p o s i ti v e a n d m w h e r e i s r a t i o n l p o s i t i e
, p , p a ,
v ,
an d g r e at e r th an n .
220 ADV ANC E D CO UR S E IN ALG E BR A
IV . L et m p, an d n q, w here p an d q ar e r a t i o n al
an d p o s iti ve .
1 1
T h e n, a
‘
9
X a
‘
g
'
z
p q 1 9 +q
85 , or 3 62, I) a
‘
P
‘
a a (1
H e n ce ,
a
m
X a
”
a
m”
fo r al l r a t i o n al v al u e s of m an d n .
F or ex a m p l e, 2 5 2 5 3
‘ ‘ ‘
a X a a a ;
5
1 +
5 7
a X a 7 = a f z ai , et c .
3 63 . We h a v e for t i o n al v al u e s of a m,
a ll r a ,
an d n, p r ov i ded
m
th at an d a r a t i o n a l n u m be r s o r s u r d s
"
a a re ,
m
X a
”
: 85, 3 62) a
m
a m
W h e n ce, n
a
‘
"
0 7% 3
1
= Z:
F or e xamp l e, aT
..
a
a
a t
3 64 We w i ll n o w p r o v e th a t e qu at i o n
. 3 5 6, h ol d s for
a l l r a t i o n al v a l u e s of a m, a n d n, p r o v i ded t h a t a
m m
a nd a
"
, ar e
r a t i o n a l n u mb e r s o r s u r d s .
In a l l f r a ct i o n a l e x p o n e n t s t h e r e s u lt s are l i mi ted t o p r1 n01 ,
a l r oo t s
p .
I L e t n be a p o si t i v e i n te g e r
. .
T h e n, a X a
m
X a
m
X t o n f a ct o r s
“
m”
8 5 362) a .
II L et n B, wh e r e p an d q ar e p o si t iv e in te g e r s
'
. .
9
e 1 ?
Th en V am
q q
, (
a
’” p
364 , I) a
III . L et n s, w h e r e s is ra t i o n al an d p o s itiv e .
1
T h e n (“ y ’
m
m
3 64 , I or II)
( )
s
a
Hen ce, (a ) m n m fo r "

a ll r a ti o n al v al u e s of m and n .
1 1 1
l xZ
F o r e x am p l e , ( )
. .
z g 6 “
a 0
2X 4
3
'
g ‘
a a ;
b‘ 1 4
e tc
‘ " ‘
a a ; .
222 ADVAN C E D C O U RSE IN AL G EBR A
2 . Mu l t i p l y a +2 a
?
t _3 a %by 2 _4 a
a 2a g '’
3 a i l
2 4 ar t 6 ar t
2 a 4: 6a 1
4 at1 8 1 +1 24
-
t
sa — 1 2+1 s a i
2 0a t 1 8 ar t .
—l
3 . D iv i de 1 8 xy
“
2
23 ar ty 6 x y
Z
by i
3x y
"
1
xi 2
‘
x i
y
.
1 8 23 ar ty 6 a
3 g y
-1
+
-2
1 8 $ 31 6 1 2
6 5137 —1
1 1 af i 6 x
‘
1 2
9 y y
h
6 w ir l
2 4 fly
i —l z
9 3 “f g 6w y
9 3 063 / 3 6
It i s i mpor ta nt t o rra nge th e d ivid e nd d ivi s or

a , , a nd e a c h remai nd e r
in th e s am e or d e r of po we rs of s ome c o mmo n l e tte r .
4 . E xp a n d by t h e B i n o mi a l T h e orem .
4 — V In ? ”
i
m nt
.
m 4
-
i i i
(m i
r ( 9( 4
m > 1 0(m re m )?
‘
5 in
i
1 0(m n i
m r i
m ):
5 (
‘
in
i
m r
m 3 — 5 m
’ 1’
7
’ '3 -mi
i
’
-1 0m -
g m
'
%
l 2 Q
5 m f ”
m §
'
Zo
ii i 5m g ‘ ‘
1 0s f 1 0mg 5mi g m E
.
S U RDS . T HE O RY OF E X PO N E N T S 223
EX ERC I S E 4 4
It w i ll b e und er tood , i n t h e follo wi ng s et of e xampl e s t h at e ve ry

s ,
l ette r us e d a s t h e i nd e x of a roo t r epr e s en ts a pos it ive i n t eg e r an d e ve ry ,
oth e r l e tte r a rati ona l n umb e r s uc h t h at e ve ry expr essi on of t h e form ,
a
"
o r V 5 i s a r at i o n a l numb e r or s urd .
E xpr e ss wi th r ad ic al s igns :
1 . a
li
bi . 2 . e gg/32 % 3 . 6 m7
n % . 4 .
2
92"
a x y .
l m
E xpr e ss w i th frac tio na l e xpo ne nts :

n . 6 .
7
5 35 1 65 5 . 7 Ve.l 5
i / 5
% . s . wa x/E .
E xpre ss w ith po s iti ve e xpo nents

—i
9 . x7
y
‘
4 . 1 0 . 1 1 . m n 1 2 . a
-m
b n
c 9 .
In ea c h of follo wi ng t rans fe r
th e ,
all l i te ra l f a c tors fro m th e d en o mi
n at or to th e nume r a t or :
-3
o o o
3 i
4 yg2
p
p
. .
e
by
In ea c h of th e follo wing tr ans fe r all l itera l f actors from th e numer ator ,
t o th e d en omin ator
m
-8
“ f
b 3F 77
27 3 7 T W "
O
1 7 1 8 1 9 20
%
. . . .
1 ' 6
2 b u z/ z
‘
F i nd th e va ue l s of th e follo wi ng :
21 .
( a i m s . 23 .
(4 ) 4
-7
I3 . 25 . 1 25 % 27 .
22 .
(a )
-3 -9
24 .
( a i fiz
‘
26 . 1 6 7 . 28 . 79
2 3 .
Mul tipl y th e follo wing :

29 . x i — 4 x %5 + 6 x
‘
i by 2 42 + i
x i — s ar i .
2' 2 m %
—
30 m l 1 3 m in
’
2
by
"
i
4 m ni -Z1
‘
6n
-s
q
" v
n u
’ ‘
' - -
(1 35 1 ny s a ib t 2a i
1
a bi
7
31 . 3 + 4 a b by 6 a
D ivi d e th e follo w i n g
'3 '
2m z
32 m 2
5 u 1 4 m 2
by m 4 n2 m 3n
I t!
‘
n
’
n
‘ ‘
. .
3 1 2 1
x73
"
2
1 0xy 9 by fl y ? 2 xy5
9
33 x y a
] .
b% 2 bi
.
34 . 25 2 i
tr a
l “
by a %
224 AD V AN CE D CO U R S E IN ALG E B R A
( In th e fo ll o w in g te n e xa mp le s , use th e rul es o f C ha p . V II .
)
F i n d t h e v a l ue o f
3 5 (2 a % 3 fl y
-2 8
36 ( 5m n 8 mn2
% %
. .
—
37 ( 4 x y 7 z
-2
)( 4 33
y
g 7
%4 y
.
if if -l i
(a
‘
z f
38 ( 3 95 40 b 2 at a b y
%
. .
%
.
-2 2 3.
(
3 3
39 (a b 2 b ) 41 3 2
"
. a . 90 23
g
42
25 a
-6
49 m
43
8 x2 2 7gr
? 44
%
.
—
. .
5 a
‘
3 — 7m 3 a g + b
45 F ac to r 2 8 b 9 by th e rul e of 1 77
‘
a .
% fib i
.
46 . F a ct o r (1
’ “
b %
by th e rule of 1 72 .
Ex p an d th e follo w in g by th e B in omi al Th e orem :

47 .
( a 3? 3 b ’
0
4
.
m
—
— ? M j
g y L
a i
5
4s O
23 ) 5o
( .
F in d th e
51 . t e rm O f 7
{ )
a
1 7
. 52 .
1
te rm
1 3
of
%
)
l4
53 . 1 0th t e r m of
W )
F i nd th e s quar e r oot ofa %
—
54 . b 3 ‘
6 5 b
‘
1 1 2 a 3 4 afi b .
55 . F i nd th e c ub e root of
22
%6 %
+ 2 1 %
— 4 4 % 6 3
x 5 3 x
‘
x
’ —
54 5 % 2 76 %
l
S i mp i fy th e fo ll owing :
E
56 .
[W i g-2
) 60 .
[ W H
W HP Q
3m
m 2n
1 m + 1
21 2.
57 . 61 .
+
m m
w 2n
+ 1 x2n — 1
m u m fl % %
( >( )
+ 2 m -n b
a a +
58 1
a m— n
a n —1
3
5“ l 'W l: x y
59 63
%— 2 b% % %%
.
.
a o — 6 b§ cz -a
22 6 AD V AN CE D CO U RSE IN ALG E B RA
W e th en h a v e t h e fo ll o w i n g r ul e :
R e s o l ve th e exp r es s i o n un d e r th e r a d i ca l s i gn i n to two fa ctors ,
th e s eco n d o f w h i ch co n ta i n s n o f a cto r wh i ch i s a p e rfect p o we r of

th e sa me d eg r ee as th e su rd .
E xtr a ct th e r equ i r e d root o f th e fi r s t fa cto r ,

a nd multip ly th e
r es ult by th e i n d i ca ted r oo t o f th e s eco n d .
I f th e r
d e r t h e r a d i ca l s i gn h a s a n um e r i cal
e xp e s s i o n un
fa ct o r w h i ch ca n n o t b e r e a d i l y fact o r e d by i n s p e ct i o n i t i s ,
co n v e n i e n t t o r e s ol v e i t i n t o i t s p r i m e fa ct o r s .
3 . R e d uce to its s i m pl e s t fo r m .
”
V x x3 x
3
x 3 x
4 . R e d u ce V IZ5 x 1 4 7t o i t s s i m pl e s t fo r m .
3 73 . C ASE I I I . Wh en th e exp r es s i on und e r th e r a d i ca l s ign
is a fr acti o n .
I n th i s ca s e , w e multip ly bo th te rms o f th e f r a ct i o n b y s u ch a n
exp r es s i o n a s w i ll ma ke th e d en o mi n a to r a p f
e r e ct p o w e r of th e
sa me d eg r ee as th e su rd ,
an d th en p r oce e d as in 3 72 .
Ex . Rd
e u ce to i t s s i mpl e s t fo r m .
Mul t i ply i n g b oth t e r m s o f th e fr a cti o n by 2 a, we h av e

9 X 2a 9
X 2 a = x
V1 6a 4
4 a
2
3 74 . R educt i on of S ur ds of D iffer ent De gr ees r

t o S u d s of t h e
S ame D eg r ee .
E x R e d u ce V 2
.
,
an d to surd s o f th e s am e d e g r ee .
T h e l o w e s t co m m o n m ul t i p l e o f2 , 3, and 4 is 1 2 .
B y s 3 27,
—
1 .
S UR D S . TH E O R Y O F E X PO N E N TS 22 7
W e th e n h a v e th e fo l lo w i n g r ul e
M a ke th e i n d ex
f r d
o th e C M
ea ch s u of th e
g i v e L
n i nd.i ces ;. .
a n d r a i s e th e exp r es s i on u n d e r ea ch r a d ica l s ign to a p o w er wh os e
exp o n ent i s o bta i n ed by

d i v id i ng thi s C M th e g iven i n d exL . . . by .
T h e r e la tiv e m a g ni tud e o f s urd s m a y b e d e te r m in e d by r e d uc in g th e m ,
ifn e c e s s a ry t o s ur d s o f th e s a me d eg r e e
,
.
Th us s in c e
,
t h at « 2
ADDI TI O N A ND S OF S UR D S
3 75 . To ad d or su btr act si mi la r
rd s a d d o r s ub
su
tr act t h e i r fi t
co e f ci e n s , a n d mu lti p ly th e r e s ul t by th e i r comm on
s urd p a rt .
_
1 . R e q uir e d th e su m of V 20 an d V45 .
R e duci n g e ac h su rd to its S i m pl e s t fo r m
VE + V1 5 = V4
2 . S i mpli fy
x 2+
i n
M UL TI PLI C A I ON O F S UR D S
T
3 76 . 1 . Mul t i ply V 6 by x/i
By 1 6 5, V 6 V1 5 x 1 5
2 . 7» by
M u l t i p ly V 2 a
2
.
R e d uci n g t o su rd s o f th e s a me d e gre e
3 . Mul ti p ly 5 by
V5
3 2 7)
2 28 ADVAN C E D C O UR S E I N ALG B R A E
W e th e n h a v e t h e fo ll o w i n g r ule :
To multip ly toge th e r tw o o r mo r e su rd s ,
r ed uce th em, if n eces
s a ry, to s u r d s of th e s a me d eg r ee .
JlIultip ly tog eth er th e exp r es s i on s un d e r th e r a d i ca l s ig n s , a n d
wri te th e r es u lt un d er th e co mmon r a d i ca l S i gn .
Th e r e s ult s h ould be r e d uc ed t o i ts s i mples t fo rm .
4 . M ul t i p ly 3 \ /l + x— 4 \ /xby
3V1 + x— 4 \ /x
— 8 x=3
3 77 I f a . surd i s i n th e fo r m d ,
ra t i o n a l
w h ere a an d b are
e x p r e s s i o n s t h e co e f
,
fici e n t m ay b e i n tr o d u ce d u n d e r t h e r a d i ca l
S i n by r a i s i n g i t t o t h e n th o w e r a n d mul t i p ly i n g t h e e x
g p ,
p r e s s i o n u n d e r t h e r a d i ca l s i g n by t h e r e s ul t .
Ex . I n tr o duce th e co e f
fici e n t o f2 a un der th e r a d i cal
S l gn " 3
V3 x
’
2 2
= \ /8 a x 3 3
a x
2
.
3 78 r a ti on a l e xp r e s s i on m ay be e xp r e s s e d i n t h e fo r m o f
. A
a s u rd o f a n y d e g r e e by r a i s i n g i t t o th e p o w e r d e n o t e d by th e
i n d e x an d w r i t i n g t h e r e s ult u n d e r th e co rr es p o nd i ng r a d i cal
,
S i gn .
DI V I S I O N OF S UR D S
3 79 . 1 . D ivi d e Wi e by
3
V4
By 29 3, 95
5
We c a n us e 29 3 i n t h e abo ve ; for we kn o w b y § 35 1 th at i t h olds

wh en W a nd { Vb a re s u rd s .
2 . D i vi d e by
4 . E xtr a ct th e fi fth r o o t of
6 93
Th e n ,
to ex tr a ct an y r o ot o f a s urd ,
Ifp os s i ble, extr a ct th e r equ i r ed r oot of th e exp r es s i on un d er th e

'
ra d i ca l s i g n o th e r w i s e, mult ip ly th e i n d ex of the s u r d by th e i nd ex
ofth e r equi r ed r oo t .
Ift h e s ur d h a s a c oe ffic i e n t w h i ch i s n o t a p e r fe c t p o w e r o f th e d e gr e e
d e n o t e d by t h e in d e x o f th e r e qui r e d r o o t i t s h o uld b e in t r o d u c e d un d e r
,
th e r a d i c a l s i g n 3 77) b e fo r e a ppl y in g th e rul e .
Th us , «2 .
S PE C IAL M E TH O D S IN M ULTI PLI CA TI O N
38 1 . Th e r ul e s o fCh ap V II s h o ul d be . use d t o fin d th e l
v a ue
of any p r o d u ct w h i ch co m e s un d e r th e m .
1 . E xp an d ( V 6 V 3 )?
By 1 31 , ( V 6 V E) Z
V
( )6 2
2 V6 V3 V
( )3 ?
2 . E xp a n d (4 (4
'
By 1 3 2, (4 { 75) 4 2
1 6 {75 (s
S UR D F A C TO RS
38 2 . Th e me th o d s of C h ap . VIII m ay be e mp ol yed to
s e pa a e r t an r
e xp es s i o n i n to s urd fa ct o r s .
1 . F a ct o r 2 % 6 x by t h e m e th o d of 1 55 .
6 x 2 % 6 2 \ /x (1
2 . F a cto r a b by th e meth o d of 1 71 .
a b ( /EV
v ( 3 (
x t 7 : V d V i 2
m /6t x/b )
.
W e may al s o fa c to r a b b y th e m et h od of 1 77 th us ,
a b (
a
t /b y t
s
( 2i
/ Wa nt/a) ?
vat/5 ( Vi m
/
( d
S
\ W) .
S UR DS . T H EO RY O F E X PON E N T S 23 1
RE DU CTI O N OF A FR A CTI O N W H O S E D E N O M INATOR IS

NO T A R A TI O NAL E X PR E S S I O N T O AN E QUI V AL E NT
F R A CTI O N HAV ING A R A TI O NAL D E N O M INA TO R
3 83 C AS E I . Wh en th e d enomi na to r i s a mo n omi a l
. .
Th e r e d uct i o n m ay be e ffect e d by m ul t i p ly i n g b o t h t e r m s O f
th e fr a cti o n by a S u rd o f t h e s a m e d e g r e e a s t h e d e n o mi na t o r ,
h a v i n g un d e r i t s r a d i cal S i g n s u ch a n e xp r e s s i o n a s w i l l mak e
t h e d e n o mi n at o r o f t h e r e s ul t i n g fr act i o n r a t i o n al .
5
Ex . R e d uce to a n e qui v al e n t fracti on h av i n g a r at i on al
d e n o mi n at o r .
Mul ti ply i n g bo th t e r m s by \ /9
3
a, we h av e
—
53 9 7 5s b i /7
t
5 0 9 2
——
3 3
Wt 3 ' '
3
\ /€ /2 7a
2 2 3
a V3 a \ 0!
7 58 4 . C ASE I I . Wh en th e d en o mi n a to r i s th e su m f
o a
ra
s
l
ur d
i o na l
s .
e xp res s i o n a nd a q ua d a ti crs u rd ,
or o f two qua d ra ti c
5 _ V?
1 R e d uce to a n e qui v a e n l t fr acti on h a vi ng a r ati on al
W
.
d e n o mi n a o
t r .
5
Mul ti ply i n g b o th t e r m s by 5 V 2, we h av e
25 2 _27
1 31 ,
1 3 2)
23
2 . R e d uce to an e q ui v al e n t fr act i on h a vi ng
a r at i o n al d e n omi n at o r .
—
Mul ti pl y in g b oth t e r m s by 2 \ /Ct a b,
3 \ /d — 2 \ /a — b V 2V a — b
(3 3 -
)
2 x/ot — 3 x/a — b
‘
(2 \ /d — 3 \ /0t — b
)
6 a + 5 x/dV a — b— 6 a — b
t ) 6 b + 5 \ /a — z
ab
4 a — 9 ( a — b
) 9 b— 5 a
W e th e n h av e th e fol l ow i n g r ul e .
23 2 AD V A NCE D C O U RS E IN A LG EB R A
M ultip ly bot h te r ms of th e f ra cti on by th e d en om in a to r w i th th e

s ign between i ts ter ms r eve s ed r .
I f th e d e n o mi n a to r i s t h e s u m o f a r ati o n a l e x p re s s i on a nd
t w o o r m o r e q u a dr a t i c s urd s, o r t h e s um o f thr ee o r m o r e
q u a dr a t i c s u rd s t h e fr a c
,
t i o n m a
y be r e d u ce d t o an e q u i v a l e n t
fr act i on h a v i n g a r at i o n a l d en omi na t o r by r e pea t e d ap pl i cat i o n s
o f t h e ab o v e r ul e .
4 + X/3
4 2 — 2 v2i 3
1 2 + 8 x/3 6 + 4 x/3
Mult i ply i ng b ot h t e rm s o f t h e l a tt e r by 6 4 V 3,
4 + X/ 3 6i
_1 2
Th e e xa mple m ay a sol_
_
be l
s o ve d b y mult iply ing_b oth te rms of th e
g iv e n fra c t i o n by 4 VI, or by 4
38 5 . C AS E III . Wh en th e d e n omi n a tor i s the su m of a
r a ti o na l exp res s i on a nd a s ur d of th e nth d egr ee, or f

o two
su rd s of th e n th d egr ee .
1
1 . R e d uce 3
to an e q ui va e n t l fr ac t i o n h avi n g a r ati onal
2+ V3
d e n o mi n at o r .
W e h av e , (
a b)(a 2
ab
2
b) a
s 3
b .
Th en (2 + , [2 2
23 3+ 2 3
Th en i fw e ,
m ul t i p ly b o th t e r m s o f th e fr act i o n by
2
2
th e d en o mi nator w i ll b eco me rat i ona l .

23 4 ADVAN C E D CO URS E IN ALG E B R A
4 . R e d u ce to an e qui v al en t fr a ct i on h av i n g a
r ati on al d e n omin at o r .
Th e l o w e s t c o m m on m u l t i pl e o f th e i n d i ce s i s 4 .
No w, ( a b)(a 3
a
2
b ab
2 3
b )2 a
4
b4
.
Mul t i ply i n g b o th t e rm s O f th e fr a ct i o n by
we have
(fi r Ne ws ( W )
W 3 ?
( v3
3
.
V2 ( V 2 —
Vz 72
V2 + ( V 2)
4
38 6 . Th e m e t h o ds of 3 83 t o 3 8 5 a re of ent a d v an t a g e o us
i n fin d i n g t h e a p p o xi m a t e
r v a l ue of a fr a ct i on w h o s e d e n om i
na ot r is n ot r a t i o n al .
1
Ex . F i n d th e a p p ox ir m a te v al ue o f to thr ee p l ac e s
Of d e ci m al s .
2 V2
1 -
: 1 707 M
2 (2 4—2 2
3 8 7 I n li k e m a n n e r,
. a fr a ct i o n w h o s e nume a o r t r is n ot
r at i on al m ay i n ce r t a i n ca s e s be r e d uce d to a n e q ui va l e n t fr ac
t i o n h a vi n g a r a t i o n a l n u m e r a t or .
PR OP E R T E S I OF QUADR ATI C S UR D S 3 68)
38 8 . A qua d r a ti c s ur d ca nn o t equa l th e su m f
o a ra ti ona l
exp r es s i on a nd a qu a d a ti crs u rd .
F o r, i f p o s s i b l e , l e t x/d b x/O,
wh e r e b is a r at i on al e xpr e s s i on ,
an d \ / d a n d x/c quadr at i c s urd s .
S URDS . T H E O RY O F E X PO N E N T S 23 5
S qua r in g b o th m e mb e r s , a b 2
2 b \ /O c,
or , 2 b\ /E= a — b2 —
c .
_ 2 _0
b
a
Wh e nce , x/O
Th at i s , aqua dr at i c s urd e qual t o —a r a ti on al e xp r e s s i on .
B ut th i s i s i mp o s s i b l e ; w h en ce x/ct cann o t e qua l

,
b
389 . If wh e r e a a nd c a re ra ti o na l ex
p r es s i o n s ,
a nd b a nd d qua d r a ti c su rds ,
th e n
a : c, a nd
F o r, tran s p o s i n g a, b c a
Th e n , c — a = Q ; fo r , by § 3 8 8, a q u a dr ati c su rd c an n o t
e qual r a t i on a l
a r
exp e s s i o n p l us a q u a
dr a ti c su rd .
Th e r e fo r e a ,
c, a n d co n s e qu e n tl y b
390 . If wh er e a, b, x, a nd y a re
r a ti on a l e xp res s i o n s , a n d a g r e a te r th a n V b, th en
Va = V E— V y .
S q ua r i n g b o th m e mb e r s o f th e g i v e n e qu a t i on ,
W h en ce by ,
3 89 , a x y,
an d
S ubtr a cti n g, a b x 2 n y .
E xtr ac t i n g t h e s q ua e r r oo t of b oth m e mb e r s ,
39 1 Th e p r ece d in g p r i n ci p l e s m ay be u s e d t o fin d t h e
.
s q u a r e r oo t o f c e r t a i n e x r e s s i on s w h i ch a r e i n t h e fo r m o f
p
t h e s um o f a r a t i o n a l e xp r e s s i o n a n d a qu a dr a t i c s urd .
Ex . F i n d th e s q ua e r r o ot of 1 3
A s s um e , ( 1 )
( )
2
23 6 AD V AN C E D CO UR SE IN A G EB R A L
Mul t i ply (1 ) by V1 69 1 60 x y .
Or, x y 3 .
( )
3
S q ua r i n g
Wh e nce by ,
3 89 , x y 1 3 .
( )
4
Add i ng (3 ) an d 2x 1 6, or x 8 .
S u btr act i n g (3 ) fr o m ,
2y 1 0, or y 5 .
Su bsti tut e in V 1 3 — V 1 60 :
2
V8 V5 2V2 V5 .
39 2 . E xa mp l es l i k e
th at of 3 9 1 may be s ol ve d by i n s pe c
t i on by pu t ti n g th e g i v e n e xp r e s s i on i n to th e fo r m O f a t ri
,
n o m i a l p e r fe ct s qu a r e a s fo l l o w s :
R ed u ce th e s ur d te r m s o th a t i ts co efilci ent ma y be 2 .
S ep a r a te th e r a ti o na l ter m i n to two p a r ts w h os e p r o d uct s h a ll be

th e exp r es s i o n un d er th e r a d i ca l s ign of th e s ur d te r m .
E xtr act th e s qua r e roo t of ea ch p a r t a n d conn ect th e r es ults by

,
th e s i gn ofth e s u r d term
1 . E xtr act th e s q uar e r oo t Of 8 + V 48 .
W e h av e ,
W e th e n s e pa a e r t 8 i n t o t w o p a rt s w h o s e p r o d uct i s 1 2 .
Th e p a rts are 6 an d 2 ; w h e n ce,
2 . E xtr a ct th e s qua e r r o ot of 2 2 3 V 32 .
W e th e n s e p a r at e 22 i n t o t w o p a rt s w h o s e p r od uct i s 72 .
Th e p a rt s ar e 1 8 a n d 4 ; w h e n ce,
39 3 . It is bl e t o fin d by th e me th o d s o f
s om e ti m e s p os s i ,
39 1 a n d 3 9 2 th e s qu a r e r o o t o f a n e xp r e s s i o n w h i ch i s t h e
,
s um o f t w o q u a dr a t i c s u rd s .
E x R e qu i r e d t h e s qu a r e r o o t o f V 3 9 2 + V 3 6 0
. .
2 38 ADVAN C E D C O URS E 1 N ALG E B R A
In th e followm g , introd u c e th e c oe ffic i e n ts un d e r th e rad i c al s i gns :

4
6 b2
/l 25
8
2 7 4 x y3 \ /3 2
904 3
4
2
28 5 3 4
b
. . . a
\
:
5
a
— — 2 x2
a — x
/+
2
a dx a
29 ao
\
.
.
ax — 3
.
2 2
d + x a 2 x x ( cc
D ivid e th e follo w in g
3 5
{ 71 2
E
3
31 by 32 V1 4 ab
?
by 8 2
(2 5 33 by
\
. . . . .
3 3
36 . d 2 2
b by Va b 2 2
at 8
S i mpl i fy th e follo w in g
37 ( WE
IR )
5 1 0
. 39 . 41 . a b .
Ex p an d th e follo w i ng by t h e rules o f Ch a p . V II :
( 5 V2 2 V6) 2
43 . .
44 . 4s . V 3 V5 — 2 V7 X V 3 V5 + 2 V7 .
3 V -4 V x y)
— 2 — Vb )
45 .
( x +y . 49 . .
46 .
( 3 V 5 50 .
51 .
‘ —
52 .
( x/ 1 0 53 .
F a c t or th e follo w ing
—
Vi
’
c V bd
‘
54 . V2 a Vs d . 55 x
. 2o . 56 . ac av d .
5 7 F a c to r
. by t h e r ule of 1 71 .
58 . F a c to r a b b y th e m e th o d of 1 78 , t a kin g { 75 Vb for th e firs t

fac to r .
R e d uc e ea ch of t h e fol l o w in g to an e quiv l n t fr c ti n
a e a o ha vin g a
r a t i o n al de n o min ato r :
6 2
a
59 . 62 .
5
V 2 7ab
1 ‘
c 3
60 .
63 .
66 .
61 . 64 . 67 .
4V 5 + 5 V3 V6
S UR D S . T H E O RY O F E X PO N E N TS 2 39
1
68 . 69 . 7o .
3 + V2
F i nd th e a pp roxi mate v alue of e a ch of th e follo w in g to five plac es of
i
d e c ma l s
5 4”
71 . 72 . 73 .
3 V8
E xtra c t th e s qu a e r r oot of e a ch o f th e fo ll ow in g :
_
74 . 24 2 V 1 40 . 76 . 38 5 V 52 . 78 . V 34 3 V IE .
75 . 87 V 2 24 0 . 77 6 1
. 28 V 8 .
Ex p a n d by th e B i nomial Th e or e m
5 6
1 n 3 a b
82 .
(x V yz ) 7 . 83 . 84 .
n 2 m V5 3 V3
F ind th e
a 1 6
85 . 5 th te rm Of ( x
2 86 . 9 th t e rm Of
x
S O LU TI O N OF E QUATI O N S INV O LV ING TH E UN KN O W N

NUM B ER S UND E R R ADI CAL S IGNS
39 5 . To s ol v e a n e qu a t i o n i n v o l v i n g th e
bers un k n o w n n u m
un d e r r a d i ca l s i g n s w e tr a n s p o s e t h e t e r m s s o t h a t a s u rd t e r m
,
m ay s t an d a l o n e i n on e m e mb e r an d t h e n r a i s e b o th m e m b e rs ,
t o a p o w e r o f t h e s a m e d e g r e e a s t h e s urd .
If s u rd t e r ms s t il l r e ma i n w e r e p e a t t h e o p e r a t i on
,
.
39 6 . We w ill now
p r o v e t h a t
If bo to th e me p os iti ve
mi t gr be
,
of an equ a ti o n r a is ed sa
n e al r es ulti n g equ a t i o n w i ll h a ve a ll th e s olu ti o n s
of th e gi ve n e qua ti o n, a n d , i n gen er a l, a d d i ti o n a l o n es .
Co ns i d e r th e e q ua ti o n A B .
( 1 )
R ai s i n g b o th me m b e r s t o t h e n th p o we r, it b ein g a p o s i t i ve
i n t e ge r, w e h a v e
A n
B "
,
or A ”
B "
O .
( )
2
F a ct o r i n g t h e fir s t m e m b e r
”
( A B )(A ’” 1
A n 2
B R ) O ( )
3
‘
.
24 0 ADVAN C E D CO URS E IN ALG E B R A
By 1 8 2, ( )
3 i s e q ui v a l e n t t o th e e q uat i on s
A — B = O, A = B, an d
'
‘
OI
-Z
+ A
1
+ B
~ r
B + m i
Th us ,
eq u at i o n ( )
2 h a s no t o n ly th e s ol u t i on s of bu t a l so
th e s ol u ti on s of
ir-1 M "-1
A A E B 0,
w h i ch , i n g e n e r al , d o n ot s at i s fy
Ta ke,
for e xa mpl e , th e e qu t i n
a o
x 3 .
( 1 )
S qu r in g b
a o th m e mb e r s , we h av e
2'
x 2
9, 01 9 0 ( 2)
‘
(3 .
F a cto
r in g t he fi rs t m e mb er , and pla c in g th e fac tors se p arately e qual t o
m+ 3 = _3 ;
i
2 o, or x
an d x 01 x 3
‘
2 .
Th us , e qu t i n
a o ( )
2 h as t h e r oot 3, a nd , in a dd it i o n , th e root 3 .
39 7 I t fo l l ow s fr om ~§ 3 9 6 th a t all s ol uti o n s o bt ai n e d by
.
r a i s i n g b ot h m e mb e r s o f a n e qua t i on t o a ny p o s i ti v e i n t e gr al
'
p o w e r s h o ul d b e v e r ified o n l y s uc h a s s a t i s fy t h e g i v e n e q ua t i o n
s h oul d be r e t a i n e d .
I n v e ri fy i n g s o l ut i o n s o f e qu at i o n s i n v ol vi n g t h unk n o wn
e
n u mb e r s un d e r r a d i ca l s i g n s it s h o ul d b e ca r e fully bo rn e ,
i n mi n d th a t on ly p r i n cip a l va lues Of th e r oo ts a r e con s i d er ed o
39 8 . E xampl es .
1 . S ol v e th e e q ua ti on V m x 1 .
T r an s po s i n g x, s 5 x 1 .
S q ua r i n g b oth me mb e r s ,
x
2
5 x
2
2 x 1 .
Tr a n s p o s i n g, I 2 x 6 ; w h e n ce , x 3 .
in g x given firs t me mb e r b e c o mes

‘
P ut t 3 , the
Th us , th e solut o i nx 3 s at s i fie s th e g iv e n e quati on .
24 2 AD V AN CE D CO UR SE I N ALG E B R A
I
EX E R C S E 4 6
S ol ve th e follo w in g :
1 . { 78 x 3
3 ,
e . 7 . x/ x (
3 \ /Z x
1 3
.
2
1 4 . V x + 1 0x
l5 .
IRR ATI O NAL NU MB E R S

39 9 . C on s i d e r t h e se
'
ri e s
a l) a
'
r)
and an; “ 2) an
i n W h i ch t h e t e r m s
of ( )
2 c o n t i n u a ll y i n c r e a s
of
e ; a
(
n
1
d
)
l e
con
t a
'
ti n ually d e cr e a s e
,
, an d
r
a , a p p o ac
th e
h
t e rms
th e l i m i t
'
0, w h e n 7 i s i n d e fi n i t e l y i n cr e a s e d .
Th e n , an y r w h i ch i s n ot a r a t i on a l n um b e r a n d
e xp e s s i o n ,
w h i ch i s g r e a t e r t h a n t h e t e r m s o f a n d l e s s t h a n th e te r m s
of i s ca ll e d a n Irrat i onal Number .
Th e co mm o n l i m i t o f th e 7th t e r m s o f (1 ) an d '
W h en 7 i s
i n d e fi n i t el y i n cr e a s e d i s c o n s i d e r e d t h e v a lue o f t h e a b o v e
,
i rr a t i o n a l n u mb e r .
'
A s urd is o n e fo rm o fi rra t i o n al nu mb e r .
R at i o n a l a n d i rr a t i o n al n um b e r s a r e ca l l e d R e al Number s .
S UR DS . TH E O R Y O F EX PO N E N TS 24 3
"2
4 00 C on s i d e r , fo r
. e x a m pl e , th e e x p e s s i on a. r
";2
a l i es b et w e e n th e t w o se r i e s ( co mp a r e
2 l 42
a a
( 1)
.
u .
, ’ )
i n 1 4 1
an d a , a ,
a , ( )
2
fl
If we r e pr e s en t th e 7t h term of 2 b
( ) y a 1 0" 1
,
th e 1 th term
u+ 1
of 1( ) w i ll be
Th en , t h e d ifi e r e n ce
c
b e t wee n th e rt h t e rms w ill be
u+1 n n l
"— 1 7— -1
aw
1
n
a, 1 0 (1 1 0
(
—1
No w, ai m is al w a ys le s s th a n a
2
.
1
"
An d, by 34 3, a pp o a ch e s r th e li m i t a ,
or 1
when r i s i n d e fi n i t e l y i n cr e a s e d .
Th e r e fo r e , t h e r
e xp e s s i on 3
( ) p
a p r o a ch e s t h e l i m i t 0 w h e n r
i s i n d e fi ni t e ly i n cr e a s e d .
VE
H e n ce ,
OL is th e l i mi t of th e rt h te rm of e i th e r (1 ) o r
w h en '
7 is i n d e fi n i t e l y i n cr e a s e d .
A m e an i n g s i m i l a r t o t h e a b o v e w ill be a tta ch e d to a ny fo r m
o fi rr at i on al e xp o n e n t .
4 01 . Th e d e fi n i ti on s o f Add i t i on a n d Mul t i p li cati o n gi v e n ,
in 3 4 8, h o l d w h e n a n y o r a l l o f t h e n u m b e r s i n v ol v e d a r e
i rr a t i o n al :
4 02 . I t m a y b e s h o w n, a s i n 3 5 0, th a t t h e fun d am e n t a l
l aw s of 1 2 an d 1 4 h ol d w h en a n y of t h e l e tt e r s i n v o l v e d
r e p r e s e n t i rr at i o n al n umb e r s .
Th e n e v e ry s t a t e m e n t o r r ul e i n th e r e m ai n i n g p o rt i o n s o f
, ,
C h a p I o r i n C h ap s I I t o X V I i n clu s i v e i n r e ga rd t o
.
,
.
, ,
e xp re s s i on s w h e r e an l e tt e r i n v o l v e d r e p r e s e n t s a n y r a t i o n al
y
n um b e r h o l d s a l s o w h en t h e l e t t e r r e p r e s e n t s a n y r e a l n u mb e r
,
.
Al s o t h e th e o r e m s o f
, 1 65 a n d 29 3 m ay b e p r o v e d t o h o l d
w h e n a ny o r all o f th e l e tt e r s a b c e t c r e p r e s e n t i rr a t i on al , , ,
.
,
numb e r s w h i ch a r e p o s i t i v e i f n i s e v e n ; a n d t h e th e o r e m o f
3 2 7 m ay b e p r o v e d t o h o ld w h e n a i s a ny i rr at i o n al nu mb e r
wh o s e mt h p ow e r i s p os i t i v e i f n i s e v e n .
24 4 AD V AN CE D CO U R S E IN AL G E B R A
4 03 . We w ill n ow p r o v e th a t e q ua t i o n h ol d s w h en
3 ,
5 6
m is a p os i ti v e r a t i on a l n umb e r a n d n a , s u rd o f t h e fo r m { 7 5 ,
wh e r e p a n d b h a v e t h e s a me m e a n i n g s a s in 34 8 .
By 39 9 , m
x i s t h e l i m i t, w h e n '
r is i n d e fi n i t e ly i n
'
a
m
r d , wh r b, h a s t h e s am e m e an i n g
b
c e as e ,
of a a e e . as in 34 8 .
m
p
” m+br
o o
li m i t w h en
0 0 0 9
Al s o , a is th e of a , 7 IS
’
i n d e fin l t e l
y
i n cr e a s e d .
B ut s i n ce m an d b, are r ati o n al ,
ir
a
“
x a : 85 or
T h e n a X a a nd a,
m br m+ br
a r e fu n ct i o n s o f 7 w h i ch ar e
‘
e q ual
fo r e v e ry r a t i o n al v a l ue o f r ; a n d by 252 th e i r li mi t s , ,
w h en
r i s i n d e fi n i t e l y i n cr e a s e d a r e e qu a l .
p p
H e n ce , a
m
X a
”
a
m ”
I n l ik e mann e r , w e may p r o v e
in v e ry
e p r
ca s e , n o t e v i o u s l y co n s i d e r e d w h e r e a on a n d , , , n ar e
n umb e rs p r o v i d e d a
m
a ny r ea l and a a r e r e al n um be rs
"
, .
4 04 . It m ay be p r ov e d , as in 4 03, t h a t
m
a m—n
a
"
a
m mu
(
7
1.
a a ,
“
1
or ,
m
a
an d ( a bc a
"
b "
c
”
m ,
i n e v e ry ca s e n ot p r e v i o u s l y con si d e r e d w h e r e a
, , ,
b, c, m ,
m,
m”
a n d 71 r e p r e s e n t a n y r e al n um be r s p r o v i d e d a
.
,
“
,
a ,
c
”
,
m a r e r e a l n u mb e r s
,
.
4 05 . It fol l o w s fr o m th at e ve ry r e s ult i n 4 02 t o 4 04
3 6 7 to 39 8 i n cl u s i v e h o ld s w h e n a ny l e t t e r i n v o l ve d e x ce p t ,
w h e n t h e i n d e x o f a r o o t r e p r e s e n t s a ny i rr at i o n a l nu mb e r
, ,
s u c h t h a t e ve ry e x r e ss i on o f t h e f orm W i s a n i rr a ti on al
p
numb er .
24 6 A DVAN C E D C O U RSE IN ALG E B R A
X V III . PU R E IM A G IN A R Y A ND C O M PL E X
N U MB ER S
It w i ll be n d e rs t o od in
u 4 07 t o
,
41 4, in clus ive ,
t h at e v e ry l e tt e r
re p r e s en t s a p os i tiv e r e al n umb e r
PU RE I M AGINARY NUM BERS

4 07 . W e d efin e a, w h e re a is an
y p os i t i v e r e a l n u mb e r ,
an d n an e v en p o s i t i v e i n t e g e r, as a n e x p r e s s i o n w h o s e n th
p o w e r e qu a l s a .
n
Th at 1 8, a
)
"
a .
Th e y mb ol { 7 a i s call e d a Pure I magi nary Number

s .
I t i s o f co ur s e i mp o s s i b l e t o fin d a n y r e al n u m b e r w h os e
, ,
n t h p o w e r e q u a l s — a ; b ut t h e r e a r e m an y a dv a n t a g e s i n i n
l
c u d i n g i n t h e n u m b e r -s y s t e m o f A l g e br a t h e r e s u l t o f an
y fi n i t e
n u mb e r o f t h e p e r at i o O
n s a dd i t i o n s ub t r act i o n mu lt i l i ca t i o n
p , , ,
d i vi s i o n i n v ol ut i on an d e v ol uti on w i th r a ti on al n umb e r s
, , , .
Th e pur e i m a g i n a ry n u m b er — 1 i s call e d t h e i magin a ry

un i t ; i t i s u s u a ll y r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e l e tt e r i .
O PERA T I O N S W I TH PU RE IMAGINA R Y NUM BERS

4 08 I n d e r i v i n g th e r ul e s fo r o p e r a t i on s w i th p ur e i m a gi n a ry
.
n um b er s we s h all fol l ow t h e m e t h o d e mp l o yed i n C h ap II

,
.
;
th at i s , we s h a ll me th a t th e fun d a menta l la ws of
a ssu 1 2 and
1 4 h old for s uch n u mbers , a n d fin d w h a t m e a ni n g mus t , i n co n
s e q u e n ce , be a t t a ch e d t o t h e op e r a t i o n s ( C o mp a r e .
It fo ll o w s fr o m t h i s t h a t e v e ry s t at e me nt or r ul e i n th e
r em ai ni n g p art of Ch ap I o r i n Ch a p s II t o X V I i n clus i v e
.
,
.
, ,
i n r e g a r d t o e x p r e s s i o n s w h e r e an y l e t t e r i n v o l v e d r e p r e s e n t s
a n y r a t i o n a l n um b e r h o l d s e q u al ly w h e r e t h e l e t t e r r e r e s e n t s
, p
a p ur e i m a g i n ary n um b e r ( C o m p a r e .
4 09 . T o p r o v e t h at, i f a i s a ny p o s i t i ve r eal n um ber ,
—
By 4 07, a )
2
a .
( 1 )
PU R E I MA GINA R Y AND C O M PL E X N UM B E R S 24 7
An d s i nce t h e r e s ul t o f 1 29 h o l d s w h e n an
y of th e l e tt e r s
a, b, c, r e p r e s e n t s a p ur e i ma g i n a ry num be r
v a / T V E
(
2 ?
n 1 ) ( 4
)
—a
a >
i ( .
( )
2
F r o m (1 ) an d vi x/E
( ( L
Th e n by 1 63 ,
4 1 0 By . 4 09 ,
{i x/s 1 3 72)
3 V3
It i s d en t fr om th i s th at t h e met h o ds
evi of 3 72, 373, an d
3 77 h o l d fo r p ur e i ma gi n a ry n umb e r s .
41 1 . Pow e rs of 1 .
By 4 07, ( x/ 1 .
Th e n ,
(x/Z
—1 1
x ) x ( ) 1 ; e tc .
In gen e ral, i f n i s a ny 'o s i t i v e i n t e g e r

p ,
_
( vi
n
e — 1 >r
4
1 n
r
X —1
( V I
( vi i )
?
1 ;
x (v i
(v (V
41 2Addit i on and S ubt ract i on
. .
Tw o p ur e i ma gi n a ry n u mb e rs may be a dd e d -
or s ubtr act e d
by th e m e th o d o f 3 75 .
By 4 1 0,
— 1 I II) — 1 .
24 8 E
A D VAN C D C O U RS E IN ALG E B R A
41 3 . Mult i pli cat i on .
Th e p r o d uct of two or mo r e p u r e i ma g in a ry num be rs may

be o bt ai n e d by ai d of t h e r
p i n c i p l e s of
d
4 09 an 4 1 1 .
1 . Mult i ply M by $ 3 .
B y § 4 09 , v2 2 x v
—
1 §1 4, I an d II ,
==v6 (i
2 . Mult i ply t o ge th e r £ 9, 1 6, an d
— _ —
0X V :2 -1 x 4 x/ 1 5
x x/ - 1
—
60 601 1 ) 41 1 ) GOV T
- 1 .
3 . M ult i p l y by —2 — 5 .
S i n ce all th e r ul e s of C h ap . IV ho
ld fo r p ur e i ma g i n a ry
num e b rs, we ca n m u l t i p ly as in 88 .
v 1
‘
7 .
3 x/
2 ( — 2)
1 5 1 1 5 x5 0.
41 4 . Di v i s i on .
1 . D i vi de :
v 4 0 by V 5 .
By 4 09 ,
v - 5 — 1 V8
S i n ce t h e rul e o f 9 6 h ol d s fo r p ur e i m a gi n a ry numb e r s ,
V 1 is can ce l l e d i n th e s am e m ann e r a s a r e a l fact o r .
2 . D iv i de V IE by 3 .
By 41 1 ,
25 0 AD V AN CE D C O U R S E IN ALG EB R A
Ex p an d t h e follo w in g b y th e r ul es of Ch a p . V II
—
20 .
( M L s 22 .
( 3 x/ :3
:
—
21 . 6 23 .
( 3 x/ 2 2 M )
?
24 .
(i 7
f—
R ed u ce ea ch of t h e fo llo w in g t o an e quiv l n t fr c ti n h ving

a e a o a a r eal
de n om in a t or
:
— V 7 1
_ 27 .
— 7 —2 —6
Ex p an d th e fol l o w in g b y th e B in o m i al Th e o r e m
Z
x/ z — v — byn
’
23 . 29 .
(
i pi
S m l fy t h e fo llo w in g
—6 2 V5
‘
3 6 s x/T e
30 31
5 — 5 — 5 2 V5 —6 —6
C O MPL E X NUM BERS
It w i ll b e un d e rs to od th r ough o ut th e r em a in d e r of th e p res e n t ch apt e r

, ,
th a t e v e ry l e t te r r e p r e s e n ts a r e a l n u mb e r .
41 5 . Th e r
e xp e s s i o n a bi w h e re a an d b a r e any
r e al b e r s w h a t e v e r i s ca ll e d a Compl ex Number
n um ,
.
I n o p e r ati on s w i t h co mple x num b e r s we s h all a s s ume th e ,
l a w s of 1 2 an d 1 4 t o h ol d .
It foll o w s fr o m th i s t h a t t h e s t at e m e n t i n t h e l a s t p a r a g r ap h
of 4 08 i s e qua l l y tr u e o f co m pl e x n um b e r s .
Addi t i on
41 6 .
,
S ubt r act i on, Mul t i pl i cat i on, a nd D i v i s i on of
Comp l ex Number s .
1 . Add a + bi an d + di
c .
S i n ce t h e laws of 1 2 h ol d fo r co m p l e x n u m be r s ,
a + o + by 1 2, II ,
and § 1 4, III .
2 . S ubtr a ct c d i fr o m a bi .
—
( a + bi) c — di
— — d )i , by § l 2, an d § 24 ,
a c + (b
PU RE I MAGINA R Y AN D C O M PL E X NU M B E R S 251
3 . Mul ti ply a bi by c di .
By 88 , ( a bi )(c di ) ac a di bci bd i 2
ac bd ( ad bc)i , by 41 1 .
4 . E xp r e s s t h e q u o t i e n t of a + bi by c + di as a co m p l e x
n um be r .
M ult i p ly i n g b oth n um e a t o r r and d e n o mi n at o r by c d i, w e

hav e 2
a bi a bi ( c di ac adi bci bdi
( d i )(c di ) 2
c di 6 0
ac bd be ad
2
i .
2 2 2
0 + 0l 0 +d
4 1 7 It fo ll o w s fr o m
. r e s ult o f an y fi n i t e n um
41 6 th a t th e
b e r o f a dd i t i o n s s u b t r ac ti o n s m ul t i pl i ca t i o n s a n d d i v i s i o n s
, , , ,
p e r fo r m e d u p o n co m p l e x n u m b e r s i s a c o m p l e x n u mb e r ,
.
41 8 . B y th e d e fi n it i on o f 0,
i x 0 = i (a — a
) = i a — i a § 24
( ,
: 0.
It fol l o w s fr om t h i s th at th e co mpl e x n u mb e r a bi b e come s

a r eal n umb e r w h e n b I s 0 .
It al s o b e co me s a pu r e i ma gi n a ry n um b e r w h e n a is 0 .
H en ce a bi cann o t e q ual 0 un le s s b o t h
,
a = 0, and b= 0 .
41 9 . If a bi : c di , wh er e a, b, c, a n d d a re r ea l nu mbe rs ,
th e n a c, a n d b d .
Tr a n s p o s i n g th e te rms of t h e g i v e n e qu a t i o n , we h av e
a — c + (b
T h en , by 4 1 8, a — c = 0, an d b — d =0 .
W h ence , a c, a n d b d .
4 2 0 S qua r e R oot
. of a Comp l ex Number .
We w ill n ow
p r o v e t h a t x/ a + bi w h e r e a a n d b a r e r e al , ,
c an be e xp r e s s e d i n t h e fo r m V a z + i fl w h e r e V 2:an d \ Q ,
a re r e al .
252 A DV A NCE D CO UR S E IN L
A G EBR A
S q ua r i n g b oth m e mb e r s o f t h e e qu a t i on
( 1 )
w e h av e —
y .
Th e n by 41 9, a a : y, ( )
2
an d bi 2i V ary .
S ubtr act i n g, a bi a : 2 i V 5E
9
7 y .
E xtr a ct i n g t h e s qua r e r o o ts of b ot h m e mb e r s ,
( )
3
Mul ti pl y (1 ) by ( )
4
A dd (2) an d W + a = 2 a3 o r 93
2
S ubtr a ct (2) fr o m \ /a
2 2
b a 2 y, or y ,
2
It i s e vi d e n t fr om th i s th at V 5 an d x/Q a re r eal “
4 21 . It fo l l o w s fr om ( 1 ) an d 4 2 0, th at
2 + i D/Q, wher e ar e rea l nu m
’
If a + bi : 4 a, b, 0, a nd
0
y,
be rs , th en V a bi : x/x i x/y .
4 22 . Th e p r e ce d i n g p r in ci pl e s may be u es d t o fin d
s q ua r e r o ot o f a c o m p l e x n um b e r .
1 . F in d th e s q ua e r r oot of 7 6V 2 .
As s um e, ( 1 )
Th e n by 4 21 ,
V7 ( )
2
Mul t i ply i n g (1 ) by we h av e
or , ( )
3
S qua r i n g 1 y .
Wh en ce by 41 9, x— y = 7 ( )
4
Add (3 ) an d 2 x = 1 8, or
S ubtr act (4 ) fr o m 2 y = 4, OI
‘
254 ADVAN CE D C O UR S E 1 N ALG E B R A
E xtr act i n g t h e cu b e r oot of b ot h m e mb e rs ,

3
\ /a bi : c di .
4 25 . Th e co m p e x l n um b er s a bi an d a bi are ca ll e d
Conjugat e .
'
W e h a v e (a bi ) X ( a bi ) : a
2
b 2 2
a
2
b2
.
Al s o, ( a bi) ( a bi ) 2 a .
H en ce ,
th e su m a nd p r o d u ct of two con uga te coj mp lex n umbe s r
a r e r ea l .
It w i ll be Sh o w n in
App en d i x t h a t a ny e v e n r oo t of a
th e
n ega t iv e n umb e r o r an y ro ot o f a pure i ma gin ary or c o mpl ex n umb e r
, ,
can b e e xp r es s e d a s a c o m p l e x n u mb e r .
G R AP H I C AL RE PRESE N T A T I O N OF PU RE IMAGINAR Y AND
'
C O MPL EX NUM BERS
4 26 . L et XX fi be a xe d r
s t a i gh t li n e, an d 0 a fi xe d p o i n t
i n th at l in e .
It w as sh o w n in 5 7 a n d 4 06
t hat a ny p o s i t i ve r e a l n u mb e r , a,
A
, _a ,
0 + 6, A
co u l d be r e p r e s en t e d by th e dis
'
'
t an ce fr om O t o A a un i t s t o t h e r i ght o f 0 i n 0X a n d an y
'
,
n e ga t i v e r eal n um b e r — a by t h e d i s t an ce fr o m
, , 0 to A ,
a un i t s t o t h e l e ft o f O i n 0X .
4 2 7 S i n ce
. a i s th e s am e a s a
) X i t fol l o w s fr o m
4 26 t h a t th e p r o d uct o f a by 1 i s r e p r e s e n t e d by t u r ni ng
t h e l i n e DA w h i c h r e p r e s e n t s t h e n umb e r a , t h r o ug h t w o
r i ght a n gl e s , in a d i r e cti on o pp o s i t e t o t h e m o ti o n of t h e h a nd s
o f a cl ock .
W e may th e n r e g a rd ,
i1n t h e p r o d u ct o f a n y r e a l n u m b e r
by 1 ,
r r
a s a n o p e at o w h i ch t u r n s t h e l i n e w h i ch r e pr e s e n t s
t he fir s t fa ct o r t h r ou gh tw o r i gh t
.
a n gl e s , in a d i r ect i o n O pp o s i t e
t o th e m o ti o n o f th e h an d s o f a cl o ck .
4 28 . Graph i cal R epr es ent at i on of t h e I magi na ry Uni t .
By t h e d e fi n i ti o n of 4 07, 1 = i X i .
PU RE I M AGINA R Y AND C O MPL E X N UM B E R S 255
Th e n s i n ce on e mul t i pl i ca ti on by i
, ,
foll o w e d by a n o t h e r mul t i pl i ca ti o n by i ,
.
tu r n s t h e li n e w h i ch r ep r e s e n t s t h e fir s t
fa ct o r t h r o ugh two r i gh t a n gl e s i n a d i r e c ,
O
t i o n p p o s i t e t o t h e h a n d s o f a cl o ck w e ,
may r e g a rd mul t i p l i cat i o n by i a s tu rn i n g

th e li n e t h r o ug h o ne ri ght a n gl e i n t h e
'
,
s a m e d i r e ct i o n .
T h us l e t XX ah d Y Y be fi xe d s tr a i ght
’
’
,
li n e s i n t e r s e ct i n g a t r i gh t a n gl e s at O th e l e tt e r s b e i n g
, ,
a rr a n g e d a s i n t h e fi g ur e o f 2 70 .
Th en if + a be r e p r e s en te d by th e li n e 0A w h e r e A i s a
, ,
u ni t s t o th e r i gh t o f 0 i n 0X
GE a n d
,
a i by O B
,
w h
a i ma
' y b e
e r e B i s a u n i t s ab o v e
r e p r e s e n t
an d B
e,
d by
a ,
'
uni t s b e l o w 0 i n Y Y
’
'
,
.
,
Al s o ,
i m ay be r e p r e s e n t e d by 00 a n d
0 i s o n e u n i t a b o v e a n d 0 o n e un i t b el o w 0 i n Y Y
,
i by w h e re ,
, ,
'
.
It w i ll b e un d e rs t o o d t h r o ug h o ut t h e r e m a in d e r o f t h e c h a p te r t h a t ,
i n a n y fi g ur e w h e r e t h e l in e s X X a n d Y1 o cc u r t h e y a re fi x e d s t ra i g h t
’ ”
,
lin es in t e rs e c t in g a t r i gh t an gl es a t 0 t h e le t t e rs b e in g a rr a n ge d a s in t h e
,
figu re o f 2 70 ; th a t a ll p os i tive o r n e g a t iv e r e al n um be rs a e re p re
s e n t e d b y lin e s t o t h e r i gh t o r l e f t o f 0 r e s p e c t iv e ly in X X a n d a ll , ,
'
r
p o s i t ive or n e gat ive p ur e i ma g in a ry n umb e rs b y l in es a b ov e o b e lo w 0 r ,
r es p e c tiv ely in YY ,
’
.
4 29 . Graph i cal R epr es ent at i on of Co mpl ex Number s .
We w il l n ow Sh ow h ow to re p r e
s en t th e c o m pl e x n u m
b e r a bi .
L et a b e r e pr e s e nt e d by GA t o th e ,
ri gh t o f 0 if a i s p o s i ti v e t o th e l e ft ,
i f a i s n e ga t i v e .
L e t bi be r e p r e s e n t e d by 0B ab o v e ,
0 if b i s p o s i t i v e b e lo w i f b i s ,
n e ga t i v e .
XX 'D r a w l i n e A O e q u al a n d p a r a l l e l t o
as OB , an d li n e 00 .
OB , on th e sa me s i d e of
Th e n , 00 i s co n s i der e d th e r e s ul t of a dd i n g bi t o a ; t h at is,
00 re p r e s ent s a bi .
25 6 AD V A NCE D C O U RS E IN A L GE B R A
Th is agre es w ith th e me th o ds alre a d y giv e n for ad d ing a re al or pure

i mag in ary n umb e r ife it h e r a o r b is z e ro
, .
Th e fi gur e r e p r e s e n ts t h e c a s e w h e r e a a n d b a r e b ot h p o s i t iv e
’
if a i s
p o s it iv e a n d b n egat iv e 00 w ill li e b e t w e e n 0X an d 0 1 ” i fa i s n e ga
,
t iv e 00 w i ll li e b et w e e n O Y a n d 0X i f b i s p os i t iv e a nd b et w e e n O X
,
’
,
’
a n d 01 ” i f b i s n ega t iv e .
In a ccord a n ce w i th
s e n t e d by l i n e
5 7 an d 4 06 ( a bi m
) y
wh e r e 00 i s e qua l i n l en g th t o 00 an d
a
' b e r e p r e,
O
dr a wn i n t h e p p os i t e di r e cti o n fr om O .
,
4 3 0 Th e mo d ulus
. of a r e al , p u er i ma gi n a ry, or comp l e x
nu m b er i s t h e l e n g th r e p r e s e n t s t h e n umb e r
of th e li n e w h i ch .
Th e a rgumen t i s t h e an g l e b e t w e en th e l i n e w h i ch r e p r e s e n t s
th e num b e r a n d O X m e a s u r e d fr o m O X i n a d i r e ct i on pp o s i t e
,
O
t o th e m oti on o f t h e h an d s of a cl o ck .
If for e x a mpl e i n t h e fi gu r e o f 4 29 A X O C th e ’
‘
'
, , ,
a r g ume n t o f t h e com p l e x n u mbe r r e p r e s e n t e d by 00 i s
a n d t h e a r gum e nt o f t h e co m pl e x n u mb e r r e p r e s en t e d by 00
is
Th e m o d ul us i s al w a ys tak e n p osi t iv e , an d th e a rgume n t
may h av e v al ue fr om 0 t o
°
any
re al n umb e rs a and a h av e th e mo dulus a a nd argume n ts 0

Th e ,
°
an d r es p e c tiv ely ; t h e p ure i magin ary n umb e rs a i and a i h av e

th e mod ulus a a n d a rgumen ts 9 0 a n d
,
r e s p e ct iv ely °
.
I n t h e fi gu r e W
2 2
4 31 of 4 2 s , 00 024 A6 2 2
5 ,
m
.
t h a t i s , t h e m o d ulu s o f th e co m p l e x n um b er a bi i s ;
th i s is al s o th e m o d ul us o f t h e co mp l e x n um b ers a — bi — a
, + bi ,
an d a bi .
4 32 . Additi on
Gr aph i cal R epr es ent at i on of .
W e w i ll n o w S h o w h o w t o r e p r e s e n t t h e r e s ul t o f a dd i n g b
t o a w h e r e a an d b ar e a ny t wo r ea l p ur e i m a g i n a ry o r co m
, , ,
p l e x n u m b e r s .
L e t a b e r e p r e s en t e d by 0A an d b by OB ,
.
D r a w li n e A O e q ual an d p a r all el t o OB
’
,
o n t h e s a m e s i d e o f O A a s O B a n d li n e 00 ,
.
Th en 00 i s con s i d e r e d t h e r e s ult o f a d d
,
i n g b t o a ; th a t i s l i n e 00 r e pr e s e n ts a
,
b o a A .
,
258 ADVAN CE D CO UR S E IN AL G E B R A
Th e p r o d uct o f a n y r e al , p u r e i m a g i n a r y , or co m p l e x n umb e r
by — a i m ay b e r e p re s e n t e d by a l i ne e qu al i n l e n gth t o t h e
li n e w h i ch r e pr e s e nt s i t s p r o duct by + a i, but dr a w n in th e
O pp o s i t e d i r e c t i on fr o m O .
4 35 . S i n ce a bi m ay be w r i tt e n 1 X
) ( a bi ), th e p r o d
uct o f 1 by a bi i s r e p r e s e n t e d by
t ur n i n g t h e l i n e O A, w h i ch r e pr e s e n t s
th e n um ber 1 t h r ough an an g l e
'
,
e q u al to th e a r gume n t o fa + bi
in a O
d i r e ct i o n p p o s i t e t o th e m o t i on X
A
o f t h e h a n d s o f a cl o ck
p l y i n g t h e r e s u l t by t h e
,
and
m o dul us
m ul t i
of 0 '
a bi .
An d s i nce ( a bi ) m ay b e w r i t t e n 1 ) x a bi ), t h e
p r o d u ct o f 1 by ( a b i ) i s r e p r e s e n t e d by a l i n e e q u a l i n
l e n gth t o t h a t w h i ch r e p r e s e n t s th e p r o d u ct o f + 1 by a + bi ,
O
but dr a w n i n t h e pp o s i t e d i r e ct i on fr o m O .
T h i s s ugg e s t s t h e foll o w i n g :
I f a an d b a re a ny r e al n u mb e r s t h e p r o d uct o f a ny r e a l
-
, ,
p u r e i m a g i n a r y o r c o m
, p l e x n u m b e r by a + b i m a y be r e p r e
s e n t e d by t u r n i n g t h e l i n e w h i ch r e p r e s e n t s th e n u m b e r t h r o u gh
a n a n gl e e q u al t o t h e a m p l i t u d e o f a bi i n a d i r e ct i o n o pp o ,
s i t e t o t h e m o t i o n o f t h e h a n d s o f a cl ock a n d m ul t i p ly i n g ,
th e r e s ul t by t h e m o d ul u s O f a bi .
Th e p r o d uct o f a n y r e a l p ur e i m a gi n a ry o r co mp le x n um b e r
, ,
by (a bi ) m ay be r e p r e s e n t e d by a l i n e e q ua l i n l e n gth t o
t h e l i n e w h i ch r e p r e s e n t s i t s p r o d uct by a + bi but dr a w n i n ,
t h e o pp o s i t e d i r e ct i o n fr o m O .
4 36 . L et a an d b be a ny r e a l p ur e
tw o ,
i m a g i n a ry , or co mpl e x n u mb e r s r e re
p ,
s en te d by t h e l i n e s OA an d OB , r e s p ec
t i v e ly .
Th e r e s ult of mul ti ply i n g a by b i s X
r e pr e s en te d by li n e 00 w h e r e a n gl e ,
X O C i s th e s um o f a n gl e s X OA an d
K OB , an d OA X OB
PU RE I M AGINA R Y AN D C O M PL E X N UM B E RS 259
T h at r e p r e s e n t e d by 00
i s, ab is .
I n li k e m a n n e r t h e p r o duct o f a ny ,
nu m e b r o f r e a l p ur e ,
i m a g i n a ry o r co m pl e x n u mb e r s m ay
,
be r e p r e s e n t e d by a
s tr a i gh t l i n e dr a w n fr o m O .
4 3 7 Gr aph i cal R ep r es ent at i on of D i v i s i on

.
.
L et a an d b be a ny tw o r e al , pu e r i m a g i n a ry , or co m pl e x
nu m ber s .
L et a be r e p r e s e nt e d by OA , an d b
by OB .
A
D r a w li n e 00, m ak i n g A X O C
x X OA x X OB , and 00
gg
f .
T h e n , A X OA A X O C + A X OB ,
an d 0A : 00 X OB .
Wh e n ce by 4 3 6 OA r e pr e s e n t s t h e p r o d uct o f th e n u mb e r
, ,
r e p r e s e n t e d by 00 by th e n u m b e r r e p r e s e nt e d by O B
’
.
Th e n 00 r e p r e s e n t s a n um b e r w h i ch w h en mult i pl i e d by b
, , ,
g i v e s a ; a n d h e n ce 00 r e p r e s e n t s o
Th e r e fo r e , th e q uot i e nt o f an
y r e al
t wo , pu e r i m a g i n a ry , or
c o m pl e x n u m b e r s c a n b e r e p r e s e n t e d by a r
s t a i gh t lin e dr aw n
fr o m O .
4 38 . Gr aph i cal R epr es ent a t i on of R oot s .
Let a be an y r e al , p u e r i m a g i n a ry , or co m ple x n um be r ,
r e pr e s e n t e d by li n e OA .
1
D r a w li n e O B m a k i n g A X O B — A X OA,
7
1
an d h a v i n g i t s l e n g th e qu a l t o th e n th r o ot
of t h e m o d u lu s of a .
Th e n A X OA , n X A X OB , an d th e
m o d ul us o f a i s t h e nt h p o w e r of th e l e n gt h
of OB .
Th e n , by 4 3 6 0A r e p r e s e n t s ,
th e n th p o we r o f th e num b er
r e p r e s e nt e d by OB .
Wh e n ce OB r e p r e s en t s \ /d
n
,
.
26 0 ADVAN C E D C O U RSE IN ALG E B R A
4 39 . It fol lo w s fr o m 4 3 2 , 43 3, 4 3 6, 4 3 7, an d 4 3 8 th a t an y
n um b e r w h i ch i s th e r e s ul t of a ny fi n i t e n um b e r o f t h e fo ll o w
O
i n g p e r a t i o n s p e r fo r m e d u p o n o n e o r m o r e r e al p ur e i ma g i n a ry
, ,
o r c om p l e x n u m b e r s m ay be r e p r es e n t e d by a s tr ai ght l i n e
,
dr a w n fr om 0 :
A dd i ti o n ; S ubtr act i on ; Mul t i pl i cat i on ; D i v i s i on ; r ai s in g t o
any p o w e r wh os e e xp o n e n t is a r at i on al n um b er e x tr a ct
ing an
y r oot .
T h i s i s a gr ap h i cal r e pr e s e n t at i on o f th e fa ct th at an y s uch
n um b e r ca n b e e x p r e s s e d i n t h e fo r m a + bi w h e r e a a n d b ,
ar e r eal n u m b e r s e i t h e r o f w h i ch may be z e r o C o mp a r e
, ( .
4 1 7 an d
We s h all i i
l m t r
o u s el v e s in th e p res e nt w o rk t o numb e rs of th e ab o ve
fo r m .
Th e d i s c us s i o n o f co mp l ex exp o ne nts r e qui r es a kn owle d ge of Hi gh er

i n ome t ry
Tr g o .
26 2 AD V AN C E D C O U R S E 1 N AL G E B R A
O r, t o t h e e q ua t i on s A B, an d A: B , w hi ch may be
wr i tt e n t o ge th e r i n t h e fo rm
A= i B
Th e s i gn 15 ,
: c al le d th e d o ubl e s i g n , w h e n p re fi xe d to a numb er in d i ,
c at es t h at i t m ay b e e i th e r or
T h u s , th e g i v e n e qua t i o n i s e qu i v al e n t t o an e qu a t i o n w h i ch
is o b t a i n e d by e q ua t i n g t h e p o s i t i v e s q u a r e r o o t o f t h e fir s t
m e mb e r t o j: th e s q ua r e r o ot o f t h e s eco n d .
PU RE Q UADR AT I C E Q UA T I O N S
44 3 A p ur e q ua dr at i c e q u ati o n m ay be s o l v e d by r e duci n g
.
i t, i f n e ce s s a ry , t o t h e fo r m x a , a n d t h e n e q u a t i n g a; t o j; x/a
z
z
2
5 x
1 . S ol v e t h e e q ua t i on 3 2
x 7 35 .
Cl e a r i n g o f f ac r t ion s ,
1 2 28 5 2
x 1 40 .
Tr an s po s i ng an d un i ti ng t erms ,
7x 2
1 1 2 .
D i v i d i n g by 7 ?
as
,
E q ua t i n g x t o :
t th e s quar e r o ot of 1 6, :
a j; 4 .
2 . S ol v e th e e q uati o n 7x 2
5 5 2
x 1 3 .
Tr a n s p o s i n g an d un i t i ng t e r m s ,
2x 2
8 .
2
O r, o
x 4 .
E q u at i n g w t o :
l:th e s quar e r oot of — 4, x j:
In t h i s c a s e b oth v al ues ofx ar e i mag i n a ry 4 07) i t i s i mp os s i ble t o

,
fin d a r eal v alue o f as w h i c h w i l l s a t i s fy t h e g iv e n e qua t i o n .
I
EX E RC S E 4 9
S ol v e t h e follow in g
1 . 2 : 3 ( a: 4 34 . 2 .
(x —( x 20 .
5 1 1 90
2 7a:
2
3 .
+ 5 .
6 1 6 1 2 1 2 8
4 .
(2 33 + 7) ( 5 x —6 ) —( 4 x
5 .
— 2 a) ( x
Q UAD R A T I C E Q UATI ON S 263
5 e2 +3 — 1 0
6 . 0
7 i4 35
7 ( 512 + 1 )( x -2 3)— ( x — 52
.
)( x .
C O MPL E T E Q UAD R AT I C E Q UAT I O N S

44 4 . Fi r s t Met h od of Compl et i ng t h e S qua e r .
By tr an s p o s i ng th e t e r m s i n v o l v i n g a:t o t h e fir s t me mb e r ,
an d a ll o t h e r t e r m s t o th e s e co n d a n d t h e n d i v i d i n g b o t h m e m
,
be r s by th e co e ffi ci e n t o f $ a ny co mpl e t e q ua dra t i c e qu at i on
2
,
ca n be r e d uce d t o t h e fo r m
x
2
+ p c
c =q .
A tr in omi al i s a p e rfe ct s q ua r e w h e n i t s fir s t an d th i rd t e r m s
ar e p e r fe ct s q ua r e s a n d p o s i t i v e a n d i t s s eco n d t e r m p l us o r
,
mi nu s t w i ce th e p r o d uct o f t h e i r s qua r e r oo t s
Th e n t h e s qu a r e r o o t o f t h e t h i rd t e r m i s e qu al t o t h e s econ d
,
t e r m d i v i d e d by t wi ce t h e s qu a r e r o ot o f th e fir s t .
H e n ce t h e s qua r e r o ot o f th e e xp r e s s i o n w h i ch must b e a dd e d
,
to x 2
p a: t o m a k e i t a p e r fe ct s q ua r e i s E o r
p
, ,
2 2; 2
Add i ng t o b o th me mb e r s th e s quar e of 13, w e h av e

2
2 2 2
4
Z E g
p
€ —= — — —
2 -
x + px + q+
By 4 4 2, th i s is t t o an e quat i on w h i ch i s o bt ai ne d
e qui v al e n
by e quat i n g th e p os i t i v e s qua r e r o ot o f t h e fir s t m emb e r to :t

t h e s qu a r e r oot o f th e s e co n d .
Th e n i t i s e qui v al e n t t o
,
{1 3 4
Add in g t o b o th m emb er s su ch an ex p res s io n as w i ll m ak e th e firs t

m e mb e r a p e rfe c t t r in omi a l s qu a e,r is c alle d C o mp l eti ng th e S qua r e .
445 . W e d e r i v e fr om 4 4 4 t h e fo l o wi n g l r ul e for s o l vi n g a
comp l e e t q ua dr at i c e quat i on .
264 AD V A NCED C O U RS E IN AL G E B R A
R ed uce th e equa ti o n to th e form x p a: q

2
.
Comp lete th e s qua re, by a d di ng to bo th members th e s qua re o f

o ne-
ha l f th e coefii c i e nt f
o x
.
E qua te th e p os i ti ve s qua r e roo t o f th e fi rs t member to j : th e

s qua r e r oot o f the s eco nd , a nd s olve th e li nea r equa ti ons th us
for med .
446 . 1 . S ol v e th e equat i on 3 x
2
8x 4 .
8 a: 4
D 1 V Id i n g by 3 x
2
3 3
Ad di ng t o b oth me mb e rs th e s quare of
3 , we h av e
2 8 x 4 1 6 4
x +
3 3 9 9
Equat i n g th e p o s i t i v e s quare r oot of th e first me mbe r to :

1:
h
t e s u ar e rqoo t o f 5
3,
g 2
3 3
4 4 2 2
Tran s po s i n g :
1: : 2 or
3 g 3
If t h e coe f
fici en t o fx 2
is n e ga ti ve, th e s i gn o f each te r m mus t
be c h an g e d .
2 . S o l ve t h e e qua ti o n 9 x
2
21 x 1 0 .
2 Z1 3 1 0
D ivi d i ng by 9, 4 . .
3 5
Add in g t o b oth me mb e rs th e s qua r e of
g ,
79: 49 9
36
E q uat i n g t h e p o s i t i v e 3 uar e roo t of th e first memb e r 1:

to :
th e s q uare r oo t o f 24
3
36 w+ Z w i
6 6
Wh ence, : —
a
gg i = or
2 66 AD V AN C E D C O U RSE IN A LG E B R A
Wh e nce ,
x 2 or
8
If th e c oeffic i e n t of x 2 is n egat ive , th e s i gn of ea ch te rm mus t b e
c h a n ge d .
448 . S econd Met h od of co mpl et i ng t h e S quare .
E ve ry c o m pl e t e q u adr at i c e q ua t i o n ca n be r ed uce d to t h e
fo r m ax
2
bx c 0, or ax
2
bx 6
Mul ti ply i ng b oth m e mb e r s by 4 a, w e h a ve
4 a x
2 2
+4 a bx = — 4 ac .
C o mp l e t i n g t h e s qu a e r by a dd i n g to b o th memb e rs t h e
4 ab
s q ua er of or b, w e o bt ai n
2 x2 a
4 2
a x
2
+4 a bx + b = b — 4
2 2
ao .
E xtr a ct i ng s q ua e r r oo ts ,
2 ax b j:\ /b 2
4 ac .
Tr an s po s i ng ,
— 4 ac
Wh en ce ,
x
2 a
W e d e r i v e fr o m th e a b o ve th e follo w i n g r ule fo r l ti ng
co m p e
th e s q ua e r :
R ed uce th e equa ti o n to th e fo rm
2
ax bx c 0 .
M ultip ly both members by fo u r t imes th e coefii ci e nt of a nd
a dd to ea ch th e s qu a r e of th e co efii ci en t of x i n th e g i ven e qua ti on .
Th e dv a nt age o f th i s me th o d o ve r t h e
a p r e ce d i n g is in
a vo i d i n g fr a ct i o n s i n co mpl e t i n g t h e s q uar e .
44 9 . 1 . S ol v e th e t i on 2 x
e qu a
2
7x 3 .
Mult i p ly i ng b oth m emb e r s by 4 X 2, or 8,
Add i n g t o bo th me mb e r s t h e s qu a e o f 7, r
x — 7
2 2
1 6 56 x + :
Q UAD R A T IC E Q UA T ION S 267
E xtr a ct i n g s qu a e r r oo t s ,
4 x 7 t 5
: .
4 x = 7i 5 = 1 2 or 2 .
Wh e n ce , x 3 or
If t h e co ef
fici ent of x i n t h e g i v e n e q u at i o n i s even, fr act i on s
m ay b e a v oi d e d , a n d t h e r ul e m o d i fi e d , a s foll o w s :
M t ltip ly both membe r s by th e coefii ci en t of x , 2

a nd a dd to e ach
th e s qua re of h a lf th e coefil ci en t of x i n th e g i ve n equa ti o n .
2 . S ol v e th e e qu a ti on 1 5 x
2
28 x 32 .
M ult i pl y i n g b ot h m e mb e r s by 1 5, and a dd i n g to e ac h th e
s qua e O f 1 r 4, we h ave
2
x
) 1 4 4 80 1 96 676 .
E xtr a ct i n g s qua r e r o o t s ,
1 5x 1 4 j; 26 .
1 5 x —1 4 j :2 6 = 1 2 o r — 4 0 .
Wh e n ce ,
x : 4 or
5 3
Th e me th o d o f c o mpl e t in g th e s qu r
a e e xe m pl i fi ed in th e p res e n t s e c ti o n
i s c all e d t h e H i ndo o M eth o d
’
EX E R C S E I 50
Th e foll o w in g may b e s ol ve d by e i th e r of th e p re c e d in g me th o d s ,
p refe re n c e b e in g g ive n t o t h e o n e b es t a da pted to th e e xa mpl e u nde r
c o n s i d e r at i o n .
1 . x2 8 . 4 x2 — 1 2 x 2 23 .
2 . 3 x2 — 1 7x = — 1 0 . 9 .
3 . 5 x2 + 1 7x =1 2 . 1 0 .
2
36 x + 3 x =5 .
4 . 1 1 .
5 . 36 x — 24 x
2 2 77 . 1 2 . 1 0 — 3 7x z — 30x2 .
6 . 4 9 x2 + 21 x 1 3 .
7 6 +
. 2 3 x — 1 8 x2 2 0
. 1 4 .
( 2 x + )
l 3 — 3 86 .
1 5 .
— 1 4 .
1 6 .
— 49 .
1 7 .
1 8 .
(5 w as l 4 x/3)x 9
26 8 AD VAN C E D C O U RS E IN ALG E B R A
4 5 0 S olut i on
. of Compl et e Quad rat i c E quat i ons by Formula .
It foll o w s fr o m 4 4 8 t h a t, i f
?
ax bx c 0,
th en ( 1 )
Th i s r e s ul t may be u s e d a s a fo r mula fo r t h e s ol uti on o f any
co mp l e t e q ua dr a t i c e qua t i o n i n th e fo r m a x
2
bx c 0.
1 . S ol v e t h e e q ua ti on 2x 2
5 x 1 8 0 .
H e r e, a 2, b 5, an d c 1 8; su b s t i tuti ng th e s e l s
v a ue
in we h ave
9
2
2 . S o l v e th e equati o n 1 1 0x 2
21 x 1 .
H e r e, a 1 1 0, b 21 ,
c 1 .
or
220 2 20 1 0 1 1
D i v i d i ng b o th t e r m s o f th e fr a ct i o n i n e q ua t i on 2,
a;
3
. .
i
3 77) ( )
2
a
Th i s is a co n v e n i e n t fo r mu la in ca es th e fi
co e f ci e n t o fx in
t h e gi v e n e qu a t i on is even .
3 . S o l ve th e e qua t i on 5x 2
1 4 x 3 0.
H e r e, a 5, b 1 4, c 3 s u b s t i tu t i n g in
3 .
5 5
r i c ul ar a ttent i o n mus t
Pa t be pa i d t o th e s i g ns of th e c oeffic i e nts in
ma k ing th e s ub s t i tut i o n .
Th e st ud ent sh oul d now w o rk th e e xamp e l s of E xe r ci s e 5 0

by fo rmul a .
270 AD V AN CE D CO U R S E IN ALG E B R A
Ex . S o l ve t h e e q ua t i on a cac
2
ad m box bd 0.
We w r i te t h e e q ua t i o n a cre
2
( ad bc)x bd .
Mult i p ly i ng by 4 a c, an d a dd i n g (a d bc) t o 2
b o th me m b e r s ,
2
a c a: (
z’ Q 2
4 4 ac ad ( be)a; ad b c
)
d 2 2 2 2 2 e ?
4 a bcd a d 2 a bcd bc a d +2 a bcd be
E xtr a ct i n g s qu a e r r oo ts ,
2 d ow ( ad
2 a cx = ad bc j :(a d + bc) z 2 ad or — 2 be .
z
E b
Wh en ce ,
x or
C a
If s e v e ra l te r ms c on ta in th e s a m e p o w e r o f x ,
th e c oeffi c i e n t of th at
p o we r sh ould b e e n cl ose d in p a re n t h es es as s h o w n ,
ab o ve .
Th e ab o v e e quati o n ma y b e s ol v e d mo r e e as i ly by th e meth o d of 1 83 ;
th us , b y 1 56 , th e e q ua t i o n m a y b e wr i t t e n
( ax b)( ca: d): 0
:
.
— b
Th en ;
a
.
a
and cx
m
S e v er al e qu ti n in
a o s E xe rc is e 51 m ay b e s o l edv mos t e as i ly by th e
meth o d of 1 83 .
As a ge n eral rule li tera l quad rati c s

, a re b es t s ol e dv b y fo r mul a .
4 53 . E quat i ons l ead i ng to Qua dr at i cs , h av i ng t h e Unk nown

Number und e r R a di cal S i g ns .
In s ol v ing
t i o n s of th i s ki n d o nly s oluti on s w h i ch
e qu a ,
s ati s fy t h e g i v e n e quat i o n s h oul d be r e t ain e d .
In v e r i fy i ng s ol ut i on s o n ly p r i n cip a l va lues of th e r o ots a re

, ’
co ns i d e r ed
IZ
1 . S o l v e th e e qua t i on V5 x w
V5 x
C le ar i n g o f f ac r t i on s , m + 5 _ x 1 2 .
Tr an s p o s i ng , V 25 x
2
m 7.
S u ar i n 25 x
2 2
x 1 4 a: 49
q g ,
.
Q U AD R A T I C E QUA TI O N S 2 71
2 x
2
+1 4 x = — 24 .
Mul t i pl y ing by 2, an d a dd i n g 7 to
2
b oth m e mb e rs ,
E xtr act i ng s qua r e r oots ,

2 a: 7 t 1
: .
2 m= — 7j ; 1 = — 6 or 8 .
W h e nce, x 3 or 4 .
P utt in g a; 3 , th e gi ven firs t memb e r b e c omes
1 2 3 X 2 X 2
Th e se o c nd memb er b e c omes —
— 3 V2 .
V2 2
Th en th e s olut i on x
, 3 i s c o rr e c t .
P uttin g a: 4 th e g iv e n firs t m e mb e r b e c o m e s
, 1 4 .
Th e se o c nd memb e r b e c o me s 3 4 .
V5
Th e n , th e s ol ut oi nx 4 is c orr ec t .
2 . S ol v e t h e e q ua t i o n \ /x
Tr an s p o s i ng x/x — l, — 1 .
S q uar i n g , 3 x + 3 = 1 6 — 8 \ / v—
c 1 + x -1 .
Tran s po s i ng , 8 V a: 1 1 2 2 90 .
O r,
S qua r i n g , 1 6 a; 1 6 36 1 2 a;
O r, x
2 — 28 x = — 5 2 .
C o mpl e t i n g th e s qua r e ,
x
2 — 28 x + 1 4 2 = 1 4 4 .
E xtr a ct i n g s quar e r oo ts ,
as 1 4 j:1 2 .
Wh e n ce ,
x 1 4 j; 1 2 26 o r 2 .
Puttin g x 26 t h e g iv e n firs t me mb e r b e c ome s 5

, 9 or 1 4 , .
Th en t h e s olut i o n x
, 26 is n o t c o rre c t .
P utt in g a: 2 th e g i ve n firs t me mb e r b e c o m e s 1
,
3 or 4 , .
Th e n a: 2 i s t h e o nly c o r re c t s o luti o n
,
.
AD V AN CE D CO U RS E IN AL GE B R A
I
EX ERC S E 5 |
S ol ve th e foll o w in g :
2 2 : 5 7x 21 1 4 .
3 4 x 9 4 x
1 5
5 1 3 1
.
6x 9 x2 1 8 1 6 .
3 4 x _ 85
1 7
3 a x + 5 b
0
4 x 3 1 8 —é b
.
x 3 a — l 0b
l 1 11 32 — 1 7
1 8
x+ 3 x — 5 fl — 2x 1 5
7
1 9'
1 7x m
—2 —4
z — — l cz
x 24 ( x + 2) 95 2
x ( n fl n .
x — 2 x+ 4 7
20'
6 x+ 5 4 x+ 4 _0 x + 5 x — 3 3
4 x—3 921 — 3
.
x — a m+ a fi — 5 M
21
x 2
m 2
nx :2
a + a x — a xt q fi
. x — 4 a x — 1 0x
2 z z — 4O a .
22 .
1 0952 — 3 5 a2 + 6 6 : a 2 1
.
21
1 8 9 9 952 —2 23 .
1 2 6x +4 9
ax — 1 5 bx = 1 0a b
4
. .
a a
’
1 3 . ar m:
2
an m bmx bn O
. 2x+ a 3x— 4 a 3
8
25 .
x/3 x + 4
1 1 1 4
26 32
x x
.
x — 3 x
2 2
+ 4
2 x+ 1 3 11 3 — 2 1 7
27 . 33'
3 m
28 1 1 1 1
.
34 .
+
a — b+ x a b a
1 1
29
x :
.
a +h a
2 — b2 3 4 x— 1 2 3 x+ 1 3
x — 2
1 4 ab 1 1 - 1
30 3a +
_b2 — a:
.
:
a a
2
x — 4
2
3 (x + 2 ) 2
3x 4 —5 x 5
31 37
4 —5x
. .
3 :
a 6
3 x — 4 _4
2
x2
+ 3 9 11 3
2
1 23
38
2fi + 9 fl — 5
.
2 2 —
x + 5 2 x 1
2 74 A D V AN CE D CO U RS E I N AL G E B R A
es .
(8 d
2
+ 0a b
1 — 2
3 b )x2 — 1 0 a b — 3 b2 = 0 .
71 .
72 .
73 . O
74 .
x + 3
75 _3 .
x — 2
.
x — l x — 3
9
7e .
(ac — 5
a : )( ao —
2
a :)(
Q
ao
x
77 ( 23 + 1 )( a
.
2
b
TH E OR Y or QUADR A TI C EQ UATI O NS
i
A qua d r a ti c equa ti o n h a ve more th a n t wo d ifierent

’
4 54 . ca nn ot
r o o ts .
E v e ry q ua dr at i c e q ua t i on can be r e duce d t o t h e fo r m
ax
2
bx c 0.
If p o s s i b le ,
le t th i s e qua ti on h av e thr ee d iffe r ent ro o ts ,
a n d r3 ; t h e n , by 1 1 0,
a rl
2
brl c O, ( 1 )
a r ,,
2
br2 c O, 2
( )
( )
3
2
an d a rg br3 c 0.
S ubtr a ct i ng (2) fr o m
a rl (
2
r2
2
) b(rl r2
) 0 .
Th en , a rl ( r2
)( r1 r2
) b (r 1 r2
) O,
o r,
( r1 r2
)( a r1 a rz b) O .
W h e n ce ,
ei th e r r1 r2 O, o r e l s e a rl a n, b 0
B ut rl — r 2 ca nn o t be z e ro ,
fo r, by h y p oth e s i s , r, and r 2 ar e
d i ffe r e nt .
H e n ce , a rl a n, b 0.
4
( )
Q U AD R A T I C E Q UA TI O N S 275
l
In i k e manne r, by su btr a ct i n g (3) fr om we h av e
a r1 a r3 b O .
( )
5
S ubtr act in g (5 ) fr om a r.2 a r3 0, o r r2 — r3 . 0 .
B ut t h i s i s i mp os s i b le ,
for , by hy po th e s i s , and r3 are
di fie re nt .
H e n ce ,
a u
q a dr atic e qua t i on ca nn o t h av e mo r e th a n two
d iffe r en t r oot s .
4 55 . S um and Pr oduct of R oot s .
L et rl a n d r 2 d e n ot e th e r o ots of d x
2
bx c 0 .
Th e n by ,
4 50,
b Vb ?
4 ac
2 a
2b b
Addi n g th e s e v al u e s , r1 r,
2 a a,
Mul ti p ly i n g t h em to ge th e r ,
2
4 a a,
H e nce ifa qua d r a ti c equa ti o n i s i n th e fo rm d x

,
bx c O 2
,
th e s um of th e r o ots e qua ls mi n us th e co efii ci en t of x d i vi d ed

by th e co efii ci ent of x , a n d th e p r od uct of th e r oo ts equa ls th e
2
‘
i n d ep en d e nt te r m d i v i d ed by th e co efi ci en t ofx2
.
1 . F in d by i n s p e ct i on th e s um a n d p r o d u ct o f th e r oots of
3 23
2 — 723 — 1 5 = O .
1 5
Th e s um o f t h e r o ots is
g , an d th e i r p r o d uct or 5 .
2 . O ne r o ot o f t h e e q ua ti on 6 x
2
31 x: 35 i s — Z fin d
2
th e o th e r .
Th e e qua ti o n ca n be w r i tt e n 6 x
2
31 x 35 0 .
Th e n ,
th e s u m o f th e r oo t s is an d t h e i r p r o du ct
é—
)
3 1 Z 5 ’
Z th at
T h en ,
th e oth e r r oot is —
.
, or i s,
6 2 6 2
2 76 AD V AN C E D C O U R S E IN ALG E B R A
EX ERC S E 5 2 I
F ind by i ns p e c ti o n th e s um an d p rod uc t o fth e roots o f:
1 . 5 . 4 x — 1 2 x2 2 3 .
2
2 . x 6 . 9 x
3 . x 2
+ 3x 7 .
4 . 3 x2 — x — 6 = O 8 . 6 a x2 7
+ a bx = 2 0b2
9 . O ne r oot o fx 2
+ 7x = 9 8 is 7; find th e o th e r .
5
1 0 O ne r oo t o f28 x 2
x 1 5 0 is fin d th e o th e r
a
. .
1 1 . O ne r o o t o f x2 i s 5 + 2 x/3 ; fin d th e
o th e r .
1 2 . Ifr 1 an d r 2 a r e th e r oots o fa x 2
bx c O, exp res s t h e follo w in g
i n t e r ms o fr 1 and r 2
(a) 71 72 "22
.
( b)
72 2
' ( 0)
1- -
1
7
' ( d) n
" r23 .
71 72
4 56 . Di s cus s i on of Gene al r S olut i on .
4 4 8, t h e r oo t s c=
2
By ofa x bx O are
—b — 4 ao
71
2 a
We w il l now d i s cuss th e s e r e s ul ts for a ll p o ss i b l e r e al l s

v a ue
of a , b, and c .
2
I . b 4 ac p o s i ti ve .
In th i s s
ca e , r , a n d r 2 a r e r e a l a n d un equa l .
II . b — 4 ac = 0
2
.
In th i s s
ca e , r ,L a n d r2 a r e r ea l a n d equa l .
I II . b2 4 a c n ega ti ve .
th i s s i magi n a ry mp lex
‘
In ca e , r1 and r2 a re or co
IV . b O .
In th i s ca e ,s th e e qua t i o n t ak e s th e fo r m
ax
2
+ c = 0; w h e n ce , x : :
1:
If a an d c a re o f un l i ke S i g n, the r oots are real, equal in

a bs olute va lue, an d unli ke i n s i gn .
2 78 A D VAN C E D CO UR SE IN ALG E B R A
We h av e,
ax
2
+ bx + c = a
a a
2
bx b
+ +
d 4 a
2
1 .
2 a
b b
+ + +
2 a 2 a
by 1 71 .
( 1 )
B ut by 4 50, t h e r oo ts o fd x
2
bx c O are
2 a 2 a 2 a
H e n ce , to fa cto r qua d r a ti c expr es s i o n, p la ce i t

a equa l to z ero,
a n d s o lve th e equa ti o n th us fo r med .
Th en th e r equ i ed r f a cto s a r e r f n th
th e co efii ci ent
i e i
g nve o x
2
exp res s i o n , x mi nus th e fi rs t root, a nd x mi nus the s econd .
1 . F a cto r 6 x
2
+ 7x — 3 .
S olv i n g t h e e q ua t ion 6 x
2
7x 3 0, by 4 5 0,
— 74 1 1 1 s .
1 2 1 2 3 2
Th e n ,
3
3
— 3
( x
Th e e xa mple may als o b e s ol e d v b y us ing ( 1 ) as a f mul a

or .
2 . F act o r 4 1 3 x 1 2 x
2
.
S o lv i n g t h e e q ua t i on 4 1 3 x 1 2 x
2
0, we h av e
1
4 3
Q UAD R A T I C E QUA T I O N S 2 79
Wh en ce, 4 +1 3 x — 1 2x2
=— 1 2 x +
— 3
3 . F a ctor 2 x —
2
3 xy — 2y 2
We s o l ve th e e qu a t i o n
2
2 x
2
+ 1 6 2
y
— 32
y
_4 8
B y § 4 5 0,
4
8y+8 — 2
+6 _ —y+3
or
y _2 y + 2 or ,
4 4 2
Th en, 2 x —
2
3 xy — 2 y — 7x + 4 y + 6
2
z tw
— x—
( 2y
4 58 . I f th e coe f ci e nfi t of x i s a p e r fect s qu ar e i t i s p r efe r

2
,
a bl e t o fact o r t h e e x p r e s s i o n by co m l e t i n g t h e s u a r e a s i n
p q
4 4 7, an d th en us ing 1 71 .
1 . F a ct o r 9 x
2
9 x— 4 .
By 447 9 x 2
9 x w i ll b e come a p e r fect s quar e by a dd i ng
t o i t th e r
s qu a e o f
2 x 3
, or ;
S
th e n ,
9 x
2 —9 x—4 = 9 x
2 — 9 x+
280 AD VAN CE D CO U R SE IN AL G E B R A
Th en, 9 x
2 — 9 x— 4 = x g
I f th e x
2
t er m i s n e g at i v e th e en ti r e e xp r e s s i on s h oul d
, be
e n cl os e d in p a r e n t h e s e s p r e ce d e d by a s i g n .
2 . F a ct o r 3 — 1 2 x— 4 x
2
.
3— 1 2x— 4 x
2
= —
(4 x
2
+1 2 x— 3)
— 9 —3
)
— 1 2]
— 3 — 2 x
) .
In rtai n ca s e s
ce , t h e fact o r s of a qua dr ati c e xp r e ss i on i nv o lve
co mp l e x n u mb e rs .
3 2—
. F a ctor x 4 x +9 .
3
x
( w - 5)
T5
— — 2
(
x )( x
EX ERC S E 5 4 I
F a c to r th e follo win g by th e meth od of 4 57
1 . x2
+ 1 4 x + 33 . 1 0 . 8 x + 1 8 x —5
2
.
2 . x2 — 1 3 x + 40 . 1 1 . 6 x + 7x + 2
2 .
3 . x — x — 42
2
. 1 2 . 1 2 x + 7x — 4 5
2 .
4 . 4 x2
+ 3 x — 7 . 1 3 . 1 4x — 2 -2
23 xa + 3 a .
5 . 3 x — 1 1 x — 2O
2
. 1 4 . 2 4 x2 — 1 7xy + y
3 2 .
6 .
2
2x + 9 x+ 9 . 1 5 . 28 x2 — mx h
2 m2 .
7 5 . x2 — 36 x + 36 . 1 6 . 5 — 2 6 x — 24 x 2 .
8 9 — 8 x — x2 l7 8 + 1 4 x — 1 5x2
‘
. . . .
9 . 2o + 1 9 x — 6 x2 . 1 8 . 2 1 x2 + 2 3 xy2 + 6 y4 .
1 9 fl — x -6 2
.
y y
e
28 2 AD VAN C E D CO U RS E IN ALG E B R A
4 6 0 S ol ut i on of E quat i ons by Fa ct ori ng

. .
In we d h o w t o s ol v e e quati on s w h o s e fir s t me m
s h o we
b e r s coul d be r e s o l v e d by i n s p e ct i on i n t o fir s t d e g r e e fact o r s ,
a n d w h o s e s e co n d m e m b e r s w e r e z e r o .
W e w i ll n o w t ak e up e qua t i on s w h o s e fir s t m e mb e r s ca n be
r e s ol v e d i n t o fa ct o r s pa rt ly o f th e fir s t an d p art ly of th e s e con d ,
o r e n t i r e l y o f t h e s e co n d d e g r e e .
1 . S ol v e t h e e q ua ti o n x 1 0 3
.
F act o r i n g t h e fir s t m e mb e r (x 1 )(x2
,
x 1 ) 0 .
T h en ,
x— 1 = O, or x = l ;
a nd w h e nce , by 4 50,
— 4
w
2 2
2 . S ol v e t h e e q ua t i on x
4
1 0 .
B y E x 2, . 4 59
x \ /2 0, w e h a v e
2
S ol vi n g x 1
S ol v i n g x \ /2 O, w e h a v e
2
x 1
x
V2 i x/ 2 — 4
2 2
EX E RC S E 5 6 I
S ol v e th e follow in g e qu at i o n s
1 . 3 x3 — 2 x2 + 1 5 x 2 . x4 4
+ x2
3 . x 3
5 . 27 x3
+ 8 =0 . 7 6 4
. x3
4 . 3 x4 + 24 x = O . 6 . 1 6 x — SI : O
4
. 8 . x6 — 72 9 a 6 =0 .
2
x + 2x+ 4 4
9 ' O
—4
. .
x2 — 2 x 2 2
x (x — 4 a) — 9 3 2 2
x a x + 2
. a
1 1 . x4
+ 81 : O . 1 3 . 1 5 . x — 8
2 56 a 8 2 0
.
1 2 4 4 4
. x 1 4 . x 1 6 . 9 x
Q UAD R A T I C E QU A T I O N S 28 3
461 . Maxi ma a nd Mi ni ma V alues of Qua r

d at i c E xp r es s i ons .
Th e g r e a t e s t o r l e a s t v a lu e o f a q u a dr a t i c r
e xp e s s i on m ay
s o me ti me s be foun d by t h e a rti fi ce o f co mpl e t i n g th e s q ua e r .
1 . F i n d t h e m i n i mum v a l ue o f x
2
5 x 7 .
We x — + 7=
2
2
h av e 5 x x
S i n ce - i s p o s i t i v e fo r e ve ry r e al v a l ue o f x, th e le as t
2
v alu e o f
i i s w h en x: 2 .
Th u s , t h e m i n i m um va l u e o f t h e e x p e s s i o n r is
2 . F i n d t h e m axi mu m v a l ue Of 4 3 x 2 x
2
.
W e ma y w r i t e th e r
e xp e s s i o n
2
9 41
4 : 4
8
Th e g r ea t e s t v a l ue i s wh e n x
Th u s ,
th e g r e at e s t v a lu e o f th e e x
p es s i on r is
EX ERC S E 5 7 I
F in d th e maxi ma a nd mini ma v al ues of t h e foll o w in g , and d et e rm in e
wh i ch :
1 . x2
+ 3 x — 1 . 3 . 4 x2 — 8 x — 5 . 5 . 3 x2 + 5 x + 4 .
2 . 6 — 8 x — x2 . 4 . 3 + x — x2
. 6 .
— 2 — 9 x — 9 x2 .
2 — — 7+ 2 x -5 x2
7 6 x
. 7x + 3 . 8 . .
PR O B L E M S INV O LV ING QUADR A TI C

. E QUATI O N S W I TH
O NE UN KN O W N NU M B E R
4 62 . v i n g p r ob l em s w h i ch i n v ol v e qu a dr a ti c e q ua ti on s
In s ol ,
th e r e w ill u s u ally be t w o v a l ue s o f t h e un k n o w n n umb e r ; o nly

th o s e v a lue s s h oul d be r e tai n e d w h i ch s at i s fy th e con d i t i on s of
t h e p r o b l em .
T h e co n s i d e r a t i o n s o f 2 6 1 a n d 262 h ol d for e q uat i o n s o f

an y d e g r e e .
284 AD V A NC E D CO U R S E I N AL GE B R A
1 . A m an s old a w at ch for $ 21 , a n d l o s t a s m an y p e r cen t

as t h e w a t ch co s t d o ll a r s . F i n d th e cos t o f th e w a t ch .
L et x n umb e r ofd olla rs t h e wat ch c ost .
Th e n , a : th e p e r c e n t o f l o s s ,
2
a nd x X i , or i n umbe r ofd ollars l os t .
1 00 1 00
x2
B y th e c on d i t i o n s , x 21 .
1 00
S olvin g , x 3 0 or 7 0 .
Th e n t h e c os t o f th e w a t c h w as e i th e r 3 30 o r $ 7
, 0 for e i th er o f th es e
a n s w e r s s a t i s fi e s t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e p r ob l e m .
2 . A fa r m e r b o u gh t
h e e p for 8 72 Ifh e h ad b ought
s om e S .
6 m o r e fo r t h e s a me m o n e y t h e y w oul d h av e co s t h i m 8 1 ,
a p i ece l e s s H o w m an y d i d h e buy
.
L et x n umb er b ough t .
72
Th e n ,
—
. .
numb e r ofd oll ars p ai d for on e ,
x
72
an d n u mb e r of d o ll a r s p aid fo r on e if th e re
x 6
h a d b ee n 6 m o re .
72 72
B y th e co n d i t i on s , 1 .
x x 6
S ol vin g , x 1 8 or 24 .
Only val ue o f x i s a d mi s s i b l e for th e n egat iv e v alue d oes

th e p o s i t i ve ,
not s atis f y t h e c o n d it i o n s o f t h e p r obl e m .
Th e r e fo r e t h e n umb e r o f S h e e p w as 1 8
, .
If i n t h e e n un c i a t i o n o f th e p r ob le m t h e w o r d s
, 6 mo r e h ad be e n ,
“
c h a nge d t o 6 fe we r a n d a pi e c e l e ss a pi e c e m o r e
“ ” ” ”
, to ,
w e s h ould h av e fo un d th e a n s w e r 24 ( C om p a r e .
EX ERC S E 5 8 I
1 W h at n umb e r add e d t o its r e c ip r oc al giv es 2%
.
2 Divi d e t h e n umb e r 2 4 in t o t w o p a rt s s uc h th a t t w i c e th e s qua re of

.
t h e gr e a t e r S h a ll e x c e e d 5 t i m e s t h e s qua r e o fth e l eS S b y 4 5 .
3 F in d t h r e e c o n s e c ut iv e n umb e r s s uc h th at th e s um o f th e i r s quares
.
S h a ll b e 4 34 .
4 . F in d two n umbe rs wh os e d i ffe r en c e i s 7, an d th e d f i r nce

fe e of
W h os e cub e s i s 1 26 7.
2 86 A DVAN C E D C O U R S E IN AL GE B R A
1 8 . raph p ol es al o n g a c e rta in r o a d a re a t e qual in te rvals

Th e t el e g .
If th e in t e rv al b e t w e e n t h e p o l e s w e re in cr e as e d b y 22 fe e t th e r e w oul d ,
b e 8 fe w e r in a mi l e H o w m a n y a re t h e r e in a m i le
.
1 9 .A me rch a n t b ough t a c a s k o fW i ne fo r 8 4 5 H avin g los t 3 gallo n s .
b y le a k a ge h e s ells t h e r e m a in d e r a t 8
, a g a ll o n a b o v e c o s t a n d m a k es ,
a p r o fi t o f 3 3 3; p e r c e n t o n h is e n t i r e o utla y H o w ma n y gallo n s d i d t h e
1
.
c as k c on t a in
2 0 T h e m e n in a r eg i me n t can b e a rra ng e d in a c o l umn t w i c e as l o n
.
g
a s it i s wi de If t h e i r n umb e r w e r e 2 24 l e s s th e y c o ul d b e a rr a n g e d in a
.
,
h o l l o w s qua r e 4 d e e p h a vin g in e a c h o ut e r S i d e o f t h e s q ua r e as ma n y me n
,
as t h e r e w e r e i n th e l e n gt h o f t h e c o lumn F in d t he n umb e r of me n
.
.
21 Th e d e n o min at o r o f a fra c t i o n e x c e e d s tw i c e t h e n ume ra t o r b 2

y
.
a n d th e d i f fe r e n c e b et we e n t h e fr ac t i o n a n d i ts r e c ip r o c a l i s E F in d .
2 4
t h e fr a c ti on .
2 2 A ma n s t a r t e d t o w al k 3 m il es in te n d in g t o a rr iv e at a c e r ta in
.
,
t i me . A ft e r w al king a m il e h e was d e ta in e d 1 0 m in utes a n d was in

, ,
c o n s e que n c e o bli ge d t o w al k t h e r e s t o f t h e w a y a mi le a n h our fa s t e r ‘
W h a t w a s h i s o r i gin al s p e e d
2 3 A r e gi me n t in s o l i d s q u a r e h as 24 fe w e r me n in fr o n t th a n w h e n
.
, ,
in a h ollo w s qua r e 6 d e e p H o w m an y me n a e t h e re in t h e r egi me n t

. r
24 .A r e c ta n gul ar fi eld i s s urr o un d e d b y a fe n c e 1 60 fe e t lon g Th e .
c os t o f th i s fe n c e a t 96 c e n ts a fo o t w a s o n e -t e nt h as man y d o lla rs as
, ,
t h e r e a r e s q ua r e fe e t in t h e a re a o f th e fi eld W h at a re t h e d i me n s i on s
.
O ft h e fi eld
25 A cr e w can ro w d o w n s tr eam 1 8 m il e s a n d b a c k a ga in in 7 h ours
.
, ,
.
T h e i r r a te up s t r eam i s 1 % m il e s an h o ur l e s s th a n t h e r a te o f t h e s tr e a m .
F in d th e rat e o f th e s tr e a m a n d o fth e cr e w i n s t i ll w at e r
,
.
2 6 A ma n p ut 8 5000 in a s a vin gs -b a nk p ay in g a c e rt a in rat e o f i n

.
te re s t At th e e n d o f a y e a r h e w i th d r e w 8 75 l e a vin g th e r ema in d e r a t
.
,
in te res t At th e e nd of a n o th e r y e a r th e am oun t d ue h i m w as 8
.
,
F in d t h e r a t e o f in te r e s t .
2 7 A s qu ar e g a rd e n h a s a s q ua r e p l ot o fgra s s a t i ts c e n tr e s urro un d e d
.
,
b y a p a t h 4 fe e t in w i d th T h e a r e a o f t h e ga r d e n o uts i d e t h e p a th e x
.
ce e d s b y 7 6 8 s qu a r e fe e t t h e a r ea o f t h e p at h ; a n d t h e S i d e o f t h e g ar d e n
i s l es s b y 1 6 fe e t th a n t h r e e t i m es th e S i d e o f t h e p l o t F in d t h e d i me n .
s i o n s o f t h e g ard e n .
2 8 A m e rc h a n t h as a c a s k full o f w in e
. H e d ra w s o ut 6 g a llon s.
,
a n d fi ll s t h e c a s k w i th w at e r A gain h e d raw s o ut 6 g allon s and fills

. ,
t h e c as k w i th w a t e r Th e r e a r e n o w 2 5 g all o n s o f p ur e w in e in t h e c as k
. .
H o w m an y ga ll o n s do es t h e c a s k h o l d
Q UAD R A TI C E QU A T I O NS 28 7
29 . A an d B s ell a q u n ti ty
a c rn
of o for 8 22 , A s e ll in g 1 0 b us h e ls m o re
th a nB . ma n y b us h e ls as B d i d , h e w o uld h a ve r e c e iv e d
If A h a d s o ld as
8 8 wh i le i f B h a d s old as m a n y b us h e ls as A d i d , h e w o uld h av e r e c e iv e d
8 1 5 H
. o w m a n y bu s h e ls d id e a c h s e ll , a n d a t w h a t p r i c e 3
‘
30 T wo me n a re e mp l oy e d t o d o a c e rt a in pi e c e o f w o rk
. Th e fir s t .
r e c e ives 8 4 8 ; a nd t h e s e c o n d wh o w o rks 6 d ay s le s s re c e ive s 8 2 7 If

, , .
t h e s e c o n d h a d w o r k e d a ll t h e t i me a n d t h e firs t 6 d a y s l e s s t h e y w oul d
, ,
h a v e r e c e iv e d e q ual a m oun ts H o w ma n y d a y s did e a c h w o rk a n d a t

.
,
w h at wages
31 .A a n d B r un a r oun d a c our s e s ta r tin g fr om th e s a me p o in t in
, ,
O pp os i t e d i r e c ti o n s A r e a c h e s th e s ta r tin g -p o in t 4 m in utes a n d B 9
.
,
m in ut e s a ft e r t h e y h a v e m e t o n t h e r o a d
, If t h e y c o n t in ue t o r un a t
.
th e s a me r a t es in h o w m a n y m in ut es w i ll t h ey me e t at t h e s t a r tin g
,
p o int ?
32 .A c a rri age-wh eel 1 5 fe e t in c i rc umfer e n c e r ev olves i n a c e rtain
, ,
n umb e r of s e c o n d s If i t re v olv e d in a t i m e lon g e r b y on e s ec on d t h e

.
,
c a rr i age w o uld tra v el 1 44 00 fee t less in an h our In h o w ma n y s e c o n d s .
d o e s i t r e v ol v e
DI S CU S S I O N O F PR O B L E M S I NV O LV ING QUAD R ATI C

E QUA TI O N S W I TH O NE UNKN O W N NUM B ER
4 63 I nt erp ret at i on of Compl ex R es ult s

.
.
P ro b L e t i t b e r e q ui r e d t o fin d t w o r e a l n umb e r s w h os e
.
s um s h all be 1 0 an d p r o d u ct 2 6,
.
L et x o n e n um b e r .
Th e n ,
1 0 x th e o th e r .
B y t h e c o n d i ti o n s x (1 0 x) ,
26 .
S olvin g ,
W e c o n cl ud e th at t h e g iv e n c on d i t i o n s c a nn ot b e s ati s fi ed a nd th e ,
p r ob le m i s i mp o s s i b l e .
H e n ce i ma gi na ry or comp lex r es ults s h o w th a t th e p r o blem i s

,
i mp os s i ble .
4 64 . Th e Pr obl em Li gh t s of t h e .
To find u p o n th e l i n e w h i ch j o i n s t w o li g h t s A a n d B th e , ,
p o i n t e q u a ll y il l u m i n a t e d b y t h e m ; i t b e i n g g i v e n th a t t h e
i n t e n s i ty o f a l i gh t a t a c e r t ai n d i s t a n ce e q ua l s i t s i n t e n s it y
, ,
at t h e d i s t an ce 1 d i v i d e d by th e s qua re o f th e gi v e n d i s ta n ce
,
.
28 8 ADVAN C E D CO UR S E IN ALG EB R A
0
”
A 0 B 0
'
Le t B be 0 un i s t ri ght o f A
to th e
'
.
L et a an d b d e n o t e th e i n t e n s i t i e s o f A an d B, r e s p ecti vel y ,
at th e d i s tan ce 1 .
L et th e p oi n t o f e qua l i ll umi nati on be x uni ts to th e r ight
of A .
Th e n i t w i ll b e c x un i s t fr om B .
B y th e d i t i on s
co n of th e p rob l em , t h e in t en s i ty of A a t th e
d i s t a n ce x un i t s i s ,
g ; an d th e i n t en si ty ofB at th e d i s t ance
b
0 x un i s t is
2
( 0 9
0
a b
Th en , 2 2
x ( c
) x
0V6
S ol v i n g
? c a
th i s e qu a t i on ,
x or
x/d \ /b \ /d x/b
S in ce th e r e ar e t w o l i g ht s , 0 m us t a l wa ys be po s i t i v e ; th e n ,
n ei th e r a, b, n o r c can e q u a l z e rc i .
Th e p r obl e m th en a dm i ts o f on l y thr ee d ifier ent hy po th e s e s :

1 a >b
—
. .
V Ct
In th i s c a e, s is 1 ,
a n d
x/E I x/b
--
Th en , th e fir s t v al ue o f x is c, a n d
Th u s th e fir s t p oi nt o f e qual i llum i n a ti on
,
is at 0, b etw een
t h e l i ght s an d n e a r e r B t h e l e ss e r li ght
, ,
.
\ /a
A g a i n, is 1 .
Th e n , t h e d v alue o f x i s
s e co n 6 .
T h us t h e s e co n d po i n t o f e q ua l i llumi n at i on
,
is at C ”
,
i n AB
p r o d uce d t o t h e,
r i gh t o f t h e l e s s e r li g ht .
2 . a <b .
—
In th i s ca e, s t
is 1 , an d t h e fir s t va l ue of x 9 .
2
,
Vd + V b 2
29 0 AD VAN C E D CO URSE IN ALG E B R A
By t ak i n g oth e r v a lue s fo r x, th e cu v e r m ay be tr ace d b ey on d

E an d G .
It t d s i n e i th e r d i r e ct i on t o a n i n d e fi ni t el y g r e at di s
ex en
t an ce fr o m X X
T o d e t e r m i n e th e lo wes t p o in t o f th e cu r v e w e mu s t k n o w ,
w h at n e g at i v e v al u e o f y h a s t h e g r e at e s t a b s o l ut e v al ue ; th i s
m ay be foun d a s i n 4 61 .
W e hav e x,
2 —
2 x — 3 = (x .
— 4 .
Th e l att e r e xp r e s s i on h a s i t s n e g a t i v e v a l ue o f g r eat e s t abs o

l ut e v a l ue w h e n x 1 b e in g th e n e q u al t o
,
4 .
Th e n , th e l o w e s t p oi n t o f t h e curv e h as t h e co-o rd i n at e s
( 1 ,
4 ) a n d i s t h e r e fo r e t h e p oi n t B .
466 Th e p r i n ci p l e o f
. 28 0 h ol d s fo r t h e g r a ph o f t h e first
me mb e r o f an y qu a dr a ti c
Th us ,
th e a b ov e r
g pa h i n t e r s ect s X X t w i ce ; o n ce at
2—
'
e qu a ti o n , w i t h o n e un k n o w n n um b e r
x
.
= 3,
a n d on ce a t x : —1 a n d t h e r o o t s o f t h e e q u a t i on x 2x
a re 3 an d 1 .
4 6 7 Graph s
. of th e Fi rs t Member s of Qua d at i c Erqua t i on s
h a v i ng E qua l or Compl ex R oot s .
C o n s i d e r t h e e qu a t i o n
2
1 . x
By 1 8 3, th e t w o r oo t s ar e 2 a nd 2 .
To fin d t h e gr a ph of th e fir s t me m b e r,
p ut y = ( x
If If
If If e tc .
Th e gr a p h i s t h e cu rve AB C, w h i ch
e xt e n
fr o m X X
d s be y o n d
'
.
A an d 0 to an i n d e fi ni t e l y gr e at d i s t an ce
'
S i n ce y cann o t be n e g a t i v e, t h e g r a p h i s ta ngen t t o X X at
th e p o i n t w h o s e co-o rd i n a t e s a r e ( 2,
It v i d e n t fr o m t h i s th at i f a q ua dr at i c e q u a t i on w i th
is e
'
, ,
o n e un k n o w n n u mb e r h a s e qu al r o o t s t h e g r a p h o f i t s fir s t
, ,
m e m b e r i s t a n g e n t t o XX .
QUAD R A TI C E QU A TI O N S 29 1
2 . C on s i d e r t h e e q ua t i on
To fin d t h e g ra p h of th e fir s t m e m b e r,
put
If x = 0, y = 2 . If x =
If y = 4 . I f x = — 2, y = 4 ; e tc .
T h e g r a ph i s t h e cu v e r A B C, w h i ch
e xt e n
'
d s b ey on d A an d 0 to an i n d e fi n i t e ly g r ea t d i s tan ce
fr o m X X
To fin d th e p o i n t B , w h e r e t h e curv e i s n e a es r t to X X '
, we
h a ve
x
2
+ x + 2 =
Th e l a tt e r r
e xp e s s i o n h a s i t s l eas t v al ue ,
i ,
w h en x
2
Th e n , B h a s t h e co -o rd i n a t e s
It d e n t fr om t h i s th at i f a q ua dr a t i c e quat i o n w i th
is e vi
'
, ,
o n e unk n o w n n u mb e r h a s co m l e x r o o t s t h e g r a ph o f i t s fir s t
p , ,
me mb e r d o e s n o t i n t e r s e ct X X .
Th e e quat i o n a x2 b 0 m a y b e wr i tt e n ( a x
g 2
b)( a x b) 0 .
Th e gr a p h o f t h e firs t m e mb e r i n th i s c a s e i s a p a i r o f s t r a i gh t lin es
p arallel t o Y1 r es p e c t ive ly 9 t o th e ri gh t a nd to th e le ft o f th at
J
” —
, , ,
a 0‘
l in e .
I
EX E RC S E 5 9
F in d raph ofth e firs t me mb e r of e a ch

th e g o f th e foll o w in g d e te rmin e
,
i ts l o we s t p o in t a n d v e r i fy t h e p r in c ip l e s o f
,
2 80 a nd 4 6 7in t h e r e s ult s
2
1 . x 3 . 4 x2 + 7x : 0
. 5 .
2 . x2
+ x 4 . 8 x2 — l 4 x — 1 5 2 0 . 6 .
in d th e graph s o f t h e firs t
F me mb e rs of t h e fo ll o w in g , a nd v er i fy th e
p rin c iple o f 2 80 in th e res ult s
7
. x2
8 . 9 11 3
2 — 25 2 0.
XX . E Q UA TIO N S S O L V E D L IKE Q UA D
R A TI O S
468 . E quat i ons i n t h e Qua d at i c Fo r rm .
An e q ua tion is s ai d t o b e i n th e qu a d r a t i c fo r m w h e n it is in
t h e fo r m n
hm 0’
u
aw c
wh ere n is an i nte ge r or fr act i o n ; as,
6 3
x 6 x 1 6 O,
and x
"
3
x
'
% 72 .
S u ch t i on s
e q ua a re r ea d il y s o ve l d by t h e m e th o ds o f th e p re
ce d in g ch a p t e r .
6
1 . S o l v e th e e q ua t i o n x 6 x
3
1 6 .
C o mp l e t i n g t h e s qu a e r by th e r ul e of 4 4 5,
6
x
E xtr act i n g s qua r e r oots , a

s
3
3 :9 j; 5 .
Th e n x
3
= 3 j3 5 = 8 0r —2 .
,
3
E xtr a ct i ng b e r oo ts
cu x ,
2 or \/ 2.
Th e r e a re a ls o fo ur i m ag in a ry r o ot s w h i c h ,
m ay b e foun d b y th e me th od
of 4 60 .
2 . S ol v e th e e qu a ti on 2x 3 V5 27
S i n ce V ic i s th e s am e i s i
xin t h e th i s
ua dr a t i c fo r m
as
, q .
Mul t i ply in g by 8 , a n d a dd i n g 3 t o b oth m e m b e r s ,

2
/
E xtr act i n g s q ua e r r o ot s ,
4 V x 3 j; 1 5 .
Th e n ,
4 \ / x = — t 1 5=1 2
3 : 0r —1 8 .
O r) W = 3 or —
g
o
But onl y p r incip a l ro ots a re co n s i de r e d .

W e r e j ect th e 5)g o nl y s o lu t i on
v al ue
( 5 th e is
r
x
i
(
x 5 )i 8 .
E xtr a cti n g b e r o o t (x
cu ,
2 .
R ai s i n g t o fo urt h p o w e r x ,
5 1 6, an d x 1 1 .
C e rt a i n t i on s
e qua o f th e fou rth d eg re e may be s ol ve d by th e
r ul e s fo r q u a dr a t i c s .
2 . S o l v e th e e qu a t i on x
4
1 2 x
3
34 x
2
1 2 x 35 0
.
Th e e q ua t i on ma y be w ri tt e n
( x
4
+1 2
3
x + 36
2
x
) — 2 x
2
1 2 x = 35 .
(
2 2
O r, x +6 x
)
C o mpl e t i n g t h e s qua e, r
2 2
( x +6 x
)
E xtr a ct i n g s qu a er r o ot s (x ,
2
6 x ) 1 j; 6 .
Th e n , x
2
+6 x = 7 or 5 .
C o mpl e t i n g th e s qu a r e , 2
x 6 x 9 1 6 or 4 .
E xtr a ct in g s qua r e r o o t s ,
x 3 or i2 .
Th en ,
. x= —
3 ;t 4 o r _3 — 7 —
4 2
—
1 1 o r — 5 , , ,
.
In s o lvin g e q uat i o n s l ik e th e ab o v e t h e firs t s t e p is t o c omp l e te t h e

, .
s q u a r e w i t h r e fe r e n c e t o t h e x4 a n d x t e r ms by 44 7 t h e t h i rd t e rm o f
3
t h e s q ua r e i s th e s q ua r e o f t h e q uo t i e n t o b ta in e d b y d ivi d in g th e t e rm
b y t w i c e t h e s qua r e r o o t o t e x t e r m
f h 4
.
3 . S ol v e t h e e q ua tio n 2
x 6 x 5 \ /x 2
6 x 20 46 .
Add i n g 20 t o b oth m e mb e r s ,
— 6 w + 20 + 5 \ /x2
)
C omp l e t i ng t h e s q ua e , r
— __ _ 5
1
"
2 —
(
‘
2
x 6 x 20) x 6x 20 66
4 4
E xt r a ct i ng s qua r e r o ot s A/x
3
2
,
6 x 20+ 1:
:
Th en,
E Q UA T I O N S S O LV E D LI KE Q UAD R A T I C S 29 5
Th e onl y s o lu t i on is
S q ua r i n g, x
2
6 x 20 36 .
Co mpl et i n g t h e s q u a e, r x
2
6 x 9 25 .
E xtr act i n g r r o ots

s qu a e x 3 , :1 :5 an d x 8 or 2 ,
.
In s olvin g e q uat i on s o f th e ab ove fo r m a d d s uch an exp res s i on t o b o th

,
m emb e rs th at t h e e xp r es s i o n w i th out t h e r ad i c al S i gn i n th e firs t me mb er

ma y b e t h e s a me as t h at w i th in o r s ome mult ip l e o fi t
, .
4 . S ol v e th e e qu a t i on 2 93
2
+5 x — 2 x x/x2
+5 x 3 1 2 .
Th e e qu a t i on m a y be w r i tt e n
S ubtracti n g 3 fr o m b oth me m b e r s ,
E xtr act i n g s q ua r e r oot s , \ x / 2

5 x 3 x j; 3 .
O r,
S qua r i n g, x
2
+5 x
1 2
Th en ,
— x or 1 1 x= 1 2, an d x = —1 2 or
1 1
Ne ith e r v alue s at is fi es th e g ive n e quat i on .
x
2
3 m e
x 5
5 . S o l v e th e e qu a t i on
fi — x fi — 3 2
:
2 _3
R e p r e s e nt i n g by y , th e e q ua ti on be come s
2
or 2y +2=5y 2
.
S ol v i n g th i s , y =
$ or 2; th at is, or 2 .
T ak i ng first l
v a ue, 2 x
2
6 x
2
x
.
2
x x 6 .
S ol vi n g, x 2 or 3 .
T ak in g s econd l
v a ue, x
2
3 2 x
2
2x .
O r, x
2
2x 3 .
S o l vi ng,
29 6 A D V A NC E D C O UR S E IN A LGE BR A
EX ER C IS E 6 0
S o lve th e foll o win g :
1 . x4 — 2 9 x2 — 1 00 . 9 . 6x = 1 1 x/5 .
2
-6
33 + 1 9 9
—3 _2 1 6' —J Q
;
‘
3
1 0 + 24 4 x 243
%
. x .
3 . x l om + 3
+ 9 =0 1 1 2 x
-8 — 35 x
%
.
4 5
x — 3 3 x =— 32
. .
1 2 2 7x + 4 x
6 8
6 =1 6
_
. .
5 . 64 + 63 x x _ 3
1 3 .
6 .
_5 3 1 4 . 1 6 x3 — 33 x4 — 243 z o
.
7 5 . a; + 7x =— 2 .
1 5 . 1 6 1 x5 + 5 =— 32 x1 °
8
%
.
3
— 308
“
56 1 6 . 81 x I
1 7 .
( 2 x 2
+ 3 x) 2
1 8 . x + 4
1 2 3
x + 1 4 x2 —
l 32 x — 1 3 5 =o .
1 9 .
x2 —3 2x 1 7
20 .
+ 2
2x x — 3 4
21 .
22 . 8 x2 — 1 =— 8 x9 .
23 . x 4 —2 a x3
24 . 1 8 x
( (C :
a
x2
+2 2 2; —5 35
25
2 x— 5 x2 +2 6
26 .
27 .
28 .
( 4 x
2
+2 x — 1 89 =O .
29 .
2 — 3x — 6 2 x3 — 3 x
30 .
(2 x (
31 .
x4 — 1 8 x3 + 1 09 c — 2 5 2 x + 1 80
:2
32 . 2 0 .
33 .
34 . 7( x3 8 ( x8 1 .
i
35 .
( 3 a: 95 1 5) 22 .
36 .
29 8 A DV AN CE D C O U R S E IN AL G E B R A
XXI . S IMU L TA N E OU S Q UA D R A TIC

E Q UA TI O N S
o u th e d o bl e u s i g ns 3: a nd :
F .
I f t wo or m o r e d o ub le si gns a r e us e d in an e q u ti n a o ,
it w i ll be u d e r n
s to od t h at t h e e qu ti n a o ca n be re ad i n t wo w a y s firs t r ead in g , a ll th e
upp er s i ns g se o c n d r e a d in g a ll t h e l o wer si g ns
i
, .
Th us , t h e e qu t i n
a o a j :b 0 ca n be re a d e i th e r
a + b = c, or a — b : — c .
And th e e qu ti n
a o a j; b m 0 can be r e ad e i th e r
a + b z — o, or a — b z c
.
Th e s am e n ota ti o n w ill b e us ed i n th e c as e o f a s y s te m of e qu ti on
a s,
e a c h inv o l vin g d oub le s i g n s .
Th us th e e quat i o n s x
, 1 2 y
: ; , i 3, ca n be r e ad e i th e r
:
1 2 : + 2, y : + 3, or x: _2, y : — 3 .
An d t h e e qu t i n
a o s a: 1 :2 , y
: :3
q , ca n be r e ad e i th e r
+ 2, — 3, or _2 , y : +3 .
Th e p rin c iples d e mo n s tr at e d i n 2 33 to 2 36, in clus iv e , h old for s i mul

ta neo us e qua t i o n s o f a n y d e gre e .
4 70 Th e foll o w i n g p r in ci pl e i s o f fr e quen t u s e i n s o
. l vi ng
s i mul t an e ou s e qu a t i o n s o f h i gh e r d e g r ee th an t h e first :
Th e sy s t em o f e q ua t i on s
A xB =Q a)
0X D 0, ( )
2
w h e r e A , B , 0, an d D r at i o n al an d i nt e gr al e xpr e ss i on s
are
w h i ch i n v o l v e th e un k n o wn n u mb e r s i s e qui v al e n t t o t h e ,
'
syste m s
A = O, A = O, B = O,
an d ( )
3
D = O, D=O .
F or an y s olu ti on of ( 1 ) an d ( )
2 m ak e s A X B and 0 X I)
i d e n ti cal ly e qua l to 0 .
S I M UL T AN E O U S Q UAD R A T I C E Q UA T I O N S 29 9
I t th en mak e s at l e as t o n e fa cto r o fA X B an d 0 x D i d enti

call y e qu a l t o O a n d h e n ce s a t i s fi e s s o m e o n e o f t h e s y s t e m s
,
Ag ai n a n y s ol ut i o n o f a ny on e o f t h e s y s t e ms (3 ) m ak e s
,
e i t h e r A o r B a n d a l s o e i t h e r 0 o r D i d e n t i cally e q ual t o O ;
, ,
a n d h e nce s a t i s fi es (1 ) a n d
T h en th e sy s t e m (1 ) an d (2) i s e qui v alen t t o

,
Th e p r in c ip l e h ol ds for any n umb e r of e quat i o n s w i t h a n y n umb e r o f ,
fa c to rs .
4 71 . T wo e q ua ti on s
d de gre e of w i th t w o
th e s e con
un k n o w n n um b e r s w i l l g e n e r all y p r o d uce by e l i mi n a t i on a n , ,
e q ua t i o n o f t h e fo ur th d e g r ee w i t h o n e un k n o w n n u mb e r .
Con s i d e r, for e xampl e t h e e qua t i on s ,
2
90 y a .
( 1
)
:
a y
2
b .
( )
2
F r om y a
2
x ; su b s t i tut in g in
2
x + a
an e qu a t i on o f th e fourth d e gr e e i n x .
Th e me th o d s al r ea dy g i v e n ar e th e r e fo r e n ot s uf fi ci e nt fo r , ,
th e s olut i on o f e v e ry s y s t e m o f s i mul t a n e o us q uadr a t i c e q ua

ti o ns wi th tw o unk n o w n n umb e r s
,
.
I n ce rt ai n ca s es h o w e v e r t h e s o l ut i on may be e fiecte d
, ,
.
4 722 CA S E . I . Wh en e a ch equa ti on i s i n th e fo r m
2 2
ar
e by c .
th i s ca s e ei th e r e l i mi n a e t d by a dd i ti on
2 2
In ,
90 o r y ca n be or
:
s ubtr a ct i o n
:
.
1 . S o l ve t h e e q ua ti o n s
f 1 2
Mul t i pl y (1 ) by 3, 9 2
x 1 2y 2
228 .
M ult ip l y (2) by 4, 1 2y 2
44 x 2
1 6 .
S ubtr act i n g, 53 x
2
21 2 .
O r, x
2
4 .
( )
3
Wh e n ce, a : i2 .
3 00 AD V AN C E D C O U R SE IN A LGE B RA
S ubst i t ut i ng :
1: j; 2 in 1 2 4 y 2
76 .
Th e n ,
2
y 1 6 .
( )
4
Wh ence , y j:4 .
Th e or , x = ( )
5
It foll ow s , p r e c i s el y as in EX 1 .
, 238 , th at th e g iv en s ys tem is e qui va
l e n t t o th em ( 3 ) a nd s y ste
'
Now ( 3) and ( 4 ) may b e writt en
— 2 =0 —
) ,
an d (y + 4 )( y 4 ) : 0 .
And by 4 70, t h es e are e quiv l n t t

a e o
03 4—2 0, x + 2 = 0,
‘
a,
{
2 {IS
g
fi ly + 4 = m
a nd
y
w h i ch are th e sa me as
Th e m e th o d o f el i m i n a ti on by a dd i t i o n or s ubtr acti on may be

s d
u e in o th e r e xa mpl e s .
2 . S o l v e th e e qua t i on s
Mul t i pl y (1 ) by 3 , 9 x
2
1 2 y = 1 41 .
Mul ti ply (2) by 2, 1 4 x

2
1 2y 66 .
Addi ng, 23 x
2
z : 2 07
Th en ,
x
2
9, an d x j; 3 .
S ub s t i tut i n g :
1 3: in 2 7— 4 y 47 .
Th e n ,
4 y 2 0, an d y 5 .
It i s p os s i bl e t o el i min ate o ne unkn o wn n umb e r ,

in e xa m ples ( 1 ) and
by s ubs ti tuti o n or by co mp a r is o n
EX ERC S E 6 | I
S olv e t h e follo w mg
3 2 2
66 4 x2 + 9 y2 =1 3
{
33 +2y z . .
1 4
= i ai — 2 7y2 z : 6
o
9 xr + 5y 2 8 x2 .
3x 5y 2 1 1 6 5 xy + 2 — 75
{
.
y .
2 5
— 95
.
N
7x 2 0 J
4 31 1 21 . Q
‘
I
9 2
‘
I
3x 2
mg =24
{
2 .
3 . 6
4 x2 — 5 xy z 46 .
3 02 AD V AN C E D C O U RS E IN AL G E B R A
EX ERC S E 6 2 I
S ol ve t h e follo win g :
x — 2 9
y 2 .
9 .
xy z 2 a
2
+ 3 a — 2 .
2 xy + x : — 36 .
1 0
3
xy — 3y z — 5 .
2— 2 2
+ 3 — 8
{1 3 y 13
m
2
x —
.
4 1 1 .
y x
x — 2
2 2 — 4 — 2
y y 2 .
—1
2 g + 3x
z
x
5 x _g
29
3 m+ y 1 0
1 2 .
2 y 24
3x — xy —
2 2 — 3
g z .
4 y — x —2
6
2x — 3g z 5
=1 3
.
2
x + 4 xy .
_ 2 2 .
2x 6 y
1 4
f
i n 1 5
8 '
2
=0
.
3 y 2 24 xy + 9 5
4 3! 1 5
3x—2y
.
4 74 CA S E III . Wh en th e gi ven equa ti on s a re sy mmetr i ca l

y
.
w i th r esp ect to :a nd
a ; th a t i s , w h en so a n d y ca n be i n ter
ch a nged w i th o ut ch a ngi ng th e e qua ti o n .
E qu at i o n s of t h i s k i n d m a y be s o l v e d by c om b i n i n g th e m in
s u ch a w ay as to o bt a i n t h e v al u e s o f a; y a n d a; y .
x +y = 2 ( 1
)
1 S o lv e t h e e qu a i o n s t
my ( )
.
1 5 . 2
S qu a r i n g 2
x 2 mg y
2
4 .
( )
3
Mu l ti pl y i n g (2) by 4 4 my 60 .
( )
4
S ub t r a ct i n g , 2 mg g
2
64 .
( )
5
E xtr a ct i n g s q ua e r r oot s ,
:
1: g j; 8 .
( )
6
S IM UL T AN E O U S Q UAD R A T I C E Q UA T I O N S 3 03
Add in g (1 ) an d 2 a: 2 i8 1 0 or 6 .
W h e n ce ,
: 5
a or 3 .
S ubtr a ct i n g (6) fr o m 2g 2 I}:8 6 or 1 0 .
Wh e nce , g 3 or 5 .
Th e s o luti o n is x= 5, y = — 3 ; o r, w = —3 , y = 5 . 7
( )
In s ubt ract in g :1:8 fro m 2 w e h a ve 2 F 8 i n a cc o rd a nc e w i th th e n o ta
,
2
,
t i o n e xpl a in e d o n p age 2 9 8 .
In op e rat ing w ith d ouble s i gn s :1 is c h an ge d t o, ; and F t o i wh en 1

,
ever s h o uld b e c h a n g e d t o
E qua t i o n ( 4 ) i s e quiv al e n t t o ( 2 ) b ut ( 3 ) i s e q uiv al e n t t o x y 2

a nd x y 2 .
If th e n w e us e o n ly t h e v a lue + 2 for x + y t h e g ive n s y s t e m i s

, , ,
e quiva le n t to ( 3 ) a n d
By 2 34 t h e s y s t e m ( 3 ) a nd ( 4 ) i s e quiv al e n t t o ( 3 ) a n d
,
Th e n th e g iv e n s y s te m i s e quiva l e n t t o t h e p o s i t iv e v al ue o f x
, y in
an d ( )
5 ( 1 ) a nd
th a t i s , t o
No w ( 5 ) m a y b e wr i tt e n ( a: y 8 )( a; y 0.
Th e n by ,
47 0 th e s y s t e m ( 1 ) a n d ( 5 ) i s
,
e quiv l nta e to (1 ) a nd
x— y an d ( 1
) an d x t h a t i s ,
to
Th e ve e quati o n s m ay als o b e s olve d by t h e me tho d

abo o f C as e II but
th e s y mm e tr i c a l me th o d i s s h o rt e r a n d n e at e r
:
.
2
x + : 50
2 . S ol v e th e e q u at i on s
5 3 ,
Mul ti ply (2) by 2 , 2 mg 1 4 .
( )
3
A d d (1 2 mg ( )
4
2
( )
2
an d 36
) 3 93 g .
Wh en ce ,
a : y j; 6 .
S ubtr a ct (3) fr o m m2
2 mg g
2
64 .
Wh e n ce ,
a : y j :8 .
Ad d (5 ) a n d 2 m= 6 i 8 , o r — 6 ;t 8 .
Wh ence — 1 1 or —7 .
, , ,
S ubtr act (7 fr o m 2 y :2 6 I}:8 , or 6 q:8 .
Wh e n ce = — 1 7, — 7, or 1
, g ,
.
Th e s ol u ti on is x: ;t 7, g
= 2F1 ; y = i 7 .
3 04 AD V AN CE D C O U RS E IN ALG E B R A
Th e g e iv n s y s te m is e quival e n t t o th e s y s te m ( 4 ) and
Now ( 4 ) a nd ( 6 ) ca n b e wr i t te n
and (x —y
Th e n ,
th e sys te m (4 ) and ( )
6 i s e quiv l n t t a e o ( )
5 and w i th e ve ry
p os s ible c omb in a ti o n o fs i gn s .
W e may s ol ve b y th e m e th o d of C as e III ot h e r s y s te ms i n wh i ch th e
e qu t i n
a o s a re s y mme tr i c al , ex e c p t in th e s i g ns o f t e rms as , for e xamp le ,
th e s y s te m
a; y a
i
.
my 2 b .
W e may als o s ol v e c erta in non-s y mmetr i c al s y s te ms ; as , for exam p le ,
th e s y s te m
ra % 2 2
b y 2
c .
l ax + by =d .
EX ERC S E 6 3 I
S o lv e th e foll owmg :
'
2 2
l —3 4
x +y z .
9
— y =1 1 Q 91
x . x
2
xy = — 28 .
x2 + y = 1 30
2
.
3 1 0'
D—y
C z — 8 .
m+ y z 2 a —1 .
4
= 2 — —2
.
my a a .
1 1 .
z 2
5 a b
xy z ab
6 .
1 2 .
m— y z 3
1 3
7 y x 3
o
x —y z L
2
x 1 4 .
8
306 AD V AN C E D CO UR S E IN ALG E B R A
S ub s t i t ut i n g th e v al u e s o f v an d x i n th e e qu a t i o n g vx,
2 1 2
5' V5
1 1 2
Th e s olut i on is m= i 5 , g = i 2 ; or, w= i —
fi
,
V5
Th e g ive n s y s te m , a n d are th ree e qu t i n a o s w i th th re e unkn o w n
n um b e rs by 2 36 , t h e y ar e e quiv l n t ta e o th e s y s t e m a nd
Th en p re c i s e l y a s i n E x
,
2 4 0 th e s y s t e m .
, , an d ( 3) is
e q uiv al e n t t o and or to and
W e may wr i te ( 5 ) in t h e fo rm ( 5 v 2 )( v 1 2) 0 .
Th e n t h e s y s t e m
,
a n d ( 5 ) i s e qu iv al e n t t o th e s y s te ms ( I),
an d 5 v 2 O, an d v 1 2 0
.
Th e n ,
th e g iv e n s y s te m is e quiv l nt t a e o t h e s y s t e ms
2 5 5
y _ x, x 2
, a d y 2
5
1 _4:
n
5
In fin d in g y from th e e quat i o n 3; vac c are mus t b e t ak e n t o multiply ,
ea c h v alue o f x b y th e v al ue o f v w h i ch was us e d t o o bt ain i t .
EX ERC S E 6 4 I
S ol v e th e follo wmg :
x 2
+ y = 25 2 x2 — 2 xy — 4 y2 = — 4 1
o
. .
1 7
x — xy 2 z 4 . x2
x 2
+3 c
cy _— 5
8'
.
2
2 xy — 2
y
-2 4 . i 3 x + 8 xy2— 4 y2 =— 2
7 .
2 2 45
1 1 x 53
0 1 31 2 .
3 9
2 x + xy 2 : — 2 . 7x + 3 xy —
2 2y2 = 20 .
4 x — 2 '
ay —
y
2 z —16 . 5x + 2 xy — 3 y
2 z 27 .
4 1 0
3 xg + y 2 z 28 . 4 x2
5 1
9 3 + l +
5
—
my
.
2 2 2
x y x
5 1 1 .
1 3 1
90 .
962
/ y
2 my 21
2
x + xy —25 y
2 = 25 . 4 x2 — 2x
y y
2 = —1 6 .
6 1 2
2 = 4
x + 4 g
2 0 .
my 4 0 x2
1 3
5 y — 3 xy —2 72 m 2 2 38 x2y2 .
S IM UL T AN E O U S QUAD R AT I C E QUA T I O N S 3 07
4 76 . S o lut i on of S i mult a neous E quat i ons of H i gh er D egree by

Fact or i ng .
1 . S o l v e th e e qua ti on s ( x
—3 2 0
y + ) : .
By 4 70, th e gi v e n s y s te m is e q ui v al e n t to t h e s yst em s
x— = 0, =
at0, —
g y
x +y = m x— 3g+2=Q
m+ 2 g — l z
mM M m+ 2 g — 1 = Q
x +y = ,
x— 3y + 2 = 0
Th e so u l ti on s of th e s e ar e
— = (
2 2
x + g
as 2 y 0 . 1 )
2 . S ol ve th e e q ua t i on s
2 m+ 3 y + 6 = 0
W e m ay w r i te ( 1 ) i n t h e fo r m ( a : 2 y)(oc y) 0.
Th e n t h e g i ve n s y s te m is e q ui val e n t t o th e s y s tems
ac + 2 g = 0, r x— y = 0,
an d
1
S ol v i n g th e s e ,
x = — 1 2, y = 6 ; w:
5
; 3!
g
Th e e xa mple can be v
s ol e d b y th e m eth od of 4 73 ; b ut th e v
ab o e
meth od is sh o rt e r .
3 w + g = 7x
2 2
.
( 1 )
3 . S ol ve th e e qu a ti on s
M ult i ply in g (1 ) by 2, 6 y = 1 2
4 x .
Mult i ply i n g (2) by 7, 7ing/ + 7g = 1

2
4 x .
— =
S ub t r act i n g, y)(
2—
6 93 7xy 5g 2
: 0, or ( 2 x + 3 (1 ) 5 y) 0 .
Th e n ,
th e g i v e n s y s tem is e qu i v al e n t t o th e s y s te m s
3 x
2
+g = 7x, 2
g = 7a3,
2
an d
S ol v i n g x= 1 , g = — 2
; w=
T gy
7
/
.
3 08 AD V AN CE D CO U R S E ,
IN ALG E B R A
4 . S o l ve t h e e q ua ti ons
2
x : x y
f 2 3g— n
S ubtr act i n g, 93
2
y
2
= 2 a2 -2
y, or (
x
x
2
= x + y’ x
2
= w + y’
Th en , an d
x— g = 0,
x +g
S ol v i n g th e s e ,
m= O, y = 0; x = 2, y = 2 ; or ,
EX E RC S E 6 5 I
S o lv e t h e foll o w in g
( 2 x — 3 y)( x
1
8
5 x + 4 y = 23 . L 3 x2 — s wy — 4 g2 = ls .
x2 — 4 2 =3x
( 90 +
2 y)( 3 x 9
y .
2 .
2
( x xy + 8 y 2 x
.
— — 3 w2 + xy — 2 y2 =— 4 y
2
3 4 2
0
.
x xy y 2 .
1 0
3
3 w _5 y
.
2
°
6x
: 46 .
3 x2 + 3 y
i i
o xy
2 x2 _xy — 1 5 y2 =0 .
z °
4 n 1
5x+ 2g : 21
3
.
1 2 x2
5 1 2
=
.
7x - 3 y 2 x— t y + l =a
2 x2 — xy 0 m 3 2 — 2 —
20y = 0
3
2 .
2 +5 a3 y 8 xy .
6 1 3
=9
.
m+ y
2 2
2 .
3 x+4 y =7.
x — 2 xy
2 =0 . x 2 = mx -n
y
.
7 1 4 .
—
.
y
2 z nx my .
'
4 77 S olut i on by
. D i vi s i on .
A X B a X b,
Con s i d e r th e e q ua t i on s
B b5 ( )
2
where A r a ti o n al a n d i n t e g ral exp r e s s i o n s w h i ch

an d B ar e
i n v ol v e t h e u n k n o w n n u m b e r s a n d a a n d b a n y n um b e rs ,
.
B y 236 th e g i v e n s y s te m i s e qui v al e n t to
,
A= ai
( )
3
or to
B =b; E=5
31 0 AD V AN C E D CO U R S E IN ALG E B R A
Ex . S ol v e th e e qua t i on s
x — = 3 w + 2
y
D i v i d in g ( 1 ) by th e gi ve n s y s t em i s .
e qui v a l e n t t o th e
s y s te ms
x— = w+ y = 9
0 x —
( )
3
2
y , 6 x + 4,
an d
3 x + 2 = 0, x
Th e s ol u ti o n of th e first s y s t em is :
13 : y
3
To s ol v e th e s e con d , ad d 2
( ) and th e n ,
2 90 =9 x — 3 x
2
+ 6, or 9 x
2
— 21 6 -1 91
x
1 8 1 8
-1 91
9
I f w e t ry t ove by s ubs tit ut in g th e value ofy from ( 2) i n

s ol we sh all
h av e a n e quat i o n o f t h e th i r d d e gr ee in x .
EX ERC S E 6 6I
S ol ve t h e follow in g :
3 a
{
x y 26
1
.
72 .
x y
.
2
6
.
.
x3
y
3 28 0 .
1 2 .
2
2
x
7 .
3 .
a 3
8y 3 1 89 8
4
(D 2y 9
( x2 e
y 4) 2 1 00
.
1 1 9 '
+ 1 9 4 )( 3 y 2)
953 3
.
( x
y
6 .
1 1
1 . 1 0 .
a
c y
S I M UL T AN E O U S Q UAD R A T I C E QUA T I O N S 31 1
+ 2 7y = 9 L
3
f 8 95 3
98
1 1 i
L4 55 2 1 4 . 2/ x 1 5
4 — 1 x — y z z o
i
(1 3
m
.
$
2 — 2
xy — 1
y z .
y x 6 x y 2
+ y
2
x = 42 .
1 3
+ =L
1 6 . 1 1
a : y 6 x y 6
4 79 . S peci al Met h ods for t h e S ol ut i on of S i mult aneous E qua

t i ons of H i gh er D eg r e e .
$
3
y
a
1 9' ( 1
)
1 . S o l ve t h e e qu a ti on s
( )
2
Mul ti p ly (2) by 3 3 fly 3 my ?
:2 1 8 .
( )
3
S ubtra ct (3) fr o m 3
(1 2 3 (fig 3 my ?
y
3
1 .
E xtr act i n g b e r o ot s cu ,
:
1: y 1 .
( )
4
D i v i d i n g (2) by xy 6 .
( )
5
S o l v i n g e qu a t i o n s (4 ) an d
( )
5 by t h e m e th o d of § 4 74 , w e
fin d y = 2; o r, x = — 2, y = -3 .
2 S o l v e th e e qu a ti on s w = 6
.
t + y
P utt i n g w = u + v and y = a — v,
( >+ u -v
8
u + v
(
u
( ); ( 1 )
'nd '
a ( u v
) ( u
) 0 6 .
( )
2
R e d u ci n g 2u 3
6 2W 2
v
2
).
( )
3
R e d uci n g 2u 6, or u 3 .
Putt i n g u 3 in 54 1 8 ' 0
2
Wh en ce , v
2
1 ,
or v j:1 .
Th e r e fo r e ,
a nd
y = a
Th e a rt i fic e of sub s ti t ut in g u v and u fo r a:and y is

v ad van tageous
in any c as e wh ere th e giv e n e qu t i na o s a re s ymmetr i ca l 474 ) wi th
res p ect t o o:and S e e als o E x 4 . .
31 2 AD V AN C E D C O U R S E IN A L GE B R A
’
3 . S o l v e th e e q ua tion s ( 1
)
my 6 .
( )
2
M ul t i p ly i n g (2) by 2, 2 my 1 2 .
Ad d (1 ) an d
O r, (m = 35 .
Compl e tin g th e s qu a e , r 30
2
2 (m y) 1 36 .
Th e n an d m+ y = 5 — 7
,
or .
( )
4
S quari ng m2
2 my y
2
25 or 49 .
Mul ti ply i n g (2) by 4, 4 my 24 .
S ubtr act i n g ,
m 2
2 my y
2
1 or 25 .
Wh en ce ,
m y j; 1 or j; 5 .
( )
5
Add i n g (4 ) an d 2 m: 5 :
t:1 ,
or 7j :5 .
Wh en ce ,
m 3 , 2, 1 ,
o r 6 .
S ubtr a ct i n g (5) fr om 2y 5 IF 1 , or 72F 5 .
W h en ce , y 2, 3 , 6, or 1 .
m4
y
4
97
4 . S o l v e th e e q ua t i on s
m+ y 1 .
P utt i n g m= u + v an d y = u v,
( 1 )
an d ( ( u — v -1
u + v
) + ) .
( )
2
R e d uci n g 2u “
1 2U 2 2
0 2v 4
97 .
( )
3
R e duci n g 2 u 1 , or u
S ub s ti t ut i n g i n 1 + 3 02 2 v
4
97
5
S o l v i ng
3 1
1 — AD V AN C E D CO UR SE IN ALG E B R A
S I M ULTAN E O U S QUAD RA TI C E QUATI O N S W I TH M O RE

THAN O NE UN KN O W N NU M B E R
( 1)
4 80 1 . . S o lv e t h e e q u a t i o n s 2m ( )
2
m+ 2 y — z = — 6 .
( )
3
Ad d (2 ) a n d 3 m— y = 5 ; or , y = 3 m— 5 .
( )
4
By —l 0+ 6 = 7m— 4 .
( )
5
S ub s t i t ut e v al u e s o f y an d z in
m+ 9 m - 3 0m
+ 25 + 4 9 m
2 2 2
5 9 m — 8 6 m= — 2 7
2
.
4 5 02 w 43 i V1 84 9 1 59 8 43 :
t 1 6
1
t
27
By 01
‘
59 59
5= — 2 or
1 89
An d by z = 7— 4 or
59
4 z 3 0r — —
ég
2
(y b) (2 0
) 9 .
( 1)
S ol v e t h e ti o n s m 2
2 . e qu a (z c
)( a
) b .
( )
2
2
(w a
) (3! b) 0 .
( )
3
Mul ti ply a nd
(m a
) (y
2
( z (1
2 2 2
5 0 .
Wh en ce , ( m a
)(y b)(2 — c
) 1 ; a bc .
( )
4
2
_ bG a i bc
D i v i d e (4 ) by (1 ) x a : i_ ,
or x =
2
i ca;
Or
b 1)
2
t ab
:
D i vi de ( )
4 by or z _ 0
C C
( 1)
3 . S ol ve th e e q ua ti on s y (m y z) ( )
2
( )
3
S I M UL TAN E O U S QUAD R AT I C E QUA T I O N S 31 5
Ad d an d ( m y z
2
) d
2
b2
e
2
.
Th e n , ( )
4
2
“
D i vid e ( 1 ) by a : :
t
D i vi d e ( )
2 by ( )
4 y I:
:
D i vi d e ( )
3 by z :
I:
I
EX E R C S E 6 8
Th
( e n ote on p a ge 31 3 a ppl ie s w i th e qu al fo rc e t o th e foll ow in g
e xa mpl e s ).
S olv e th e follo w in g
y x2
m yZ b .
xy — z x 6 .
-
L yz + 3x a
l
2 95
2
+ y 2 _z2 _
_ 43 .
1 0
3 m — my
2 — mz = 4
5 5 m— 2 y : 1
4 m+ 3 z = — 5 .
l 1 1
1
m y Z
L2 z + 2m myz
1 1
6 1
.
y x .
1 2 m — z l
1
2 1 y
l
O'
.
+ —
my E coz yg _ 77
u
31 6 ADV ANC E D C O U R S E IN L
A G EB R A
PR O BLE M S INV OLV IN G S I M ULTANE O U S E QUATI O N S OF A

HIGH ER D E GR E E T HAN TH E F IR S T
481 . In so l v i n g p r o b l em s w h i ch i n v ol v e si mul t an e ou s e qu a
t i o n s o f a h i gh e r de gr e e than t h e fir s t t h e r e w i l l u s ually b e ,
m o r e th an o n e s e t o f v a l ue s o f t h e un k n o w n n u m b e r s ; o n ly
th o s e v a lue s sh oul d be r et ain e d wh i ch s at i s fy th e con d i ti on s o f
t h e p r o bl e m .
Th e co n s i d e r a t i on s o f 2 61 2 62, an d 4 63 h ol d for s i mul , ,
t an e o us e q ua t i o n s o f any d e g r e e .
E X E RC S E I 69
1 . p rod uc t o f th e s um of t w o n umb e rs b y th e s malle r i s 2 1 an d

Th e ,
th e p r o d uc t o f th e i r d i f
fe r e n c e b y t h e gr e a te r i s 4 F in d t h e n umb e rs . .
2 Th e d i ffe r e n c e o f t h e s qua r e s o f t w o n umb e rs i s 2 60 a nd t h e s um

.
1 3
of t e n u b e rs s
h m i - th e i r d i f
fe r e n c e F in d t h e n umb e rs . .
5
3 . Th e su m of th e s qu r a es of t wo numb e rs is 6 1 , and th e p ro d uc t o f
th e i r s quar es i s 9 00 F in d th e numb e rs
. .
4 Th e d iffe r e n c e o f t he c ub es o f t wo n umb e rs is 3 1 6 a n d i f th e p r o d
.
n ot o f t h e n umb e rs b e ad d ed t o th e s um o f t h e i r s qu a r e s th e s um i s 7 9 , .
F in d t h e n umb e rs
5 Tw o n umb e rs are ex p r es s e d b y th e s am
.
. e t w o d i g i ts in r e v e rs e o r d e r .
Th e s um o f th e n umb e r s e qu a ls t h e s qua r e o f t h e s um o f th e d ig i ts a nd ,
th e d if fe r e n c e o f t h e n umb e rs e q uals 5 t i mes t h e s qua r e o f th e s malle r

d i gi t .F in d th e n umb e rs .
6 A p a rt y a t a h o t e l s p e n t a c e r t a in s um
. H ad th e r e b e e n five mo r e .
,
an d e a ch h ad s p en t fi f ty c e n ts l e s s th e b i l l w o ul d h a v e b ee n
,
H ad
t h e r e b e e n th r e e l e s s an d e a ch h a d s p e n t fi fty c e n t s mo re t h e b i ll w o uld
, ,
h av e b e e n 5 H o w m an y w e r e t h e r e a n d w h at d i d e a ch s pe n d ,
7 Th e s qua r e :
.
o f t h e S um o f t wo n umb e r s e xc e e d s th e i r p r o d u c t b y
“
8 4 an d t h e s um o f t h e n umb e rs pl us th e s q ua r e r oot o f t h e i r p r o d uc t
, ,
e qu als 1 4 F in d th e n umb e r s
. .
8 Th e d i f
. fe r e n c e of t h e c ub e s o f t wo n umbe r s i s 7 2 8 a nd i f t h e p r o d
uct o f th e n u mb e rs b e m ul t ip l i e d b y t h e i r d i f fe r e n c e th e r e s ul t i s 72 ,
.
F in d t h e n u mb ers .
9 I f $ 700 b e p ut a t s i m pl e in t e r es t fo a c e rt a in n umb e r o f y e ar s a t
. r ,
a c e rt a in r a te i t a m oun ts t o
,
5 If t h e t i m e w e re 4 y e a rs l ess a n d
.
,
th e r a t e 1 % p e r c e n t m o r e t h e a m o u n t w o u,
ld b e F in d t h e t i me
an d th e rat e .
31 8 ADVAN C E D C O UR SE IN ALG E B R A
20 . A ca n w o r k in t w o h our s l es s t i me th an B ; and
do a pi e c e of
toge th e r th e y ca n d o t h e w o r k in h o urs l es s ti me th a n A al o n e H ow .
lo n g d oes e a c h al o n e t ak e t o d o th e w o r k
21 A s tarts t o t rave l fro m P t o Q an d a t th e s ame t i me B s ta rt s to

.
,
t ra v e l fro m Q t o P b o th t r av e llin g at c o n s t a n t ra tes

, A re ac h es Q in 8 .
h ours a nd B r e ac h e s P in 1 8 h o ur s a ft e r th e y h a v e me t on th e r o a d
, , .
H o w m a n y h o u rs d oes e a c h t a k e t o p e rfo rm th e j our n ey

22 A a n d B t r a v e l fr o m P t o Q a n d b a c k
. A s ta rts o n e h our afte r B .
,
o v e r ta k e s h i m a t a p o in t t w o m i les fr o m Q m e e t s h i m 3 2 min ute s a fte r ,
w a rds an d re a ch e s P
,
h o urs b e fo r e B F in d t h e d i s ta n c e fr o m P t o Q .
,
an d t h e r at es of t r a v e l o f A a nd B .
GR APHICAL R E PRE S E NTATI O N O F S I M ULTAN E O U S QUAD

R A TIC E QUA TI O N S W I TH TW O UN KN O W N NU M B E R S
482 . 1 . C o n s i d e r th e e q ua t i on y
2
4m 4 .
W e h av e y = i 2 x/ m .
If
If m= 1 , 0
( , )
D
I f m= — 1 , y = 0 .
etc .
F or s i ti ve val ue o f m o r fo r any
any p o ,
n e g a ti v e v a l u e b e t w e e n 0 a n d — 1 y h a s ,
t w o v a l ue s ; t h e g r ap h e x t e n d s t o an i n d efi
n i t e l y g r e a t d i s t a n ce t o t h e r i gh t o f 0 .
F o r a ny n e g a t i v e v al ue o f m 1 y i s i ma g i na ry ; th e n n o , ,
p a rt o f t h e r
g p a h li e s t o t h e l e ft o f a e
p pr e n d i c ul a r t o XX at E .
2 . C o n s i d e r th e e q ua t i on m 2
2 y =1 2
.
m— 1
2
H ere ,
2
'
01 j;
‘
If y = 0 . A
( , A )
If m i s b t 1
e w een an d —1
,
y s
p e
i
n d i c ul a
i m ag i n a ry ; t h e n
rs to XX
,
at
no
A
pa
an d
rt
A
of
'
.
th e gr a p h l i es b e t w e en p e r
S I M UL T AN E O U S Q UAD R A T I C E Q UA T I O N S 31 9
( B 2 0r
B l
y a)
F or a ny v e v al ue o f m 1 o r a n y n e g at i v e v al ue
p o s i t i , 1 ,
y h as t w o v a l ue s ; t h e n t h e g r a p h h as t w o br a n ch es e a ch
, ,
of
w h i ch e xt e n d s t o a n i n de fi n i t e l y g r ea t d i s t an ce fr o m 0 .
3 . C on s i d e r t h e e qu a ti on m 2
y
2
4 m 2y : 4 .
In th i s cas e i t i s con ve n i e n t
,
to fir s t l ocate th e p o in t s W h e r e
th e r
g pa h i n t e r s ect s t h e a x e s .
2
If (1 3
and m 2 j; A
( , )
B
If y + 22
y = 4 ,
an d y = ( C,
D )
W e may w ri t e th e g i v e n e q ua t i on
— fl
;
or, (y ( 1 a3
)(5 x
)
I f m= — 1 5 , y + 1 = 0, = — 1
or an d y .
(E , F )
If mh a s ti v e v alue 5 or any n e g a t i v e v alue
an y p os i ,
1 ,
( 1 m)(5 m) i s n e g a t i v e a n d y 1 i ma g i n a ry ; t,h e n n o , pa rt
o f t h e g r a p h e xt e n d s t o t h e r i gh t o f F o r t o t h e l e ft o f E , .
Agai n w e m ay w r i t e th e g i ve n e q uat i on
,
—
m 4 m+ 4 = 8
2 — — 2
m —y
2y y ; o r, ( )
.
If y = — 4 or 2, m a nd m= 2 .
(G H )
,
If y h a s an y p os i ti v e v al ue 2 or any n e gat i v e va l ue , 4 ,
( 4 y)(2 y) i s n e g at i v e ; th e n n o p a rt o f t h e g r a p h e xt en d s
,
ab o v e H , b elow 0
or .
It is s h o w n in w o rk s o n An al y t i c G e o me try th at th e g r a ph o fa ny e qua
, ,
t i o n o f t h e s e c o n d d e gr e e w i t h t w o unkn o w n n umb e r s i s on e o f th e co n i c
, ,
s ecti o n s s o- c a lle d fro m b e in g th e s e c t i o ns o fa c on e m a d e by a pl a n e e i th e r

,
a ci r c le
p a r a bo l a , an e l lip s e , a h yp er bo l a , o r a p a i r of s tr a i g h t l i nes
, a .
r p p
Th e g a h o f E x 1 i s a a r ab ol a , as a l s o i s t h e g a h of any e uat o
. r p q i n
o f th e fo rm y2 am ,
o r y
2
am b .
( Th e g ra h s of p
4 6 5 a n d 4 6 7a r e p arab olas .
)
p
Th e g ra h o f E x 2 i s a h y e rb ol a ,. p as a ls o is t h e gra h of a ny p q
e ua t o i n
ofth e fo r m by a mc , if a a n d b
“
3 2
a re n u mb e rs o f l e s g ik i n .
( Th e h y e r b o l a p
h as t w o b r a c h es n . Th e g r a ph o f a ny e qu t i n
a o of th e
fo rm my a i s a h y e r b ola ) p .
3 20 ADVA NC E D C O U R S E IN ALG E B R A
Th e g r ap h of E x . 3 is a c i rcle as als o i s t h e gr a h p o f an y e qu t i n
a o of
t h e fo rm m+y2 2 : a, or
Th e g a r p h of a ny e
qu a t o i n of th e fo r m a m 2
by 2
c, w h er e a, b, an d c
a re n
umb e r s o fl ik e s ign ,
a n d a a nd b u ne qu al, is a n e ll ips e .
( Th e g r a h p of a ny e qu t i n
a o of th e fo rm a
i
m2
by 2 2
0 is th e pa ir of
r igh t l in es w h o s e
st a e qu t i na o s are y i ‘5
1
b
.
4 83 . Gr aph i cal R epr es ent at i on ofS olut i ons ofS y s t e ms ofS imul
t aneous Qu a dr at i c E quat i on s .
y ==2
4 m .
1 . C on 8 1 d er th e e qua i on s t
Th e g r a p h ofy 4 mi s th e p a r a b ol a A OB
ea
.
Th e g r ap h o f 3 m y 5 i s t h e str ai g ht
l i n e AB , i n t e r s ect i n g t h e p a r ab ol a at th e X
p o i n s t A an d r e s p e cti v ely
B, .
To fin d th e cc-o rd i n a t e s o f A a nd B , we
s ol ve t h e g i v e n e qu a t i o n s th e s ol u
t i on i s m= 1 , y = _ 2 ,
a nd
y z
g .
I t m ay b e r i fi e d i n th e fi gur e th a t th e s e are th e co-o rd in ate s

ve
o f A an d B , r e s pe ct i v el y .
H e n ce (00mp ar e if a ny two gr ap h s i n ters ect th e cc-o rd i ,
na tes of a ny p o i n t of i n te r s ecti on for m a s o luti on of th e s ys tem of
equa ti on s r ep r es ented by th e grap h s .
2 . C on s i d e r t h e e qua ti on s
£1 3
2
y
2
1 7 .
333
/ n 4 .
Th e g r ap h o f m y = 1 7 i s th e
2 2
ci r cl e AD , W h o s e ce ntr e i s at 0, an d
wh o s er ad i us is VI7 .
Th e gr a p h of my 4 is a hy pe r
b ol a h a v i n g
a n gl e s
,
X OY
i ts
and
br an ch e s
X OY,'' in
res
p
th e
ec
t i v e ly ,
a n gl e
an d
X O Y,
i n t e r s e ct i n g th e
an d a t th e p oi nt s 0
r
ci cl e
an d
at
D in
t h e p oi n t s A
an g e l X OY
' an d
’
.
B in
322 ADVAN C E D C O UR S E IN ALG E B RA
Th e n, t h e g r ap h s h av e n o p o i n t o f i nt e r s e ct i on .
In g e n e r a l ,
if t h e e q u a t i o n o b t a i n e d by e li m i na t i n g o n e o f th e
unk n o w n n um b ers h as no r eal r o o t ,

th e g r a p h s d o n ot i n te r s e ct
eac h o th e r .
E X E RC S E I 70
F in d r p
th e g a h s o f th e follo w in g
O
1 . xy z —6 . 3 . m + y =4
2 2
. 5 . 9 m2 — 4 2
y 2 0.
2 . m =3y
2 . 4 .
y = 2
5 m— l . 6 . 4 m + 9 y = 36
2 2
.
7 4 m
.
— y
2 2 : 4 . 8 . m2 + y2 + 6 m— 2 y = 1 5 .
F in d th e graph s o f th e follow ing s ys te ms , an d in ea ch c a s e v e rify th e

pr in c iples o f 4 83 z
2 4 y y 4 m+y 2
{
x x
9 1 2 1 5
5m — L my = 1 0
. .
m y : 1 . 4 y ~
.
2
33 —2 3 y:
iL5
2 5 5 3’
{
90 + 21 .
1 0 ' 1 3 1 6
=— 1 — 24
. . .
2—4
y
2 2 6 m . x + 6 y 2 . 3 m y
2z
.
— 8
2
x — 3 9 x +y 2 2 2
{
y . x H
1 1 1 4 1 7
2 =0
. .
4m2—9
.
x + 2y z — 2 . my : — 8 .
y .
IND E TE R MINA TE LIN EA R E Q UA T I O N S 3 23
XX II . IN D E TE R M IN A TE L IN E A R
E Q UA TI O N S
484 . sh o w n i n 2 69 th at a s y s t e m o f m i nd e p en d e nt
It w as
l in e a r e q ua t i on s co n t a i ni n g m o r e t h a n m un k n o wn n umb e r s
h a s a n i n d e fi n i t el y g r e a t n um b e r o f s ol ut i o n s .
S uch a s y s t e m i s ca ll e d i n d eter m in a te
I f h o w e v e r t h e un k n o w n n u mb e r s a re r e q ui r e d t o s at i s fy
, ,
o th e r co n d i t i o n s t h e n u m b e r o f s o l ut i o n s ma be fi n i t e
, y .
4 85 . S ol ut i on of I ndet ermi nat e Li near E quat i ons i n P os i t i v e

I nt egers .
We s h all d e r i n th e p r e s e n t ch ap t e r
con s i th e s olu t i on of
i n d e t e r m i n at e l i n e a r e q ua t i o n s i n w h i ch t h e ,
u n k n o w n n um
b e r s a r e r e s tri ct e d to p o s i t i v e i nte g r a l v al ue s .
1 . S o l v e 7m 5y 1 1 8 i n p o s it i v e i n t e g e r s .
D i v i d in g by 5, t h e s mal e l r o f th e tw o fi ci e n s ,
co e f t
2 3 2 m— 3
_ 23 —
.
m— y .
5
S i n ce , by th e co n d ition s of th e p r o b l e m , as an d y mu st be
2 m— 3
p o s i tive i nt e ge r s , m us t be an i n t e ge r .
L et th i s i n t e g e r be r e p r e s e nt e d by p .
2m 3
Th e n , _p ,
or 2 m— 3 = 5 p .
( 1 )
D i vi d in g (1 ) by 2,
1— + 1
m 1 or , m— 1 — 2 p = —
- o
2 2
S i n ce m an d p a re i n t e ge r s , m 1 2p is an i nt ege r ; an d
p 1
th e r e for e m us t be an i n te ge r .
Let th i s i n t e ge r b e r ep r e s en t e d by q .
gi l
Th e n , = q, or p = 29 — 1 .
2
3 24 ADVAN C E D C O U RS E IN ALG E B R A
S ub s t i tut i n g i n 2m 3 1 0q 5 .
Wh e n ce ,
m 5 q 1 .
( )
2
S ubst i tut i n g th i s v alue i n th e g i v e n e qu a ti o n ,
35 g — 7q
.
( )
3
E q u a t i on s ( )
2 a n d ( )
3 fo r m t h e gen er a l s oluti on i n i nteger s of
th e g i v e n e q ua t i on .
l
B y g i v i ng t o q t h e v a ue z e r o, o r an y p o s i t i v e o r n eg a t i v e
i n t e g e r, we s h all o bt ai n s ets o f i n t e g r al v al ue s o f ma n d y w h i ch
s at i s fy th e g i v e n e q u a t i on .
If g i s z er o, or a n
y n ega ti ve i n t e g e r , m w i l l be n e ga ti v e .
If g i s ti ve
an y p o s i i nt e g e r
3 y w ill be n e g a t i v e ,
.
H e n ce th e o n ly p os iti ve i n tegr a l v a lues o f m a n d y

,
w h i ch
s a t i s fy th e g i v e n e qu at i o n a r e t h o s e o b t a i n e d fr o m t h e v a l ue s
1 ,
2, 3 of q .
Th at 1 8, y = 1 8 ; y = 1 1 ; an d y = 4 .
2 . S ol v e 8 m 1 3y 1 00 i n p o s i t iv e i n t e ge r s .
D i v i ding by 8, th e fici e n t o f s mall e r a b s ol ut e val ue,

c oe f
§fi 5 + 4
i
y
m— y — o r, m— y — 1 2 =
8
Th en ,
5 y 4
must be an i nt e g er .
8
2 5 y + 20
Mul ti ply i n g by 5, mus t a l s o be an i n t e ge r .
3]
Th e n 3y 2 mu s t be an i n t e ge r , a nd h ence
g
,
8
mu s t be an i n t e ge r ; l e t th i s be r ep r e s e n t e d by p .
Th en ,
gi
g or y = 8 p
— 4 .
S ubst i tut i n g i n t h e g i v e n e qua t ion ,
8m or m= 1 3 p + 6 .
In th i sp m ay b
cas e
e an y p o s i t i v e i n t e g e r .
I f p = 1 , m= 1 9 and y = 4 ; i f p = 2, m= 3 2 an d y = 1 2 ; etc .
Th us, th e numb er o f s ol ut i on s i s i nd e fi n i t e ly gr e at .
326 ADVAN CE D C O URS E IN ALG E B R A
Th e n by th e co n d i ti ons ,
m+ y = z .
( 1 )
Addi n g,
o r, 1 1 m+ 6 y = 1 4 4 .
( )
2
5 m
D i vi di n g by 6, m —
y 24 .
6
5
mul ti ple o f 6
33
Th en mus t be an i n t e ge r ; o r, mmu st be a .
6
L et m 6 p , wh e re p i s an i n t ege r .
S ubst i tu te i n 66 p 6y 1 44, or y 24 1 1 p .
S ub s t i t ut e i n z = 6 p + 24 — l l p = 24 — 5 p .
Th e y p o s i tiv e i n t e g ral s ol uti o n s a re w h e n p 1 o r 2

o nl .
T h e r e fo r e t h e n u m b e r o f w a y s i s t w o ; e i t h e r 6 d o l la r s 1 3
‘
, ,
h a lf-do ll a r s an d 1 9 d i mes ; o r 1 2 d o lla rs 2 h alf-doll ar s and

, , ,
1 4
d i me s
EX E RC S E I 7|
S olv e th e follo win g in p os i tive in tegers

1 . 3 m+ 5 y = 2 9 . 5 . l o m+ 7y = 29 7 .
2 . 7m+ 2 y = 39 . 6 . 23 m+ 1 7y = 1 83 .
3 . 6 m+ 29 y =2 74 . 7 8 m+ 71 y = 1 9 33
. .
4 . 4 m+ 3 1 y = 4 73 . 8 . 1 3 m+ 50 y = 1 089 .
S o l ve t h e fol l o w in g i n l e as t p os i ti ve in tegers
9 . 6 m— 7y = 1 3 . 1 2 . 8 m— 3 1 y = 1 0 .
1 0 . 5 m- 8 y =3 1 . l3 . l 5 x — 38 y = — 4 7 .
1 1 . 1 4 m- 5 y =64 . 1 4 . 64 m— 1 9 y = 507 .
S ol ve th e follow in g in p os itive integers

m
{
3
1 5 1 6
2 m— 1 1 y + z = — 2 5 . 4 m+ 2 y — 3 z = 5 .
1 7 . In h o w man y d i ffere n t ways can 8 be p ai d wi th quarter-d ollars

a nd i
d me s
1 8 . In h o w man y d i ffe r e n t ways can 2 1 8. be p ai d wi th h alf-
crowns ,
wo r th 28 . 6d . ea ch , a nd fio ri ns , worth 2 8 . ea ch 1’
IND E TE R MINA TE LIN E A R E Q UA T I O N S 32 7
1 9 . F in d r c i o n s w h os e
tw o f a t n om in at ors are 5 a nd 7 r es pec tiv ely
de , ,
wh o s e n um e r a t o rs are th e s malles t p oss i b l e p o s i t ive i n te g e rs a n d wh os e ,
d i ffe r e n c e i s l
?
35
20 .In h o w man y d i ffe ren t w ay s can 8 b e p a i d w i th fifty -c e n t pi e c es ,
t w e n t y -five -c e n t pi e c e s a n d t w e n t y -c e n t pi e c es s o t h a t t w i c e t h e n u mb e r
, ,
o f fifty -c e n t pi e c e s p lus t w i c e t h e n umb e r o f t w e n t y -c e n t pi e c e s

, s h a ll ,
e x c e e d t h e n u mb e r o f t w e n ty - fi e -c e n t pi e c es by 3 1 v
21 A fa rme r p urch as e d a c e rta i n n umb e r o f pi gs s h e e p and c alves

.
, , ,
fo r $ 1 3 8 Th e pi gs c o s t $ 4 e a c h t h e s h e e p 8 7e a c h a n d t h e c a l v e s $ 9
.
, ,
e ach a n d t h e w h o l e n u mb e r o f a ni m al s p urc h as e d w a s 2 3 H o w ma n y .
ofea ch d i d h e b uy
22 In h o w ma n y d i ffe re nt w ay s can
. b e p a i d w i th q ua r te r -
d ol
l a rs t w en t y -c e n t pi e c e s a n d d i mes s o t h a t t w i c e t h e n u mb e r o f q ua r te rs
, , , ,
plus 5 t i me s th e n umb e r o f t wen ty -c en t pi e c es s h all exc e e d th e n umb er ,
o f d i m es b y 3 6
48 6 . E v e ry li n ea r e q ua ti o n ,
w i th t w o u nk n o w n num e b rs , m
an d y, ca n be r e d uce d to o n e of t h e fo r ms
a mj ; by = j :c,
w here a, b, an d c a r e p o s i ti v e i n t e ge r s w h i ch h av e n o co m mo n
d i vi s o r .
Th e equa t i on a m+ by = — c ca n n o t be s ol ved in p o s i ti v e
i n t e g e r s ; fo r, i f m, y, a , a n d b a r e p o s i t i ve i n t e ge r s a m
,
by mu s t
al s o be a p o s i ti ve i n t e g e r .
Aga in , th e e qu at i on s a m: 1 ; by c an d aby m 0 ca n n o t
be v ed
s ol i n p o s i t i v e i nt e g e r s i f a an d b h a v e a co mmo n
di vi s o r .
F o r, i f m an d y ar e p o s i t i v e i n t e ge rs , th i s co mm o n d i v i s o r
l
mus t a s o be a d i vi s o r o f a mi by, an d con s e que nt ly o f c ; w h i ch
is co n trary t o th e hy poth e s i s th at a, b, an d 0 h av e n o co m mon
di vi s or .
3 28 ADVAN CE D C O U R S E IN ALG E B R A
XX III . R A TIO A ND PR O P O R TI O N
4 8 7 Th e R a t i o
. o f o n e nu m ber a to a no th e r num be r b i s th e
q u ot i e n t o f a d i v i d e d by b .
Th u s th e r ati o o f a to b i s
, it i s r
al s o e x p es s e d a :b .
In th e r at i o a b, a is call e d th e fi r s t te r m,
o r a nte cede n t, a n d
b th e s eco n d r m o r co ns equent
te ,
.
If a i s b th e ra ti o a b is c all e d a r a t i o o f g r ea ter i neq ua li ty ; if a i s

,
b i t i s c a ll e d a r at i o o f l es s i neq ua li ty
, .
Th e r at i o o f t h e p r o d uc t o f t h e a n t e c e d e n t s o f a s e r i e s o f r at i os t o t h e
‘
p rod uc t of th e c on s e que n t s i s s a i d t o b e comp o und ed o f th e g iv e n rati os

,
.
Th us a c bd i s c o m p o un d e d o f t h e r a t i o s a b a n d c d
, .
Th e ra t i o a9 :b2 i s c al l ed t h e d up li ca te r a ti o t h e r a t i o a 3 b3 t h e trip l i ,
ca te r a ti o a nd t h e r a t i o x/a
, V b th e s u b-d up l i c a te r a ti o o f a :b , .
R A TI O O F C O N CR E TE M AGNI TUDE S
488 . In d e r e d th e r a t i o o f a bs tr a ct nu mbe r s
4 8 7, w e co n s i
onl y ; i t i s h o we v e r nece s s a ry t o con s i de r th e r at io o f t wo

, ,
co n cre te mag ni tud e s o f t h e s a me k i n d .
If a con cr e t e m a g n i t u d e i s a t i m e s a ce rta i n un i t a n d ano th e r ,
5 t i m e s t he s a m e uni t w e de fi ne t h e r a ti o o f the firs t m a gn i tu d e

,
t o t h e s e co nd a s be i n g th e rat i o o f a t o b
Thus th e r ati o o f t w o li n e s w h o s e l en g th s a re 2 a nd 34
, % '
inch es re s pecti v el y i s 2
,
or , %
If t h e r at i o can b e e xp r e s s e d a s a ra tiona l n umb e r a s i n th e ,
a b o v e i l lu s tr at i o n t h e m a g n i t ud es a r e s ai d t o b e Co mmens ur able
,
.
If i t ca n n o t b e e x p r e s s e d a s a r at i on a l n umb e r, th ey a re s ai d
t o b e I ncommens ur abl e .
PR O P O R TI O N
A 489 . A Proport i on i s an e qu a t i on w h os e me mb e rs a r e e qu a l
r at i o s .
3 30 ADVAN C E D CO U RS E IN A LG E B R A
492 . F r om t h e e q ua t io n ad 2 be we o b t ai n
a _ h
—
C
, b— g
Cl
—
, c = fl ,
an d d
— bc
d c b a
Th at i s, in a ny p r op o r ti o n, e i th e r emtr eme equa ls th e p r od uct

f
o th e mea n s d iv i d ed by th e o th e r emtreme a n d e i th er me a n equa ls
th e p r od uct of the emtremes d i vi d ed by th e o th e r mea n .
\
1 493 .
( C o n v e r s e If th e p r o d uct of two n umber s be
of
equa l to th e p r o d uct of tw o o th e r s , o n e p a i r ma y be ma d e th e
emtr e mes , a n d th e o th er p a i r th e mea n s , of a p r op o r ti on .
L et ad = bo .
( 1 )
' ' 0‘ 0
by
’
D1 V1 d In g bd
b d
T h en ,
I n lik e ma nn e r by d i v i d in g th e m e mb e r s of ( 1 ) y ,
b a b th en
by cd , an d th en by a c w e h a v e
,
or b z d = a :c,
an d
4 9 4 :In a ny r
p po o r ti o n ,
th e te rms a r e i n p r op orti on by al t er
nat i on ; th a t i s ,
th e mea n s ca n be i n ter ch a nged .
L et th e p r op o rt i o n be a :b c :d .
Th e n by 4 91 ,
ad bc .
( 1 )
Wh en ce by 4 9 3 , , a :c b d .
W e als o h a v e fro m by § 49 3,
d b C a .
Th at i s , i n a ny p r op ort i o n , th e extre mes ca n be i nter ch a ng ed .
495 . In a ny r r
p p ti o n
o o ,
th e te rms a re i n p r op o r ti o n by I nv er
s i on ; th a t i s , th e s econ d ter m i s to th e fi r s t a s th e f o ur th term i s
to th e th i rd .
L e t th e p r o p o rt i on be a b c :d .
Th e n by 49 1 , ad bC .
R A TI O AND P R O P O R TI O N 3 31
Wh en ce by ,
4 9 3, b a d c .
It foll o ws fr o m t h e ab o ve th a t , i n a ny p r op or t i o n, th e mea ns ca n be
wr i tte n as th e extr emes , a nd th e extr emes a s th e mea ns .
‘
1 496 . A mea n p rop or tion a l between tw o x n umbe s r is equa l to th e
s qua r e ro o t o f th ei r p r o d uct .
L e t th e p r o p o rt i o n be a b r: b 0 .
T h e n by 491 ,
b2
a c, a n d b V ac .
4 9 7 In
. a ny r
p porms a r e i n p rop orti on by Com
or ti o n ,
th e te
p os i t i on ; th a t i s th e s um of th e fi r s t two te r ms i s to th e fi r s t
,
te r m a s th e s um of th e la s t tw o te r ms i s to th e th i r d te r m .
L et th e p r o p o rt i o n b e a b c d .
Th e n ,
ad bc .
Add i n g e ac h m e mb e r o f th e e q u a t i on to a c,
or a ( c + d)
Th e n by § 4 9 3 ,
W e ma y a ls o p r o ve
J 498 . In a ny p r op o rti on ,
th e ter ms a re i n p r op o rti on by D iv i s i on ;
r en ce of th e fir s t two
th a t i s , th e d ife ter ms i s to th e rs t term a s fi
th e d ife r en ce of th e la s t two te r ms i s to th e th i d te r rm .
L et th e p r o p o rti o n be a b c d .
Th e n , ad bc .
S ubtr act i n g eac h m e mb e r o f t h e e qua t i on fr om a c,
— ad = d) = — b
ac ac be, or a
( c — c d ( ) .
Th e n ,
a — b :a = c — d :c .
W e may al s o p r ove a — b :b = c — d :d .
’
1 499 . In a ny p p
r o o r ti on ,
th e te r ms i n p r op o r ti o n by Com
a re
p os i t i on and D i v i s i on ; th a t i s the ,
s u m of th e r s t two te rms i s fi
to th ei r d ife r en ce a s th e s um of th e la s t two te r ms i s to th ei r
'
d ifler ence .
L e t t h e p r o p o r t i o n be a b c d
3 32 ADVAN CE D CO URS E IN ALG E B RA
Th en by 4 9 7,
a + b c + d
a c
a — b c — d
An d by 4 9 8,
a c
D iv i ding by a + h c + d
( 1 ) a — b c — d
W h e n ce ,
a + bz a — d .
5 00 In . a ny r
p po o r ti o n if th e fi rs t tw o
, te rms be multip li ed by
a ny n u mber, a s a lso th e la s t two, th e r es ulti ng n umbers w ill be i n
r
p po o r ti o n .
L et th e p r o p o rt i o n b e a b c :d .
ma 7l C
Th e n an d h e n ce _ .
mb nd
,
b
Th e r e fo r e ,
ma z mb z n c z nd .
W e may als o p ro v e a ‘
b c d
m m n n
i( E th em or n may b e uni ty t h a t i s t h e t e r ms of e i th er r at i o m ay b e
r ,
mult ipl i e d or d ivi d e d w i th out mult iply ing o r d ivi d in g t h e t e r ms o f t h e

o th e r).
‘
5 01 . In a ny p rop o rtion if th e
, be multi
p li ed by a ny n u mber , as a ls o th derms ,
th e
r es ulti ng n umbe s r wi ll be i n p r op ort ion .
L e t t h e p r op o rti on b e d :b = c z d .
Th en ,
an d h en ce
nb nd
Th e re fo r e ,
ma z nb z mc z n d .
a b c d
W e may als o p r ov e
m n m n
( E i
th e r m or n may b e u ni ty ).
J 5 02 . In a ny n u mber of p r op o rti ons , th e p rod ucts of the cor
r esp o n d i ng r ms a re i n p r op o rti on
te .
L e t th e r
p po o rt i o n s be a b c d
an d
3 34 ADVAN C E D C O U RS E IN AL GE B R A
Add i ng,
Wh e n ce ,
I n l i k e ma n n e r , t h e th eo r e m m ay be p r o v e d fo r a ny n um ber
o f e qu a l r a ti o s .
a c c
To p r o ve th a t
Q 5 06 . i f
b d f
pb qd f +
” " ”
r
If m = k, t h en a = bh, e = d h, c = fh , e tc .
Th e n (W q (d h ) ( )
”
fk
” ” ” “
, pa 96 re p r
9d f +
" ”
r
Th e r e fo r e,
p b n
gd u ,
r f
n
O r,
d + f
n
n
r +
9 5 07 If th r ee
. r i n con ti n ued p r op o r ti o n th e fi r s t i s
n umbe s a re ,
to th e th i r d a s th e s qua r e of th e fi rs t i s to th e s qua r e of th e s eco nd .
L e t t h e p r op o rti o n be a b b c .
.
a b
Th en,
b 6
Th e r e for e ,
a
x § = 9 9
x , or
2
b c b b c
Wh e n ce ,
a c a
g
z b 2
.
9 5 08 . I ffo ur n umbe s a rer in con ti nu ed r

p po o r ti o n , th e fir s t i s to
the fo u th r as th e cube f th e
o fi rs t i s to th e cube o f th e s eco nd .
L e t th e p r op o rt i on b e a b b c c d .
a b c
Th e n,
b c d
3
d b c a a a a a
Th e r e fo r e x ’ 0r
e
b C d b b b d b
W h e n ce, a d= a
3
z b 3
.
R A T IO AND P R OPO R T ION 3 35
5 09 . E xampl es .
1 . If m: p r o ve z a m e a n p r op o rt i on al
be tw e e n man d y .
F r o m t h e g i ve n p r o p o rt i o n by ,
49 1 ,
y(m e
2
) m(y z
)
2
,
o r my 2 myz y a
2
my 2
2 myz me2
Tr a n s p os m g, my z
my 2
me 2
g e
.
z
D i v i d i ng by m y, my 2
2
.
T h e r e fo r e 2 i s a me a n p r op o rti o n al b e tw ee n m a nd y
,
.
Th e t h e o r e m o f 4 9 9 s a v e s w o r k i n t h e s olut i o n o f a ce rtai n
cl a s s o ffr a ct i o n al e q u a ti o n s .
m+m 2 -1 m— 2
2 . S ol ve t h e e q ua ti on
m — m— l m+ 2
g
By co mp o s iti o n an d d i v i s i on ,
2m 2
2 2m m 2
1 m
3 o r;
2m 4 m 2
C l ea r i n g r t 2m z
2
o f f ac i o n s , 2 o
t
Th e n: 3 m = 2, 2
and m= j ;
3 Pr ove t h a t i f
a C th e n
.
,
b d
a
z — b2 z a
2 — 3 ab z c
2 — d 2 :c2 — 3 cd .
L et th e n ,
a : bm .
b d
T h e r e fo re 0
2
,
1 2 2
a
2
b 2
bm 2 2
b 2
m 2
1 ti
2
0 d
°
a
2— 3 ab bm
2 2 — 3 bm 2
m— 32
m C
2
3 0 0
2 — 3 cd
2
d d
Th en a
2 — b2 :a 2 — 3 ab = c
z — d2 :0 2 —3 cd .
E X E RC S E I 72
1 . F in d th e th i rd te r m o f a p r o p o r t i o n wh os e firs t ,
se oc n d 3nd , r
fou th
te rms a re
3g , , and
g , re s p e ct ive ly .
7
2 . F in d a th i rd p r o p o r t i o n a l t o and
1 2
°
0 ind a mean p r op orti on al b etw e e n 1 4%
F an d
-
s F in d a four th p ro p o rt i on al t o an d
'
e F in d a t i rd p rop ort i o n al t o a 2 7an d a
h 3 3 .
m z —m 1 2 m — 9 m-
2
I-2O
h
s F in d a mea n p ro p ort i o n al b etwee n an d
m— 5 m+ 3
S ol ve th e follo w ing e quat i ons :

3 m— 8 2 m— 5 m+
2 2 m— 3 3 m+ 2
7 8
2 —
2 m— 3 3 22 — 2
.
3 m+ 4 2 m+ 7 m
m2 + 3 m— 1 m2 + 2 m+ 1
9 .
2 — 2 —
m 3 m+ 1 m 2 m— 1
1 0 .
1 1 .
1 2 . If a :b = c :d and
ae + bf :a e — dh .
1 3 in d two n umb e rs s uch th at if 9 b e a d d ed t o th e firs t an d 7s ub

. F , ,
t r a c t e d fr o m t h e s e c o n d th e y w i ll b e in t h e r a t i o 9 2 ; w h i le i f 9 b e s ub
,
t r a c t e d fr om th e firs t a n d 7a d d e d t o th e s e c o n d t h ey w i ll b e in th e r a t i o
, ,
9 1 1 .
1 4 in d tw o numb e rs in th e rat i o a b s uch th at ife a ch

. F , ,
be in cr e as ed
b y c t h e y s h al l b e in th e r a t i o m :n
,
.
1 5 F in d t h r ee n umb e rs i n c o n t inu e d p r o p ort i o n w h os e

. su m is
s uc h t h a t th e q uo t i e n t o f th e firs t b y th e s e c o n d s h a l l b e
1 6 . F ind a n umb e r s uc h t h at , i f i t b e ad d ed to ea ch te rm of th er a ti o
8 :5 , th e r es ult is E of wh at it w ould ha ve b ee n if th e sa me n umb e r
20
h a d b ee n s ub t r a c t e d fr o m
rm ea ch te .
1 7 T h e s e c o n d o f t h r e e n umb e rs i s a m e a n p r op o rt i on al b e t w e e n th e
.
o t h e r t wo Th e th i r d n u mb e r e xc e e d s th e s u m o f t h e o th e r t w o b y 2 0
.
a n d t h e s um o f th e fir s t a n d t h i r d e x c e e ds t h r e e t i m es t h e s e c o n d b y 4 .
F in d t h e n umb ers .
1 8 . If 8 a — 5 b :7a — 4 b = 8 b — 5 e z 7b — 4 c, p r o ve ca th i rd pr op or
t i o n al t o a and b.
1 9 . If — b+ c -d :a — b, p rove
33 8 A D V AN C E D CO U RS E IN ALG E B R A
XX IV . V A R IA TIO N
5 1 0 O ne . v a r ia b l e n u mb e r 24 5 ) i s s a i d t o va ry d i r ectly a s
a n o t h e r wh e n t h e r at i o o f a n t w o v a l ue s o f t h e fir t e q u al s
y s
t h e r a t i o o f t h e co rr e s p o n d i n g va l u e s o f t h e s econ d .
I t i s u s ual t o o mi t t h e w o r d d i r e c tly
“
,
a n d s i mp l y s ay th a t o n e
”
numb e r va r i es as a n oth e r .
Th us , if a w o r k m an r ece i v e s a fi xe d n umb e r o f d oll ar s p e r

d i e m t h e n umb e r o f d ol la r s r e ce i v e d i n m d ays w i ll b e t o th e
,
n u mb e r r e ce i v e d i n n d ay s a s m i s t o n .
T h e n t h e r a t i o o f a ny t w o n um b e r s o f d ol l a rs r ece i v e d e qu
, al s
t h e r at i o o f t h e c orr e s p o n d i n g n um b e r s of d ay s w o rk e d .
H e n ce t h e n umb e r o f d oll a r s w h i ch t h e w o rk m an r e ce i v e s
,
va r i es a s t h e n um b e r o f d ay s d u r i n w h i ch h e w o r k s
g .
Th e s y mb o l cc i s us e d t o e xp r e ss v a r i at i o n ; th u s d oc b i s ,
re a d a varies as b ”
.
51 1 . r i ab l e i s s ai d t o va ry i nve r s ely a s an o th e r w h en
O ne va
t h e fir s t v a r i e s d i r ectly a s t h e r ecip r oca l o f t h e s ec on d .
T h u s t h e n um b e r o f h our s i n w h i ch a r ai l w ay tr ai n w il l
,
tra v e r s e a fi x e d r o ut e v a r i e s i n v e r s e ly a s th e s p ee d ; i f t h e
sp e e d b e d o u b led t h e ,
tr a i n w i ll tr a v e rs e i t s r o ut e i n o n e -
h a lf
th e n u m b e r o f h o u r s .
O ne v a r i ab l e i s s ai d to v a ry a s t wo o th e rs j o intly wh en i t
v a r i es d i r e ctl y a s th e i r p r o duct .
T h u s t h e n u mb e r o f d ol l a r s r ecei ve d by a w o rk ma n i n a
,
ce rt a i n n u m b e r o f d ay s v a r i e s j o i n t ly a s t h e n umb e r w h i ch h e
r e ce i v e s i n o n e d ay an d th e n umb e r of d ay s d ur i n g w h i ch h e
,
w o rk s .
" N O n e v a r ia b l e i s s a i d t o v ary d i r e ctly a s a s econ d a n d i n v e r s ely

a s a t h i rd w h e n i t va r i e s j oi n tl y a s t h e s e co n d a n d t h e r e ci p
,
.
r o cal o f t h e th i rd .
Th u s t h e a tt a ct i o n o f a b o dy v a r i e s d i r e ct l y a s th e a m oun t
,
'g g
of m at t e r d hd i n v e r s ely a s th e s qu a r e o f t h e d i s t an ce
,
.
V A R IA TI O N 3 39
'' mbe r
51 2 . If :
1: 1 :e qu a ls y m ultip li ed
cc y, th en : a cons ta n t n u .
L et d t
x and y eno e a fixed p a i r o f co rr es po n din g v a lu e s o f
an d y, an d x
d e fi ni t i on
an d y a ny o th er
a
p
: w
a i
'
r .
o r , a:
4
0
0
'
B y th e of 5 1 0,
3’ 3/ y
—
, y .
by :
D e n o t i ng t h e co n stan t r at i o
3 m w e h a ve ,
x = my
51 3 . It fol l o w s fr om 51 1 and 51 2 th at :
1 . Ifx va r i es i nve r s ely as y, a:
2 . If a:va r i es j o i ntly a s y a nd z, x myz .
3 . If a:va r i es d i r ectly as y a nd i n ve r s ely as 2, a :
Th e c onve rs e o fe a ch s ta t e me n t of 51 2 and 5 1 3 is a ls o r
t ue t h a t is ,
if x e qu als y mul t ip l i e d b y a c o n s ta n t , : y,
a at e tc .
51 4 . If a:00 y, a nd y cc 2 , th en a; cc z .
xv ) ; W H:
By 5 1 2, i f :
1:cc
y, a : my .
( )
1
An d if y oc z , y = nz .
S ub s t i tuti n g i n x mnz .
Wh e n ce by ,
5 1 3, 9 :cc z .
51 5 . If moc y wh en 2 is con s ta n t, a nd moc z wh en y i s con s ta n t,
''
th en x oc yz wh en both y a nd z va ry .
L et y
' s o
an d 2 be th e v a lu e fy and z , r e s p e c t i v e ly , wh e n a;
h as t h e v
'al u e x
'
.
L e t y be ch a n g e f o m y t o y , 2 r e ma i n i n g co n s t an t ly
d r
'
"
e qu al
'
t o z , a n d l e t a:be c an ge i n con s e q ue n ce fr o m x t o X
h d .
a "_ y
Th e n by 51 0 1
'z
”
X y
Now le t 2 he ch an g e d fr om 2 to "
y
,
r e m ai n i n g co n st a n t l y
d
' co n s e q ue n ce fr o m X t o x
" "
e qu a l to y , an d l et a:be ch an g e in .
X 2
Th en , " ( )
2
z
34 0 AD V AN CE D CO U R S E IN ALG E B R A
! l l
x y z
M
O
'
” H H
x y 2
.
No w
'z h an ge s a re m a d e t h at i s y fr o m y t o y an d
'
"
i f both c
'
, ,
z fr o m
' a:i s ch an g e d fr o m x t o as a n d yz i s ch an ge d
" "
2 to , ,
fr o m y z t o y ”
z
”
.
Th e n by th e r ati o o f an y tw o v alu e s of 7
.:e q ua l s th e
'
rati o o f th e r
co r esp on d in g va lues o f y z ; a n d, by § 5 1 0, a:cc yz .
In li k e m an n e r i t m ay b e p r ov e d t h a t i f t h e r e a r e a n y
n u mb e r o fva r i a b l e s a , y, z, i t , e t c , s uch t h at y w h e n 2 , u, e t c . .
a r e c o n s t an t , w oo z w h e n y, u , e t c , a r e co n s t an t , e t c , th e n if al l . .
th e va r i able s y z u e tc v a ry a; v a r i e s a s th e i r p r o duct
, , ,
.
, , .
T h e fo ll o w in g i s a n i llus tr a t i o n o f t h e a b o ve th eo r e m
It is kn o w n b y G e o me t r y t h at t h e a r e a o f a t r i a n gl e v a r i e s a s th e b as e
, ,
wh e n t h e alt i tud e i s c o n s ta n t an d as t h e a lt i tud e wh e n th e bas e i s

,
c o n s ta nt .
H en c e wh e n b oth b as e and alti tud e v ary th e a re a var i es as th e ir

, ,
p rod uct .
PRO B L EM S
51 6 . P r ob l ems in va r i at i o n a r e r e ad ily s o l v e d by con v e rti n g

th e v a r i at i on in to an e qua t i o n by a i d o f 5 1 2 or 5 1 3 .
1 . I f a:v a r i e s i n v e r s el y as
y, an d e qu a ls 9 w h en y 8, fin d
th e v al ue o f at w h en y 1 8 .
%
If a:v a r i e s i nv e rs e ly as y , x 1
3!
P utti n g ai = 9 an d y = 8, or m = 72 .
Th e n ,
an d, i f y = 1 8,
2 . th at t h e a r e a o f a tri an gl e v ar i e s j oi n tly as i t s
G i v en
b as e an d alt itud e w h at w ill be th e b a s e o f a tr i an gle w h os e
,
al ti t u d e i s 1 2 e q ui v a l e n t t o t h e s u m o f t w o tr i a n gl e s w h o s e
,
b a s e s a r e 1 0 a n d 6 an d alt i tud e s 3 an d 9 r e s p e cti v e ly

, ,
L e t B H an d A d e n ot e t h e b a s e al ti t ud e a n d a r e a r e s p e c
,
, ,
ti v e ly o f a n y tr i a n gl e an d B t h e b as e o f t h e r e q ui r e d t r i a ngl e
,
' , , ,
S i n ce A v a r i e s j o i n t l y a s B an d H A mB H 5 1 3) ,
34 2 AD V AN CE D CO U RS E I N ALG E B R A
1 2 . q
If a:e ua l s th e sum of tw o n umb e rs ,
on e of w h i ch v a r i es d i r e ctly
as y
2
and th e o th e r inv e rs el y as 2
2
,
and a : 45 wh e n y 1 and z 1 , a nd
: 4 0 wh e n y 2 and z 3 , find t h e value

'
o f y wh en 3 7a n d
a z : a; z z :1 .
1 3 . If y e qu a ls th e s um o f t h r e e n u mb e r s ,
th e fi rs t o f wh ich is c o n s ta n t ,
an d th e s e cond an d th i rd v a ry a s x2 a n d x3 , r e s p e c t iv e ly , and y 50
wh en x 2 , 30 wh e n a; 2, and 1 1 0 wh e n a: r . 3 , find t h e ex p re ss i on
fo r y in te r ms o fx .
1 4 T h e v o lume
. c i rcula r c o in var i es j o in tly as i ts th i c k n e s s a n d
of a
t h e s qu a r e o f t h e r a d i us o f i ts fa c e T w o c o in s wh o s e t h i c kn e ss es a re
.
5 a n d 7 a nd r a d ii o f fa c e s 6 0 a n d 3 0 r e s p e c t iv e ly a re m e l t e d a nd
, , , ,
fo r m ed in t o 1 00 c o in s e a c h 3 uni ts t h i c k
,
F in d th e ra d i us of th e fa c e o f .
t h e n e w c o in .
1 5 . is tan c e tra v elle d by a man in any h o ur afte r th e fi rs t e quals

Th e d , ,
a c o n s t a n t n umb e r o f m il es p l us a n um b e r o f mi l e s w h i c h v a r i e s inv e rs e ly
,
as t h e n u mb e r o fh o ur s t r av e lle d bef or e t h a t h our I f h e t r a v el s 1 2 m i l e s .
in th e 6 th h our a nd 8 in th e 1 1 th h o w fa r d oes h e t ravel in th e 2 l s t h our

, ,
19
1 6 If t h e w e i gh t o f a s p h e r i c al s h e ll t w o in c h e s th i c k i s
. o f i ts, ,
27
w ei gh t i f s ol i d fin d i ts d i am et e r ; i t b ein g g iv e n th at t h e v olume o f a
,
s ph e r e va r i e s as th e c ub e o f i t s d i a me t e r .
1 7 Th e i ll umin a t i o n fr o m a s o urc e o f l i gh t v a r i es inv e rsely as t h e

.
q r
s ua e o f t h e d i s t a n c e If a b o o.k n o w 1 0 in c h es o f
f h e m
,
o v e d - 1 ) ,
in ch es fa rth e r a way h o w much w i ll t h e li gh t re c e iv e d b e re d uc e d

,
1 8 P r o v e t h at i f a:
. m e a n d y 2 th e n a::, 1:y z an d V ery z
cc ,
ot ,
oe .
1 9 .P r o v e t h at i f r y a n d z :u th e n xz
ec , yu 0 ,
oc .
2 0 P ro v e th at i fa::y th e n at ny
. o ,
“
a
"
A R ITH METI C PR O GR E S S I O N
5 1 7 An
. Arit h met i c Progr es s i on i s a s e r i e s 283 ) i n w h i ch
e ach t e r m af t e r th e fir s t i s o bt ai n e d by a dd i n g t o t h e p r e ce d
, ,
i n g t e r m a con s t a n t n u m b e r ca ll e d t h e Co mmo n D ife r ence .
Th us 1 3 5 7 9 1 1
, , , ,
i s an a r ith me ti c p r og r e s s i on i n
, , ,
w h i ch th e co mm on d i f fe r e n ce i s 2 .
Ag a i n 1 2 9 6 3 0 — 3
, , , ,
i s a n a r i t h m e t i c p r o g r e s s i on i n
, , ,
w h i ch t h e com m o n d i f fe r e n ce i s 3 .
An A r ith me ti c P rog ress i o n i s als o c alle d an Ar i th meti c S er i es .
51 8 . G iven the fi rs t te rm , a, th e co mmon d ifleren ce, d , ’

a nd th e
n umbe r of te rms n to fin d the la s t , ,
te r m, l .
Th e p r o g r e s s i o n i s a a d a 2d a 3d , , , ,
W e ob s e rv e th at th e co e ffi ci e n t o f d i n an y t e r m i s l e ss by 1
th an t h e nu mb e r o f t h e t e r m .
Th e n i n th e nt h t e r m th e co e ffici en t o f d w ill be n 1
,
.
T h at i s , Z: a ( n 1 )d I
( ) .
51 9 . Gi ven th e fir s t ter m, a, th e la s t te rm ,
l, a nd th e numbe r
f te r ms ,
o n, to fin d th e su m of th e ter ms , 8 .
+ (l
Wr i ti n g th e t e r ms in r e v e r s e o rd e r ,
S = l + (l — 2d
)+
Add i n g t h e s e e qu a ti on s t e r m by t e rm ,
Th e r efor e ,
2S n a ( l), and S
g @ l) . I
( )I
Th e fir s t ter m, mmo n d iffer ence , number of ter ms , l a s t
co term, an d s um
fth e
o terms , a r e c alle d th e e lements o f th e p r o gr e s s i on .
S ubst i t ut i ng i n (II) t h e v al u e o f l fr om (I), w e h ave

— 1 )dj .
34 4 AD V A NCE D CO U R S E IN ALG E B R A
5 20 E x . In t h e p r o g r e s s i on 8 , 5 , 2 , — 1
.
,
— 4, m ,
t o 27
t er m s ,
fin d t h e l a s t t e r m a n d t h e s um .
H ere a = 8 d = 5 — 8 = — 3
, , ,
S ub s t i tut e m (I) i = s + (2 7 ,
— 70 .
2
S ubst i tut e i n ( )
I I ,
s .
; ( s 70) 83 7 .
Th e c ommo n fer e
d f i n ce
m ay b e fo un d b y s ub t ra c tin g th e fi rs t
fr o m th e s e c o n d ,
or a ny t e r m fr om th e n e xt fol l o w in g t e r m .
EX ERC S E 74 I
In ea ch o ft h e foll o w in g ,
fin d th e las t t e r m and t h e s um :
1 5, 1 4 , 23 , to 1 8 t e rm s I 5 %
' ¢
. .
_5 ’q s
’
1 5 L
2 , 9, 2, , to 2 3 t er ms f
— 51 — 4 3 — 35 to 1 5 t e r ms
, , , .
7 1 9
4 .
, , 3, to 1 6 te r ms .
4 8
V 5 .
3 ,
1
,
l , t o 2 8 te r ms .
6 6 2
8 47 a
, , , t o 2 5 te rms .
9 36 1 8
7 .
— 1 9
; 1 , t o 39 t e rms .
y
8 1 6 I
0
t/
8 .
3 5
,
41
t o 52 t e r ms .
d " b
1 0 6 30
9 . 3 a + 4 b, 8 a + 2 b, 1 3 a, to 1 0 te rms .
x — 2 2y
/
t 1 0
y
£ — , t 0 9 t e r ms
K
.
3 6 3 I
5 21 . I f a n y t h r ee ri th me ti c p ro
o f th e fiv e e l e m e n s o f an a
t
r e s s i o n a r e g i v e n t h e o th e r t w o may be fo und by s u b s t i t ut i n g
g ,
t h e k n ow n va l u e s i n t h e fun d a m en t al fo r mul ae (I) an d (I I) and ,
s ol vi n g t h e r e s ul tin g e qu ati on s .
— 5 — 5
1 G i v en a z u z 2 0, S z
; find d an d l
g g
. .
,
S ub s ti t ut i n g th e gi v e n v a l ue s in ( )
I I ,
5 5 1 5 5 1 3
1 0 + or -
a
l °
t h en ’ l
3 3 6 s 6 2
34 6 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN ALG E B R A
Any val ue ofn w h i ch is not a p os i tive in teger mus t b e r ej ec ted , t oge th e r

w i th a l l o th e r v a l ues de pe n d en t on it .
F rom I
( ) an d ( I I
) g en e r a l fo
,
r mu lae fo r t h e s ol u ti on o f e xa m
p l e s l i k e th e ab ov e m ay be r e a d ily d e r i v e d .
4 . Giv en a, d, an d S ; d e ri ve th e fo r mul a fo r n .
By 51 9 , 2 S = n [ 2 a + ( n or
2
d n + (2 a
Th i s is a q ua dr ati c i n n ; s ol v i n g by fo rm ul a 4 5 0,
R 7b
EX ERC S E 75 I
/ 0 \ Giv e n d = 8 , l = 1 4 7, n : 1 9 ; fin d a a nd S .
2 . G iv e n d = — 6, n : 1 4, S = -6 1 6 ; fin d a an d l .
3 . Give n a : 69 , u = 1 6, l z 3 6 ; find d a nd S .
4 . Give n a = 8, n : 25 , S = -25 00
; fin d d and l .
\
‘
5 . Giv e n a :
2, z s 78 ; fin d d a nd n .
2 2 29 2 5
6 . Giv e n l
3 , n z : 2 5, S
4
; fin d a a nd d .
7 . Give n a g , d
3
— S
306
; fin d n and l .
5 1 0 5
8 . Given a d z
g ; fin d n a n d S .
9 . Giv e n d = — n 55, S : 1 6 5 ; find a and l .
1
22 7
1 0 Gi v e n 1 n 24 , S 24 1 find a and d
E
.
, .
95 9 35
1 1 . Give n l :
3
d
g , S ; fin d a an d n .
3 97 31 5
1 2 . Give n a 2 —
, l _ S ; find d an d n .
5 1 0 2
1 8 . Give n a n 21 ,
find d a nd l .
2 3 3
1 4 . Give n l -
—
, , S fin d a an d n .
1 2 1 2
Give n (r s — 3 1
, S : -fin d n an d l .
6
PR O G R E SS I O N S 34 7
1 6 . Given a, l, and n ; de r ive th e for mula for d .
1 7 . Give n a , n , and S ; d e r iv e t h e fo rmul ae fo r d an d l .
1 8 . Give n n, a n d S ; d e r iv e t h e fo r mul ae fo r a an d l .
1 9 . Giv e n a, d, an d l d e r iv e th e fo r mul ae fo r n a n d S .
20 . Give n d, l, an d n ; d e r iv e t h e fo r mul ae fo r a a n d S .
21 . Give n l, n , and S ; d e r iv e th e fo r mul ae for a a nd d .
22 . G iv e n a, d, a nd S ; d e r iv e t h e fo r mul a fo r l .
23 . Give n a, l, and S ; d e r iv e th e fo r mul a fo r d a n d n .
24 . Giv e n d , l, a nd S d e r iv e th e fo r mul ae for a a n d n .
Arit h met i c Means .
To fin d a n a r i th m e ti c r
p go r e ss i o n o f m + 2 t e r m s , w hos e
fir s t an d la s t t e r m s a r e t w o g i v e n n um b e r s a a n d b i s , ,
cal el d
i n s er ti ng m a r i th meti c mea n s be tw ee n a a n d b .
Ex . ri th me t i c me a n s b e t w ee n 3 an d 5
I n s e rt 5 a .
W e fin d a n a r i th met i c p r o g r e s s i o n o f 7t e r m s i n w h i ch a , 3
a nd l : 5 ; s u b s t i t ut i n g n 7 a 3 an d l : 5 in (I ) , , ,
5 1 7 1 1
Th e p r o gr e s s i o n i s 3 , 5
g
, 9 ’ .
3 3 3
523 . L et ac d e n ot e th e a r i th me t i c m ean b et w e e n a an d b.
Th en x — a z b— x, or 2x= a +b .
b
;
a
Wh en ce ,
w=
Th at i s , the a r i thmeti c mea n between two n umber s equa ls on e
ha lfthe i r su m .
E X E RC S E I 76
1 . In s ert 7arith me ti c me an s b et w e e n4 a nd 1 0 .
2 . In s er t 6 ar i th meti c me an s b etw e e n
2- an d
3 . In s er t 9 ar i th meti c me an s b e tw e e n
E
- and 6
:
.
4 . In s e rt 8 ar i th me ti c m ean s b etw e e n 3 an d
4
. 34 8 A DV ANCE D C O U R S E IN A L GE B R A
5 . In s e rt 5 a ri th met i c m ea ns b et we en 9 an d
9 3
3 29
6 . H ow m a y n a r ith me t i c me a n s are in s e r te d b e t w ee n a nd
2 1 0
wh e n th e s um o f th e se c on d a nd l as t i s
g ?
7 If m
. a r i t h me t i c me a n s are in s er te d b e t w e en a an d b, find th e first
th r ee .
F in d th e a r i th m e ti c m e a n b etw e e n :
8 . 1 % an d 9 .
( 3 m n 2 an d
) ( m 3 n 2
) .
1 0 .
x
and
x
x — l fl — l
5 24 . Pr obl ems .
1 . Th e s i xt h te rm o f an a ri th m et i c p r o gr e ss i on is
g ,
a nd th e
fi ft een th t e r m is F i n d th e fir s t t e r m .
Th e c o mmo n i
d ffe r e ncemus t b e o n e-nin th th e re s ult o bta ine d by
s ub t a r c tin g th e s i xth t e r m fr om t h e fift e e n th .
Th e n , d z :
Aga in th e firs t t erm ,

mus t e qu al th e i
s xth te rm minus five t i me s th e
c o mmo n d i ffe re n c e .
5 5 5
Th e n , a
6 2 3
2 . F i n d fou r n um
b e r s i n a r i th m e ti c p r o g r e s s i on s uch th at
t h e p r o d uct o f th e fir s t a n d fo urth s h al l b e 4 5 a n d th e p r o d uct ,
o f th e s e co n d a n d t h i rd 7 7
L et t h e n umb e rs b e r e p r es e n t e d by a; 3y x y x y a n d a
; 3 y , , , ,
r es p e ct iv ely .
x2 9 y 4 5' 2 2
T h e n b y t h e c on d i t i o n s ,
x2
y
2
77
S olvin g t h es e e quat i o n s
.
x =— 9 , y =i 2
Th e n th e n unfbers ar e 3 7 1 1 1 5 ; or 3 7 1 1
,
1 5
, , , , , , .
In p roblems lik e th e ab ov e i t i s c onv eni e n t to re pr es e nt th e unkn o w n

,
n umb e rs b y s ymmetri ca l e xp res s i on s .
Th us i ffive n umb e rs h a d b e e n r e qui r e d t o b e foun d w e s h ould h av e

, ,
r e p r es e n te d th e m b y a: 2 y at y at a: y an d a:1 } 2 , , , ,
1 5 . F in d th e rms of a n a r ith met i c p rogres s i o n of 1 1 terms

s um o f th e te ,
in wh i c h 1 2 1 is th e mi ddle t e r m .
1 6 A ma n c l i mb in g a m ou n t a in as c e n d s th e firs t h o ur 1 000 fe e t th e
.
, ,
s e c o n d h o ur 8 0 0 feet t h e t h i rd h o ur 6 00 fe e t a n d s o o n
, A ft er h o w , .
C
ma n y h o urs w i ll h e b e a t t h e h e i gh t o f2 800 fe e t
( In t e rp r et th e t wo a n s w e rs ) .
1 7 If a p e r s o n s av es 8 1 2 0 e a c h y e a r an d p uts th i s s um a t s i mp le
.
in te res t a t 3 %
,
p e r c e n t a t t h e e n d o f e a c h y e a r t o h o w muc h w i ll h i s ,
p r o p e rty am oun t a t th e e nd of 1 8 y e ars M

1 8 Th e r e a r e 1 2 e q ui d i s t a n t b alls in a s t r a i gh t l in e
. A p e r s o n s ta r t s .
fr o m a p o s i t i o n in l in e w i t h t h e b all s a n d b e y o n d t h e m h i s d i s ta n c e fr o m
, ,
th e firs t b a ll b e in g t h e s a m e a s t h e d i s t an c e b et w e e n t h e b a ll s a n d pi c k s ,
t h em up i n s u cc e s s i o n r e turnin g w i th e a c h t o h i s o r i g in al p os i t i o n
,
He .
fi n d s th at h e h as w alk ed 54 60 fe e t F in d th e d i s ta n c e b et we e n th e b alls
. .
1 9 A a nd B t r a v el a r o un d t h e w o rl d th e c i rc ui t b e in g 2 36 6 1 m i l e s
.
,
.
A go es e as t on e m ile t h e firs t d ay t w o m i le s th e s e c o n d d ay t h r e e mi les

, ,
t h e t h i r d d ay a n d s o o n ,
B go es we s t a t a uni for m rate of20mi les a d ay
. .
Afte r h o w m any d ay s w i ll th ey me et
( In t e r p r e t t h e n e g a t iv e a n s wer ) .
GE OM E TR I C PR O GR E S S I O N
5 25 . A Geomet r i c P r og r es s i on i s a se ries i n w h i ch h t e rm
e ac ,
t r th e fir s t i s o bt a i n e d by m ul t i ply in g th e
af e , p r e ce d i n g t e r m
by a con s t an t n umb e r cal l e d th e R a ti o .
Th u s 2 6 1 8 54 1 62
, ,
i s a ge o me tr i c p r o g r e ss i on
, , , ,
i n wh i ch
th e r at i o i s 3 .
l—
9 , 3, 1 , ,
is a g e o me tr i c p r o gr e s s i on i n w h i ch t h e r ati o
S)
1
1 3
g
3, 6, 1 2, 24 , — 4 8, is a g eo m e tri c r
p go r e ss i o n in
w h i ch t h e r ati o i s 2 .
A Ge o metr i c P r ogr ess i o n is a ls o c alle d a Geo metr i c S er i es .
5 26 . G i ven th e fi rs t ter m,
a, th e ra t i o, r , a n d th e n umbe r f
o
te r ms ,
n, to fi n d th e la s t ter m, l .
Th e p r o gr e s s i on i s a , a r , a r , a r , g 3
W e o b s e r v e t h at t h e e xp o n en t o f r i n a ny te rm is l e s s by 1
th an th e n um b er o f th e te r m .
Pno o nns s mns 351
Th e n i n ,
th e nt h te rm th e e xp o n en t of r w i l l be n 1 .
Th at i s l ar
’“ 1
I
( )
5 2 7 G i ven th e
. firs t te rm ,
a, th e la s t ter m, l, a nd th e r a ti o ,
r,
to find th e su m of th e te S .
‘0
0
,
u —3 n —l
a m 2
@ ‘
.
Mul ti ply i n g ea ch
-1
rS = ar ‘
ar
2
ar
’“ 2
+ d if
f ar
"
.
( )
2
1
S ubtr a cti n g ( 1 ) fr o m S ar
"
a , or S
B ut by ( I ) ,
5 2 6, rl ar
”
,
rl a
S 9
H
( )
r 1
ter m, r a ti o , n u mbe te r ms , l a s t te rm , an d s u m of th e ter ms ,
th e el e ments o ft h e p rogr es s i o n .
528 . E xampl es .
1 .In t h e p r o g r e ss i on 3 , 1 ,
1 ,
m , to 7 t e r ms ,
find th e l a st
3
t e r m an d th e s um .
H e re , a 3, r :
g , n 7; s ubst i tut in g in I
( ) an d I
( )I ,
6
1 1
l 3
5
3 24 3
1 21 8 6
X 3 3
3 24 3 72 9 729 1 09 3
S
1 2 2 24 3
1
3 3 3
Th e r ati o may b e foun d b y d ivi d in g th e se o c nd te rm b y th e firs t , or
a ny te rm b y th e n e xt p r e c e d in g t e r m .
2 . I n t h e p r o gr e s s i on 2, 6, — 1 8 , m , to 8 t e r ms , fin d th e
l a s t t e r m a n d t h e s um .
6
H e r e, a — 2, r — 3, n 8; th e r efo r e ,
z_ x
_3 x 4 3 74 — 2
)
S 328 0
_4
.
E X E RC S E I 78
In ea ch o fth e foll o w in g , fin d th e l as t t e r m and th e su m o fth e te rms :

1 . 1 ,
2, 4 , to 1 0 te r ms .
6 _3 1 _4 to 7terms
.
’ , , .
2 . 3, 1 2, 4s, to 6 te rms .
4 3
3 .
gg g , ,
l
,
t o 9 te r ms .
7 °
i t to 6 te rms
4
g3$3
3
6 2;
1
4 ,
.
,
.
,
.
t o 5 te rms ,
8 .
, , , t o 5 te rms .
g
gg
1
5 7 2, to te rms 9 -
, t o 8 t e ms r
ia
.
, , . .
, .
1 2
5 29 . If a ny thr e e of t h e fiv e el e m e n s o f a t g e o m e tr i c p r o
g r e s s i on a r e th e r t w o may be fo un d
g i v e n ,
t h e o by s ub s t i t uti n g
t h e g i v e n v a lu e s i n t h e fun d a m e n t al fo r mul ae ( I ) a n d (II) an d ,
s ol v i n g t h e r e s ulti n g e quat i on s .
B ut i n ce rt a i n ca s e s t h e o p e r a t i on i nv ol v es th e so l ut i o n o f
a n e q uat i on o f a d e g r e e h i g h e r t h an t h e s e co n d ; an d i n o th e r s
t h e unk n o w n numb e r a p p e a rs a s a n e xp o ne n t th e s ol ut i o n o f ,
w h i ch fo r m o f e qu at i on can u s ually o n ly be af fe ct e d by t h e ai d
o f l o ga r i t h m s
I n a ll s uch cas e s i n t h e p r e s e n t ch apt e r t h e e qu ati o n s may ,
b e s ol v e d by i n s p e ct i on .
1 . G i ve n a = — 2, n =5 l = — 3 2 ; fin d r an d S .
S ub s ti tut i n g t h e g i v e n l s
v a ue in I
( ) ,
we h av e
32 2 r ; w h e nce,
4
r
4
1 6, or r i2 .
S ub s t i t ut i n g i n I
( )I ,
If
2 — 1
— 2 — 1 — 3
Th e s ol uti on i s r = 2 S = — 62 ; or r = — 2 S = — 22
, , , ,
.
Th e s i gni fic a n c e o f t h e t w o an s w e rs i s a s follo ws
Ifr : 2 t h e p r o g r e s s
,
i o n i s -2 — 4 — 8 — 1 6 -3 2 w h os e s m
u i s —62
, , , , , .
Ifr : _2 th e p r ogress i o n i s — 2
,
4 —8 1 6 — 32 wh os e s um i s — 22 , , , , , .
1 1 . Given a , r , a nd S ; d e ri ve th e formul a fo r l .
1 2 . Gi v e n a , l, an d S ; d e ri ve th e fo r mul a fo r r .
1 3 . Gi ven l, a nd S r r l a for a
d e i ve t h e fo m u .
1 4 . Gi ve n u, an d l d e ri ve th e formul ae for a a n d S .
1 5 . Gi ven u , a nd S ; d e ri ve t h e fo rmul ae fo r a an d l .
1 6 . G iven a , u, and l '

d er i ve th e fo rmul ae for 7 a n d S .
53 0 S um . of a Ge ome t ri c Progre s s i on t o Infi ni t y .
Th e l i m i t 24 5)to wh i ch th e s um o f t h e t e rm s of a d ecreas
i ng ge o me t r i c p r o g r e s s i o n a p p r o a ch e s , wh en t h e n um be r o f
t e r m s i s i n defi n i t e l y i n cr e a s e d , i s c a ll e d t h e s um of th e s er i es
to i n n ity fi .
F ormu la ( I I ) ,
527, m ay be wr itt e n
a — fl
S
1 — 7 ‘
It i s den t t h at by s uffi c i e n tl y c onti n ui n g a d e c re as i n g

e vi ,
g eo m e t r i c p r o g r e s s i o n t h e a b s o lu t e v a l ue o f t h e l a s t t e r m m a
, y
b e m a d e l e s s t h a n an y a s s i gn e d n um be r h o w e v e r s mal l , .
H en c e wh e n th e n umbe r o f t e r m s i s i n d e fi ni t e l y i n c r eas e d
, ,
l an d t h e r e fo r e Tl a p p r oa ch e s th e l i m i t 0
:
, , .
( 7
i
a
Th en ,
th e fr a c t i on ap pr o a ch e s th e l i mi t
1 7
°
e r e fo r e , th e s um o f a d e c r e a s i n g g e o me t ri c p r o gr e s s i on
ty i s gi v e n by t h e fo rm ul a
1 " a
S I
( )I I
1 T
8 1 6
1 Fi nd th e s um o f t h e s ri e s e 4, - to in fi ni ty
g 3
,
.
,
.
H e re, 61 .
4 1 2
S ub s ti t uti n g i n I
( )I I , S
2 5
1 + "
3
Th is s igni fi e s th at th e gre at er th e,
n umb e r of t erms t aken , th e mo re
n e arl y d o es t h e i r s um a pp r oa ch t o b ut th e su m w i ll n e ve r e xa ctl y
e qua l th i s val ue .
P R OG R E S S I ON S 3 55
A r ep ea ti ng d ec i ma l i s a d e c r e a s i ng g e o m e tr i c p r og re s s i on,
an d its v a l ue may be fo un d by fo r mul a ( I I I ) .
2 .
W e h av e
F in d th e
,
. 8 51 5 1
v al u e o f .
.
8 51 51
8 . 051 . 0005 1
00 o f
0 5’
' ] , o I
The t e r m s a ft e r t h e fi r s t c on s t i tut e a d e c re a s in g ge ometri c

r o g re s s i o n i n wh i ch a an d r 01
p , . .
05 1 051 51 1 7
S ubS t1 t tm g m (III S
. .
1 99 990 330
'
.
8 1 7 2 81
h
1
‘
e n, th e v al ue of th e gi v e n d e c i mal is + , or
1 0 33 0 330
EX E RC IS E 8 0
F ind th e s um ofth e foll owi ng to i n fin i ty
_2 8 1 4 49
1 6, 1 5
E
,
.
, , ,
.
,
5 90
3 1 2 8
2 1 2 3’ 6 ’
4 1 0 25 1 25
—4 2 1 3 1 5 75
3 ’ ’ 7 ’ ‘ ’ ’
3 9 4 2 2 56
25 2
—
5 5o 5 5 _
1 0
4 9 8 °
“
9 1
6 9 27 6 27 243
w
J E nd th e v a u e s o f t h e l follo wmg :
9 . . 8 1 81 1 1 . . 9 777
1 1 3 . 2
61 5
5 1 35
1 0 . . 629 62 9 59 1 4 . 5 8 74 74
53 1 . Geomet ri c Means .
To fin d ge o m e t r i c p r o gr e s s i on of m + 2 t e rm s , w h o s e fir s t
a
a n d l a s t t e r m s ar e t w o g i v e n n umb e r s , a a n d b, i s c a l l e d i n s er t
i ng m geo metri c mea n s between a a n d 6 .
Ex . In s e rt 5 g eo me t r i c m ean s be t w e e n 2 an d
We m e tr i c p r o g re s s i o n o f 7 t e rm s ,
:
fin d a g e o i n w h i ch a 2,
2
and Zr ; s ub s t i t ut i n g n 7, a 2, an d l:
3
—— i n I
2
( ),
1 28 64 2
= 2r ;
wh en c e = i
‘
3 6
r a nd r :
g
, ,
72 9 72 9
356 ADVAN CE D C O UR S E IN ALG E B R A
1 6
Th e re s ul t i s 2, ’ ’ ’
32 £ 4
’
8 9 2 7 81 24 3 729
53 2 . L et 2 d e not e t h e ge om e t r i c m ea n be t wee n a and b

.
0
3 I
J
The n ,
—
, o r {1 3
2
ab .
a x
Wh e n ce x ab
,
‘
.
Th at i s th e geometri c mea n between

, two numbers i s equa l to
th e s qua r e r o ot o f th eir p r od uct .
EX ERC IS E 8 |
1 . In s e rt 8 g eometric mean s b etwe en an d 1 92 .
8
2 . In s e rt 7ge ome tri c mean s b e t wee n 3 a nd 1 9 683 .
5
3 . Ins e rt 6 ge o me tri c me ans b e t we e n — an d 5 1 20 .
1 6
1 51 2
4 . In s e rt 4 g eometri c means b et we en an d
6 729
3
5 . I ns e rt 5 ge ometric mean s b etween 48 an d
2 56
11 5 1
6 . In s e rt 3 g eometri c mean s b et we en and
32 1 0
7 If m g e o me tric me ans
. are i ns e rt e d b e t we e n a a nd b, w h at are th e
l as t t w o m e a n s
F in d th e g e ometri c me an b e t ween
2
8 4 -33 and 9 an d
my
. .
1 0 . a
2 — 4 ab +4 b
2
an d 4 a
2
+4 ab + b
2
.
533 . Probl em .
F in d 3 n um be r s i n g e ome tri c p r o g re s s i on s uch t hat the i r

su m s h all be 1 4 , a n d t h e s u m o f t h e i r s qu a r e s 8 4 .
L e t th e n umb e s r be re p re s e n t e d b y a , a r , a nd ar
2
(1 )
T h en by t h e c on d i t i o n s
CM w,
, ,
a
2 2
a 84 .
( 2)
D i vi d e ( 2 ) b y a ar M 2
6 .
( 3)
S ubtract ( 3 ) from 2 ar 8, or r 4
( )
a
35 8 ADVAN CE D CO UR S E IN AL GE B R A
1 3 . g of a numb er o f th ree figures are i n g eometric p rogres

Th e di i ts
s i o n a nd t h e i r s um i s 1 4
,
If 59 4 b e s ub tr a ct e d fr o m t h e numb er t h e
.
,
d i g i t s w i ll b e r eve rs e d F in d t h e numb er . .
1 4 Th e mth t e rm o f a g e o me tr i c p r o gre s s i on i s p an d th e nth t e rm i s

.
,
1 5 . Th e su th re e rat i on al n u mb ers i n g e ome tri c pr o gres s i on

m of is
1 3 65
, an d th e s um o f th e i r r e c ip ro c a ls F in d th e numb ers —
1 5 3
1 6 . Ift h e numb e s a , r b, a nd c ar e in g e ome tri c p rogress i on , p rove
1 7 Th e
. su m of th e fi rs t
r terms of a g e o me tric p rogr es s i o n is 4 5
fou
a n d o f t h e fi rs t s i x t e r ms 1 8 9 F i nd th e fi rs t t erm a n d th e ra t io
’
. .
1 8 If x y a n d z a r e r es p e ct i vel y t h e p th q th a n d r th t e rms o f a
.
, , , , , ,
ge o metric p rogress i on pro ve ,
-q -
p r
X zP y
H AR MONIC PR OGR E S S ION

[ V
53 4 . A H armoni c Pr ogre s s i on i s a s e r i e s of t e rm s wh o s e
re c i p r o c al s fo r m an a r i t h m e t i c p r o g r e s s i o n .
Th us ,
1 , g ,
é ,
is a h a r m o n i c p r o g r e s s i on ,
b e c au s e t h e
rec i p r o c al s o f t h e t e r m s 1 , 3 5 7 9 fo r m a n a r i th meti c , , , , ,
r
p go r e s s i o n .
A H armon ic Progr ess i o n i s a l s o c all e d a H a r mo ni c S er i es .
An y p r obl e m i n h a r m o n i c p r o g r e s s i o n , w h i c h i s s us c e pt i bl e
o f s o l uti o n , m a y be s ol v e d by t a ki n g t h e r e c i p r o c a l s o f t h e
t e r ms , y i n g t h e for mul ae o f th e a ri th m e ti c p r o gre s s i on

a n d app l .
Th e re i s h ow e v e r n o gen e r al me th o d for fi n di n g th e s um of
, ,
th e terms o f a h a r m on i c s e r i e s .
E x I n t h e p r o g r e s s i on 2 2
t er m .
.
3
t o 36 t e r m s fin d th e la s t , ,
g , ,
T ak i n g th e r e c i p ro c al s of th e t e rms we h av e th e ari th me ti c ,
' 5
p g
r o r s s i o n e
5 a 5
’ ’
H e re , a = d =1 ,
P R OG R E S S ION S 359
s ubs ti t uti n g i n I
( ) ,
5 1 8, (3 6 1 ) x 1
Th e n ,
i s t h e l a s t t e rm o f th e g i v e n h a rm o n i c se ri es .
535 . H armoni c Mea ns .
To fin d a h a r mo n i c p r o g r e s s i on of m + 2 t e rms , w h o s e fir s t
and l a s t te rm s ar e t w o giv en n umb e s , a a n d r b, i s c al l e d i n s er t
i ng m h a r mo n i c mea n s betw een a a nd b.
Ex . I n s ert 5 h a r mo ni c m e a n s be t w e e n 2 an d 3 .
1
W e hav e t o i n s e rt 5 a ri t h m e ti c m e an s b e t w e e n an d
S ubs t i tut i n g a g , l : g ,
n 7, i n I
( ) ,
5 1 8,
1 1 5
6d 01 d
8 2 86
Th en th e a ri t h m et i c se ri e s is
1 1 8 2 1 1 7 1
’ ’ ’ ’ ’ ’
2 86 9 1 2 1 8 86 8
Th e r e fore ,
th e r e ui e
q r d h a r m on i c s e ri es is
36 9 —
36 — 3
2, 1 2, 1 8,
E
, , , .
1 3 7
53 6 . L et x d e n ot e th e h a rm on i c m e a n b et w e e n a an d b.
Th e n 1 ,
i s th e a r i th me t i c m e an b e tw e e n 1 an d
:
a a
1 a b a +b 2 ab
en , y § ’ ’
an w
0
3 2 2 ab a +b
E X E RC S E I 83
In ea ch o ft h e fo ll owing ,
find th e l as t t e r m
1 .
4 ,
1 2 i2
to 2 2 t e rms .
5 43 71
2 .
m t 0 1 9 t e rms .
360 ADVAN C E D C O UR S E IN AL GE B RA
3
3 — 3, 2 t o 26 e ms t r
E
.
.
, ,
i 4 2
4 .
, t o 1 1 te rm s .
1 1 39 1 7
5 2 5
5 t o 37 e t rm s
6
.
.
,
6 . Ins e rt 6 h armon ic me an s b e t ween 2 a nd

7 Ins er t 8 h a r mon i c me a n s b e tw e e n
. and l .
5 5
8 . In s e rt 7h armoni c me ans b e t w e en
3 an d
2
F in d th e h a rmon i c me an b e twe en
2 2
3 5 nd a + b “ b
9 . 1 0 . an d
2 2
3 4 a b a b
1 1 . F ind th e ( n 1 )t h t erm of th e r
h a m on i c p rogre s s io n a , b, to n
te rms .
1 2 . If m h a rmoni c m e an s ar e i ns e rte d b e t w e en a an d b, wh a t is t h e
th i rd m e an
1 3 . T h e firs t
‘
r t e rm ro gre s s i on is p an d th e s ec on d term
of a h a moni c p ,
q. C o n t i n u e t h e s e r i e s t o t h r e e m o r e t e rm s .
1 4 Th e a ri th m e ti c m ea n b e t w e e n tw o n um b e rs is 1 a n d th e h armon i c
.
,
me a n 1 5 Find t h e n umb ers

. .
1 5 Th e fi fth t e rm o f a h arm o n i c p r o gre s s i o n i s

.
g a n d th e e l e venth ,
3
t e rm F i nd t h e fi fte e n th term .
1 6 . g eome tri c me an
Th e b et w e en tw
p n umb ers is 4, a nd th e
h ar mon i c m e an F i n d th e n u mb e s r .
1 7 Th e
. rith met ic m e an b e tw e e n t w o n umb ers e xce e d s th e ge ome tric
a
m e an b y
g a n d t h e g e om e t ri c m e a n e xc e e d s t h e h a rm o n i c m ea n b y
,
Fi nd th e nu mb ers .
1 3
( R ep res en t th e s um o fth e numb e rs by x an d th e ir p ro d uct b y y ) , .
1 8 Pro ve t h a t i f an y th r e e co n s e cu t i ve t e rms o f a h arm o n i c p r ogre s

.
,
s i on b e t a k e n th e fi rs t i s t o t h e t h i rd a s th e fi rs t m i nus t h e s e c on d i s t o
,
th e s e c o n d mi nus t h e t h i rd .
1 9 .If a 2 b a n d 02 ar e i n ar i th met i é progre s s i on p r ove th a t b

,
2
, c , ,
c a an d a
, b a r e i n h ar mo n i c p r o gre s s i o n .
362 AD VAN CE D C O URS E IN ALG EBR A
X XVI . C O N V E RG EN C Y A ND D I V E R G EN C Y
OF S ER I ES
539 . An I nfi n i te S e r i e s 2 8 3) m ay be d e v e l op e d by D i vi
s i o n, or by E vo l ut i o n .
L e t i t b e r e qui r e d , fo r e x a m p l e, t o d i vi d e 1 by 1 x .
1
1 — x
w
a)
’
— x
2
2
x
The q u o t i e n t is o bt ai n e d i n t h e fo r m of t h e i n fi n i te s e ri e s
1 a; x
2 o .
Agai n, l e t i t be r e q ui r e d t o fin d th e s qua e r r oot of 1 x .
1 + 513 1 +
2
2+ 96
8 4
Th e re s ult is o bt a i n e d i n t h e for m of th e i n fi n i t e s e ries

2
93 90
1 + +
2 8
In fi ni t e s e rie s
.
m ay al s o d e ve lo p e d by o th e r m et h o d s one
be ,
of t h e m o s t i m p o r ta n t o f w h i ch w i l l b e c o n s i d ere d i n C h ap
‘
XXV II .
t 5 4 0 Conv erg ent

. D i vergent S eri e s
a nd .
An i n fi n i t e s e r i e s i s s a i d t o b e Co n vergen t wh e n t h e s um o f
th e fir s t n t e r m s a p p r o a ch e s a fi xe d fi n i t e n um be r a s a l i mi t
w h e n n i s in d e fin i t ely i n c r e a s e d .
C O NV E R G E N C Y AND DIV E R G E N C Y OF SER I ES 3 63
Thi s l imi t i s c al l e d th e Va lue ofth e S er i es .
A fini te s eri es may b e re gard ed as a con verg e nt s eri e s .
An i nfi n i te s e r i e s i s s ai d t o b e D i ve rge nt w h e n th e s um o f th e
fi rs t n t e r m s can be m a d e nume r i c ally g r eate r th an an y a s s i gn e d
n u mb e r h ow e v e r g r e at by t ak i n g n s uf
,
fic i e n tly gre at
,
.
Con s i d e r fo r e xa mpl e t h e i n fi ni t e s e ri e s
, ,
1
d e v el o p e d by t h e fra c t i on
1 x
I . S upp os e v :
. 961 ,
wh e r e r i c ally:
61 i s 1 n um e .
I n th i s c a s e t h e gi v e n s e r i e s i s a d e c r e a s i n g G e o m e t r i c P r o
‘
i n a nd b 5 3 0 t h e s u m o f t h e fir s t it t e rm s a r o a ch e s
g r e s s o ; y , pp
1
t h e l i mi t w h en n i s i n d e fi n i t el y i n c r e a s e d .
1 xi
Th at i s th e s um o f th e fi r s t n t e rm s a pp ro a c h e s a fi xed fi n i t e
,
n u mbe r a s a li mi t whe n n i s i n d e fi n i t e ly i n cr e a s e d
, .
H e n c e th e s e r i e s i s convergent wh e n a; i s n um e ri c ally
,
1 .
L e t us ta k e fo r e x amp l e a: , 1 , . .
Th e s e ri e s n o w t ak e s t h e fo rm 1 1 01 w h i l e t h e va l u e o f . .
t h e fra ct ion fro m w h i c h t h e s e r ie s w a s d e vel op e d i s

1 . 1 9
In h is t r gr e a t th e n umb er o f t erms tak en th e ir s um n ever
cas e ,
h o w e ve ,
1 9
e x act l y e qual s a p p r o a ch e s t h i s v a l ue as a l im i t
, b ut
5
Th us if an i n fi nit es e ri es i s conve rg e nt th e va lue of th e s er i es
, 54 0) ,
e q ua ls th e va l ue oft h e e xp re s s i o n fr o m w h i c h th e s e r i e s w as d eve l o p e d .
II . S u p p o s e a: 961 , wh e r e as, is n u m e r i all c y 1 .
The s um o f t h e fir s t n t e rm s i s n o w 4 "
-I ”1
K
=
331
y ,
wi n — 1
B y t ak i n g n s uf
fi c i e n t l y gr e a t ,
ca n be ma de t o n u me r
ml 1
i cal l y c
e x e e d a n y a s s i g n e d n um b e r h o w e v er g r e at,
.
H en c e th e s e r i e s i s
,
d i vergen t w h e n x i s n um e r i c all y 1 .
L e t us t a k e fo r e xa mp l e a: 1 0
, , .
Th e s e rie s n o w t ak e s t h e fo r m 1 1 0 1 00 wh i le th e l
v a ue o f
1
th e fra ct i on fro m w h i ch th e s eri es w as d e ve l op ed i s
1 —1 0 9
3 64 ADVAN CE D C O U RSE IN AL G EBR A
In th i s c a s e grea ter th e numb e r of t erms ta ke n th e more d oe s

, th e ,
1
th ei r s um d i verg e from th e val ue
9
Th us i fa n in fi n i t e s eri e s i s d i ver g ent th e gre a t er th e numb er o f te r ms
, ,
ta k e n t h e more d oes t h e i r s um d i verg e from th e va l ue of th e exp res s i on

,
from wh i ch th e s e ri es wa s d e ve l op ed .
III . S u pp o s e a 1 .
In t h i s c as e ,
ea ch t e rm
e ri e s e q u al s 1 an d th e s um
of th e s ,
of th e fi rst n t e r m s e qu al s n ; a n d t h i s s um ca n b e m a d e t o
c d
e x ee an y as s i g n e d n u mbe r h o w e v e r g r eat by t ak i n g n s nifi
, ,
c i e n tl y g r e at .
H e n c e, t h e s e ri e s i s d i vergent wh e n as : 1 .
IV . S upp os e a: 1 .
In th i s c as e th e s eri e s t a k e s t h e for m
1 — 1 + m
;
an d th e su m of th e fi rs t n t e rm s i s e i the r 1 or 0 a cc ord i n g
as n is o dd or ev en .
If th e s um o f t h e fi rs t it t e rm s of an i n fin i t e s e ri e s n e i t her
a pp r o a ch e s a fi x e d fin i t e li mit n or e x c e ed s an y a s s i gn e d n um ,
be r h o w e v e r gr e at wh e n n i s i n d e fi n i t e l y i n c r e a s e d t h e s e ri e s
, , ,
i s c all e d an Os c i lla ti ng S eri es .
H e n c e th e s e ri e s i s a n os c i lla ti ng s er i es wh en a:
,
1 .
54 1 . I t foll o w s fr o m 5 4 0 t h at an i nfin i te s er i es ca nn ot be
us ed f or the p urp os es o f d emons tr a ti on
c on v er en t
g un les s it i s .
I t w i ll b e und e rs t oo d th r ough out th e r e m ain d e r o f t h e w o rk th at i n

, , ,
e ve ry e xp r e s s i on i n v o l vi n g a c on ve rg e n t i nfi ni t e s e ri es th e va l ue of th e ,
s e ri e s i s m e an t F o r e x a mp l e t h e p ro duct of t wo c o nv e rge n t i n fi ni te
.
,
s er i es w ill b e un d e rs t o o d a s s i g nif y in g t h e p r o d uct o f th e i r v al ue s .
THE ORE M S ON C O NVE RGE N C Y AND D ENC Y

0F SER I ES u L
‘ ’
lr c
’ r h
W
54 2 . If a n i nfin i te s eri e s is convergen t, th e la s t ter m app r oa ch es
th e li mi t zer o wh en th e number of ter ms
,
i s i nd e fin i te ly i n crea s ed .
L et th e s e r i e s b e
By lll
’
+ + 71 %
uz 7
51
[
Ll/ 2 un + 1
p r o a ch th e s a me fi n i te li mi t whe n n i s i n d e fi n i t e l y i n cre a s e d .
366 AD VAN CE D C O U RS E IN AL G EBR A
An d in th e c as e of a fi r s t n t e rm s
d i v e r g e n t, t h e sum o f th e
s t ill e x c e e d s a n y a s s i gn e d n umbe r h o w e v e r g r e a t whe n n i s , ,
i n defi n i t e ly i n c r e a s ed .
Th e n i n t e s ti n g a s e r i e s fo r c o n ve r gen cy o r d i v e r g en cy w e
, ,
m ay c om m e n c e a t a ny a s s ign ed ter m ta k i n g n o a c c o un t o f th e ,
r ced i n g t e r m s
'
p e .
4 54 5 . If a ll th e terms o f an in fini te s er ies a r e p o s i ti ve , a nd th e
su m of a ny n cons ecuti ve terms i s fi n i te h owever gr ea t n ma y be,

th e s er i es is convergen t .
F or , t h e g re a t er t h e n umbe r o f t e r m s tak e n, th e great e r w ill

be t h e i r s um ; bu t t h i s s um i s a l w a y s fi n i t e .
Th e n ,
w hen n i s i n d e fi ni t e l y i n c r e a s e d , t h e s um o f th e fir s t n
t e rm s mu s t a pp ro a ch a fixed fi ni te limi t ; an d th e se ries is co n
v e r g e nt .
Th us ,
ll rat ive e xamp l e of
i n th e i us t 54 3 , th e s um o f th e firs t t erms
7
1
is fi ni t e ,
h o we ve r gre a t n ma y b e a n d h enc e , th e se ri es is c o nverge nt .
546 . Th e fol l o w i n g t h e o r e m , an d th a t of 5 4 7, are of g r aet

i m p o r t an c e i n t e s t i n g t h e c on v e r ge n c y or d i ve rge ncy of s e r i e s :
If, co mmen c in g w i th a cer ta i n a s s i g n ed ter m, ea ch ter m f o a
s er i es fp o os i ti ve terms i s les s th a n th e ‘
co r r esp ond i ng ter m of
a s e ri es of p os i ti ve te r ms , wh i ch i s kn own to be co nvergen t, the
firs t s er i es i s c on vergent .
F o r th e s um o f t h e fir s t n t e rm s i s fi n i t e h o w ev e r gre at , n may
be , and th e s eri e s is c o n v e r ge n t by 5 4 5 .
E 56 . P r ove t h e i n fi n i t e se ri e s
1 1 1
1 +
2
c on ve rge nt .
E ach t e r m c o mme n c i n g w i t h
,
t h e t h i r d , i s l e s s t h an th e cor
r e s p on d i n g t e rm o f th e s e r i e s
1 1 1
1 + +
5 5 2
5 3
wh i ch w a s p r ov e d c onv e rg e nt i n 54 0 ,
I .
Th e n t h e g i v e n s e ri e s i s c on v e r g e n t
, .
C O NV ER G E N C Y AND DIV E R G E N C Y OF SER I ES 3 67
54 7 If, c ommen c i ng w i th
. a certa i n a s s i gn ed ter m, ea ch ter m f
o
a s er i es o fp os i ti ve terms i s g rea te r th a n th e corr esp o nd i ng ter m

o f a s er i es ofp os i t ive terms , wh i ch i s kn o wn to be d i vergen t, th e
i ven s er i es i s d i ve rgent
g .
F o r, t h e su m of th e fi rs t n t e r m s m ay b e m a d e t o e xc e e d
a ny a s s i g n e d n umb r, e h o w e ve r g r ea t , by t a k i n g n s u fic
f i e n t ly
g r e a t .
T h us co mme nc i ng, w i t h th e c
s e o nd t erm , ea c h t e rm o f t h e se ri es
is greater th an th e corres p on din g term of t h e s eries
w h ich was p ro ve d diverg ent in 54 0 I II , .
Th e n , t h e g i ve n s eri e s i s d i verge n t .
( Th is was a l s o p rove d i n 54 0 II ) , .
\ I 54 8 . To p rove th e i nfin i te s er i es
1 1 1
+
a a
convergen t wh en k i s 1 ,
a nd d i vergent wh en k 1 or 7
6 1 .
I . If k i s > 1 , th e s e c o n d a n d th i rd t e rm s a re t o ge th e r
1 1 2
or t h e n e xt fo u r t e r m s a r e t o g e t he r t h e n e X t
fi fi
i
:
’
2 k
eig ht ar e t o g e th e r
k ; an d s o on .
The n ,
th e s e ri e s i s l e s s t h a n th e s e ri s e
2 4 8 1 1 1
01 —
_
‘
1
e r 1 +
g
+ + "
w
y
wh i ch w as p r o v e d , i n 5 30, t o a pp r o a ch a fi ni t e li mi t whe n
th e n umb e r o f t e r ms w a s i n d e fi n i t e ly i n c re a s ed .
The r e fore ,
th e gi v e n s e ri e s is c o n v e rg e n t .
II . If k 1 , th e s e ri e s b e c ome s
1 1 1
1 1
3 68 ADVAN CE D C O U R S E IN AL G E B R A
1
The t h i r d an d fo urt h t e rm s ar e t o ge t h e r or ; th e n xte
5
2
fou r te rms a re t og e th e r >
3 $ or 4 an d s o o n .
Th en
by t ak i n g a s uf
,
fic i en tl y g re at n umb e r o f t e r ms , th e i r
s um m ay b e m a d e g rea t e r t h an an y a s s i g n e d n u mbe r, h o we v e r
g r a e
t,
a n d th e s erie s is d iv e r gent .
Th e se ri es ( 1 ) is a h a r m o ni c s er i e s
III . If It i s 1 ,
ea ch t erm of t h e gi v e n c om m e n c i n g
s e ri e s ,
w i th th e c
s e on d ,
i s g re a t e r t h a n th e c o r r e s p o n d i n g t e r m o f
~
a nd th e er i e s i s
s d i v e r g ent
As e xa mp l es o f th e ab ov e ge neral th e ore m , th e se ri es
1 1 1
is c onvergent and th e se ri e s
1 1 1
1
V4
i s d i ve rgen t .
3
‘
54 9 . If, commen ci ng w i th a certa i n a s s i gn e d term, ea ch term
of a s er i es o f p o s i ti ve ter ms i s gr ea ter th a n so me a s s i g n ed fini te

n umber , h owever s ma ll, th e s er i es i s d i verg ent .
F o r th e fir s t s um o f th e n t e rm s can be m a d e t o c d a ny
ex e e
a s s i g n e d n u mb e r h o w e v e r , g r e a t ,
by t a k i n g n fici e n tly gre at
s uf .
1 2 3 4
Th us ,
in th e s er i e s
e a ch t er m c o m me n c i n g w ith t h e
,
c
s e o nd , is gre ater th an L
2
Th e n th e s eri es is d i verg en t
,
.
\ I 5 5 0 If, i n two
. s er i es o fp o s i ti ve terms , th e r a ti o o f two co rre
sp o n di n
g te r ms i s a lw a ys fi n i te ,
th e firs t s er i es is co n vergent if
s d i ver en t
th e c
s e o nd is c on vergen t, a nd d ivergen t if i t i g .
L et th e s e ri e s be u1 + u2 + u3 + m ,
an d v1 + v2 + v3 +
I . L et t h e se c on d se rie sc o n v e r g en t
be .
L e t It be a fi ni t e n um be r g r ea t e r th a n t h e gr e at e s t of th e
r a t i os
u1
—
,
u
3
,
m ; t h e n,
ul
'
—
< le,
u2
—
< lc, m ,
u
Ql 1 ’
02 01
02
’
07:
’
3 70 AD VAN C E D C O U RSE IN ALG E B R A
2 2
1 2 3
2 . P r o v e th e s eri es d i ve r gent
1 X 2 3 X 4 5 X 6
W e c o mp a r e it w ith th e se ri es
1 +1 + 1 + u
3 (D
w h i ch w a s s h o wn t o be di v e r g e n t i n 5 4 0, II I .
Th e r at i o o f t h e n th t e rm o f th e g i v e n se rie s t o th e nth t e rm
of ( 1 ) i s
i
1~
Th i s is al w ay s b et w ee n and ,
an d i s t h e r e fo r e fi n i te fo r
2
e ve r y v al ue o f n ; t h e n t h e g i v e n s e ri e s is d i v e rge n t .
551 . If, commenc i ng w i th a cer ta i n a s s ign ed ter m, th e r a ti o
f ea ch
o te r m o fini te s er i es ofp o s i ti ve terms to th e p reced i ng
fa n in
te rm i s n umer i ca lly les s th a n a fi xed p os i ti ve n umber wh i ch i s ,
i ts elf les s th a n un i ty, th e s e r i es is con vergen t .
L et th e se rie s be u1 u2 u3 ( 1 )
"s “n
S upp o s e 1 i
’z
< zc, < k, w h ere k i s < 1
'
“i
l
< ,
e
“2 un —l
.
By 5 4 0, I, s in e c It i s 1 ,
th e i n fi n i t e r
s e i es
is c o n v e r ge n t .
Th e n by 55 0 , ,
c
s i n e u1 is fin i t e ,
th e se r ie s
( )
2
is c on v e r g e n t .
Mul t i ply i n g t og e the r th e fir s t n 1 o f t h e abo v e i n e quali ti es

w e h av e
76”
u l u2 un
’
fi
l
l bl
Th at i s , th e n th ter m of (1 ) i s l e s s t h an t h e n th term of ( )
2
an d by 5 4 6, s e ri e s ( 1 ) i s c o n v e r g e nt .
Th e ra t i o o f un + 1 t o un i s call e d th e R a ti o of Co nver gency ofth e i nfi ni te

se ri e s u1 u2 u3
2 3 4
2 2 2
Ex . P r o ve t h e s e ri es 1 c onv e rg ent .
L
2 I
§ |4
C O N V ER G E N C Y AND DIV ER G E N C Y OF SER I ES 3 71
Th e rm t o t h e nt h i s
ra ti o o f t h e
( n 1 )t h t e
n+1
2
2
or
2 ”
n 1
L1 7
9
If n 2, t h e r a ti o e q ua l s
3 an d fo r a n y v a l ue o f n 2, th e
:
;
2
r a ti o i s
3
Th e n c o mm e n c in g w i th
, th e four t h te rm, t h e r a ti o of ea ch
t e rm t o th e p r e c e di n g i s g ,
an d th e se r i es is c o n v e r ge n t .
5 5 2 , If, c ommenci ng w i th a cer ta i n a s s i gn ed te r m, th e r a ti o
of ea ch ter m o f an i nfin i te s e r i es o f p os i ti ve ter ms to th e p re c ed

i ng ter m i s e i th er e qua l to , or
g r ea te r th a n, u n i ty, th e s er i es is
d iverge nt .
F or, c o mm e n c i n g w i t h th e a s s i gn e d t e rm e a ch t e r m o f t h e
,
se rie s is e it her e q ua l to , or g r e a t e r t h an t h e a s s i g n ed t e r m ;
,
and th e s e ri e s is d i v e r ge n t by 54 9 .
2 3
2 2 2
E:
1 : P r o v e th e s e i esr + + + di v e r g en t .
1 X 2 2 X 3 3 x 4:
The r a ti o o f t h e e rm t o t h e is
( n 1 )t h t n th
n+ 1
2
( n
or
2n
2 ”
n +2
(
u n + l)
If n 2, t h e r a ti o e q u al s 1 an d for an y v al ue of n 2, t h e
r ati o i s 1 .
Th e n c om me n c i n g w i th th e th i rd
,
t e r m , th e r at i o of e a ch
t e r m t o th e p r e c e d i n g i s e qu a l t o o r , g r e a t e r th a n ,
1 ,
an d th e
s e r i e s i s d i v e r ge nt .
55 3 . Th e m e th o d of 55 1 d o es n o t a pp l y w h e n th e r at i o o f
th e ( n + 1 )t h t e r m t o t h e n t h i s l e s s th an 1 , but a p pr o a ch es
th e l i mi t 1 w he n n i s i rid e fin i t e l y i n c re as e d .
3 72 AD VAN C E D C O U RSE IN ALG E B R A
F o r i n t hi s c a s e t h e r at i o w il l n o t al w ay s be l e s s th an a fi xe d
os i t i v e n u mbe r wh i c h i s i t s e l f l e s s t h a n 1
p ,
.
I n s u ch c a s e s t h e c o n v e r g e n cy o r d i v e r g e n cy o f th e s e r i e s
,
mu s t b e d e t e rmi n e d by o th e r t e s t s .
C o n s i de r for e xa mp l e t h e s e r i e s
, ,
1 1 1
1 +
3 5 7
The rat i o o f th e h rm t o th e nt h
( n 1 )t t e is
1 _1
2 u + l 2n— 1 n
1 2 n +1 1
2
2n— 1 n
Th i s i s al w ay s 1 but a pp r oa ch e s t h e l i m i t 1 whe n n i s
,
i n d efi n i t e l y i n cr e as e d .
The s e ri e s i s d i ve rgent w h i ch may be s h o w n a s i n 54 8 II

, ,
.
4 55 4 I a n i nfi n i te s eri es o os i ti ve ter ms i s c on ver en t i t w ill

f fp g
0r ema i n ,
.
so a fter th e s i gn s f a ny of i ts
o ter ms h a ve been cha nged .
F or th e s um o f t h e fir s t
w i ll s ti l l be fin i t e h o we v e r
n t e rm s ,
g r e at n m ay be an d t h e s e r i e s i s c o n v e r g e n t by
,
54 5 .
It foll o w s fr o m t h e ab ov e t h a t t h e t h e o r e m s o f 54 6
—
a n d 5 51 h o l d w h e n an y o r a ll o f t h e t e r ms a r e n e gat i v e ; an d
a l s o t h e fir s t s tat e m e n t o f § 55 0 w h e n a ll t h e t e r m s a r e
n g a ti v e
e .
55 5 . It foll o w s fr o m 55 1 ,
5 5 2, an d 554 th at
I . If th e r a ti o o f th e (n 1 )th ter m f
o an in fin i te s er i es to th e
n th ter m app r o a ch es a li mi t n ume r i a lly c <1 ,

w h en n i s i n d efi
n i tely i nc rea s ed , th e s er i es is c onverge nt .
2
Th us i n th e exa mpl e of 5 5 1
, ,
ap p o a r ch es t h e l imit 0 , wh e n n is
n 1
i n d e fin i te l y i nc re as e d .
1 T h e n t h e s e r i es i s c on ve rg en t
, .
R
S II . If th e r a t io o th
f e ( n + )1 th ter m o f a n i nfi n i te s eri es to
the n th term app ro a ch es a li m it n umer i c a lly > 1 , w hen n i s

ind efini tely i ncrea s ed , th e s eri es i s di vergent .
3 74 AD VAN C E D C O U RSE I N A LG E B R A
As an e xample o f th e above the or e m, t h e se ri e s

1 1 1
+
2 3 4
is c on v erg e nt .
4 5 5 7 To p rove th e i nfi ni te
. s er i es
. 2
c onvergent wh en a:i s nu mer ic a lly 1 .
The r at i o o f t h e
( n 1 )t h t e r m t o th e nth term i s
n— 1
( n — l)
”
a) si a
: 90
n n — l n
wh i ch appro ach e s th e l i mi t a w h en n i s i n d e fi n i te ly i nc r ea s e d .
Th en i f a: i s
,
n u m e r i a ll c y <1 ,
th e e
s e ri s is c o n v e rg e n t
5 5 5 I) ,
.
558 . To p ro ve th e i nfin i te s er i es
2
: 3
9
1 a
B
for eve ry va lu e o fa
”
convergent . a
n
The r a ti o o f th e ( +1 )t h te rm t o t h e nt h is 01
g
‘
n ,
wh i c h a ppro ache s th e l i m i t 0 wh e n n i s i n defi n i te ly i n c r e as e d .
Th e n th e s e ri e s i s c o nv e r ge nt
,
5 5 5 I) ,
.
559 To p r ove th e i nfi n i te s er i es
A .
wh er e n is a ny p os i ti ve f cti on ra ,
or n ega ti ve i n teger or f
r acti on ,
c on vergen t wh en a is n umer i ca lly 1 .
By 28 7, t h e r a ti o o f t h e
(r 1 )th t e rm t o t h e r th t e rm i s
-r
: —1
1 I
T
C O N V ER G E N C Y AND DI V ER G E N C Y O F SER I E S 3 75
Th at i s, x, or x .
d oe s n ot e q ua l 1 t h i s a p p r oa c h e s th e li mi t x wh e n
I
If n ,
r i s i n d e fi n i t e l y i n cr e a s e d ; a n d t h e s e r i e s i s c o n v e r g e n t if x i s
n um e r i c a ll y 1 555 ,
1 th e s e ri e s t a k e s th e fo r m 1
9 3
If n ,
x x x m
,
w h i ch i s c on ve r ge nt w h en x i s n um e r i c a lly 1 by 556 .
56 0 . T he infin i te s e r i es
-1
+ It ar + lx +
”
is con vergent wh en th e mer i ca l va lue of x i s ta ken s ufii ci ently

nu
s ma ll, a nd f or a ny n umeri c a lly s ma ller va lu e of at , i n clud i ng z er o .
F or t h e r a t i o o f th e ( 1 h e r m t o th e n th is
n
)t t
Wh ate v e r t h e v alue s of k an d l, x m ay be t a k e n s o s m all t h at
s h al l al w ay s be n um e r i c a l l y q, wh e r e q i s nu me ri c al ly 1 .
Th e n ,
fo r t h i s v al ue o f x th e s e ri es is co nv e rg e n t .
An d by 5 4 6, i t i s c o n v e r ge nt fo r a ny n u m e r i a l l c y s m al l r e
v al ue o f x, i n cl ud i n g 0 .
561 . If x h as an y v al ue (n o t i n c l ud i n g z e r o) wh i ch m ak e s
th e s e ri e s
( )
2
a bx 0x 1
c onv e r ge nt a bx 6 x , an d th e re f
2
o r e bx ex m or 2
,
x ( b + cx i s fini te fo r t h i s va lu e o f
,
Th en s i n c e :
,
6 i s not z e r o b ex i s fi n i t e for t h i s v al u e
,
o fx ; an d x b
( cx m ) o r b x ex
2
a
, pp r oa ch e s t h e li m i t 0
wh e n x i s i n d e fin i te ly d e c r e as e d .
S in c e b cx i s fi n i t e fo r any v al u e o fx ex c e pt 0 wh i ch , ,
ma k e s s e ri e s (1 ) c on v e rge n t, i t i s i t s elf c o n v e rg e nt for t h i s

e of x
562 . Abs olut ely and Condi t i onally Conv erg e nt S eri e s .
A c o nv e r ge n t h av i n g n e g a t i v e t e r m s
i nfin ite s e r i e s, ,
is s ai d to
be a bs olutely convergent whe n i t r e ma i n s c o nv e r g e nt aft r e th e
s i gns of th e ne gat i v e t e r ms a r e ch an ge d .
3 76 ADVA NC E D C O U R S E IN AL GE B R A
It i s s ai d t o be cond i ti ona lly co nvergent w h en t h i s i s n ot th e

c as e .
Thu s ,
th e c onv e r g e nt i nfi n i t e s eri e s 55 6)
1 1 1
1 ( 1 )
2 3 4
ifth e s i gn s o f th e n e ga t i ve t e rm s ar e ch an ge d, bec om e s
1 1 1
wh i ch w a s pr ov e d div e r gen t i n 5 4 8 .
Th en th e s e ri e s (1 ) i s c on di t i on al ly c on v e r ge nt
, .
In a c o n d i t i o n all y c on v e r g en t s e ri e s th e s um o f th e t e rm s ,
a p p r o a che s a d if fe re n t li m i t by a d i f fe r e n t ar ran ge m e nt o f t h e
te r m s .
Th u s , in e
s r i es we may w r i te th e t er ms
wh i ch s h o w s th at th e s um o f t h e t e rm s i s r
2
W e ma y al s o w r it e t h e t e r ms
1 1
1 1
wh i ch s h ow s t h at th e s um o f t h e t e rm s i s
6
'
Th e n th e t e rms of a s e r i es c ann ot be a rr an ge d in a ny de s i r ed
o rde r u nl e s s t h e s e ri e s is a b s o l u t e l y c o n v e r g e nt .
E X ER C S E I 84
E xpand each ofth e l

fo l owin g t o four terms
3 + 4 x 2 + 4 x — 5 as
1 4
1 + 2x 3 — 6 x + 7x
2 3
1 -5 x2
2
I —5 x —2fl
3
6 . 9 . Va + 2 5
6 .
XX V II . U N D E T E RM IN E D C O E F F IC IE N T S
TH E T H E OR E M OF UND E T ERMIN E D C O E FF ICIE NT S
5 63 . An i m p o rt ant m e t h o d fo r e x p an d i n g e xp r es s i on s i nt o
se rie s i s ba s e d on t h e foll o w i n g t he o r e m :
''
L et th e member s of th e equa ti o n
A + B x + 0x + D x + 2 3
=A +E x + ( 1 )
'
be i n fini te s er i es w h i ch a r e equa l for a ny value of x wh i ch ma kes
the m bo th c onvergen t ; th en , th e co efii ci en ts of li ke p o we rs of x i n
th e s e r i es w i ll be equa l ; th a t i s ,
0: etc .
By 5 6 0, ea ch ser i e s i s c on v e r g en t for a c e rta i n fi n it e v al u e

o f x, a n d fo r all s m al l e r v al ue s ; a n d s i n c e t h i s i s t h e c a s e e a ch ,
o f t h e e xp r e s s i o n s
E x + 090 + 2
and E ’
x + 0 70 +
2
a p p r oa ch e s th e l i m i t 0 w h e n x i s i n d e fi n i t e l y
Th e n t h e gi v en s e r i e s appr o ach th e li m i t s A an d A re s p ec
,
'
d e c re as e d
,
t i v e ly wh e n x i s i n d e fi n i t e ly d e c r e a s e d
, .
No w s i n c e th e g i v e n s e r i e s a r e fun c ti on s o f x wh i ch ar e
, ,
e q u a l fo r e v e ry v al u e o f x w h i ch m a k e s t h e m bo t h c on v e r e n t
g ,
'
th e i r l i m i t s wh e n x i s i n d e fin i t e ly d e cr ea s e d a r e e qu a l
Th er e fo r e A A ,
a n d h e nc e
S i nc e x is n ot 0, w e m a y d i vi d e thr ou gh by x .
Th e n , B + 0x + -o
( )
2
B y § 5 6 1 , e a ch m e mbe r o f (2) i s c o n v e r ge n t for t h e s am e

v a l u e s o f x a s t h e c o rr e s o n d i n m e m b e r o f
p g
Th at i s, ( )
2 i s s at i sby a n y v a l ue o f x w h i ch ma k e s bot h
fied
m e mb e r s c on v e rge n t ; a n d l e tt i n g x b e i n d e fi n it ely d e cr e as e d ,
we h a v e B B
r
.
UN D E TE R M IN E D C O E F F ICIE NT S 3 79
P r o c e ed i n g i n t h i s w ay , w e m ay p r o ve C ’
e tc .
Th e ab o ve p ro ofh ol ds w h e n e i th er o r b o th of t h e g i ven s eri es ar e fi ni t e .
EX PANS ION OF F R A CTION S

3
2 3 x
564 . 1 . E xp an d 2
in as c endin g p o w e s o f x r .
1 2 x 3 x
We s aw , in 53 9 , th at a fr a c t i o n c o ul d be ex
p a n d e d i nt o a
e
s ri e s by d i v i d i n g t h e n um e r a t o r by t h e d e n o mi n a t o r .
We t h e r e fo r e k n o w t h a t t h e p r o p o s e d e xp a n s i o n i s p o s s i bl e .
As s ume t h e n
2 3
2 3 x x
1 — 2
( 1 )
x +3fl
wh e re A, B , C, D , E , ’ m , a r e n um be r s i n d e p e n d e nt ofx .
Cl ear i n g of f a r c t i on s ,
an d c ol l e c ti n g th e te r m s i n th e s e on c d
me mber i nv o lv i n g l i k e p o w e r s o f x, w e h a v e
2 — 3x2 —
x
3
= A+ B x+ O x + D x + E 2 3
x
4
+ m .
( )
2
r _ 2 A _ 2 B _ 2 0 _ 21)
4 0 x3 7 “
3
+3A +3B +3 0
A vert ical l ine call e d ,
a ba r , i s t
o f e n us e d in p l a ce o fp a e n r th e s es .
T h us , B x i s e q ui va e n l t to ( B 2 A)x .
2A
E qu ati on s ) ( 1 fi e d w h e n x h a s a n y val u e
and ( )
2 are s at i s
wh i c h m ak e s t h e s ec on d me mbe r a c onv e rg e nt s e r i e s .
Th en by § 563 t h e c oe ffic i en ts o f li k e p o we rs of x i n (2)

, ,
mu s t be e q ual ; t h at i s ,
2 .
1 93 — 2 1 4 : 0; or, B =2A 4 .
0— Z E + 3 A= 3 A 3 = — 1 .
D — 2 0+ 3 B = — 1 ; or, D = 2 0— 3 B — 1 = — 1 5 .
E — 2 D + 3 0= O; o r, E = 2 D — 3 O -2 7
; etc .
S ub s t i t ut i n g t h e s e v al u e s in we h av e
2 — 3x 2 — 3
x —
2 4 x — x2 — l 5 x3 — 27x4
1 — 2 x+ 3 x 2
Th e r e s ul t m ay b e v e ri fied by d i v i s i on .
380 ADV A NCE D CO UR S E IN A LG E B R A
Th e se ri es
r e xp es s es th e l
va u e o f t h e r
f act i on on ly fo r su ch l
va ue s o fa :
as mak e i t co n ve rg e n t
Ifth e n u me rat o r a n d d e n omi n at o r c on t a i n o nl y even o w e s r

p
o f ac, th e O p e r ati on may be abri d g e d by as s um i n g a s r i e s e co n
t ain i n g o n l y t h e e v e n p o w e r s o f a) .
2
2 4 x x
4
Th u s i f th e fr a c t i on w ere we h ou l d um e
‘
, s as s
2 ‘
1 3 90 +5 w
it eq u al to A B a: 2
0m 4
D 58 6
E 90 8
I n l i k e m an n e r , i f t h e n um e r a t o r c o n t ai n s on l y od d p o w er s
o f a3, a n d de nomi n a t or o nl y e ve n p o w e r s w e
th e a s s u me ,
s h o ul d
a s e r i e s c o n t a i n i n g o n l y t h e o dd p o w e r s o f :6 .
If e v e ry te rm o f th e n um e r at or c o nta i n s : 1 3 w e ma
y a s s u m e a ,
s e r i e s c o m m e n c i n g w i t h t h e l o w e s t p o w e r o fx i n t h e n um e r a t o r .
If e v e ry t e r m o f t h e d e n o mi n a t or c o n t a i n s : 1 7 w e d e t e rm i n e ,
by a c t ual d i vi s i on w h a t p o we r o f a:wi ll o cc ur i n the fir s t t e r m

o f th e e x p a n s i o n an d t he n a s s u me t h e fr a c t i o n e q ua l t o a s e r i e s
,
c omm e n c i n g w i th th i s p o w e r o f 90 th e e xp on en t s o f a:in t h e ,
s u cceed i n g t e r m s i n cr e as i n g by u n i ty a s be fo r e
2 E x p an d in c
a s en d in g p o we rs of x
3 y _w
. .
—2
D i v i d i n g 1 by 3 $
2
,
t h e q u ot i e n t i s
We the n a s s u m e,
_ 2L _3 _ Ax + B x
_ —2 -1
( )
3
3 w _x
C l e ar i n g of fra c ti o n s
1 = 3 A + BB w + 3 0 w + 3 D m + 3 E 2 3
A B 0 D
E qu at i ng coe fi ci ent s o f li ke p o wers o f x,
3 A=I ;
SE — A z o;
3 —
0 B = 0;
3D
S E — D = O; et c .
382 ADVAN CE D C O UR S E IN AL G E B R A
S qu ari n g bo th m e m b e r s , w e h av e by 1 34 ,
— a>= A 0 m4
2 2 2 3 g
11 5
4
1 0
3 + 3 x +
+ 2 AB + 2 AC + 2 AD + 2 AE
+2BO + Z BD
E q u at i n g c o e ffic i e n t s o f li ke p o w e rs o f x,
A 2
1 A
1
2 AB : 1 ; o r, B =
Z A
‘
B + 2 AO =
2
O; o r, O:
1
2 AD + 2 B 0 = 0; o r, D :
1 6
0 4' 2
0 + 2 AE + 2 B D = E =
i 3
2
0; o r, , e tc .
2 1 8
S ubs ti tuti n g th e s e v a l ue s l n we h av e
2 4
” x 5 x
w=1 4
2 8 1 6 1 28
Th e re s ul t may be ve r i fi e d by E v ol ut i on .
Th e se ri es exp re s s e s t h e va l ue o f v 1 a:o n l y fo r s uch l

va ues o f mas
mak e i t c onve rge n t .
EX ERC IS E 8 6
E xp an d ea ch o f th e fo ll o w i ng t o five t erms :
5 . 471 4
6 .
— 95 — 2 932
.
PAR TIAL F R A CTION S

566 . If th e d en o mi n at o r of a fr a c ti o n ca n be r e s ol v ed i nt o
fa c t o r s , ea ch of th e fir s t d eg r e e i n a) ,
an d th e nu m e a to r
r is of a
l ow e rd e g r e e t h an th e d e n o mi n a t o r , th e Th e o r e m of U n d et e r
mi n e d C oe ffi c i e n t s e n a bl e s u s to e xp e s s r
t h e g i v e n fr a c t i o n a s
th e s um o f two or m ore p a r ti a l fr a cti o n s ,
w h o s e d e n o m i n a t o r s
ar e fa c t o rs t h e g i v e n d e n o mi n at o r ,
of an d whose n um e ra t o r s
ar e i n d epende nt of w .
UND E TE R MINE D C O E FF I C IE N T S 383
5 6 7 CA S E I
. . No fa ctors of th e d en o mi na tor equa l .
i l ig
gi+ 2)
g t
1 . S e par at e i nt o p a rt i al fr a ct i o n s .
( 3 w
3
1 9 a: 1 A B
As s u ma ( 1 )
(3 x 3 x
wh e r e A and B a re n umbe s r i n d e p e nd en t of m .
Cl ear i n g off a r ct ion s ,

we h av e
— 1
)
— B .
( )
2
The c d me mber o f (1 ) mu s t e x p r e s s th e val ue of th e

s e on
i e n fr a c ti o n fo r e v e ry v a l u e o f a)
g v .
H e n c e e qu a t i on (2) i s s at i s fi e d by e v e ry v al ue o f a3 ; an d by
,
5 63 th e c oe f
,
fic i en t s o f l i k e p o we r s o f a; i n t h e t w o me mbe r s
ar e e q ua l .
Th at i s, 5 A + 3 B = 1 9,
an d 2A
"
0
S ol v i n g t h e s e e q u a ti o n s , we o b ta i n A 2 an d B
S ubs ti tuti n g i n we h a ve
1 9 x + 1 2 3
( 3 w 3 x
Th e re s ul t m ay be v e ri fi e d by fi n di n g th e s um o f t h e p a rti al
fra ct i on s .
(n +4
2 S e p ar a t e i nto p art i al fr a c t i o n s .
— x2 —
.
3
2 x x
Th e fa c t o r s of — 90
2 — 90
3
ar e 90, 1 — 90, and 2+ x .
x +4 A B 0
As s ume t h en + +
— 3
93 x 1 — x 2+ x
Cle ar i n g o f fra c ti o n s ,
we h av e
w + 4 = A (1 a3
) + B (
x 2 +
)+
91 3 0x (1 — x ).
Th i s e quat i on ,
be i n g s at i s fie d by eve ry v al ue o f x, is s ati s fied
wh e n ac 0 .
3 84 ADVAN CE D C O URS E IN ALG E B R A
P utt i n g so O, we h a v e 4 2 A, or A :2 2 .
A g a i n, t h e e q ua ti on is s a ti s fi e d wh en a: 1 .
P ut t in g m= 1 ,
we h av e 5 : 3 B, or
3
Th e e qu a t i o n is al s o s a ti s fi e d wh en :
a 2 .
P utt i n g m= —2, we ha v e or
5 1
(n + 4 2 3 3
Then — w
— + +
1 — w
’
2 w— x
2 3
w 2+ x
2 5 1
a?
Th e t
s ud e n t s h oul d compare th e a b ove me th od of fi nding A and B w i th
th at us ed in E x 1 . .
568 . C A S E II . All th e fa ctors of th e d en o mi n a tor equa l;

2
(1 2
L e t i t be re u i re d to se ar a t e i nto ar ti a l
fra c t i o n s .
S ub s ti t u t i n g y + 3 for a, t h e fra c t i o n b ec o m e s
R e pl a c i n g y by a: 3 , th e r e s ul t t a k e s th e form
1 5 2
— 3 :
x ( c
l
( as
Th i s s h o w s th at th e gi v e
fr a c ti o n ca n be e xpr e s s e d a s t h e
n
s u m o f th r e e p ar ti al fr a c t i o n s wh o s e n um e r at o r s a r e i n d e p e n
,
d e n t o f w a n d wh o s e d e n o mi n a t or s ar e t h e p o w e r s o f w
, 3
be g i n n i n g w i t h t h e fi r s t a n d e n d i n g w i t h t h e t h i rd .
S i m i l a r c o n s i d e ra ti o n s h o l d w i t h r e s p e c t t o an y e x a m pl e
u n de r C a s e II ; th e n um be r o f p a r ti al fr a c ti on s i n an y c a s e
b e i n g t h e s a m e a s t h e n u mb e r o f e qua l fa ct or s i n t h e d e n o mi
n a t o r o f t h e g i v e n fr a c ti o n .
w+ 5
Ex S e p ar a t e i n t o p a rt i al fr a c t i on s
W
. .
S o l v i n g, w e h av e A 2, B 2, O : ’
2, an d D 1 .
S ub s t i tuti n g i n
3 a; 2 2 2 2 1
( (
3 2
) (
3
x x +1 a; x +1 x +1 ) x +1 )
Th e fo ll o wi ng g e n eral rul e fo r C a s e III wi ll b e found co nve ni e nt
X
A fra ctio n o fth e fo m r -
s h ou l d b e as s um ed
( )( IO ( at my
“
5‘ a 90
e qu a l t o
N
g
S i n l e fa ct o rs l ik e a: a a nd x I) h avi ng s in gl e p ar tial fracti on s co r
re s p o n d in g arran ge d as i n C as e I ; an d rep ea te d fa ctors l ik e ( a:

, m)”
h a vi n g r p art i al fra ct i on s c o rre s p o n di n g a rra ng e d as i n C as e II , .
EX ERC IS E 8 7
S ep ar ate th e foll owin g i n t o p ar t i a l fra cti ons
8 x— 6 5 x — 75
2
1 5 . 9 .
11 33 — 2 5 90
.
4 962 — 9
— 30 9 2
11 5 — 1 5 93
2 6 1 0
— 6 11 :
. . .
2 3 — 3
5 90 ( x U
— 1 0 43 x + 6
3 . 7 . n o
6 a2 + 5 az — 6
2
2 x + 1 5 x + 34 8x 2
4 2 — 2 7x
4 8 1 2 .
(x + )
5 3
( x
2 8 — 1 4 x+ 5 :
zt 2
fa x — 3 8 2 x3 + 1 9 a2 — 1 7x + 1 2
1 3 1 4
—6
. .
— 1 -x 4 4 3
)( 1
2
( 2 x 2x ) x + x
x3 — x— 4 1 8 x — 4 x/2
1 5 1 6 .
9 x + 6 x —1
.
2
( ao
1 4 x2 + 1 1 x + 2 9 9 x3 — 24 x2 + 20x — 4
1 8 21
(3 x :
3
( at
3 2
1 9
x 4
+ 1 x + 9 x 22
4
( x + )
2
x3 — 3 x2 — 7x + 4 — 32
20 23
—1 0x — 3 )
. .
— 2
( x 3 )( 8 x
2
5 70 If th e . d e gr e e o f t h e n um e r a t o r i s e q u a l t o, or gr e a ter
t h a n , t h at o f t h e d e n o mi n at o r t h e p r e c e d i n g ,
m e th o d s a re
i n ap pl i c abl e .
UND E T E R M IN E D C O E F FIC IE N T S 387
In s u ch a cas e ,
we divide th e n um e a t o r by t h e d e n o m i n at o r
r
un til a r e ma i n der is o bt a i n e d wh i ch i s o f a l o w e r d e g r ee t h a n
th e d e no m i n a t o r .
3 2
x 3 x 1
Ex S e par at e i nto an i nt e gr a l e xp r e s s i o n an d
— a:
.
2
90
p a rt i a l fra c ti o n s .
"
x
3
3 a3 1 2 a; 1
W e h av e , by d i v i s i o n, x 2 ( 1 )
x
2
x 2
x x
_2 x 1
We c a n n o w s e p ar a t e i n t o p a r t i a l fra c ti o n s by t h e
a:
2
x
1 3
me t h o d o f Ca s e I ; th e r e s ul t i s
a; x 1
?
x
3
3a 1 1 3
S ubs tl t ut l n g 1 n a; 2
x
2
x w 1 w
An oth er w ay t o s o l ve t h e a b ove e x a mp e i s t o l c omb i ne th e m e th o d s of
564 an d 5 6 7, a nd ass u me th e gi ve n fracti o n e qu al to
Aw + B + Q +
D
x x — l
EX ERC IS E 8 8
S e p ara t e th e fo ll owin g i nto i n te gral r

e xp es s i o n s a n d r l r
p a t ia f a cti on s
9 x3 + 2 1 x2 + 2 2 x — 1 7 2 x6 — 2 x5 — 3 x2 + 1
3
— 1 x4 — x3
)
4 x3 — 2 6 x2 + 20 x — 1 6 x5 + 6 x4 — 2 x3 + 5 x + 1
2 4
( a; 952
00
5 936
+ 1 5 m+3 5 x4 1 4 x 2
1 8
5
3 x3
5 71 . d en o mi n ator o f a fr a ct i on ca n be r e s o l v e d i n to
I f th e
fa c to r s p a rtly o f t h e fir s t a n d p a r tly o f th e s e c on d o r a ll o f th e ,
s e c o n d d e g r e e i n x a n d th e n u m e r a t o r i s o f a l o w e r d e g r e e
, ,
t h an t h e d e n o mi n a t o r t h e Th e o r e m o f U n d e t e r m i n e d C o e f
,
fi
ci e n t s e n a bl e s u s t o e xp r e s s t h e g i v e n fr a c t i o n a s t h e s u m o f
t w o o r m o r e p a r t i al fr a c ti o n s w h o s e d e n o m i n a t o r s a r e fa c t o r s
,
o f t h e gi v e n d e n o mi n at o r a n d w h o s e n um e r at o r s a r e i n d e
,
p e n d e n t o f a: i n t h e c a s e o f fr a c t i o n s c o rr e s p o n di n g t o fa c t o r s
o f th e fir s t d e g r e e a n d o f t h e fo r m Am+ B i n t h e c a s e o f
,
fra c t i ons c orre s p o n d i n g t o fa c t o r s o f th e S e c on d d e g re e .

388 ADVAN CE D C O UR S E I N ALGE B R A
Th e on l y e x e p ti o n s o
c cc ur w h e n t h e fa c t o r s of th e d e n o mi
n at o r a r e o f t h e s e c o n d d e g r ee a n d al l e q ual .
1
Ex . S ep a r a t e i n to p ar ti a l fr a ct i o n s .
The fa c t o r s of th e d e n o m i n at o r are : 1
a an d x
2
a : 1 .
1 A Ba + 0
As s ume the n ( 1
3
+ 1 +l x — x
2 )
x x +1
C l e a ri n g r c t i o ns ,
of f a we h ave
1 = A (a: 2
0 .
E qu ati n g c oe ffici e nt s ofl i ke p o w er s o f x,
A B 0,
an d A O: 1
'
.
1
S ol vi n g t he s e eq u at i o n s , A
g ,
B
:
5
, an d 0
1 1 a : 2
S u bs t i t u t i n g i n
a)
,
1 3 (w 1 ) 3 (x 2
: 1
a
)
EX E RC IS E 8 9
S ep arat e th e foll ow ing int o par t ia l fract i on s

6m + 5x+ 2
2 4 x3 — 5 x2 + 6 x + 3
l 4
— 1
. .
3 x4
x + 1
5 x2 + x — 1 4 22 x - 6
2 . 5 .
—x + 3
) 8 333 — 2 7
3 x2 — x + 25 4 x3 + 1 8x+ 8
3 . 6 .
2 x3 — 5 x2 + 4 x — 1 0 x4 + 3x +4 2
5 72 . W e wi l l now S h ow h ow to fin d an e xp r e s s i on for th e
nth t er m o f th e e x ans i on o f a
p fra c t i o n i n a s en c din g we rs o f
p o
at
,
w h e n th e d e nomi nato r can be re s olv ed i nt o bi n omi al fac t or s
o f th e fir s t o r s e c ond d e re e i n 90
g .
Ex . F ind th e n th t er m i n t h e e xp an s i o n of th e fra c ti on
1 7a:
39 0 ADVAN CE D C O U R S E IN AL G E B R A
Ex . R e v e rt th e s e ri e s y = 2 w — 3 x
2
+4 x — 5 m+
4 3 m
A s s u me , - ( 1
o
.
)
S ubs ti tuti n g i n t h i s t h e gi v e n v a l ue o f
y,
= A (2 x — 3 m+ 4 m
g 3 —
5 4
x x + m
)
2 4
+ B (4 x + 9 x
+ 0(8 x —
3 ‘
36 x + u
Th at is, m= 2 Ax — 3 A x
2
+ 4 A x
3
5 A m+ 4 m
+4 B — 1 2 B + 25 B
8 0 36 0
1 6D
E q u at i n g c oe ffic i e nt s o fli ke p owe rs o f x,
2A 1
3A 4 B 0
4 A
— 5 A + Z5 E — 36 c + 1 c p = o etc
; .
1 3 5 35
S ol v 1 n g , A = ,
B = , 0 , D ,
e tc
2 8 1 6 1 28
1 3 5 35
S ub s ti t nti n g ln
( 1 a: y f+ 9 +
3 4
y +
2 8 1 6 1 28
I f th e e ven p o wer s o f a:a r e

i n t h e gi v e n w antin g s eri e s, th e
o p e ra ti o n m ay be a b ri d g ed by a s s u mi n g :1 ; e q ual t o a se ri e s co n .
t a i n i n g o n l y t h e o dd p o we r s o f y .
Th u s ,
to r e v er t th e s e r i es y a : x
3
x
5
x
7 o we a s s u me
,
x = 7
Ay + B y + 0y + D y +
a 5
I f th e o dd
p o w e rs w an t in g i n th e gi v e n s e ri e s w e
o f a:ar e ,
”
s ubs ti t u t e t f or x a n d r e v e rt t h e s e ri e s e xpr e s s i n g t i n as c e n d
, ,
i n g p o w e r s o f y ; by t ak i ng t h e s quar e r oo t of t h i s r e s ult 1 3 .
i t s e l f m a y be e xp re s s e d i n a s ce n d i n g p o we rs of y .
If th e fir s t t e r m o f th e g i v e n s e ri e s i s i nd ep e n de nt of x i t i s ,
i mp os s i bl e t o e xp re s s a:i n a s ce n d i n g p o w e r s o f y th ou gh i t i s ,
p o s s i bl e t o e x pre s s i t i n th e form o f a s e ri e s w h os e te rms a re

fun c ti o n s o f y.
UND E T E R M IN E D C O E FF I CIE N T S 39 1
Th u s ,
l et i t be r e qui r e d to r ev er t th e e
s e ri s
y = i + m+
The s e ri s e m ay be w r i t te n y 1 :
a
E
W e th e n as s ume
x = A<
y 0(y
P r o c e e d in g as b efo r e , w e fin d
e =<
y
— 1 > — i<
r
EX E RC IS E 9 |
R eve rt each o fth e fo ll o win g t o four terms :

1 .
2 .
y = a — 2 x2
+ 3x
3 — 4 x4
+
3 .
a: 2
:
a3 x 4
4 .
a y
2
x 3 x4
+
2 8
2 8
a y : 2 A A a
n
'
1 y : 2x—4 fl + 6fi —8fl + u
m
8 7
L E L
39 2 ADVA NCE D CO UR S E IN AL GE DEA
XX V III . TH E BINOM IA L T H E ORE M

AN Y R A TI ONAL EX PONE NT
5 74 . I t w a s p r ov e d i n 2 85 t h at , if n i s a po s iti v e i nt e ge r ,
In t h i s c a se ,
th e se c on d m e mb e r i s a fi nit e s e r i es o f n +1
t e rm s .
If n i s a ne gati v e i n t e ge r , or a p os i t i v e o r n e g at i ve fr a c ti o n,
th e se ri e s i n th e c
s e on d m embe r b e c o me s i n fi n i te ; for n o on e
o f t h e e xp re s s i on s n 1 ,
n 2, et c .
,
ca n e q u al z e o r .
W e w ill now
p r o ve t h a t i n t h i s c a s e th e s e r i e s g i v e s t h e v a lue
of ( 1 p r o v i d e d i t i s c o n ver g e n t ; t h i s we k n o w t o b e t h e c as e
wh en a:i s n um e r i c all y 1
5 75 . Proofof t h e B i nomi al Th e or em for Any R at i onal Exp onent .
If m an d n a r e
p os i ti v e i n tege r s ,
( 1 m
, 2
( )
an d ( )
3
B ut, (1 ) x (1
“
x
Th en th e p ro d uc t o f th e s e ri e s i n th e s e c on d me mbe r s of
( )
2
m u s t e qu al t h e e x p a n d e d fo r m of (1 t h at i s ,
an d
( )
3
s
a
1 + mx + - + o
nx
g
( )
4
lg
We p r o v e d th e a bov e r e s ul t on th e hy p ot h e s i s th a t bo t h m
an d n w e re p os i t i v e i n te ge r s .
39 4 A DVAN C E D C O UR S E IN ALG E B R A
A ga i n , i n l et m = — n, wh e re n is a p o s i ti v e i nte ge r or
a p o s i ti v e fra c t i on .
The n f( — n x =
) f( ) f( = 0
.
n -n n
) f( ) o
B ut f(0) s tan d s for (1 whi ch eq uals 1
The re for e , f( n
)
No w Sin ce n is a p o s i t i v e i n tege r or a p o s i ti v e frac ti on i t
fo l l o w s fr om 5
( ) a n d ( )
8 t h a t f ( 1 w)j
’
.
1
Wh e nce , f( n
)
( 1
Th en ,
nfl
——
( +
2
1 v x + m
3
w h i c h p r ov e s th e t h eor e m fo r a n e gat i ve i nt e g r al or n e g ati ve
fra c t i o n a l e xp o n e n t .
Th e res ult i s proved on ly i n th e c as e wh e re x i s nume rically 1 .
5 76 . P u t ti n g
g for x, in 5 74 ,
=1 + n8 + L lii
h
t
+ ( )
9
L
2
a 2 a
Mul tiply i ng ea ch t e r m by “
a , we h ave
n—1
( a c
c
)
" “
na : n 2 2
( )
1 0
‘
a a d oc
W e k n o w t h at th e s ec o n d me mbe r of ( )
9 i s c on v e rge nt when !
w is n u me ri al l c y 1 .
a
H en c e ,
th e s ec on d m e mbe r of ( )
1 0 i s c on v e rg en t when x is
n ume ri all c y a .
I f a:i s n u m eri c ally a, we can expan d (a a

)
”
in as ce n d i n g
p o w er s of a ; t h u s,
( _1
:
n n
la
(
é
2
)
” " — n "
z
a a as a u
l
an d th i s s e ri e s w ill be c onve rgen t, s i n ce a is n ume r i al l c y x .
TH E BINOM IAL T H EOREM 39 5
5 77 E x amp le s
. .
In e xp a n d i ng e xp r e s s i o n s by th e B i n o m i al Th e or e m wh en
e
.
e xp o n e n t is fr a c ti on al o r n e g at i v e, th e e xp on e n t s an d
c oe ffi c i e nt s o f t h e t e r m s m a y be foun d by th e l a w s of 285 ,
wh i ch h ol d for all r a t i o n a l v a l ue s o f th e e xp o n e n t .
1 . E xp an d ( a 0
9%t o fi ve t e r m s .
2
Th e e xp o n e n t o f a i n th e firs t t e rm i s - and dec re as e s by 1
3
in ea ch su c c e ed in g t e rm .
Th e e xp o n e n t o f x i n th e c
s e on d t erm is 1 , an d i n c r e a s e s by
1 in ch s u cc e e di n g t e r m
ea .
fic i en t of t h e fi rs t t e r m
Th e c o e f is 1 ; of th e s ec on d t e r m,
2 1
Mul ti ply i n g th e co e f
ficre n t of th e c
s e on d t e rm by —
g g
, , ,
th e e xp o n e n t o f a i n th at t e r m , an d di v i d i n g th e p r o d uc t by
th e e x p on e n t o f 2:i n cr ea s e d by 1 ,
or 2, w e h av e as th e
c o e ffi c i e nt o f th e th i r d t e r m an d s o on .
Th en ,
( d + x) a +
-
i 90 _ l a i m+
2
-
A —
i 7
a
4 9
3 93
4
+
s ’ .
9 81 24 3
It fo ll o ws from 576 th a t th e se rie s r

e xp es s es th e l
va ue o f (a as)?
ly wh e n a:i s n um e ri call y
%
on a .
If xi s nu meri c all y a, (a x ) i s e qu a l to
2 . E xp an d ( 1 t o fiv e t e r m s .
E n c l o s i n g 2 55 %i n p a e n t r hes e s ,
we h a ve
i -2
(1 2 [ 1 (2 w n
1
-2 -3 -4 t
(
2
2 .
1 ( 2 3 .
1 .
2 r
a
)
4 1
-5
(2 tr i
p —
I 5 1
-6
( 2 i
i i
)
1 —4 x
‘
%12 x
'1
3 2 cc 80
B y w i ti n r g th e e xp o n e n s o f t 1 , in e xp an d i n g [1 (2 x we can
mak e us e o fth e fifth la w of 2 85 .
Th e ries se r
e xp e s s e s l of ( 1
th e v a ue on l y w h e n 2 27% is
nume r i ca ll y 1 , o r a: n ume r ic a ll y
Th at i s , wh e n i s n umeri c all y 2 o r w h e n x i s p os i t i ve a n d
, 4 .
1
3 . E x pa n d t o four t e r ms .
3
\ /a "
1
3
E n cl os in g 1
an d 3 i n p ar e n the s e s , we h ave
"
1 1
/
1
Sw er i
—
\ a 1 mt (a
]
3
‘
3
'i
i i
3 2
-
-l
i - 2
( a
r or
e 3x ) ( a
a 3 x
_l f
l .
—1 1
3
res ul t e xpres s e s th e val ue of t h e give n fracti on o nl y wh en

Th e
i s nume ri c ally a 1 i f 3 23% i s n u er c a ll y

m i
“
d l th e fra ct i o n can
‘
,
be
'
e xp a nd e d i n as c e nd i ng p o w e rs o f a 1
EX ERC IS E 9 2
E xp and ea ch o f th e fo ll owing t o five t erms :

_
5
1 .
(a wai t
.
7 . 2 2
.
1 2 .
-8 (m
2 1 :
a t 4
8'
. .
3 . x)i
4 . 9 .
(a 4 2
1 1 1 4
5 .
1 0
.
a b 6
1;
x 3y
g
6 . 1 5 .
1 1 6 yz ) 7
.
] .
5 78 . Th e fo r mul a fo r t h e rt h t er m of ( a 2 87) h o l d s
for fra c t i o n al o r n e g a t i v e v a l ue s o f n , s i n e c i t w a s d e r i v e d fr o m
an e xp a n s i on wh i c h h a s be e n p ro v ed t o h ol d for a ll r a t i on a l
v al ues of t h e e xp o n e n t .
Ex . F in d r
a pp o x i ma t el y t o fiv e p l ace s of d e ci mal s .
Th e r
n ea e s t
p e r fe ct cu be to 25 i s 2 7 .
%
( 2
3
g en e
i
3
; <) i
r 2y
3
2) 3
E .
3 3
) —m
81
2 4 40
-
9 3 5
81 -3 8
E xp r e s s i n g h fr act i on
e ac a pp o xi ma e l
r t y t o th e r st fi fth
n ea e
d eci mal p l a ce ,
we have
i
v25 3 . 074 07 . 001 83 . oooos 2 9 24 02 .
In any c as e ,p a ra te t h e n um b er int o t w o p ar ts th e firs t o fwh i c h

we se ,
‘
is th e n ext l es s o r n e xt gr e a t e r p e r fe c t p o w e r o f t h e s a m e d e gr e e as t h e
r e qui re d r oo t ; c h o i c e b e in g m ad e of th e o n e wh i ch ma kes th e s mall e r
s e c o n d t e rm p r o vi d e d t h e s e r i es i s c o nv e r ge n t
"
Th us in fi n d in g
,
1 7 w e s h oul d t ak e ( 3
, a n d n o t ( 23 of} ;
3
fo r alth o ug h t h e l a tt e r h a s t h e s m a lle r s e c o n d te rm th e s er i e s is n o t co n ,
v e rge nt
'
If th e ra ti o o f th e s e c o n d te rm o f th e b in omi al t o th e firs t i s a s mall
p r ope r fra c ti o n th e t e rms o f t h e e xp an s i on d i m ini sh rapi dl y ; but i f th i s
,
ra ti o i s b ut li t tl e l e s s th a n 1 i t r e qu i r es a gr e a t man y te rms t o insure a ny

,
d egree ofa ccur a c y .
E X E RC S E I 94
F in d th e a pproxi mat e value of e a ch o f th e follo w in g t o five p laces of
d e c i ma ls
4 .
'
L O GA R I T H M S 39 9
XX IX . L O G A R ITH M S
5 8 0 An y p o s i t i v e r e a l n um b e r , m, ca n be
.
e xp e s s e r d i n th e
fo r m a , w h e r e a i s a ny p o s i t i v e r e a l n um b e r
”
e x ce p t u n i t
y .
If m, is ca ll e d th e L oga r ith m f m to th e B a s e
at) ?
2; o at a
. ;
r e l a t i on w h ich i s r
e xp e s s e d
a : l o gum .
A n e gat ive n umb e r is n ot c on s i d e re d a s h avin g a logari th m .
58 1 . Th e Common S y s t em .
Co mmo n
°
L o g a ri th m s o f nu mb e r s t o th e bas e 1 0 ar e ca l l e d
L oga r i th ms , a n d co l l ect i v e ly fo r m th e Co mm o n S ys tem .
Th e y are th e o n ly o n e s u s e d fo r n u m e r i ca l c o m pu t a t i o n .
It i s cu s t om a ry ,
i n w r i t in g co m m on l o ga r i t h m s , to om i t th e
s ub s cr i p t 1 0 w h i ch i n d i ca t e s th e bas e ; t h us ,
l o g1 0 1 3 i s w r i t t e n s i mp l y l og 1 3 .
A ny p o s i t ive r eal n umb e r , ex e c p t uni ty ,

may b e ta ke n as th e b a s e o fa
s y s t e m o fl o ga r i th ms .
58 2 . By 3 59 an d 360,
M
m
1
1 0 1 0, . 01 , a ,
2
1 0 1 00, . 001 ,
e tc .
W h e n ce , by th e d e fi n i t i on of 581 ,
l o g 1 = 0, l og 1 = .
—1 0,
l og 1 0 = 1 ,
l og 01 .
.
— 1 0
,
l o g 1 00 2, l o g 001. 3 7 1 0, e tc .
Th e se o c nd for m fo r l o g 1 .
, l o g 01 .
, etc .
,
is p re fe rab le in p ra c ti c e .
W h ere no b as e i s e xp r e s s e d , t h e b as e 1 0 i s u n d e r s to o d .
It is v i d e n t fr o m th e ab o v e t h a t
e th e co mm o n l o g a r i th m of
n um b e r h an 1 i s i t i v a n d of a nu mb e r b e t w ee n
gr t r t
ea e
p o s
fi
e ,
an d 1 n e a ti v e
g .
4 00 AD V AN C E D C O URSE IN ALG E BR A
If a n um
b e r i s n ot an e xact p o w e r o f 1 0 i t s comm on l o g a ,
r i t h m ca n o n l y b e e xp r e s s e d a pp r o x i m a t e ly ; t h e i n t e g r al a rt
p
o f t h e l o g a r i t h m i s call e d t h e ch a r a cte r i s ti c a n d t h e d eci m a l ,
a rt t h e ma n ti s s a
p .
F or e x ampl e l og 1 3
H e r e, h a ra cte r i sti c i s 1 an d th e m anti s s a 1 1 39

th e c , . .
A n e g a ti v e l o ga r i th m i s a l w a y s e xp r e s s e d w i th a p o s i t i v e
m an ti s s a w h i ch i s d o n e by a dd i n g a n d s ubtr a ct in g 1 0
, .
Th us th e n e g at i v e l o ga r i th m
,
i s w r i tt e n
( 1 0 1 0, or 1 0
.
In th i s cas e 7 1 0 i s t h e ch a r a cte ri s ti c
,
.
Th e n e g a t iv e l o ga r i th m 1 0 i s s o me t i me s wr i tte n th e '
n e gat ive s i g n o ve r t h e ch a r a c te ri s t i c s h o w in g th a t i t a l o n e i s n egativ e , th e
m a n t i s s a b e in g a l w a y s p o s i t iv e .
58 3 . If a n um b e r ha s fiv e p l ace s i n i t s i n t e g r al p a rt , i t i e s l
b et w e e n 1 0 an d 1 0 ; a n d h e n ce i t s c o mm o n l o g a r i th m l i e s
4 5
b e t w e e n 4 an d 5 .
Th e r e fo r e th e ch a r a ct e r i s ti c o f i t s l o g a r i t h m i s 4
,
.
In g e n e r al if a nu m b e r h a s n p l a ce s i n i t s i n t e gr a l p a rt i t
, ,
li e s b e t w e e n and a n d t h e ch a r a ct e r i s t i c o f i t s l o g a
rith m is n 1 .
H e n ce ,
th e ch a r a cteri s tic bf th e loga r i th m f
o a nu mbe r gr
th a n 1 is 1 l es s th a n th e n umbe r o fp la ces to th e left f
o th e d eci
ma l p o i n t .
58 4 . d e ci m a l h a s thr e e ci ph e rs b e tw e e n
If a i ts d e ci mal
p o i n t a n d fir s t s i g n i fi ca n t fi g u r e i t li e s b e t w e e n ,
an d
a n d h e n ce i t s co mm on l o g a r i th m l i e s b e t w e e n 6 1 0 and
7 1 0 .
Th e r e fo r e , t h e h a ra ct e r i s ti c o f i t s l oga r i th m i s 6 1 0
c .
In g e n e r a l i f a d e ci m al h as n ci ph e r s b e t w e e n i t s d e ci m a l
,
p o i n t a n d fir s t s i gn i fi ca n t fi g u r e i t li e s b e t w e e n 1 0 “ H )
,
a nd
“
a n d i t s c omm o n l o g a r i t h m li e s b e t w e e n — (n 1 ) an d n ,
o r (9 n d (1 0 0
n
) 1 0 a 1 .
T h a t i s th e ch ar a ct e r i s ti c o f i t s l o ga r i th m i s (9 n) 1 0
,
.
By aid of th e abo v e t h e o r e m, th e l o g a r i th m o f an o s i t i v e
y p
i n t e g e r m ay b e fo un d w h en t h e l o g a r i t h m s o f i t s fact o r s a r e
kn o w n .
Ex . G iv e n l o g 2 = 3 01 0, . an d l o g 3 = 4 771 ; fin d l o g 72
. .
5 9 0 In a n y s ys tem, th e loga i th m r
. o f a fr a cti on is equa l to
th e loga r i h m f th e me ra tor mi n us th e loga r i thm
g o nu
f
o th e
d enomi n a to r .
As s u m e t h e e na ti on s a
”
m1 at ?
n
Th e n l o g m, y l og, n
'Z
, a .
a
”
m m
D i v i d i n g th e as u s me d e qu a i o n s , t or a
” 5 .
a E ,
Wh e n ce ,
l o g“
? c
c y log m ,
l og , n .
l
Ex . G i v e n l o g 2 = 3 01 0; fin d l o g 5 . .
1— 0
l og 5 l og log 1 0 l og 2 1 . 3 01 0 . 69 9 0 .
59 1 . In m, th e loga r i th m of a ny p o we r of a qua nti ty

a n y s y s te
is e qua l to th e loga r i th m of th e q ua n ti t multip li ed by th e exp o nent

y
of th e p o wer .
As s um e t h e e q ua t i on a
“
m ; w h e n ce, 3
at : lo g m .
,
R ai s i n g b oth m e mb e rs of th e a s s um e d e q ua t i on t o t h e p th
p o w e ,
r
a ? “
m ; w h e n ce ,
p
l o g, (mp ) = p a: p l o g, m .
59 2 . In a ny s ys tem, th e loga r ithm o f a ny r o o t o f a q u a n ti ty

is e qu a l to th e loga ri thm of th e qua nti ty d i vi d ed by th e i n d ex
f th e
o r oo t .
%
1
1
F o r , l o g, {7 l og (m ?
) l og m
,
a
; ,
L O GA R I TH M S C
L
9 4 03
59 3 . Exampl es .
1 . G i ve n l og 2 . 3 01 03 fin d l o g
%
lo g2
g x l og 2
g x 3 01 0 . . 5 01 7.
To mult iply i
l oga r th m b y a fra c t o , mul t
a i n ip ly firs t by th e numerato r ,
an d d ivi d e th e r es ult b y th e d e om a t or n in .
:
'
M 3
0
2 . G i v e n l o g 3 = 4 771 ; fin d l o g .
8 lo g 3 4 771
1 03 V3 = 059 6
.
8 8
.
3 . Gi v en l o g 2 . 3 01 0, l o g 3 . 4 771 , fin d l o g (2 %x
By 5 89 ,
l og (2 %x 33) l og 2 %l og 3 3 1
log 2
5
log s 6 9 67
g 1
. .
EX E RC S E 9 5 I
Give n l og 2 39 1 0, l o g 3 . 4 771 , l o g 7 . 84 5 1 ,
fin d th e l o gar th m i o f:
1 . 84 . 6 . 1 1 . { 71 05 . 1 6 . 1 8 5 22 .
5
3s
2 . 39 2 . 7 . 1 2 . 1 7 .
(i )
48 7
3 . s . 529 2 . 1 3 . 2 80 . 1 8 .
7
4 05 {7
35
4 . l 2i g . 9 . 1 4 . 1 9 .
1 4
5 . 7 6
. 1 0 . 4 53 . 20 .
%
(2 x
594 . To p r ove th e r ela ti on
lo g b a
As s ume th e e qu at i o n s a
”
m, b y
m .
Th e n , :
a l o g, m, y l o g, m .
a.
(W
J
F r o m th e a s s um e d e q uat i o n s , d
”
c
by
,
or a
; b . W W 6)
T h e r e fo r e ,
l o g, b
g ,
or y
1 0g “ b
4 04 AD V AN C E D CO UR S E IN ALG E B R A
l og m
Th a t i s l og, m a
l og b ,
By a i d of th i s r e l at i o n,
if t h e l o g a r i t h m o f a n u m ber m t
a rtai n b a s e a i s
ce k n o w n, i t s l o g a r i t h m t o a n y o t h e r b a s e
m ay be fo un d by d i v i d i n g by th e l o g a r i t h m of b t o th e ba s e
59 5 . To p ro ve th e r e la ti on
l og ,
a x l o g, b 1 .
P utt i n g m a i n th e r e s ul t of 59 4,
1 0g a a 1
l ogb a =
Wh en ce l ogb a X l og ,
1 .
59 6 . I n th e mmon s ys tem, th e ma n ti s s a? of th e loga ri thms

co
n um ber s h a v i n g th e s a me s eque nce offig ur es a r e equa l .
S up p o s e , fo r e x a mpl e , th at l og . 4 84 7 .
Th en ,
l og 2 l o g (1 00 x l o g 1 00 l og
2 . 4 84 7
l og 03053
. log X l o g 01. lo g
8 1 0 . 4 84 7 1 0; etc .
In g en e r al , i f n i s an
y p o s i ti v e o r n e ga ti v e i n t e g e r,
l o g (1 0 x m) =
"
n log 1 0 + l o g m n + l og m .
B ut 1 0 ”
X m is a n um b er w h i ch d i ffe r s fr om m on ly i n th e
p o s i t i on d e ci m al p o in t an d n l o g m i s a n umb e r h a vi n g
of i t s ,
t h e s a m e d e ci m a l p a rt a s l o g m .
H e n ce i f t w o n u m b e r s h av e t h e s am e s e que n ce o f fi gur e s
, ,
t h e m a n ti s s ee o f th e i r l o ga r i th m s a r e e q ual .
F o r t h i s r e as o n o n ly m an t i s s ae ar e gi v en i n a t a b l e
, ,
L
C o m m on og a r i t h ms ; fo r t o fin d th e l o ga r i th m o f an y n um b
w e h a v e o n l y t o fin d t h e m a n t i s s a co rr e s p o n d i n g t o i t s s e qu e n c e
o f fi g ur e s a n d t h e n r e fi x t h e c h a r act e r i s t i c i n a cco rd a n ce w i th
, p
t h e r ul e s o f 5 83 an d 5 84 .
Th i s p r o p e rt y o f l o g a r i t h ms o n ly h olds for t h e c o mm o n s y s t e m a n d ,
c on s t i t ute s its s up e r i o r i t y ov e r oth e r s y s tems for n umer i c a l c omputation .

4 06 AD V AN C E D C O UR S E IN ALG E B RA .
)
1 6 a ?
L O GA RIT H MS . 4 07
1 . R e qui r e d t h e l o g a r i th m of
We fin d fr o m t h e t a b le l og
r
, y
lo g ’
3
Th at i s a n i n cre a s e,
o f on e »
t en th of a un i t i n th e n um e b r
p r o d u c e s a n i n i n t h e l o g a r i th m .
h s of a un i t in t h e
01 4 i n th e l o g ar i t h m ,
or
H e n ce , 1 53 .
Th e a bo v e t h at t h e d f i r c of
fe e n es
i
l o g a r th m s ar e p ro p o e ir c o rr es p o n d in g n um
be rs w h i c h , t h o ugh i e nt ly e xa ct fo r p ra ct i
c a l p ur p os e s .
Th e d f
fe i re n c e b e t wee n a ny ma n ti s s a t ab l e a n d t h e ma nt i ss a of
th e n e xt h i gh e r n umb e r of t h e s e fig ur es , ed th e Ta bul a r D ifier e nce .
Th e fo l l o wi n g ru l e is d e ri v e d fr he bove
a
F in d f m
ro th e ta ble th e ma n ti s s th e fi r s t th r e e s ign if
i ca n t
fig u r e s , and t
e la tter by th e r ema in i ng figur es o f the nu mbe r, wi th

.
a d eci ma l p oi n t bef o r e th e m .
Ad d th e re s u lt to th e ma n ti s s a of the fir s t th r ee figures , a nd p re
fi x th e p r op er r a c te r i sch a
ti c .
In fi n d ing th e c o rr e c ti on t o th e n e a re s t uni ts figure th e d e c i mal p or ’

,
t i o n s h oul d b e o m i t te d p r o vi d e d th at if i t i s 5 o r gr e a te r t h a n 5 th e
, .
,
.
,
u ni t s fi g ur e i s i nc re a s e d by 1 t h us w oul d b e tak en a s 1 3 as 3 1
’
, ,
x
a nd as 23 .
‘
b xd
2 . Fi n d t h e l o g a r i th m of . 021 5 I
«
M an t i s s a 21 5 3 3 24 Tab . d i ff . 21 0
2 08
. 3 3 26 C o rr ect i on :2 2, n ea rly .
Th e r e s ul t i s 1 0 .
6 00 . To find th e n um e b r r
co r esp on d i ng to a loga r ithm .
1 . R e qu i r e d t h e n um e b r wh o s e l o g a r i th m i s
41 0 ADVAN C E D CO U RS E IN ALG E B R A
B y th e b o v e r ul e t h e r e w i ll be o n e ci ph e r to be p l a ce d be
a ,
t w e e n th e d e ci m al p o i n t a n d fir s t s i gn i fi can t fi gur e .
Th e r e s ul t i s 03362 . .
Th e c o rr e c t i o n ca n us ually b e d e p e n d e d up o n t o o n ly o n e d e c i ma l
pl a c e ; th e d ivi s i o n s h ould be c a rri e d t o tw o pla c es to d et e rmin e th e las t
fi gure a cc ur at ely .
F in d th e l o g a ri th m o f
E X E RC S E I 97
1 . 70 . 4 . . 03 3 7 . 7 . . 9 61 7 . 1 0 . . 0064 68 5 .
2 . . 59 . 5 . 8 . . 0003 78 8 . 1 1 .
3 . 6 . 9 . 1 2 . . 01 359 2 .
F in d th e n umb er c o rre s p on d in g t o :
1 3 .
21 .
1 4 .
— 1 0 . 1 8 . 22 .
— 1 0 .
1 5 . 1 9 .
— 1 0 . 23 . 9 9 1 08 — 1 0 .
1 6 .
— 1 0 . 20 .
— 1 0 . 24 .
APPLI CATI O N S
6 01 . Th e a pp oxi m a e
v alue o f a n u mb e r i n w h i ch t h e
r t
o p e r a t i o n s i n d i ca t e d i n v ol v e o n ly m ul t i p li ca t i o n d i v i s i o n i n v o , ,
l ut i o n o r e v o l uti o n m ay b e co n v e n i e n t ly fo un d by l o ga r i t h m s
,
.
Th e u t ili ty o f th e p r oce s s co n s i s t s i n t h e fact th a t a dd i ti o n

t ak e s t h e p l ace of m ul ti pli ca ti o n s ubtr act i on o f d i v i s i o n , ,
m ul ti pli cat i on o fi n v ol ut i on a n d d i v i s i o n of e v ol ut i o n ,
.
In c o mputat i on s w i th four-pl ac e lo ga r i th ms th e r es ul t c ann ot us ually ,
b e d e p e n d e d up o n t o mor e t h a n fo ur s i g ni fic a n t fi gur e s .
1 . F i n d th e v alu e o f . 063 1 x x . 5 1 2 72 .
By 5 39 , l o g x x 5 1 272)
.
l o g 06 31 . log l o g 5 1 272 . .
l og . 063 1 1 0
l og
l o g 51 2 72
. 1 0
Add i n g, l og o fr e s u lt 20
1 0 (S ee Not e b e l ow ) .
L O GA R I TH M S 41 1
Numb e r rr e s p on d i n g t o
co 1 0 9 3 32 . .
Ift h e s um i s a n e g a t iv e l oga r i th m it s h o ul d b e wr i t te n in
, su ch a fo r m
t h at t h e n e g a t iv e p o rt i o n o f t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c m ay b e 1 0 .
Th us ,
2 0 i s wr i tt e n 1 0 .
3 3 63
2 . F i n d th e v a lue o f
79 84
33 6 8
By 59 0 l og l og l o g 79 8 4 .
79 8 4
l og 2 1 0 (S e e No t e b el ow ) .
l o g 79 8 4
S ubtr act i n g, l og r
o f e s ul t 1 0
Numb e r rr e s p on d i n g 04 2 1 8
co 2 . .
T o s ub tr a c t a gr e a t e r l oga r i th m fr o m a l e s s o r a n e gat iv e l o ga r i th m ,
fr o m a p os i t iv e in cre as e t h e c h a r a c te r i s t i c o f t h e m in ue n d b y 1 0 wr i t
, ,
i ng 1 0 a ft e r t h e m a n ti s s a t o c o m p e n s a t e .
Th u s t o s ub tr a c t
,
fr o m wr i t e th e m in u en d in t h e form
1 0 s ub tr a c t in g 3 9 022 fr o m t h i s t h e r e s ul t is
. 1 0
, .
3 . F i n d th e v al u e o f
By 59 1 ,
l og 5 x l o g 073 9 6 . .
l og 073 9 6
. 1 0
5
50
1 0 l og 00000221 3 .
4 . F i n d th e v al u e o f 003 5 063
B y s 5 9 2, l o g
g l o g 035 063
. .
l o g 03 5 063
. 1 0
Not e b e l o w ) .
1 0 l o g 3 2 74
. .
To d ivi d e a n egat iv e l ogar i th m wr ite i t in s uch a form t h at th e n e ga

,
t ive p o r t i o n o f t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c may b e e x a c t ly d ivi s i b l e b y th e d ivi s o r ,
w i th 1 0 as th e quo ti e n t .
Th us t o d ivi d e
,
1 0 b y 3 w e wr i t e t h e l o ga r i th m in th e fo r m
,
3 0 Divi d in g t h i s b y 3 t h e q uo t i e n t i s
.
, 1 0 .
6 02 . Ari t h met i cal Compl ement .
Th e A r i th m eti ca l C o mp leme n t o f t h e l o g a r i t h m o f a n um b e r ,
o r br i e fly t h e C o lo a r i th m o f t h e n u m b e r i s t h e l o a r i t h m o f
, , g g ,
t h e r e c i p r o ca l o f t h a t n u m b e r .
1
-—
Th u s , col o g 4 09 log 1 l o g 4 09
i ()9
.
l og 1 1 0 . 1 0 ( S e e E x 2 ,
.
l o g 4 09
col o g 4 09 1 0 .
Ag a in , col o g . 067 log lo g 1 l o g 067 . .
log 1 1 0 . 1 0
l o g 067 . 1 0
co o gl . 067
I t fol l o w s fr o m th e a b o v e th at th e co loga r ith m of a n umber
ma y be foun d by r
s u bt a cti n g i ts loga r i thm fr o m 1 0 1 0 .
Th e c ol o g ar it h m m ay b e foun d b y s ubt r a c t in g th e l as t s i g nifica nt fig ur e

o f t h e l o g a r i th m fr o m 1 0 a n d e a ch o f th e o th e r s fr o m 9 1 0 b e in g ,
wr i tt e n a ft e r th e r e s ult in th e c as e of a p os i tiv e l ogar i th m .
5 1 3 84
E a: F 1 11 d th e v a 1 ue o f
.
X . 09 4 6
51 3 84 1
l 00
°
‘
.
=1O X
x 09 4 6.
1 1
l o g 5 1 384 1 0g + 1 Og
8 708
. . 09 4 6
l o g 5 1 3 84
. co l o g 08 col o g . 09 4 6 .
l o g 5 1 3 84
. 1 0
co l o g 1 0
co l o g . 09 4 6
1 0 l o g 6 23 9
. .
It i s d e nt fro m t h e abov e e xampl e th at t o find th e lo ga

e vi ,
r i th m o f a f r a cti o n w h o s e t e r m s ar e t h e p r o duct o f fact ors w e ,

'
a d d to e th e r th e lo a r i th m s o
g g f th e fa cto r s of th e n u me r a tor a nd ,
th e co loga r i th ms of th e fa cto r s of th e d en o mi n a to r .
41 4 AD VAN CE D C O U RS E IN ALG E B R A
E X E RC S EI 98
F in d by l ogari th ms th e v alues of th e fo ll o w in g
1 . x 09 34 8 . . 3 .
2 . x 4 . . 38 1 4 2 x
004 4 9 7
7
.
5
. 09 769 x
8702 8 x
8 1 0
.
6
. 0006 58 9 x
x 6 9 4 5 x 01 3 8 2
1 1
. .
x 4 69 4 x 004 5 7 .
1 3 . 1 9 . 25 .
1 4 . 20 . 26 .
1 5 . 21 . 27 .
1 6 .
22 . 28 .
1 7 .
23 29 .
1 8 .
24 . 30 .
31 x 009 4 32 5 ) i
‘
. . 36 . 83 1 8 4 x
0005 6 1 6
32 . 37 .
33 .
38 .
/
3
34 39
\
.
.
. 2 75 5 6
V . O4 1 4 2 x . 9 4 74 ) x { /1 79 59 x (
41 .
L O GA R I T H MS 41 5
EX P O N E NTIAL AND L O GAR ITH M I C E QUATI O N S

6 04 An E xp onent i al E quat i on i s a n e q ua ti o n i n w h i ch th e
.
unk n o w n n um b e r o cc ur s a s a n e x p o n e n t .
To s o l v e a n e q ua t i on o f t h i s fo r m, t a k e t h e l o g a r i th m s o f b o t h
m emb e r s r e s ul t w i l l be
; th e a n e qu a t i o n w h i ch ca n be s o l v e d
by o rd i n a ry al ge bra i c me th o d s .
1 G i v en
. 23 ; fin d th e v a l ue o f
Ta k i n g t h e l o g a r i t h m s o f b o t h m e m b e r s ,
l og l o g 23 o r a:lo g 31 l o g 23
l o g 23
Then ,
23
log 3 1
2 . S o l v e th e e q ua ti o n 3 .
Taki n g th e l o g a r i t h m s of b oth m e m b e r s , a:l o g 2 . lo g 3 .
log 3 4 771 4 771

Th en ,
at _
log 2 . 1 0 69 9
An e q ua t i on o f th e fo r m a b m ay be s ol v e d by i n s pe ct i o n
”
i fb ca n be r
e xp e s s e d a s an e x act p o w e r o f a .
3 . S o l v e th e e qu a t i on 1 28 .
W e m ay w r it e th e e q ua ti on 2 7
,
or 2 4“
2 7
.
°
7
Th e n by ,
i n s pe ct i o n , 4 a; 7; a n d a:
4
qu ti n w 1
If t h e e a o e e r 1 6ac
i é
—
B
,
we c ould wr i t e i t ( ) 24 ac
27
th e n
qu
4 2:w o uld e al 7, an d a :
i .
Ce rt a i n l o g a r i th m i c e q u at i on s a re r ea d i l y s ol ve d by ai d o f
t h e p r i n ci p l e s o f 589 t o 5 9 1 .
1
4 . G i ve n 2 l o g a
x m ; fin d t h e v al u e o f 23 .
By 59 1 ,
2 lo ga x lo g ,
w h e n ce , l o g , m .
T h e n by 5 80, a
m
z x
z
; w h e n c e ,
6 :
7
. j; V 01
5 :
:
1; a 3 .
5 . G i v en l o g ( a: 4) log 3 ; fin d th e
a; v a l ue ofx .
(n + 4
By 5 9 0, l o g ( : 4)
a l o g a: l o g .
c
c
41 6 ADVAN C E D CO UR S E IN AL G E B R A
T h en ,
log and by 58 1 ,
93
4
T h e r e fo r e ,
1 000v . : 4,
a an d x
999
S olv e th e foll o w m g
E X E RC S E I 99
—4
1 1 3 7 5 l 1_
_
(
3 4
1 2
. . . .
—4 Ei 81
2 . . 06 4
. 9 . s . . 3 1 00 .
1 6 32 1 3
3 . :2 . 062 5 .
9 .
2
.
25
1 1_
4 . . 005038 93 : 1 0 . 32 7
1 4 _ a
n
1 28 a
22—1
5 3 4 4 2x+ 3 —3
:
. .
=3
() ()
l 3
a x
1 1 . 8 . 1 5 .
.
6 .
2 1 6 7 2
1 6 . Giv e n a , r , an d l riv e t h e formula for n

de
1 7 . Give n a , r , and S d e r ive t h e fo r mul a for n .
1 8 . Give n a , l, a nd S d e r iv e t h e fo rmul a fo r n .
1 9 . Give n r , l, an d S d e riv e th e fo r mula for n .
S ol v e th e foll o w in g
20 . 3 lo g a x 4 lo g , m. 23 . l og 3 lo g (: a 1 .
21 . l og ( : 5)
2 log (2 23+ 1 ) =2 . 24 . l og 2; lo g ( 4 a: 1 .
22 . l og 5 l og ( 3 2; 3 . 25 . lo g 2 2 l og 2 : log ( 5 2:
6 05 . Log ar i t h m of a Number t o Any B as e .
1 . F i n d t h e l o g a r i th m of . 3 t o th e b as e 7 .
By 59 4 ,
lo gl o 3
l o g? 3 61 8 7+
.
. .
l og 1 0 7 . 84 51 . 84 5 1
E x a mp l e s of th i s k i n d ma y b e d by i n s p e cti on
s ol v e ,
i f th e
n um ber ca n be e xp e s s e r d a s an e x a ct p o w e r o f t h e b a s e .
2 . F i n d th e l o g a r i t h m of 1 28 t o th e ba s e 1 6 .
L e t l o g1 6 1 2 8 a; t h en , by 58 0, 1 28 .
Th e n , as i n E x 3, . 604 , x:
E ; t h a t i s ,
l o g1 6 1 2 8
H e n ce , the li m i t i n g v a l ue o f th e fir s t m e mb e r of
( )
2 i s
1 1
E
an d the li mi ti n g v al ue of th e s e c o n d m e mbe r i s
3
1 a} £
[3
By 2 5 2, t h e s e li mi ts a r e e q ua l ; th a t i s,
+1 + =l + x + + 93
3
E
Th e s e r i e s i n th e s e c o n d m e mb e r i s c o n v e r g e n t for e v e r y
v a l u e o f 90 a n d t h e s e r i e s i n b r a c k e t s i s a l s o c o n v er
g e n t fo r i t i s o bt a i n e d f r o m t h e s e r i e s i n t h e s e c on d m e mbe r
,
by p utt i n g 1 i n p l a c e of : 2
3 .
D e n o t i n g th e s e r i e s i n br a c k e t s by e w e have ,
a = 1 + w+ —
e u
;
w h i chh ol d s fo r e v e ry v a l ue o f
P utt i n g mm fo r in
m _ m a: m w
2 2 3 ? »
e 1 + mw + 4
2
L E
L et m l o g a wh e r e a i s a n y p o si t i v e r e a l n u m b e r
, , .
m
Th e n a an d e a
” “’
S ubst i tut i n g th e s e v al ue s i n w e o btai n
5
( )
w h i ch h ol ds fo r all v a ue l s of w, an d a ll
p o s i t i v e r e a l l
v a ue s
of a .
Th e r e s ul t (5 ) i s call e d t h e E xp o n en ti a l S er i es .
6 07 Th e
. s y st e m o f log ar i th m s w h i ch h a s 6 fo r i ts bas e
i s ca ll e d t h e Nap i ema n S ys tem f r o m Na p i e r , t h e i n v en t o r
’
o f log a r i th m s .
Na p i e r i an log ar i th m s a r e al s o c a ll e d Na tur a l L oga r z th ms

’
.
L O GA RI T H M S 41 9
Th e app r o xi m ate v a ue o f el m ay b e r e a d il y cal c u l ated f r o m

th e s e r i e s o f 606 ,
1 1
e
an d w ill be fo u n d t o e qu al
6 08 . To exp a n d log (1 ,
x
) i n a s cen di ng p owe rs of as .
S ubst ituti n g in 606 , 1 a :fo r a , an d y for x,
( 1 my 1 [ log ( 1 6 y terms in y 2
,
3
y ,
e tc .
wh i ch h ol d s fo r all v a lu e s of y, p r o v i d e d a; i s r e al , an d alg e
bra i ca lly g r e at e r th an
E xp an d i n g t h e fir s t m e m b e r by th e B i n o m i a l Th e o r e m,
L
2 .
"
[ log
1 ( 1 y t e r m 6
s i f,
n y , 3 e tc ( )
6 .
Th e first m e m b e r of (6) i s c o n v e r g e n t wh e n a:i s n u me r i c a ll y

l e s s than 1
H e n c e (6) h ol d s fo r a ll v a l ue s of y p r o v i d e d a:i s r e a l
, , ,
an d
n um e r i c a ll y l e s s th a n 1 .
Th e n by t h e Th e o r e m o f U n d e t e r m i n e d C o e ffic i e n ts ,
,
th e
c o effic i en ts o f y i n th e t w o s e r i e s a r e e qua l ; th a t i s ,
[3
m 3
x
2 3
90 x
4
m 5
O r, l :
9 + 7
7
4 5
wh i ch h ol d s fo r a ll v a l ue s of a:n um e r i c ally l e s s th a n 1 .
Th is r e s ul t i s c a ll e d t h e L oga r i thmi c S er i es .
It w as pr o v e d i n § 5 5 7 t h a t t h i s s eri e s w as c o n v erg e nt w h e n x wa s
n u m eri c all y l e s s t h a n 1 .
It w a s a l s o sh o w n in 5 56 t h a t i t was c o n v e rg en t w h e n a; 1 and i n ,
5 4 8 th a t i t w a s d ive rg e n t w h e n x : 1 z .
Th e n s e ri e s ( 7) ca n b e us e d t o c a l c ul a te Na pi e ri an l ogari th ms p r o
, ,
v i d e d a:i s t a k e n e qu a l t o o r n u m eri c a ll y l e ss t h a n 1
, ,
.
Un l e ss x i s s ma ll i t r e q uire s th e s um o f a gr e a t ma ny terms t o e ns ure

,
a n y d e gre e of a cc ura cy .
4 20 AD V AN C E D CO U R E 1 S N ALG E B R A
6 09 . W e w ill n o w d e r i v e a m o re c on v en i e n t ser i es fo r
c a l cul at io n of Nap i e r i a n log a r i th m s .
P utt i n g a; fo r x, i n 7
( 6 0 8 w e ha ve ,
%
2 3 4 5
1 1 _x x x x
0
) a“
2 3 4 5
S ub tract in g (8) f r o m (7 we o bta i n

3 5
— lo e l — w 2 x 2 x
1 0g8 l
( + ax
) g ( ) 5
1 x x
3
x
5
Or 59 0 lOg e
2
l x 3 5
m n
L e t a: ; m an d n b e i n g p os i ti v e , a nd m n .
m n
Th i s i s a v a li d sub s t i tut ion s in c e in th i s c a s e ,

1 .
m n
m n
1
l + a: m + 7b ’
2m m
T h en ,
m n
S u bsti t ut ing th e se v a l u e s in we o btai n

1
1 O gfl 2
3 m
e
n n
B ut by 5 9 0, l o g ,
log m e
log ,
n ; wh en ce
lo g m = l oge
e
n +
61 0 . L et i t b e r e qu i r e d ,
fo r e xa m p e ,
t o c al c ul ate the l
Nap i e r i an log a r i th m o f 2 t o s i x pl ac e s o f dec i m al s .
P u tt i n g m 2 and n 1 i n th e r e s u l t of 609 we hav e ,
log 2,
log 1 ,
2
Or s in c e lo g 1 ,
0
log ,
2 . 01 23 4 5 7 . 00082 30 . 0000653
. 000005 6 . 0000005
2 X 3 4 65 734 . 69 3 1 4 6 8 .
4 22 AD VAN C E D C O UR E S IN ALG E B R A
XXX . C O M P O U ND I N T E R E S T A ND
ANN U ITI E S
61 3 Th e p r i n c i p l e s
. of l o ga r i th m s m ay be ap pli ed t o
s ol ut io n of p r o bl e m s i n C omp o un d I n ter e st .
Let P n um be r o f d oll ars i n th e p r in c i p a l ;

n n um b e r o f y e a r s ;
t t h e r a t io t o o n e y e a r of th e t i m e d u r i n g wh i ch
l e i n t e r e s t i s ca l c ul at e d ; th u s if i n t e r e st
p ,
c o mp ound e d s e mi a n n ua ll y
- : 1
2 ,
2 7
°
R n um b e r o f d oll a r s i n th e a m o un t o f o ne d oll ar f
t y ea rs ;
A n u m be r o f d oll ar s i n th e a m ou n t of P d oll ars f

n y e ars .
S i nc e on e d oll a r m ou n ts to
d oll ar s i n t y e ars P d ol l
a R ,
will a m oun t t o P R d oll a r s i n t y e ar s ; th a t i s th e am o u n t ,
t h e e n d of th e l s t i n t e r v a l i s P R d oll ars .
I n li k e m a nn e r t h e a m ou n t a t th e e n d of t h e
,
2d i n t e r v al i s P R X R o r P R d oll a rs ;
2
,
3 d i n t e r va l i s P R X R o r P R d oll ars ; e tc
2 3
,
.
7
S in c e th e w h o l e n u mb e r of i n t e r v al s is
“
th e a mo u n t
i
,
the en d of th e last o n e, in acc o rd a n c e w i th .

th e l aw o bser ve
ab o v e w ill be ;
P R d oll a r s .
,
That is A PR ;
%
,
7
By 5 89 , 5 9 1 ,
log A log P log R . 2
( )
1 .What w ill be t h e a m ount of $ 73 26 fo r 3 y e ars an d 9

m o nth s at 7 p e r c e n t c o m p o un d i n t e r e s t i nt e r e st b e i n g co m ,
p o un d e d q u art e r l y
1
H e re P 73 26 n 3 g, t R 1 5
Z
.
, , ,
C OMP O UND IN T E R E S T AND ANN UI T I E S 4 23
log P
l og R x 1 5
log A A $59 4 9 3 .
2 What s um of mon ey w ill amo un t t o 8

. i n 3 y e ar s
at 5 p e r c en t c o mp o un d i n t e r e s t i n t e r e s t b e i n g c om p o un d e d
,
s e m i-a n nu all y
log A i l o g R
F rom l og P
g .
H e re, n = 3, t z
3 ,
R A 6 .
log R x 6
log P _ P : s 1 5 21 .
3 . In h o w m any y e a r s w ill $ 300 am o un t t o at 6

’
p e r c en t c o mp oun d i n t e r e st i n t e r e s t b e i n g c o mp o un d e d
, q uar
t e r ly
F rom
l og R
H er e, P : 3 00, t
i , R A
4 l og 4 x 0065. 02 60
y ea rs .
4 . what rate p e r c en t p e r ann um w ill 3 5 00 amo un t t o

At
i n 6 y e ars a nd 6 m on ths i n terest b e i n g c o mp o un ded ,
s e m i-an nua ll y
1 0g A log P
F rom log R =
t
1- n
H e r e, P : 500, n t: A 1 3 .
2 t
log A
log P
1 3 1 01 3 9 1
l og R : R
4 27A ADVAN C E D C O UR S E IN ALG E B R A
Th a t i s , t h e i n ter es t on on e d oll a r fo r 6 m o n ths is an d
th e r ate i s 5 p er c ent p er annum .
61 4 . To fin d th e p res en t wo th r o fA d o lla rs d ue at the end
of n ye a rs ,
i n ter es t bei ng co mp o un d ed a nn ua lly .
P u tt i n g t : 1 i n 61 3 , w e hav e
A
A PR "
he P
ANNU ITIE S
61 5 . An Annu i t y i s a fi xed s um o f m on ey p ay ab l e at equ al

i n t er va l s of t i m e .
I n t h e p r e s e n t chap t e r w e s h a ll c o n s i d e r th o s e cas e s o n l y i n
-
wh i ch th e p ay me n t s a r e a n nua l ; i n fi n d i n g th e p r e s e n t w o rth
o f s uch a n a nn u i t
y i t i s c u st
,
o m ar y t o c o m p o u n d i n ter e s t a nn u
a ll y .
Wh e n w e s p e ak o i th e annu i ty a s begi nn i ng at a cert ai n

e p o ch i t i s un d e r s t oo d that the first p ay m e n t b e c ome s d u e
,
one
y e ar f r o m th a t t i m e .
61 6 . To fi nd th e p r es en t wo r th f
o an a nn u i ty to conti n ue for
n s ucces s i ve y ea rs ,
a llo wi ng co mp o un d i n ter es t .
L et A n um b er of d oll ars i n th e ann ui ty ;

R n u mb e r of d oll ars i n th e a moun t of on e d oll ar fo r
one y e a r;
P = n u mb e r of d oll ar s in the p r es e n t w o r th of the
ann ui ty .
By 61 4 , the p r e s e n t w o rth of th e
l s t p ay m en t
2 d p ay m e n t
A
n th a
p y m e n t
R
4 26 ADVAN C E D C OU R S E IN ALG E B R A
F ormul a ( 4 ) may al s o b e us e d t o fin d w h at fi xe d a nnu al p ay ment mus t

be m ad e t o c a n c e l a n o te o f P d o ll ars d ue n y e ar s h e n c e R b e i n g t h e ,
n umb e r o f d o ll a rs i n t h e a m o un t o f o ne d o ll ar fo r o n e y e ar .
61 8 . I f in 61 6, n be i n d e fi n i t e l y in creas e d , th e li mi t
in g v a l ue o f th e s e c ond m e mb e r i s
A
R — l (6
That i s , th e p r es en t w or th of a p e rp etua l a n nui ty i s equ a l to

th e a moun t of th e a n nu ity d i vi d ed by th e i nter es t o n o n e d o lla r
f or o ne y ea r .
61 9 . To find th e p r es ent wo th r o f an a n nu i ty to begi n after
m ye a r s , f
a n d co n ti n u e or n y e a rs ,
a llo wi n g co mp o un d i nter es t .
W i th t h e n ot a t io n of § 61 6 t h e n u m ber ,
of d oll a rs i n th e
v a l ue o f the a nn ui t y o n e y e a r b e fo r e t h e first a
p y m e n t bec o me s
d ue , i s 1
1
R "
A (R "
A or
R 1
’
R "
( R 1
B y § 61 4 , t h e p re se n t w o rth of th i s amo un t , d ue m y e ar s
h ence i s A (R 1 )
n
,
m
R
E "
( H 1 )
T h e r e fo re , m+ n
R ( R 1 )
6 20 B y . the p r e s en t w o rth of a p e rp e t u al ann ui ty t o
6 1 8,
be gi n a ft e r m y ears i s gi v e n by t h e f o r mul a
,
A
P _
_
R ( R 1 )
r
EX E RC S E | 02 I
1 .Wh at w ill b e th e amo un t o f $ 1 3 00 for 1 6 y e ars at 5 per c e n t
c o mp o un d i nteres t th e i nt e re s t b e in g c o mp oun d e d ann uall y
,
2 W h a t s um o f m o n e y w ill a m ount t o
. i n 8 y e ar s a n d 9
m o n t h s a t 4 p e r c e n t c o mp o un d i nte re s t th e i n t e re s t b e i n g c o mp oun d e d
,
quarterl y
C O MPO U ND IN T E R E S T AND ANN UITIE S 4 27
3 . In h o w m a n y y e ars w ill $ 859 a mo un t to at 3 p er c e nt

c omp oun d i nte res t ,
th e i n te r e s t b e i n g c o mp oun d e d s e mi-an n ua ll y
4 . Wh
i s t h e prese nt w o rt h o f a n o t e fo
at d ue 1 2 y e a rs
r
h en c e all o w i ng 3 ; p er c en t c omp oun d i nt erest th e i nt e rest b e in g co m

, ,
p ound e d annuall y
‘
5 A t w h a t rat e p e r c e n t p e r a nn u m w ill $ 3 7
. 00 g a i n $ 6 78 i n 4 y e ars
a n d 3 mo n th s t h e i n t e r e s t b e i n g c o mp o un d e d qua r te rl y
,
6 In h o w ma n y y e a rs w ill a s um o f mo n e y d oub l e i ts e l f a t 6 p er
.
c e nt c o mp ound i nt ere s t th e i nt e re s t b e i ng c o mp ound e d a nn uall y

,
7 In h o w ma n y y e a r s w ill a s um o f mo n e y t re b l e i t s e l f a t 4 %
.
p er
c e n t c omp oun d i nt ere s t th e i nte re st b e i ng c o mp oun d e d s em i-a nnuall y
,
8 Wh a t i s th e pre s e n t w o r th o f a n a n n ui t y o f $ 300 t o c on t i n ue 1 4
.
y e ars all o wi n g 4 p er c e nt c omp oun d i n te re s t

,
9 . Wh at i s th e pre se n t w o r th o f a p erp e tu al ann ui ty o f a ll o w
i ng 3 % p e r c e nt c o mp oun d i n t e r e s t 2
‘
1 0 Wh a t i s t h e pre s e n t w o rt h o f a n a nnui t y o f $ 22 38 t o c on t i nue 4

.
y ears all o wi n g 6 p e r c e nt c o mp oun d i nt ere s t ?

,
1 1 . Wh at i s th e pre s e nt wor th o f a n a n nui t y o f $ 26 80 t o b e gi n a f te r

1 0 y e a rs a n d c on t i nue fo r 7 y e ars a ll o w i n g 5 p e r c e n t c om p o un d i nt e re s t
,
1 2 W h a t fi xe d a n nua l p a y me nt must b e m a d e i n o rd e r t o c an c e l a
.
n o te fo r $ 3 500 i n 5 y e ars a ll o w i n g 4
% p
, e r c e n t c o m p o u n d i n t e r e s t?
1 3 Wh a t i s th e pr e s e n t w or th o f a p erp et ua l a n nui t y o f
.
to
b egi n afte r 8 y ears a ll o wi ng 3 ; p e r c ent c omp oun d i n terest
,
1 4 . W h at a nnuity t o c on t i nue 1 2 y e ars can b e purc h ase d for $ 3 1 4 9 ,
a ll o w i n g 7p er c e n t c o mp oun d i n t e re s t
1 5 A p e rs on b o rro ws $ 636 5 ; h ow mu c h m us t h e p ay i n a nn ual

.
i ns ta l me nt s i n ord e r t h at th e w h ol e d e b t may b e d isch arg e d i n 1 0 y e ars

all o w i ng 4 %
,
p er c e n t c o mp oun d i n te re s t
4 28 AD VAN CE D C O UR E S IN ALG E B R A
XXX I . P E R M U T A TI O N S A ND C O MB I NA
TI O NS
62 1 . d iffe ren t o r de r s in wh i ch th in g s can be arrang e d

Th e
a r e c a ll e d th e i r P ermu ta ti on s .
Th u s t h e p e r mutat io n s of th e l e tt e r s a b 6 t ak e n tw o a t a
, , , ,
t i me a r e a b a c ba -bc ca cb an d th e i r p e r mutat ion s tak e n

‘
‘
, , , , , ,
thr e e at a t i m e ar e a bc a ob bac bca ca b cba

, , , , , ,
.
6 22 . Th e Combi nat i ons of th in gs a r e t h e d iffe r e n t c oll e ct ion s

w h i ch can fo r m e d f r o m
be the m w i th o ut r e g ar d t o t h e o rd e r
i n wh i ch th ey a r e p l a c e d .
Th u s th e c o mb i n a t io n s o f t h e l e tt e r s a , b 0, t a k e n t w o at a
, ,
.
t i m e a r e ab, bc, ca ; fo r th oug h a b a n d ba a re d iffe r en t p er mu

m
t at i o n s , th e y fo r m t h e s a m e c o mb i n a tion .
6 23 . To fin d th e n umbe r ofp ermuta tion s of n d iferent thi ngs

ta ken tw o at a ti me .
C o n s i d e r the l etters a b, c,
71 ,
In m a ki n g an y p art i c ul ar p e r mu tat ion o f tw o l e tt e r s , th e

.
fi r st l e tt e r may be an y o n e o f th e n ; that i s the fir s t p l ac e ,
can be fi ll e d i n n d i fie r e n t w ay s .
Af t e r t h e fi r st p l ac e has b e e n fi ll ed t h e s e c on d p l ace ca n be ,
fi ll e d w i th any o n e o f t h e r e m ain i n g n 1 l e tt e r s .
Th e n the wh ol e n um b e r o f p er mu tat i on s o f the l etters tak e n

,
tw o at a t i me i s n (n
W e w ill n o w c o n si d e r th e g en e ra l cas e .
6 24 . To fi nd th e n umber o fp r mu
eta ti o ns of n d
ifier e n t thi ngs
ta ken '
7 at a ti me .
C on s i d e r the l e tt e rs a b
n , ,
c,
In m ak i n g a n y p a rt i c ul a r p e r mu ta t ion of r l e tte rs ,
th e first
l e tt e r m ay b e an y o n e o f th e n .
A f t e r t h e fir s t p l a c e h a s b e e n fi ll e d ,
th e s e c on d p l ac e can be
fi ll e d w ith a ny on e o f t h e r e m a i n i n g n 1 l e tt e rs .
'
628 . T he f n umbe r o
m bi n a ti o n s of n co d ifier en t th i ngs ta ken 7 ‘
at a ti me e qua ls th e n umber of co m bi n a ti o n s ta ken n r at a ti m e .
F o r i n ma k i n g s e l e ct io n of r th i n g s o ut o f n w e l eav e a
a ,
s e l e ctio no f n r th i n g s .
Th e t h e ore m m ay a l s o b e pro v e d b y usi ng th e re s ul t o f 62 7 .
6 29 . Exampl es .
1 . H o w m an y chan g e s ca n be r u ng w i th 1 0 b e ll s, taking 7
at a t i me X
‘
P utti n g n : 1 0, r = 7, i n 62 4 ,
2 . H o w m any d iffe r e n t c om bi n at ion s ca n be fo r me d w i th 1 6

l e tt e r s , t ak i n g 1 2 at a t i me
By 628 t h e n um b e r o f c o mb i n at io n s o f 1 6 d i f
,
fe r e nt th ings ,
tak e n 1 2 at a t i me e qua l s t h e n u mbe r o f c o m b i n at io n s o f 1 6
,
d iffe r e nt t h i n gs t a k e n 4 a t a t i m e
,
.
P utt i n g n : 1 6 r : 4 i n ,
626 , ,
1 6 ~1 5 ~1 4 o
1 3
I
3 . H dw ma n y
d iffe r e n t w o rds e ach c o n s i s ti n g of 4 c onson ants
,
a n d 2 v o w e l s ca n b e fo r m e d f r o m 8 c o n s o n a nt s a n d 4 v o w e l s
,
Th e n umb e r o f c o mb i n a t io n s of t h e 8 c on s o n ants tak e n 4 at ,
8 7o 6 5
a t i me
o
is or 70
o4
.
,
1 2 3
Th e n um be r of c o mbi n at io n s of th e 4 v o w e l s , tak e n 2 at a
t i me i s ,
ig
— ,
or 6 .
Any on e of c on s on an t s may be ass o c i at e d w i th

t h e 70 s e t s of
a n y o n e of t h e 6 s e t s of v o w e l s ; h e n c e th e r e a r e i n a ll 7 0 6 ,
X ,
o r 4 20 s e ts e ach c o n t a i n i n g 4 c o n s o n a n t s a n d 2 v o w e l s
,
.
B u t e a ch s e t o f 6 l e tt e r s m ay h av e [6 o r 72 0 d i f fere n t ,
p e r m utat io n s
Th e r e fo r e t h e w h ol e n um be r of d iffe r e n t w o rd s i s
,
4 2 0 x 72 0, or 3 024 00 .
P E R M UT A T ION S AND C OM B INA T ION S 4 31
EX E RC S E IO3 I
F i nd th e v al ues o fth e f ll wi g
o o n
3 1 7P 7 5 1 701 1
3
1 .
1 41 6 .
2 .
9 P9 . 4 .
1 5 07 .
3
.
6 .
29 02 4 .
7 In. c e rta i n pl a y t h e re a re five p ar ts t o be tak e n b y a c omp an y o f

a ,
I n h o w m a n y d i ff er e nt w a ys ca n t h e y b e a ss ig n e d
'
t we lve p e rs o n s .
8 H o w ma n y d i ffe r e n t w o r d s o f n i n e d i ffe re n t l é t te rs e a c h ca n b e
.
, ,
forme d fro m th e l etters i n th e w ord floweri ng i f th e v o we ls re ta i n th e ir ,
pl a c e s
9 H o w m a n y d i ffe re n t n umb e rs o f s e v e n d i ffe re nt fi g ure s e a c h ca n I
] , ,
.
b e f o rme d f ro m th e d igi ts 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 i f e ac h n umb e r b e gi n s w i t h 7

, , , , , , , , ,
’
1 a n d e n ds w i t h 9
1 0 H o w m an y e v e n n um b e rs o f five d i ff ere n t fig ur e s e a c h ca n b e
I
.
, ,
f ormed f rom th e d igi ts 4 5 6 7 8 3 , , , ,

q ‘
1 1 .H o w ma n y d i ff e re n t c o mm i tt e e s o f 8 p ers o ns e a c h ca n b e f o rme d , ,
f ro m a c orp o rati o n o f 1 4 p ers o ns In h o w ma n y w ill a n y p arti c ul a r

i nd ivi d ua l b e f o un d ? In h o w man y w ill a ny p art i c ul ar i n d ivi d ual b e
,
e x c l ud e d
1 2 A a nd B a r e i n a c o mp a n y o f 72 m e n
. I f th e co mp an y is d ivi d e d .
into s qua d s o f6 i n h o w m an y o fth e m w ill A a n d B b e i n th e s a me s qua d

,
1 3 In h o w m a n y d i f
. ferent w ays can s ix p ers on s be s ea t e d a t a round
ta ble
1 4 .Th e re a re 1 5 p o i nts i n a pl an e n o thre e i n th e s am e s traig ht li ne ,
.
H o w m a n y quad ril a t e ra l s can b e f o r me d h a vi n g f o ur o f th e p o i n ts for ,
v ert i c e s
1 5 I f 3 2 s ol d i e r s a re d raw n up i n li n e 4 d e e p i n h ow ma n y d i ffe re n t
.
,
w a ys ca n t h e y b e a rr a ng e d s o as t o h a ve a d i ff e r e n t s e t i n t h e f ro nt ra n k
In h o w m an y w a ys i f th e f ro nt ran k i s a l wa ys t o c o n ta i n 3 p art i c ul a r
,
me n
1 6 I f th e numb e r o f c o mb i n a ti o ns o f2 n d i ffere n t t h i ngs tak e n n — l a t
.
a t i m e i s t o t h e n um b e r o f c o mb i n a t i o n s o f 2 n — 2 d i ffe re n t t h i n g s t a k e n
,
77 a t a t i me a s 1 3 2 :3 5 find t h e v al u e o f n
.
, .
1 7 H o w m a n y d i ff e re n t c re w s e a c h c o n s i s t i ng o f e ig h t o a rs me n a n d a
.
,
.
s te e rsma n ca n b e f o rme d f ro m 1 6 b o ys o f w h o m 1 2 ca n ro w b ut c a nn ot
, ,
s t e e r a nd th e bth e rs ca n s te e r but c a nn o t ro w
,
1 8 A p e rs o n h a s 22 a c q ua i n ta n c e s o f w h o m 1 4 a r e ma l e s
. In h o w ,
.
man y w a ys ca n h e i nvi t e 1 7g ue s t s f ro m t h e m s o t h a t 1 0 ma y b e m a l e s
1 9 O ut o f 1 0 s o l d i e rs a n d 1 5 s a il o rs h o w m a n y d i ff e re n t p art i e s ca n b e
.
,
forme d ea c h c o ns is ti ng o f 3 s o l d i ers a nd 3 s a il ors

,
4 32 ADVAN C E D C O U R SE I N AL G E B R A
20 . F ro m s e rge a nts 8 c orp ora l s a nd 1 6 priva t e s h o w m an y d i ffere nt

3 , , ,
p arti e s ca n b e f or med e a c h c o n s i s ti n g o f 1 s e rg e a n t 2 c orp ora l s a n d 5

, , ,
private s
21 . O ut c api tal s 6 c o ns o na nts and 4 v ow e l s h o w m a ny d iffe re nt
o f3 , , ,
w ord s o f s i x l e tt e rs e a c h ca n b e f o rme d e a c h b egi n n i ng w i t h a c a pi ta l , ,
a n d h a vi n g 3 c o n s o n a n t s a n d 2 v o w e l s
22 H o w m a n y d i ff er e n t w o r d s o f 8 l e tt e rs e a c h ca n b e f or me d f r o m
.
e ig h t l e t t e rs i f 4 o f th e l e tte rs c a nn ot b e s ep arat e d ? H o w man y i f

,
t h e s e f o ur ca n o nl y b e i n o n e or d e r
.
23 I n h o w ma n y d i ff e re n t w a ys ca n t e n s o l d i e rs b e d ra w n up i n d oub l e
.
ra nk i f thre e p art ic ul ar me n a re a l wa ys i n th e front ra nk an d t hre e ot h e rs

, .
,
a l wa ys i n t h e r e a r
24 . H o w ma ny d i f f erent numb e rs of s even fi gures e a c h ca n b e f orme d

f rom th e d igits 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 i f th e fi rs t f ourth a nd l as t d igit s
.
, , , , , , , , , , ,
a re o dd n umb e rs
25 H o w m a n y d i f
. ferent w ord s o f s ix letters e a c h ca n b e f orme d fro m
t h e l e tt e rs i n th e w o rd p er c o l a t i ng i f e a c h w o r d h a s a c o n s on a nt fo r i ts
,
fi rs t a nd l as t l e tte r a n d a v o w e l fo r i ts s e c o n d a n d fi f th
,
26 Th e re a r e 2 n gue st s a t a d i nn e r—
. p a rty I f th e h os t a nd h o ste ss h ave .
fixe d pl a c e s o pp o s i te t o e ac h oth e r a nd t w o s p e c i fi e d gue s t s c a nn o t s i t n e xt

,
e a c h o th e r i n h o w m a n y w a ys ca n t h e c o m p a n y b e s e a t e d
,
63 0 To fin d th e
. n umber o fp er muta ti on s of n th i ngs wh i ch a re
n ot a ll d ifier en t, ta ken a ll togeth er .
L et th e re be n l ett e r s o f w h i ch p are a s q are b s an d r are ,

’
,
’
,
o s t h e r e s t be i n g a ll d iffe r e n t
’
.
,
L e t N deno t e t h e n umb e r o f p e r mu tat io n s o f th e s e l e tte rs

tak e n a l l t og e th e r .
S u pp o s e that i n any a s sign e d pe r mut at io n o f th e n l e tt e rs

, ,
t h e p a s w e r e r e p l ac e d by p n e w l e tt e r s d i f
’
fe rm g f r o m e ach ,
o th e r a n d a ls o f r o m t h e r e m a i n i n g n p l e tt e rs .
Th e n by si mp l y a l t e r i n g th e o rd e r o f th e s e p l e tt e rs am o n g
th e m s e l v e s w i th o ut ch an gi n g t h e p osi ti o n s o f a ny of t h e o th e r
,
l e tt e r s w e c o ul d f r o m th e o r igi n a l p e r m ut a t io n fo r m [p d iffe r
,
e n t p e r m ut a t i o n s
I f th i s w e r e d o n e i n t h e cas e of e ach of t h e N o r igin al pe r

mu t a t io ns t h e wh ol e n u mb e r o f p e r mut a t i o n s w o u l d be
,
4 34 ADVAN C E D CO U R S E IN ALG E B R A
C on t i nu in g in thi s w ay the r th p l ac e , can be fi ll e d in n d iffe r

ent way s .
Th e n t h e n u mb e r of e r mut at ion s is
, p
n x n X t o r f a ct o rs o r ,
n
”
.
Ex . H o w m an y
d iffe r e n t w o rd s o f fo ur l e tt e rs e ach can be
f o r m e d f r o m n i n e l ett e r s if e ach l e tt e r m ay o cc u r a n y n u mbe r
,
o f t i m e s f r o m o n c e up t o fo u r t i m e s i n c l u si ve
‘
H ere n 9 l ,
4 ,
’ ‘
.
Th e n t h e n u m b e r o f d i f
,
fe r e n t w o rds i s
4
9 ,
or 65 6 1 .
mber of co mbi n a ti o n s of n d ifier ent

'
63 2 . To fi n d th e e n ti r e n u
th i ngs , wh en ea ch ma y be ta k e n a ny n umbe r of ti mes fr o m o n ce to
n ti mes , i n clus i ve .
C on si de r th e n l e tt e r s a, b, c,
We can t ak e th e m on e at a t i m e in n way s
m
.
We can tak e th em 2 at a t i m e in way s

I E
We can t ak e th e m a ll i n on e w ay .
Th e n , th e e n t i r e nu m be r of w ay s i s
— 1
Ex . In h o w m a n y way s can a s e l e ct ion o f one o r m o re v ol
u m e s b e m a d e f r o m 5 b o ok s
H e r e , n 5 ; th e n , th e e n t i r e n u mb e r s l c tion s i s
of e e
5
2 1 ,
or 31 .
EX ERC S E IO4 I
1 . In h ow m an y d i ffer e nt ord e rs may th e l e t te rs o f th e wo rd d enomi
na ti o n be w ritt e n P
‘
2 . Th e re are f our w h i t e b illi ard b all s e xa c tl y alik e a n d th re e ,

re d b all s ,
a l s o a lik e In h o w ma n y d i ffe re n t w a ys ca n th e y b e a rra n ge d

.
P E R M UTA T ION S AND CO M BINA T ION S 4 35
3 . I n h o w m an y w a ys h i n g s b e giv e n t o
ca n s i x t five p ers ons i f th ere
,
is no res tric ti o n a s t o t h e n u mb e r ea c h m a y r e c e iv e
4 H o w m a ny d i ffe re nt n um b ers l e ss t h an 1 0000 ca n b e f o rme d f ro m

.
th e d igi ts 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
, , , , , , ,
5 In h o w m a n y d i ff e re n t o r d e rs ma y th e l e t t e rs o f th e w ord i nd ep en
.
de nc e be wri tt en
6 H o w m an y d i ffe re nt s ig n a l s ca n b e ma d e wi t h 7 fla g s o f w h i c h 2
.
,
a r e b l ue 3 r e d a n d 2 w h i t e i f a l l a re h o i s te d fo r e a c h s ig n a l ?
, , ,
7 A ra il w a y s ig n al h a s m a rms a n d e a c h ca n b e pl a c e d in n p o s i t i ons
. , .
H o w m a n y d i ff e re n t s ig n a l s ca n b e m a d e w i t h i t
8 A m a n h as e ig h t f ri e n d s In h o w ma n y w a ys can h e i nvi te o n e o r
. .
m or e o f t h e m t o d i n n e r
9 . H o w m any d i ffe re nt wo rd s o f e igh t l e tte rs e a c h can b e f orm e d fro m

t h e l e tt e rs i n t h e w o r d a r r a ng ed i f t h e fi rs t f o urt h a n d s e v e n t h l e tte rs
, , ,
a re a l w ays v o w e l s
1 0 A h o use h a s n i n e w i n d o w s i n fr on t
. H o w m a ny d i ffe ren t s ign al s
.
ca n b e giv e n b y h a vi n g o n e o r m o r e o f t h e w i n d o w s o p e n
‘3
1 1 .In h o w m a n y w a ys ca n 1 3 b oo k s b e a rra n g e d o n a s h e l f w h e n five ,
v ol ume s are alike a nd f our o th e r v o l ume s a re a l s o alik e

,
1 2 H o w m a n y d i ffe re n t n umb ers gr e a te r t h an 1 000000 can b e f orme d

.
from th e d igi ts 4 3 3 3 2 2 0 , , , , , ,
1 3 In h o w ma n y w a ys ca n t w o d i me s t h r e e quar t ers f our h a lv e s

.
, , ,
a n d fi ve d oll a rs b e d i s tri b ut e d a m o n g 1 4 p e rs o n s s o t h a t e a c h m ay r e c e iv e,
a c o in
1 4 . A b ag c on ta i n s a c e n t a h a l f-d i me a d im e a tw e nty -c ent pi e c e a

, , , ,
quarter-d oll ar a h al f -d oll ar a n d a d o ll ar In h o w m an y w a ys can a s um

, , .
o f m o ne y b e d r a w n f r o m t h e b a g
4 36 AD V AN C E D CO U R S E IN ALG E B R A
P
X X X II . PR O B A B I L IT Y
633 . S upp o s e th a t c on ta i n s 5 w h i t e ball s 4 r e d ball s

a ba g , ,
an d 3 bl a c k balls a n d th a t o ne ba ll i s dr a w n at ran d o m
,
.
Any o n e b all i s a s li k e l y t o b e d r a w n a s a ny o th e r .
Th e d ra wi ng of a ba ll ca n o cc ur i n 1 2 d i f fe r e n t w ay s ; fo r a ny
o n e o f t h e b a ll s m a b e d ra w n
y .
Th e d r a w i ng of a wh ite ba ll c an o cc u r i n 5 d i f fe r en t way s ;
fo r a n y on e o f t h e w h i t e b alls m a y be dra w n .
5
W e may th e n c o n si d e r — as the lik e li h oo d th at, i f a
‘
ball is
1 2
draw n, i t i s a wh i t e b all :
Th e d r a w i ng of a w h i te ba ll can f a il t o o cc u r in 7 d i ffere n t
way s ; fo r an y o n e o f t h e r e d o r bl ac k balls m ay be draw n .
7
W e may th e n c o n s i d e r — as th e lik e li h oo d that, if a ba ll i s
1 2
draw n i t ,
is no t a wh i t e ball .
63 4 . W e m ay tak e th e follo w ing d e fi n i t ion for the term

p r o ba bi l i ty
I f a n e v e n t can happen i n a d iffe r e n t way s an d f ail to happ e n ,
in b d iffe r en t w ay s a n d a ll th es e wa ys a r e equa lly li kely to o ccur

, ,
a
the p r o bab ility of th e happ en i n g of th e ev e n t is , an d th e
a b
b
p r o bab ili ty of i ts f aili n g is
a +b
We s ay t h e o dd s are a t o b i n fa vor o f th e e v e nt i f
, a i s greate r t h an b ,
and a t o b a g a i ns t v
t h e e e nt , if a is l ess th an b
.
I t follo w s th at if t h e p r o bab ili t y o f t h e happe n i n g of an

even t i s p , th e p r o b a b ili t y o f i t s f a ili ng is 1 p .
635 . E x amp l es .
1 . A bag c o n tai n s wh i t e 4 r e d an d 3 bl a c k ball s

5 , ,
.
( ) I
a f 3 b a lls are drawn wh a t 1 8 th e p r o bab ili ty that th e y
,
ar e all wh i t e
m)
Th e n u mb e r of c o mb in at ion s of th e 30 t i c k e ts , tak en 4 at a
30 29 28 27
ti me ,
is
1 2 3 4
H ence ,
th e p r o babili ty that if fo ur t i c k e ts are d r aw n, ,
t wo
of th e m w ill b e 1 an d 2, i s
2 8 -2 7 3 0 -2 9 -2 8 -2 7 3 -4 2
1 o
2 -3 -4 1 45
( )
b I f f o u r t i ck e t s are dr a w n what ,
i s th e chan c e that e i th e r
1 or 2 w ill beo n g th em am
E i th e r 1 o r 2 w ill b e a m o n g t h e t i c k e t s dr a w n un l e s s ,
e ach
t i c k e t dr a w n b ea r s a n u mbe r f r o m 3 t o 3 0 i n c l u si v e .
‘
Th e n um b e r of c o mb i n at i o n s of th e 2 8 t i czk e ts n umber e d 3,
28 27 2 6 o 25
1 2 3 o 4
t i c k e ts tak e n
‘
Th e n um b e r of c o mbi n at io n s of t h e 30 ,
4 at
3 0 29 28 27
a ti me ,
is
1 2 3 4
H enc e ,
t h e p r o babili ty th at e a ch o f th e 4 t i ck ets drawn bears
28 -2 7 o
2 6 -2 5 65
a num ber fr om 3 to 3 0 i n c l u si v e , i s 0r
87
Th e n , t h e p r o ba b ili ty th a t n on e o f th e t i ck et s drawn bear s
22
a n um b e r f r o m 3 to 3 0 in c lus i ve, i s 1
2? or
th e n i s th e p r ob ab ili ty th a t e i th er
Thi s 1 or 2 w ill be a mong
the t i c k e t s dr a w n .
EX E RC I S E I05
1 . Ac o n t a i n s 6 wh i t e b all s 5 r e d b all s a nd 4 b l a c k b all s ; find

b ag , ,
th e pr o b a b ili t y o f d ra w i n g
.
O e b l a c k b a ll F r h i b ll s
( a ) n .
( d ) o u w t e a .
( b) T w o w h i te b all s ( 6 ) Tw o b all s o f e a c h c ol o r
. .
( )
6 Th r e e re d b a ll s ( )
f
. F o u r r e d a n d t h r e e w h i te b a ll s .
( g) T w o r e d fi v e w h i t e a n d t w o b l a c k b all s
, , .
2 . A b ag c o nta i n s i ck e ts numb ere d

24 t 1 ,
2 , 3, 24 i f t h re e t i ck ets
ar e d ra wn find t h e
, prob ab ilit y
( a ) Th at t h e y a r e 1 , 2, an d 3 .
( b) Th a t e i t h e r 1 , 2, or 3 is a mong t emh .
P R O B A B ILI TY 4 39
Wh prob ab ility
,
3 . at is th e of t h ro w i n g n ot m or e t h an 5 i n a s i n gl e
t h ro w w t ih tw o d ice
4 Wh at i s t h e pro b ab ili ty of t hro w i ng a t l e a s t 5 i n a s i ngl e t h ro w
.
w it h t wo d i c e
5 Wh a t i s t h e pr ob ab ili ty o f t hr o w i n g 1 0 i n a s i n gl e t h r o w w i t h t h r e e
.
dice
6 I f s i x p e rs o n s s e a t t h e ms e lve s a t ra n d o m a t a ro un d t ab le w h at is
.
,
t h e pr o b a b ili ty t h a t t w o s p e c i fi e d p e rs o n s w ill s i t t o g e t h e r
'
7 I f f o ur c a rd s a r e d ra wn f r o m a p a c k w h a t i s th e pro b ab ili ty th at
.
,
t h e y a r e o f t h e s a me s u i t
8 Th e re a r e 8 b o ok s o f w h i c h 4 a r e o n m a th e m a t i cs a n d 3 o n sc i e n c e
.
, .
I f th e b oo k s a re pl a c e d t oge th er o n a s h e l f w h a t i s th e prob ab ilit y t h a t ,
t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l v o l um e s a nd a l s o t h e sc i e n t i fic w ill b e t o g e t h e r
, ,
636 . Mut u ally E xcl u s i v e E v e nt s .
I f an e v e n t ca n h a pp e n in mo re t h a n o ne w ay a n d i f i t h app e ns i n any
,
o fth e ys c a n n o t a t th e
wa ,
s a me ti m e h a pp e n i n a n y o f th e o th e r wa ys ,
t h e s e v a ri o us w a ys a r e s a i d to b e m utua l ly excl us i ve .
If a n e v en t ca n h app en i n mor e th a n on e w a y, a nd th es e w a ys
a re mu tu a lly exclus i ve, th e p ro ba bi li ty of th e h ap p en i ng f
o th e
e ve nt equa ls th e s um o f th e p r o ba bi li ti es f i ts
o h app en in g i n th e
s ep a ra te w a ys .
S upp os e th a t t can ha pp en i n a c e rtai n w ay a t i me s

an e v e n
o ut o f b a n d i n a n o th e r w a y a t i m e s o ut o f b ; a ll th e s e w a y s
,
'
b e i n g e qua ll y li k e l y t o o cc u r .
Al s o s upp o s e th a t th e tw o way s i n w h i ch t h e e ve n t ca n
,
happ e n ar e m utu all y e x c l usi v e .
S i n c e th e e v e n t h app e n s a a t i m e s out of b th e p r obabili ty

’
,
;
a
3
"
of i ts h a p p e n i n g is or 1
+
B ut 9 i s the p r obab ili ty that th e e v en t happe n s in th e first

;
w ay , an d th e p r o bab ili ty that i t hap pe n s i n th e s e c on d w ay .
H en c e th e p r obab ili t y th at i t happ e n s e qua l s th e s um o f

,
th e pr o b a bili t i e s o f i t s h a pp e n i n g i n t h e s e p ar a t e way s .
I n lik e mann e r, th e th e o r e m may be p r ov e d wh en the r e ar e

mo r e tha n t wo way s i n wh i ch the e v e n t ca n happe n .
440 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN ALG E B R A
63 7 Exampl es . .
1 . F i n d t h e p r o bab ili ty of thr o w i n g 4 in a s ingl e thr o w w ith

t wo dice .
Th e ev e n t can happ en i n tw o w ay s ; e i th e r by thr o wi n g 3

an d 1 ,
or by thr o w i n g d o ubl e-tw o s ; a n d th e s e w ay s a r e m ut u
all y c l u si v e
ex
‘
.
E a ch d ie ca n c o me up in 6 way s ; a n d h e n c e the p a i r ca n
be thr o wn i n 6 X 6 o r 36 way s , .
O f th e s e d iffe r e n t thr o w s tw o w ill be 3 a n d 1 ; h e n c e , ,

th e
2
p r o bab ili t y o f th r o w i n g 3 a n d 1 i s
‘
36
A g a i n , d o ub l e-tw o s
can be thr o wn i n
o n l y on e w ay ; he n c e , th e
1
p r o bab ili t y o f thr o w i n g d o ub l e -tw o s i s
36
1 1
Th e r e fo r e , t h e p r o b a b ili ty of thr ow i n g 4 is 2 —
’
or
36 36
Th i s pl e can be s olve d more e as il y b y th e
exam m e tho d of 63 5 ; th e
a b o v e m e t h o d i s giv e n s i mpl y a s a n ill us tra t i o n o f 6 36 .
2 . A
ba g c o n ta i n s fou r $ 1 0 gol d p i e c e s an d s i x s il v e r d ol
'
l a r s I f a p e r so n i s en t i t l e d t o dra w t w o co in s at ra nd o m ,
.
wh at i s th e v al ue o f h i s e xp e ct at io n
I f a p er s on h as a c h a nc e o f w i nn i ng a c e rta i n s um o f m one y th e ,
prod uct of t h e s um b y th e prob ab ili ty o f his w i nn i ng it is c all e d h is

e xp e c ta ti o n .
Th e n u m be r of c omb i n at io n s of th e fo ur gol d i c s ta k
:
p e e ,
e
2 at a t i me i s ,
3
4 , an d th e n u mber of c o mb i n at io n s
1 0'
9
o f th e t en
c oi n s tak e n ,
2 at a t ime i s , ; h e n ce the p r o bab ili t y 0
1 2
4-
3 2
d r awing tw o gol d c oi n s i s
1 0-
9 1 5
The n t h e v alue
ctatio n s o f ar as i t d e pen ds
o f th e e x p e ,
o
2
3
.
the draw i g of tw o gol d c oin s s

n i X 20 or d oll ars , ,
.
1 5
1
Th e p r o ba b ili t y draw i n g tw o s il ve r c oin s i s
of , or
1 09
the v al u e of the c orre s po n d ing e xpe ctat io n i s 3 d oll ars .
{)
442 AD V AN C E D C O U R S E IN AL G E B R A
'
Al s o , l e t a be th e
'
b e r o f w ay s i n w h i ch th e s econ d e v en t
n um
ca n h app e n a n d b t h e n u mb e r o f w a y s i n w h i ch i t ca n fa i l ; all
,
th e s e w ay s b e i n g e qu a lly lik e ly t o o ccu r .
W e m ay a s s o ci at e t o ge th e r a ny o n e o f t h e a + b ca s e s i n
a
'' '
w h i ch t h e fir s t e v e n t h a p p e n s o r fa il s a n d an y o n e o f t h e
b ca s e s i n wh i ch t h e s e co n d h a p p e n s o r fa i l s ; h e n ce t h e r e
,
a r e (a b) (a
' ca s e s e q u a l l y l i k e l y t o occu r
In d a o f t h e s e ca s e s b ot h e v e nt s h a pp e n
,
.
.
Th e r e fo r e t h e p r o b ab i l i ty th a t b oth e v en t s h ap pe n i s
,
'
’
d a
( b )(
:
a a
B ut i s t h e p r o b a b i li ty th a t th e fir s t e v e n t h app en s ,
a 6
!
a
an d t h e p r ob a b ili ty th a t th e s e co n d h app en s .
! l
a b
H en ce ,
t h e p r o b a b i l i ty th a t b ot h e v e n t s h app e n i s t h e p r o d uct
of th ei r r t p r ob a b i l it i e s
s ep a a e .
An d i n g e n e r a l if m , ,
a re th e r e s p ect i v e pr ob a bili ti e s
o f a n y n um b e r o f i n d e p e n d e n t ev en s , t t h e p r ob a b i l i ty th at al l
th e e ve n t s h a pp e n i s p 1 1 9 2p 3 m .
63 9 . E xampl es .
1 F in d th e p r o b ab ili ty o f thr o w i n g an a ce i n t h e
. fir s t on l y
o f t w o s u cce s s i v e t h r o w s w i t h a s i n gl e d i e .
1
Th e p r o b ab i li ty t h r o w i n g an ace a t th e fir s t tri al
of is
' '
6
Th e p r o b a b i l i t y o f n o t t h r o w i n g o n e a t t h e s e c o n d i s
H e n ce , t h e p r o b a b il i ty of thr o w i n g an ace i n th e fir s t o n ly of
tw o s ucce s s i v e th r o w s is X 5
—
6
,
or
5
36
2 . F i n d th e p r o b ab i l i ty o f thr o w i n g a n ace at l e as t o n ce in
thr e e th r o w s w i t h a s i n g l e d i e .
Th e r e w i l l be a n a ce un l e s s th e r e t h r e e fail ur e s
a re .
Th e p r o b a b i l i t y o f fa i l i n g a t th e fir s t t ri a l i s ; an d
g th i s i s
l
a s o th e pr o b a b i l i ty of fa i l i n g a t e ac h o f th e o th e r tri al s .
PR O BA B ILI T Y 443
H en ce ,
th e p r ob ab i li ty th a t t h e r e w i ll be th r e e fai l ur e s i s
5 5 5 1 25
x X or '
6 6
’
6 21 6
Th en th e p r o b a b i l i ty t h a t th e r e w i ll not b e t hr e e fa i l ur e s i s
1 25 91
1 634 o r
21 6 21 6
3 . A ba g co nt ai n s 5 r ed b all s ,
4 w h i te b al l s an d 3 b lack
,
b a ll s Th r e e b al l s a re dr a w n i n s u cce s s i o n
.
,
e a ch b e i n g r e p l a ce d
b e fo r e th e n e xt i s dr aw n W h at i s t h e .
.
p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t t h e
b al l s d r a w n a r e o n e o f e a ch co l o r
5
Th e p r o b a b i li ty t h at t h e fir s t b all i s r e d is ; th e p r ob a
1 2
4 1
bi l i ty th at th e s e c on d i s wh i t e i s —
or ; a n d t h e p r o b ab i l i ty
g
,
1 2
3 1
th at t h e t h i rd is bl a ck is — or
Z
,
.
1 2
H e n ce , t h e p r o b a b il i t y of dr a w i ng a red b al l ,
a wh i t e b all ,
' ' 5 1 1 5
a nd a b la ck ba l l , i n th 2T
8 1 6d o
0 3 8 29 7 rd er ,
1 s X X ,
or
1 2 3 4 1 44
B ut a red b all a w h i t e b a ll
, ,
an d a b l a ck b all m ay b e dr a w n
in lg ,
or 6 d i ffe r e n t o rd e r s a nd in e a ch ca s e th e p r o ba
5
b1 1 1 ty
O
is
l 44
Th e n by 63 6, th e p r o b a b ili ty o f dr a w i n g a r e d b al l , a w h i t e
b all, an d a b l a ck b al l, w i th out r e ga rd to t h e o rd e r i n w h i ch
5 5
th e y are dr aw n , i s x 6, o r
1 44 24
64 0 . D ependent E v ent s .
T he
p r o ba bi li ty
f rr e not h appth een i g f
co n cu
n o tw o d ep e n d e n t
e ven ts i s th e p r o ba bi li ty of th e r m l li d b h b b i li
f i s t u t ip e y t e p ro a ty ,
th a t wh en th e fi r s t h a s h app e n ed th e s eco n d w i ll fo llo w .
L e t a a n d b h a v e t h e s a m e m ea n i n g s as i n 63 8
Al s o s upp o s e t h a t a fte r t h e fir s t e v e n t h a s h a pp e n e d a
.
'
'
, , ,
r e p r e s e n t s th e n u mb e r of w ay s i n w h i ch t h e s e co n d w ill fo ll o w ,
a n d b t h e n u mb e r o f w a s i n w h i ch i t w il l n o t fo ll o w ; al l
y
th e s e w ay s b e i n g e q u a l ly l i k e l y t o o ccu r .
4 4 4: AD VA NCE D C O U RS E IN A LG E B R A
''
Th e n t h e r e
o ccu r ,
and in
a re
aa
' in all
o f th e s e
( a b )(a
)
b o t h e v e n t s h a pp e n
b ca s e s , e qu a l l
.
y li k el y t o
'
T h e r e fo r e ,
th e p r o b a b ili t y t h a t b o t h e v e n t s h ap p en is
( a
aa
)(
b
''
)a b
H e n ce , th e p r o b a b ili ty th a t b o t h ev e n t s h ap p e n i s th e p r o b a
bi l i ty o f t h e fir s t , m ul t i pli e d by t h e p r o b a b i li ty th a t w h e n i t
h a s h a pp e n e d t h e s e co n d w ill fo l l o w .
An d i n g e n e r a l, i f t h e r e a r e an y n u mb e r of d e p e n d e n t e v e nt s
s uc h t h a t p i s t h e p r o b ab i l i ty o f t h e fir s t
1 , p2 t h e p r o b a b i l i ty
t h a t w h e n t h e fir s t h a s h a pp e n e d t h e s e co n d will fo l l o w p 8 t h e ,
p r o b a b i l i ty th a t w h e n t h e fir s t a n d s e co n d h a v e h a p p e n e d »
t h e t h i rd w i ll fo ll ow , a n d s o o n th e n t h e p r o b a b i l i ty th a t a l l
,
t h e e v en t s h ap p e n i s p p 2p 3 1
64 1 . E x ampl es .
1 . S ol v e E x 3 , . 639 , i f t h e b al l s a r e n o t r ep la ced a fte r be i ng

d r a wn .
5
Th e pr o b ab il i t y th a t th e fir s t b a ll is red is t h e p r o b a bi l
1 2
i ty t h at t h e s e co n
3
d i s w h ite i s
E ; an d t h e p r o b a b i i ty l th at th e
th i r d is bl a ck is
1 0
H e n ce , th e p r o b ab i l i ty of dr aw i n g a re d b al l ,
a w h i te b al l ,
5 4— 3
an d a b l ack b a ll i n th i s a s s i gne d o rd e r is X X
E
, ,
ii 1 0
B ut th e b all s m ay b e dr a w n i n L 3 o r 6 d if fe r en t o rd e r s , .
T h e r e fo r e t h e p r o b ab i li ty o f dr a w i n g a r e d b a ll a w h i t e
, ,
b all a n d a b l a ck b all w it h out r e ga rd t o t h e o rd e r i n w h i ch

, ,
th e y a re dr awn is
5
~ X :x
1
x 6, or
3 °
,
1 2 1 1 1 0 1 1
Q9
l
2 An. u r n co n a i n s t 5 w h ite
b all s a n d 3 b l a ck bal l s ; an oth e r
co n t a i n s 4 w h i t e b a l l s a n d 7 bl a ck b a ll s W h a t i s t h e p r ob a .
bili t y of o bt a i n i n g a wh i t e b a ll by a s i n gl e dr aw i n g fr om on e
o f t h e u r n s t ak e n a t r a n d o m
44 6 ADVAN C E D CO U R S E IN ALG E B R A
1
H ere,
S ub s t i t ut i n g i n th e r e qui r e d p r ob ab i li ty is
5-
4 .
3 2
1 25
O
1 3 8 88
643 . It fo ll o w s fr o m 64 2 t h a t , if t h e p r o b a b il i ty of t h e
h ap pe n i n g of th e e v en t in o n e t r i a l i s p , t h e p r o b a b i li ty o f i ts
fa i l i n g e xac t ly r ti me s i n n tr i a l s is
k
‘
64 4 . G i ven th e p ro ba bi li ty o f th e h app en i ng f
o a n e ven t in on e
tr i a l, to fi nd th e p r o ba bi li ty of i ts h ap p en i ng at l t ti mes i n n
e
g i r
r
t i a ls .
Th e e v en t h a p p e n s a t '
h a p p e n s e x a ct l y n
l ea s t 7 t i me s if i t
t i me s ,
o r fa i l s e x a ctl y ce m n r ti me s , ,
.
Th e n t h e i t h a p p e n s a t l e a s t r t i m e s e q ua l s
t h e s um o f t h e p r o b a b i l i t i e s o f i t s h a pp e n i n g e xactl y n t i m e s ,
o r fa i l i n g e x act ly o n ce t w i ce n r ti m e s , ,
o n
,
.
By 64 2 6 4 3 t h e r e q ui r e d p r ob a b i li ty i s
, ,
Ex . Wh a t i s t h e p r o b ab i li ty o f th r ow i n g at le as t thr e e a ce s
i n fiv e t h r o w s w i th a s i n g l e d i e
1
H ere p r 3, n 5; th en th e r e qui r e d p r o b a b i l i ty is
a
, ,
1 2 64 8
EX E RC I S E IO 7
1 . F in d th e p r ob ab il i ty o f th r o w in g exa ctly four s i xe s in s ix th r o ws

w i th a s in gl e d i e .
2 . F in d th e p r o b a b il i t y o f th r o w in g a t l e a s t fo ur d o ub l e ts in s ix th r o w s
w i th a p a i r o fd i c e .
PRO B A B I L I T Y 4 47
3 .A pur s e c on tain s 5 d ollars and 7 five -c en t pi e c es a nd an o t h e r ,
3 d oll a r s a n d 1 2 five -c e n t pi e c e s F in d th e p ro b a b i l i ty o f o b ta inin g a

.
d o lla r by d r a w in g a s in gle c o in fro m o ne o f t h e p u rs es t a k e n a t r a n d o m .
4 .I f a c o in is t os s ed e igh t ti mes w h at i s th e p r ob ab i li ty th at th e h e a d
,
w ill tur n up a t le as t five t i mes

5 A b a g c o n ta in s 5 w h i te a n d 3 b la c k b alls
. I f 4 ba lls a re d ra w n and .
n o t r e p la c e d w h a t i s t h e p r ob a b i l i ty t h a t th e b a lls d ra w n a re a lte rn a t e ly
,
of d i ffe r e n t c olo rs
6 W h a t i s th e p r ob ab i l i ty o ft h r o w in g 1 0 w i t h a p a i r of d i c e ex a c tly
.
th r e e t i me s in fo ur t r i al s
7 T h e p r o b a bi li ty o fa c e r ta in e v e n t i s g a n d o f a n o th e r in d e p e n d e n t
.
,
7
6
o f th e firs t . F in d th e p r o b a b i l i ty t h at o ne a t le as t o f th e e v e n ts w i l l
1 1
ha pp e n .
8 . If t w o c o in s a re t os se d up five t i mes ,
fin d t h e p rob ab i li ty r
th a t th e e
w i ll b e five h e a d s a nd five ta ls i .
9 . E a ch r p e rs on s d r a ws a c a rd fr o m a p a ck F in d th e p r ob a
o ffou .
bility th a t t h e re w i l l be o n e o f e a c h s ui t .
1 0 A B C a n d D t h r o w a d i e in s u cc e s s i o n in t h e o rd e r n a m e d
.
, , .
, ,
unt i l o n e t h r o ws a n a ce F in d t h e i r r es p e c t iv e c h a n c e s o f t h r o w in g a n
.
a ce a t t h e firs t t r i al .
o
1 1 A b ag c on ta in s th re e w h i te a nd s ix b lac k b alls A p e rs o n d raws

. .
th r e e b a lls t h e b a l ls w h e n d r a w n n o t b e in g r e p la c e d
, W h at i s t h e .
p robab ili ty of d ra w in g a wh ite b all 9

1 2 . A p e rs o n i c kets in a lottery in w h i c h th ere are th ree p ri z es
h a s fo ur t
a nd s e v e n b la nks F in d h is c h a n c e o fd r a w in g a p r i z e
. .
1 3 A b ox c o n t a in s t e n c o un t e rs n umb e r e d 1 2 3
. 1 0 A ft e r o n e , , , .
i s d ra w n i t i s p ut b a c k a n d th e p r o c e s s i s r e p e a t e d in d e fi ni te ly
, , F in d .
t h e p r o b a b i l i t y th a t No 1 w i ll b e d r a w n i n fou r t r i a ls
. .
1 4 A b a g c o n t a in s s i x b alls
. A p ers o n t ak es on e o ut an d re plac e s i t
.
,
.
Afte r h e h as d o n e th i s s ix t i me s find th e p rob a b i li ty t h at h e h as h ad in

,
h i s h a n d e v e ry b a ll in t h e b a g .
a s e r i es o f g a me s t h e p r o b a b i li ty th a t t h e w inn e r o fa ny g a me
,
n ex t g a m e i s F in d th e p r o b a b i li ty t h a t t h e w inn e r o f t h e
firs t ga me w in s th r e e or m o re o f th e n e xt fo ur .
1 6 A b a g c o n t a in s t h r e e t i c k e ts n u mb e r e d 1 2 3
. A t i c k e t i s d ra w n , , .
,
a n d r e pl a c e d A fte r th is h a s b e e n d o n e fo ur ti mes w h at is th e probab ility

.
,
th at th e s um o fth e n um b ers d ra w n is e v e n
448 E
ADVAN C D C OU R S E I N AL G E B R A
1 7. A p urs e c o n t ain s a s ilve r d o lla r a nd four d i me s ; a n o th e r c o nt ain s

five d i me s . F our c o in s a r e t a k e n fr o m t h e fo r m e r a n d p ut in t h e la t t e r ;
a n d t h e n fo u r c o in s ar e ta k e n fr o m t h e l a t t e r a n d p ut in th e f o rme r . F in d
th e p r ob a b i l i t y t h a t t h e d oll a r is s t i ll in t h e firs t p ur s e .
1 8 A a n d B w i th s i x o th e rs d ra w l o t s for p a r tn e rs an d p lay four tw o

.
, , ,
h an d e d g a me s a ll t h e p l a y e rs b e in g o fe qua l s ki l l
, . Th e four w inn e rs d ra w
l o ts fo r p a r t n e rs a nd pla y t w o g a m e s a n d t h e w inn e rs in th e s e ga mes p la y
, ,
a fi n al g a me . F in d t h e p r o b a b i l i ty t h a t A an d B h a v e p la y ed t o ge t h e r .
1 9 . I f four wh ole numb e rs ta k e n a t ran d o m be mult ipli ed toget h e r find ,
th e c h an c e t h a t t h e l a s t d i g i t in t h e p r o d uc t i s 1 3 7 o r 9
, , , .
20 An urn co n ta in s 3 wh i te a n d 3 b la c k b a lls a n d a n o th e r 4 w h i te a n d
.
,
4 bla c k b alls . A b all i s t a ke n fr o m o n e a n d p ut in t h e o th e r Ifa b all.
b e d ra w n fr o m o n e o f th e u r n s c h o s e n at a r a n d o m w h a t i s t h e prob ab i l ity
,
t h a t i t is wh i t e
L e t t h e g i ve n fr a cti o n be where a an d b a re p r i m e t o ea c h
oth e r .
D i vi d e a by b, an d l et al d enote th e quot i e n t an d b1 th e re
m ai n d e r th e n ,
b 1
b1
D i v i de b by b, , an d let a2 d en o t e t h e q u ot i e n t an d b2 th e re
m a i n d e r ; t h e n,
cl 1 1
— ar t
b b 1
012 4
52
Ag a i n , d i vi d e b by l b2, a nd l et a3 d en ot e t h e qu o t i e n t an d b3
th e r e ma i n d e r ; t h e n ,
g— '
1 '
1
al ‘
i — al l
"
b l 1
+ +
:
(1 2 “2
— b 1
Ol s F
E
53
Th e p r oce s s i s t h e s a me as th a t
fi n d i n g th e H C F o f a
of . . .
an d b 1 8 8 ) a n d s i n ce a a n d b ar e p r i m e t o e a ch o th e r w e ,
mu s t t y obt ai n a
e v e n u al l r emai n d e r u ni ty at w h i ch p oi nt th e
,
Op e r a t i o n t e r m i n at e s .
H en ce an y o rd i n a ry fr act i on i n i t s l o w e st t e rm s
, can be con
ve r t e d i n t o a ter mi n a ti ng co n t i n ue d fr act i o n .
'
Ex . C onv e rt
g;
n to a co n t i n ue d fr act i o n .
a,
a2
1 6
da
1 4
a,
6
C ON T IN UE D F R A C T ION S 451
1 1 1
Th e r e fo r e ’
23 1 + 2+ 3+ 2
64 9 . A qu a d r a t i c s u r d 3 68) ma y be con ve r ted i nto a n i nfin i te

co n ti n ued fr a cti o n .
'
Ex . Co n v e rt V 6 i n t o a co n t i n u e d fr a ct i o n .
Th e g r e a t e s t i n t e g e r i n 6 i s 2 ; w e th en w r ite
R e duci n g V 6 — 2 to an e qui v al e n t fr act i o n w i th a r at i on a l

nume a or t r w e h av e
2
6 2 V6+ 2
1
2 (1 )
V6+ 2
2
V6 2
Th e g r e at e st i n t e ge r i n is 2 we th e n w r ite
1
2 2 V 6
2 ( 2) 2
1
S ub s t i tut i n g i n 2
1
( )
2
2
6 2
1
=4 +
2
S ubsti tuti n g in
V6 2+
1
2
1
4 +
V6 + 2
4 52 ADVAN C E D C O UR S E I N A L G E BR A
Th e st e p s n ow r e cu r , and w e h a ve
J ‘
O 1 1 1 1
V b = 2 +-
An in fi ni te c o n t inue d fra c t i o n in w h i c h th e d e n o min ators re cur is

c alle d a p e r i o d i c c o n t in ue d fra c t i o n .
6 5 0 A p er i od i c co n ti n ued
.
fr acti on ma y a lwa ys be exp r es s ed
a s a n i rr a ti o n a l n umber .
1 1 1 1
Ex . E xp r e s s a s an i rr a t i o na l nu mb e r .
1:d en o t e th e
L et : v a l ue o ft h e fr act i o n th en,
1 1 3+ x 3+ x
1 +3 + x 3+ x+ 1 4 + x
Cl e a r i n g o ff a c r ti on s ,
or x
2
+3 x =3 .
— 3
+ V9 + 1 2
S ol v i n g th i s e qu a tion x ,
2 2
It i s e vi d en t th at th e p os i t ive s i gn mus t b e t ak e n b efo re th e ra d i c al .
PR OPER TI E S O F CO NV ER GE NTS
65 1 . In 65 2 t o 6 5 7, i ncl us i v e , w e s ha ll s upp o e s th e con
t i nn e d fr a cti o n t o be
1 1 1 1
051 + —
“2 + C‘s l
"
an + an+ l +
An d w e s h a ll l e t p , d e n o t e th e n um e a o r t r a n d q t h e d e n o mi
, ,
t r
na o ,
of th e r th con v e r g e n t w h e n e xp r e s s e d i n i t s
s imp le s t fo r m .
65 2 . To d ete r mi n e th e la w ff
o r ma ti
o on of th e s ucces s i ve
rgents
co n ve .
Th e fir s t co n v e r g e nt is al .
1~ a1 a2 + 1
Th e s econ d is a1 +
a2 a2
4 54 AD VAN C E D C O U R S E IN ALG E B R A
Th e n PM “e
d e ma -1 +2 -2)H u i
—l (a
' _2)
qn -l- a n -l In -1 l
C Qn g _l
"
l n a
n
a n +1 pn Ian —1
,
by 1 3
an+l Qn 9 71 — 1
I t i s e v i d e n t th at t h e s eco n d m e mb e r o f (3 ) i s th e s i mp l e s t
fo r m o f t h e (n 1 )th co n v e r g e n t a n d t h e r e fo r e ,
e -l a n +1 p + p n -1 )
n
a nd Qn + 1 a n-
l-l qn gi t —1 ‘
Th e s e r e s ul t s a re in a cco rd an ce w i th l a w s I an d II .
H e n ce , i f t h e l aw s h o l d fo r v e r g e nt s as far a s t h e n t h
a l l co n
i n cl us i v e t h e y a l s o h o l d fo r t h e ( n
,
1 )th .
B ut w e k n o w t h a t t h e y h o l d fo r t h e th i rd c o n v e r ge nt a n d ,
h e nce th e y h ol d fo r t h e fou r th ; a n d s i n ce t h ey h o l d a s fa r a s
t h e fo ur th t h e y a l s o h o l d fo r t h e fi fth ; a n d s o o n
,
.
H e n ce th e l a w s h ol d fo r a ll co n v e r g e nt s a ft e r t h e s e co n d
,
.
E x F i n d t h e fir s t fiv e co n v e r g e n t s o f
.
1 1 1 1
+
Th e fir s t con v e rg e nt i s 1 an d t h e s e co n d ,
is 1 1 ,
o r 2 .
Th e n, by a id o f t h e l a w s j us t p r o ve d ,
2 -2 1 5
T
th e t h l r d ls _
ii i T
I
,
-- 3
2 1 7
t h e fourt h 1 8 ,
1 0
t h e fifth is
43
Th e d ifier ence between two

’
co n s ecuti ve
1 0"
6 53 . co nvergents
1 9n
a nd is
q n +1 gn 9 n + l
Th e d i ffe r e n ce b e t w ee n th e fir s t a n d s econ d con ve rgents is
T h u s th e t h e o r e m h o l ds for t h e fir s t an d s econ d con ve r g e nt s

C O NTIN U E D F R A C T I O NS 4 55
Ass ume th at i t h o l d s fo r t h e nth an d

( n 1 )t h co n v e r ge n t s .
n +1
1
~p
Th at i s) or a n +l n +l qn 1 °
Qn gn -l-l gn 9 n + 1
p n+l a n + 2p n + l
p n+ l
Th e n ,
a n + 2Qn + l
65 2)
g n+l g n+2 qn + 1 9n
( a n + 2p n + l qn + l +1 9 71 qn -
H )
gn + 1 ( a n + 2 Qn + 1 9 n)
v
p n + l gn p n 9 n+1 1
by
q -l gn + 2 gn + I Qn + 2
H e n ce ,
t h e o r e m h ol d s fo r a ny p ai r o f con s ecuti v e con
i f th e
v e r g e n t s i t a l s o h o l d s fo r t h e n e x t p ai r
, .
B ut w e k n o w t h a t i t h o l d s fo r t h e fir s t a n d s e co n d co n v e r
g e n t s a
,
n d h e n ce i t a l s o h o l d s fo r t h e s e co n d a n d t h i rd ; a n d
s i n ce i t h old s for t h e s e co n d a n d th i rd i t al s o h old s fo r t h e ,
t h i rd an d fo u rth ; an d s o o n .
Th e r e fo r e t h e t h e o r e m h o lds un i v e rs all y
, .
A s a n e xa mp le o f th e t h e o r e m t h e d i ffe r e n c e be twee n th e fourt h and

,
fi fth c o nv erge n ts in t h e e xa mpl e in § 6 5 2 i s

, ,
1 7 73 73 1 73 0 1
1 0 43 1 0 X 43 1 0 x 43
6 54 . It 6 53 t h a t p n a n d qn ca n h av e n o co m
foll o w s fr o m
m o n d i v i s o r e x ce pt uni ty ; fo r i f th ey h a d , i t w o ul d be a d i vi s o r
o f p n qn + 1 ~ p n + 1 qm o r u n i t y , w hi ch i s i m p o s s i b l e .
Th e r e fo r e , al l co n v e r ge n t s fo r me d in acco rd an ce w i th th e
l aw s of 6 52 a re in t h e i r l owes t te r ms .
65 5 . Th e even conve rgen ts a re gr ea ter ,

a nd th e o dd co nve r
g en ts les s , th a n th e fr a cti on i ts e lf .
I . Th e fir s t co n v e r ge nt d l , ,
i s les s th an th e fr act i on i ts e lf,
1
s i n ce is omi tte d .
(1 2
1
II . Th e s e con d ,
da i s g r ea ter , b ecaus e i ts d e no mi nato r a 2
2
1
is le s s th an a2 th e d e n omi nat o r of t h e fr act i on .
as
4 56 A D VAN C D C O U R S E E IN A L G EB R A
1 1
I II . Th e th i rd d l +, ,
is les s , b e ca u s e by I I , ,
th e
“ 2 + “3
1 1 1
d e n om i n a t o r - r t r t h th e
ar t 1 8 g ea e a n ag +
E3 ag + (1 4 + m
,
d e n o mi n at o r o f t h e fr a ct i on ; a n d s o o n .
H ence t h e fir s t th i rd
,
con v e r g e n t s
, ,
o n
,
a re les s, a nd th e
s e co n d f o urth ,
con v e r g e n t s g r e a t e r t h a n
,
o n
,
t h e fr a ct i o n i t s e l f .
65 6 . A ny con vergen t is n ea r er th a n th e p reced i ng con vergen t
to th e va lu e o f f
th e a cti o n i r
ts e l
f
By 2
a n + 29 n QR
+l
’
Th e fr a ct i on i t s e lf i s o bta i n e d fro m it s (
n 2 )t h co n v e r gen t
1
by Put t m g “n + 2 + i n p l ace of a n
” .
a n+ 3
H en ce , de n ot i n g t h e v al ue o f th e fr a ct i o n by x, we ha v e
p n+ 1 pn
mp n +l +pn
m9
,
n+ 1 + qn
+ qn
w he re m t
s an ds fo r an”
a n +3
mp + p n— g
No w x ~ 31 ~
1 ° "+ l
~ 3
gi t a +1 qn gr:
m( p fl --
l
i qn N
a n-
t-l )
qu (mqu +l g” )
m
( 1 )
u m
q ( qu + l qn )
Pn + 1 7”a !
+ Pn Pn + 1
Al s o, :
1:
qn + l mq n +l
(I n qu+ i
a n+ 1 p n + 1 qn
gu n me n“ q . )
S i nce a, ” is a po s i tiv e i nte g e r, “n + 2 — e
is 1 ; th a t
o o
IS , m IS 1 .
An d S i n ce g n-
H du + l gu Qn —l g n+l
is gn
4 58 ADVAN C E D C OU R S E IN ALG E B R A
m . 1 8
1 6 . x/I9 . 1 9 .
m . v§ 1 1 w .
Ex p ress ea ch o f th e follo w ing in th e for m o fa s urd

1 1 1 1
m .
1 1
m .
1 1 1 1
M . 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
25 O a +
26 . Th e s i d e re al y e a r is a pp ro x i m atel y d ay s ; e x r es s th e p
c
e x e ss ab o ve 3 6 5 d ay s as a c o n t in ue d fr a ct i o n ,
a n d fin d i ts firs t four
c o nv e rge nts .
27 .A ki lo me te r i s a pp r o x i m ate ly 6 2 1 3 8 mi le ; e xp re s s th i s d e c i mal
.
as a c o n t in u e d fra c t i o n fin d i ts fi f th c o nv e rg e n t a n d d e te r min e li mi ts t o
, ,
t h e e rr o r m a d e in t a kin g t h i s c o nv e r g e n t fo r t h e fr a c ti o n i ts e lf .
28 . A pp roxi mat ely

me t er i s a y a rd s e x p r e s s t h i s d e c i ma l a s a
c o n t in ue d fra ct i o n fin d i ts s ixth c o nve rge n t a nd d e te r min e l i mi ts to th e

, ,
e rr o r ma d e in t a kin g t h i s c o nv e r g e n t fo t h e fr a c t i o n i ts e lf r .
29 E xpres s th e gr ea te s t r oot o f t h e e q ua t i o n
.
2 x2 1 0 x 5
as a c o n tinued fra c ti on , and find t h e firs t fi ve c o nv e rgen ts .
C o nv e r t ea ch of th e foll o w in g int o a c o n tin ue d fra c ti on ,

a nd fin d in
ea ch c as e t h e firs t fo ur c o nve rge n ts :
:
1
32 x/ 2 -
33
31 a + ci
am
. .
XXX IV . S U MM A TIO N O F S ER I E S
65 8 . Th e S ummat i on o f an i n fi n i t e l i t e r al se r i es i s t h e p ro
ce s s fi n di n g a n e xp r es s i o n fr om wh i ch th e
of may be s eri es
d e v e l op e d .
In 530 w e gave a meth od fo r fi n d in g th e s um o f an i nfini te ge o me tri c

,
s er i e s
.
R E CURR ING S ER I E S
659 . C on s i d e r t h e i n fi n i t e se ri es
H er e, (3 x
2
) 2 x (2 a3
) O,
(4 x
)
3
) 2 x (3 x
2
:
13
) 0, e tc .
Th at i s a ny th r e e co n s e cuti v e t e r ms a s fo r e xa mple 2 x
, , ,
3 x
2
,
and a r e s o r e l a t e d t h a t t h e t h i rd m i n u s 2 a:t i me s , the

s e co n d , p l us :8 t i me s t h e fir s t e q ual s 0
2
,
.
660 . A R ecurri ng S eri es i s an i n fin ite se rie s of t h e fo r m

2
ao + a1 w+ a 2w +
where an y r 1 co n s e cu ti v e t e rm s ,
as fo r e x a mp l e
ap pe
n d
,
m ,
are s o rel a t e d th a t
0;
p , q,
m ,
8 b ei n g co n s an s t t .
Th e a b o v e r e curr i n g se rie s is s ai d to be of th e r th o rd er ,
a nd
th e e x p r es s mn
1 + 1 996 + (m ,
+ 8x
,
is cal l e d i ts s ca le o f r ela ti on .
Th e r e curr in g se ries of § 6 59 i s of th e se c on d o rd e r ,
a nd i ts s c al e of
r el a t i o n is 1 2 a: :
8 2
An in finit e ge o me t ri c se r i es is a r e c urrin g se ri es of th e firs t o r d e r .

4 60 AD VAN C E D C OU R S E IN ALG E B R A
Th us , i n th e in fi ni te g e om e t r i c s e r i es
1
a ny t wo c on s e cut iv e te rms , as fo r e xa m p l e x 3
and x 2
,
ar e so r el ate d
t h at (
x x? ) 0 an d th e s c al e r
o f el a t o i n is 1 x.
661 . To find th e f s ca le o f r i ng s e r i es
r ela ti on o a r ecur .
I f t h e s e r i e s i s o f t h e fir s t o rd e r t h e s ca l e o f r e l at i o n may b e
,
foun d by d i v i di n g a ny t e r m by t h e p r e ce d i n g t e r m a n d s ub ,
tr a cti ng th e r e s ul t fr om 1 .
I f t h e s e r i e s i s o f th e s econ d o rd e r a dl a 2 a
' i t s co n n o
, 0, , , 3, ,
”
s e cuti v e co e f fi ci en t s an d 1 + p zv qr i t s s ca l e o f r e l ati on w e
, ,
s h al l h a v e
a2 ga o 0 2
,
a + 9a + a = 0
( 1
3 1 2 q q 5
fr o m w h i ch p an d q m ay be d e t e r mi n e d .
If th e s e r i e s i s o f t h e t h i rd o rd e r , a 0, dl ,
a 2, a 3, a ” a 5 , .
o n
,
it s
co n s ecu ti v e coe ffi ci e n t s , an d 1 +px qx
2
r zv
3
it s s cal e r
o f e la
ti on, w e sh al l h av e
“3 + 1 0% Ta o 0:
a4 + p a s + Qa 2 + 7a 1 = oy
fr om w hi ch p , q, an d r m ay be d e t e r m i n e d
'
.
I t i s e v i d e n t fr o m th e a b o v e th a t t h e s cal e r e la ti o n o f a
of
r e curri n g ri e s o f th e rt h o rd e r may be
se . d e t e r mi ne d w h en an y
2 r co n s e cut i v e t e r m s a r e g i v e n .
To a s ce rt ai n t h e o rd e r o f a s e r i e s w e m ay fir s t m ak e tr i al o f ,
a s ca l e o f r e l a t i o n o f t h r e e t e r m s ; i f th e r e s ult d oe s n o t a g r e e
w i t h t h e s e r i e s try a s cal e o f fo u r t e r m s fiv e t e r m s a n d s o o n
, , ,
un t i l t h e co rr e ct s ca l e o f r e l a t i o n i s fo un d .
I f th e s e r i e s i s a s s um e d t o be o f t oo h i gh a n o rd e r th e e q ua ,
t i on s co rr e s po n d i n g t o t h e a s s um e d s cal e w i l l n ot be i nd e p en
d en t ( Co mp a r e
.
662 To fin d th e s um of a r ecurr i ng s e r i es wh en i ts s ca le of
.
r ela ti on i s kn o wn .
L et 1 pa : qr be t h e”
s ca l e o f r ela ti on o f th e s er i es
2
a0 alx ‘
l
"
a 29’7
It wi ll b e r
o bs e ve d , in fo r m ul ae and th a t t h e d e n o m in a t o r
is th e s ca l e o frela ti o n .
A r e c urrin g s e r i es i s fo rme d b y th e e xp an s i on in a n in fi ni te s e ri es of a , ,
frac ti on c alled th e g ener a ti ng fr a cti o n

, T h e o p e r a t i o n o f s umm a t i o n .
r e pro d uc es th e frac t i on ; th e p r oc es s b e in g j us t th e re v e rs e o fth at o f 564 .
Ex . F i n d t h e s um of t h e s e r i e s
To d ete r min e th e s cal e of r e l a t i on ,

we first a ss ume the s er i es
t o be o f th e s e con d o rd e r
S ubst i t uti ng a o 2 a , ,
1 ,
a2 5, a3 7, i n 66 1 ,
S ol v i ng th e s e e quati on s 1 0 1 q 2 , , .
To as ce rt ai n if 1 — w 2 x i s t h e co rr ect s ca le of r el at i on
2
,
co n s i d e r t h e fi fth t e r m .
S in ce 1 7(v 4
x (7x )
)
3
2 x
2
5
)( )w
?
i s 0 i t fo l l o w s th a t ,
1 x 2 x i s th e co rr e ct s cal e
2
.
S ubst i tuti n g th e val ue s o f a 0 dl 1 9 an d q i n , , ,
2 + (1 — 2 2x 2
S = =
1 — 11 3 — 2 902
1 — a; — 2:
z:
2
Th e result may be ver i fi e d by ex a p ns i on .
Th e se p r es s e s th e value of th e frac ti o n o nly fo r s uch values o fx

r i es ex
as mak e t h e s e ri e s c o nv e rge n t .
T o fin d fo r w h a t v alue s o fa:th e g iv e n s e ri es i s c o nv erge n t we p r o c eed ,
as in 5 72 w e find b y th e meth od of 56 7 ,
2 — :
51 1 1
1 — x—2fl 1 — 2x 1 + x
— x + x2 — m
(1 ).
Th e nth t e r m oft h e give n se r i e s i s [Z n- 1

l)n —1
]
n-l
x
Th e ra t i o oft h e ( n 1 )t h t e r m t o th e nt h t e rm i s
1 2—1
n n
x
, or
n —l 1 n-l
[Z 1 ) ]
n
x
S U MM A T I O N O F S E R I E S 4 63
Th is app roach es th e li mi t 2 as w h e n n i s in d e fi ni tely in creas e d

, .
Th e n t h e s e r i es is c o nv e rg e n t i fx i s n ume r i c ally < l

, 55 5 ,
2
EX ERC S E | 09 I
In e ac h of th e follow ing find th e gen e rat in g fra c ti on and th e exp res ,
s ion f o r th e nt h te r m a nd d e t e r min e for w h a t v alues o f x th e s eri es i s

,
c o nv ergen t :
1 . 4 — x + 7x2 — 5 x3 + 1 9 x4 +
2 . 1 — l3 x — 23 x2 —
8 5 x3 — 239 x4 + m .
3 .
4 . 5 — 1 8
3x+ 5x2
5 .
— 2 x + x2 + 22 x3 — 1 9 1 x4 +
7 .
8 . 1 + 3 1 x — 1 9 x2 + 39 1 x3 — 6 1 9 x4 + m .
In e ach of t h e follo w in g find th e ge n e rat in g frac ti on , and c on tin ue t he

s e r i es t o t w o m o r e t e r ms
+ 2 x — 3 x2
+ 6 x3 — 7x + 1 x
4
0 5 — 1 1 6
x +
2 x — x2 795 3 — 1 8 11 24 — 59 x5 — l 8 l m6 +
1 1 95 1 5 x2 + 20x3 1 33 954 23 1 91 5+ 1 30956
THE DI F F E RE NTIAL ME TH O D
663 . first t e r m of a s e r i e s b e s ubtr act e d fr om th e

I f th e
s eco n d th e s e co n d fr o m t h e th i rd an d s o o n a s e r i e s i s fo rme d
, , ,
w h i ch i s cal l e d t h e fi r s t o r d er of d zfierences o f t h e gi v e n s e r i e s .
Th e fir s t o rd e r o f d i ffe r e n ce s o f t h i s n ew s e r i e s i s ca ll e d t h e
s eco n d o r d er of d f f h i r i d
if e r en ce s o t e g v e n s e e s ; a n s o o n .
Th us i n t h e s e r i e s
,
1 , 8, 27 64 , 1 25 , 2 1 6, m ,
th e s
s ucce s i v e o rd e r s of d i ffe r e n ce s ar e a s fo l l ow s :
l st o rd e r , 7, 1 9, 37 61 ,
91
2d o rd e r , 1 2, 1 8, 24 , 3 0,
3d o rd e r , 6, 6, 6,
4 th o rd e r , 0, 0,
4 64 AD V AN C E D C O U R SE IN ALG E B R A
Th e D i ffere nt i a l Met h od i s a m e th od fo r fi n d in g any t e rm o r ,
t h e s um o f a ny numb e r of t e r m s o f a s e r i es by me an s o f i t s ,
s ucce s s i v e o rd e r s o f d i f
fe r e nces .
664 . To fin d a ny te rm of th e se r i es
051 : a 2: a s: d 4a a n) “ n+ 1 ;
Th e s ucce s i s v e o rd e r s o f difi e r e n ce s a r e a s fol l ow s :

1 st o rd e r , a2 (1 1 , 013 a 2, a4 d 3, m ,
a n+ 1 a n,
2d o rd e r ,
d3 2 (1 2 a] , a4 2 a3 a 2,
3d o rd e r , a , 3 (1 3 +3 a2 dl ,
o n
, e tc .
D e n o ti n g t h efir s t t e r ms of th e 1 s t ,
2 d, 3d , o rd e rs o f d if
"
fe r e n ce s by d l d 2 d3 m r e s p e ct i v e ly
, , , , , we h av e
d1 a2 dl ; w h en ce a 2 a , ,
d2 a3 2 a2 w h e n ce ,
d3 a, 3 a3 3 a2 dl ; w h e n ce ,
a4 = a1 — 3 a2 +3 a3 + d3 = d1 + 3 dl + 3 d2 + d3 3 e tc .
I t w i ll be o b se rv e d i n t h e v al ue s o f a 2 a 3 an d (1 4 th at th e
, , , ,
co e f fi ci e nts o f t h e t e r m s ar e th e s am e a s t h e coe ffi ci e n t s o f th e
t e r ms i n th e e xp an s i on by th e B i n o mi al Th e o r e m o f a a:t o
t h e fi r s t s eco n d a n d th i r d p o w e r s r e s p e ct i v e l y
, , ,
.
W e w i l l n o w p r o v e by M a th e ma t i ca l I n d uct i o n th at th i s l a w
h ol d s for a ny t e rm o f th e g i ven s e r i e s .
As s u m e th e l aw to h o l d fo r th e nth t e r m a ; th e n t h e co e f , n
fici e n t s o ft h e t e r m s w i l l be th e s a m e a s t h e coe f fi ci e nt s o f th e
t e r m s i n th e e xp an s i on by th e Bi n o mi a l T h e o r e m o f a + a:t o
th e (n 1 )th p o w e r ; t h a t i s ,
L
3 .
If t h e l aw h ol d s fo r th e n th t e r m o f an y s e r i es i t m us t ,
al s o
h ol d fo r t h e n th t e r m o f th e fir s t o rd er o f d i f
fe r en ce s .
4 66 AD V AN C E D C O URS E IN ALG E B R A
H e re ,
n 1 2, dl 1 .
Al S O , d 1 7, d 2 1 2, d 3 6, an d d4 0
S ub s t i t ut i n g i n 6 64 , t h e t w e l ft h t e rm
-9
— 1
+1 1 o
7+ -
1 2 78
1 -2 1 -2 3 o
S ub s t i tu ti n g i n 66 5, th e s um o f t h e fir s t tw e l v e t e rm s
— 1 2 1 2 -
1 1 1 2 -1 1
+ 7+
1 - 2- - -
o
3 1 2 o
3 4
66 7 Pi l es . of S h ot .
Ex If s h o t be p i l e d i n th e s h ap e o f a p yr a m i d w i th
. a tri
an g ul a r b as e , e a ch s i d e o f w h i ch e xh i b i t s 9 s h o t , fin d t h e nu m
ber i n t h e p il e .
Th e n um be r of s h ot i n th e fir s t fiv e r
co u s e s a r e 1 , 3 , 6 , 1 0,
and 1 5, r e s p e ct i v e ly ; w e h a v e t h e n t o fin d t h e su m o f th e first
ni ne te rms o f th e s e r i e s
‘
1 ,
3 , 6 , 1 0, 1 5 ,
Th e s ucce s i ve o s rd er s of diffe r e n ce s ar e a s foll o ws :

l st rd e r
o ,
2, 3, 4, 5,
2d o rd e r ,
1 ,
1 ,
1 ,
3d o rd e r ,
0, 0,
Pu tt i n g n 9, d
, 1 ,
d1 2, d 2 1 ln 665,
9 8 9 o
8 o7
S 9 2+ 1 1 65
-
0
1 2 o
3
EX ERC S E IIO I
1 . F in d th e firs t t e rm o f th e i
s xth o rd e r of i
d ffe re n c es of th e se ri es
3, 5 , 1 1 , 27, 6 7, 1 59 , 3 75 ,
2 . F in d th e 1 5 th t e r m , an d th e s um o f th e firs t 1 5 t e r ms , of th e se r i es
1 ,
9 , 21 ,
3 7, 5 7,
3 . F in d th e 1 4 th t e rm , a nd t h e s um o f t h e firs t 1 4 t e r ms , of th e se r i es
5, 1 4 , 7,
4 . F in d th e s u m o f th e firs t n mul t iples o f3 .
5 . F in d th e n th t e rm , a nd th e s um of th e firs t n te r ms ,
of th e se r i es
2, — l , 1 ,
S U M MA T I O N O F S E R I E S 4 67
6 . pi le d in th e s h ap e of a py ram i d w i th a s qua re b as e e ac h
If s h o t b e ,
s i d e o f wh i c h e xh i b i ts 2 5 s h o t find t h e n um b e r in t h e pi l e , .
7 F in d th e 1 3t h t e r m a n d th e s um o f th e firs t 1 3 te rm s o f th e s e r i es 1
.
, , ,
3, 5 7, 1 1 1 ,
8 . F in d th e l 0th t erm ,
an d th e s um o ft h e firs t 1 0 te r ms , o ft h e s e r i es 4 ,
2 , 1 0, 4 , 56 , 206 ,
9 . F in d th e s um o f th e s quares of th e firs t n multipl es of 2 .
1 0 . F in d t h e nth t e rm a n d th e s um o f th e firs t n t e r ms o f t h e s e r i e s
, , 1 ,
3, 1 3, l 7, 3, 4 1 ,
1 1 . F in d th e n umb e r
in a pile o f 9 c o urs es w i th a r e c tan gular
of s h ot ,
b as e if t h e n u mb e r o f s h o t in th e l o n g e s t s i d e o f t h e b a s e i s 2 4
, .
1 2 F in d th e n umb e r o f s h o t in a t r un c a t e d pi le o f 1 0 c ours es w i th a
.
,
s qua r e b a s e if t h e n umb e r o f s h o t in e a ch s i d e o f t h e l o w e r b as e i s 1 6
, .
1 3 F in d t h e n umb e r o f s h o t in a t run c a t e d pi le o f 8 c o u rs es w i t h a
.
,
r e c ta n gula r b a s e i f t h e n umb e r o f s h o t in th e le n gth a n d b re a dth of th e

,
b as e a r e 2 0 a n d 1 4 r e s p e c t ive ly , .
1 4 F in d th e 1 2 th t e rm a n d th e s um o f th e firs t 1 2 t e r ms o f th e s e r i es
.
, ,
1 ,
1 3 , 4 9 , 1 39 , 3 33 , 701 , 1 333 ,
1 5 . F in d th e 9 th t e rm ,
a nd ‘
th e su m of th e firs t 9 t e r ms , of th e se r i es
2 0, 4 , 36 , 1 32 , 3 56 , 8 2 0, 1 6 76 ,
1 6 ind th e s um o f th e fourth p o w e rs of t h e firs t nn atural numb e rs

. F .
1 7 F in d t h e n umb e r o f s h o t in a pi le w i th a r e c t a n g ul a r b a s e i f t h e
.
,
numb e r of s h ot in th e l ength an d b re ad th o f th e b as e a re m a nd n
,
,
res p e c tively .
1 8 F in d t h e n umb e r o f s h o t in a t r un c a t e d pi l e o f n c o urs e s w i th a
.
,
t r i an gula r b as e i f th e n umb e r o f s h o t in e a c h s i d e o f t h e l o w e r b as e is m
, .
INTE R PO LATI O N
6 68 . I nt erpol at i on i s th e p r oce s s o f i n tr o d uci n g b e t w ee n th e
te r m s o f a s e r i e s o t h e r t e r m s co n fo r m i n g t o t h e l a w o f th e
s e ri e s .
It s u s ua l fi n d i n g i n t e r m e d i at e n umbe rs
a p p l i ca t i on i s in
b e t w e e n t h o s e gi v e n i n Math em ati cal Tab l es .
Th e o p e r a t i o n i s e f
fe ct e d by gi v i n g fr a cti o na l v al ue s t o n i n
6 64 .
Th e m e t h o d of I n t e r p ol ati on r e s ts o n th e a s s u mp ti o n th at a
fo r m ul a wh i ch h a s b e e n p r o v e d fo r a n i n t e gr al v al ue o fn h o l d s ,
al os wh en n is fr a cti o n al .
G iv en V5 V6 f
fin d «63 .
In th i s ca s e th e s ucce s s i v e o rd e r s of d iffe r en ce s a re :
2 1 34 , . 1 9 63 , . 1 8 2 6,
Wh en ce ,
d2 _ a
No w ,
th e r e qu i r e d t e r m is d i s t an t i n t e r v al s fr o m V5 .
S ub s ti t ut i n g n in 664 , w e h av e ,
a p p ox i m a e l
r t y ,
3
x 21 34 01 71
.
. .
X . 003 4
1 x2 x3
. 2 774 . 0033 . 0002
EX ERC S E I Il l
1 . Give n l og l og l og l og 2 9 ;
fin d l o g
2 . Give n { 791 ME { Va : 4 54 684 ,
.
fin d
3 . Th e r e c ip ro c al o f3 5 i s 0285 7
. o f3 6 , . 02 778 of 3 7 . 02 703 ; o f 38 ,
0263 2 e tc . F in d th e re c ip ro c al of
4 . Given l og 1 24 log 1 2 5 l og 1 26
l og 1 2 7 find l o g
5 . Giv e n 21 3
9 26 1 , 2 23 1 064 8 , 2 33 1 2 1 6 7, 24 3 1 3 8 24 , a nd
2 53 1 5 62 5 ; fin d th e c ub e of
6 . G iv e n log 61 : l og 62 log 63
l og 6 4 fin d lo g
S U M M A TI O N O F S ER IES BY S EP A R A TI O N I NTO P A R TIAL

FR A CTI O N S
31 8 . 1 . F i n d th e su m of th e fir s t n t e rm s of t h e i n fi ni t e
se ri e s 1 1 1
an d d e t e r mi n e wh e t h e r t h e s er i e s is con ve r g en t or d i ve r gent ,
4 70 AD V AN C E D C O U R SE IN ALG E B R A
I
EX ERC S E “2
In e a ch o f t h e follow ing find t h e s um o f t h e firs t , n te rms , a nd d e te r .
min e w h e th e r t h e s e r i e s i s c o nv e rg e n t or d iv e rge n t
1 1 1 1
1 .
3
1 1 1
2 + 4
-1 0
.
2 4 o
1 5
3 5
5'
In e a ch ofth e follo w in g find th e s um of t h e firs t ,

7
7. te r ms , and d ete r
min e fo r wh at v al ue s o f x th e s e r i es i s c onv e r g en t
1 1
6
7 .
x x a:
( 1
8 . F in d th e s um ofth e firs t n t erms of
1 1
x(x (a +
TH E OR Y O F NU M B E R S 4 71
XXX V . TH E O R Y O F N U MB E R S
6 70 In th e p r e s en t ch ap t e r, th e w ord
. numbe r w ill s i gn i fy a
p o s i ti ve i n teger ; an d e v e ry l e tt e r w i ll be un d e rst oo d a s r e pr e
s en tin g t i v e i ntege r
a p o s i .
O n e n umb e r i s s a i d t o d i vid e an o th e r w h en i t i s co n t ai n e d i n
i t w i th out a r e ma i n d e r ; i n th i s ca s e th e s e co n d nu m b e r i s s a i d
,
t o be a multip le o f t h e fir s t
'
.
A p r i me n umbe r i s a n umb e r w h i ch ca nn o t be d i v i d e d w i th ,
o u t a r e m a i n d e r by a n n u m b e r e x c e t i t s e l f a n d u n i ty
y , p .
O n e n um b e r i s s a i d t o be p r i me t o a n o th e r w he n th e r e i s n o
n um b e r e xce p t u n i ty w h i ch w ill d i v i d e e a ch o f th e m w i th ou t
, ,
a r e ma i n d e r .
6 71 . If a n umbe r
d i vid es th e p r od uct of two r
o th e s , and is
p r i me to one of th em, i t mus t d i vi d e th e oth e r .
L e t th e b e r n d i v i d e t h e p r o d uct a b an d be p r i me to a
n um ,
.
S i n ce n d i v i d e s a b t h e p r i m e fa ct o r s o f a b mu s t be t h e s a me
,
a s t h o s e o f n w i t h ce r t a i n a dd i t i o n al r i m e f act o r s
, p .
B ut s i n ce i t i s p r im e t o a n an d a h a v e n o co mm on fact o r
,
e xce p t un i ty .
T h e n th e p r i m e facto r s of b must be e i th er th e s ame a s th o s e

,
o f n o r w i th c e rt a i n a dd i t i on al r i m e fac t o rs a n d n d i vi d e s b
, p .
6 72 . If a p r i me n umbe r d i vi d es th e p r o d uct ofa ny numbe r of

a cto r s ,
f i t mus t d i vi d e s o me fa cto r of th e p r o d uct .
L e t p be p r iam e n u m b e r w h i c h d i v i d e s t h e p r o d u c t a b c
T h e n t h e p r i m e fa ct o r s o f a bc
, mus t b e p w i th ce rt a i n ,
a dd i t i o n a l
p r i m e fa ct o r s .
Th e n s o m e on e of t h e n umb e r s a b c m mu s t h av e p a s a
, , , , ,
p r i m e f ac t o r a n d th,e r e fo r e p d i v i d e s s o m e fac t o r o f t h e p r o d u ct .
6 73 I t fol l o w s fr o m 6 72 t h a t
.
If a p r i me n u mbe r d i v id es a p os i ti ve i n tegr a l p owe r fa

o n um
ber a, i t mus t d i vi d e a .
4 72 AD V AN CE D CO URSE IN ALG E B R A
6 74 . If th e n ume a to r r a nd d e n om i n a to r f
o a f r a cti on a re
p r i me to e a ch o th er, th e fr a cti o n i s i n i ts lo wes t te r ms .
'
L et a be p r i m e t o b .
'
I
t wh ere b i s
If p os s i bl e, l e t
i ' '
,
b .
ab
' r d d '
Mul ti ply i n g b o t h mem
b r by e s b, a .
b
W h e n ce s i n ce a is
'
an i n t ege b i vi es a b
'
, ,
.
B ut i s p r i me t o b, a n d h e n ce b i i
a dv d es b
B ut t h i s i s i mp o s s i l e i f b i s 5 b
:
.
H e n ce, b ’
ca nn o t be b, an d E i s i n i ts l ow e st te r ms
'
.
6 75 . It
w a s p r ov e d , i n
'
6 74 , t h a t b d i vi d e s b
Wh ence , b 2 mb, w h e r e m i s an i n t e ge r
'%g
.
I
C b
E— —n
Th en a - a m
''
,
H en ce , if a i s p r i me to b, a nd a a nd b a r e equi multi
p les of a a n d b .
6 76 . A number ca n be r es olve d i n to p ri me fa cto r s in o n ly o ne

wa y .
L et n be a co mp o s i t e
b e r ; an d s uppos e n a bc n um w h er e
a, b c m a r e p r i m e n um b e r s
, , ,
S uppo s e al s o i f p o s s i bl e th at n
,
a bc m w h e re a ,
.
''
' ,
'
''
,
m b, c, ,
is fe r e n t s e t o f p r i m e n um b e rs
a d if
'
''
.
'
''
W h av e
e ,
a bc . o u
a bc ( 1 )
Th en a
'
dvd
''m th r r d
i i es a bc an d e e fo e iv i de s s ome on e o f
'''
, ,
th e n um e s a b r b, c
'''
, ,
Th e n , s i n ce a , b, c, m ,
an d a , b, c ,
m ,
are p r i m e n um e b rs , a
mu s t e qua l s ome o n e o f th e num

'd ber s a b, c ,
'
,
'
S upp o s e , t h en , a z : a
; i vi d i ng th e m e mb e r s of ( 1 ) by a an d
r s ti v e l y
''
a e p e c ,
, , b6 bc 7
an d, a s b e fo r e b e q ual s o n e o f th e n um bers b, c
'''
, ,
P r oce e d i n g i n t h i s w a y w e ca n , p r o v e e ac h o f t h e num e s b r
a, b, c, o n
,
e qua l to o n e o f th e n u mb e r s a , b c ,
,
4 74 AD V AN C E D CO UR SE IN ALG E B R A
6 78 . Th e p r od uct of a ny n co ns ecuti ve i n tege r s i s d i v i s ible by
L e t th e i n t e g e r s be m 1 ,
m 2, m ,
m n .
Mul ti ply i n g b o th n ume a o

r t r an d d e no mi n a t o r by t h e p r o d
uct of t h e n a u al t r n um b e r s fr om 1 t o m i n cl u s i v e t h e fr act i on , ,
L3 7
If a is a ny p r i me n um ber ,
th e e xp o n e n t of a in |m n is
m n
p + q r wh ere p i s th e g r ea t e s t i nt e g e r i n ,
m m
j i'
” ”
q in ,
r in ,
etc .
a a
Th e e xp o n e n t of a i n [m i s p 1 9 1 rl m ,
w h e r e p l i s th e
7
g r e a t e s t i nt e g e r i n
5 , q, i n Z
Z
—
,
r1 in et c .
Th e e xp o n e n t of a in is p 2 9 2 r2 m ,
w h e r e p 2 i s th e
g r ea t e s t i n t e ge r i n 3 , q2 i n 33 ,
2
r2 i n 33 ,
3
e tc .
a a a
Th e n ,
th e e x p on e n t ofa in is (p 1 + p 2) (q1 Q2)
m n
Now , t h e g r e ate s t i n t e g e r i n i s ei th e r th e su m of th e
a
g r e a t e s t i n t e g e rs i n a nd or el s e it e xce e d s th i s s um
a a
by un i ty .
Th a t i s p e q ua l s p 1 + p 2 o r p +p2 1
‘
, , l .
S i m il a rl y (1 e qual s 9 , q , o r
, , q1 92 1 ; e tc .
Th en 1 0 q r , i s n ot (1 01 + ql ) m ;
th a t i s th e e xp on e n t o f a i n |m
,
n is n ot its e xp o n e n t in
must be an i n t eg e r .
Wh en ce (m , 1 )(m 2) (m n
) is d i v i s i bl e by
6 79 . If n i s a p me
r i n umber, th e co e fii ci e n t o f a ny te rm ,
excep t
th e fi rs t a nd la s t, i n th e exp a n s i o n by th e B in omi a l Th eo r em o f
( a i s d i vi s i ble by n .
T HE OR Y OF NUM B E R S 4 75
By 2 8 7, t h e c o e f ci e n fi t o f th e ( r 1 )t h term of ( a as
)
”
is
u — —r + 1
n ( 1 ) )
(1 )
By 678 , ) ( n ( n) 1 n r 1 is di vi s i bl e by
If r h a s a ny v al ue fr o m 1 t o n 1 n o n e o f th e fa ct o r s , of
can d i v i d e n ; fo r by hy p o t h e s i s n i s a p r i m e n um b e r
, ,
.
Th e n Em us t di v i d e (n 1 ) (n r
,
Th e r efo r e, e xp r e s s i on (1 )i s a n i n t e ge r ahd di vi s i ble by ,

n .
68 0 Fermat Th eor em
’
. s .
mbe r , m i s p r i me — 1
p me
r m 1
If n i s i nu a nd to n, "
is
“
a a
multip le ofn .
L et a, b, c, m k , be an y mn umb e rs .
E xp a n d i n g by th e B i n o m i al T h e or em ,
we h a ve
— 1
1 —
( +
"
b
"
+
“
a na c c
L
2
( 1 )
ML m
E
By 679 , ea ch fi
co e f ci e n t n , ,
is d i vi s ib l e by n .
'
T h en ,
eve ry t e r m i n th e e xp a n s i o n w h i ch i s n ot a p o w e r
of a , b, c, m ,
k, i s a m ul t i p l e of n ; and ( 1 ) ca n b e w r i tt e n
W h e re p i s an in te ge r .
P utt i n g a = b = c = : 7
6: 1 , we h av e
or m ” —m = p n, or m (m ” "
1
S i n ce m i s p r i me t o n, it ca n n o t be a m ul t i p l e o fn .
Th e n , 1 mu s t b e a mul t i p l e of n .
Th e r e s ul t m ” — m = p n, of § 6 8 0, h old s if m is n ot
p r i m e t o n .
Th a t I s m ,
”
m is a m u l t i pl e / of n w h en n i s p r i me , wh e th e r
m i s p rime to n or n ot .
4 76 AD V A NCE D CO UR S E IN AL GE B R A
E X AM P E S L w
68 2 . 1 . If t w o co n s ecu ti v e nu m be r s a re n ot mu l t i p l e s of 3 ,
th ei r s um is a mul t i pl e o f3 .
Th e n um
b e r s m u s t b e i n th e fo rm s 3 m 1 a n d 3 m + 2 .
Th e n t h e i r s u m i s 6 m 3 w h i ch i s a m ul t i p l e o f 3 ,
.
I t foll o ws fr o m th e ab o v e th a t a n y numb e r o ft h e fo r m
n ( n + 1 )[ n ( n or n n ( 1 )( 2 n
ivis ibl e by 6 :
is d
F o r e i th e r i t o r n 1 mu s t b e e v e n and if n e i th e r n n or n 1 is a
mult ipl e o f3 t h e i r s um i s a mul tipl e o f3 , .
2 . E v e ry p e r fe ct s q ua e r i s i n t h e fo r m 5 n, o r 5 n j; 1 .
F or a ny n u m b e r i s i n t h e fo r m 5 m, or 5m j; a, wh ere a m ay
be 1 or 2 .
( 5 m) i s i n t h e fo rm 5
2
n .
Ag a i n , ( 5 m j; a
)
2
e q ua l s a mul t i pl e of 5, p l u s a
2
.
B ut a
2
is ei th e r 1 or 4 ; an d 4 5 1 .
H en ce , (5 m i a ) 2
d i ffe r s by 1 fr o m a m ul t i p l e of 5, and is
th e r e fo r e i n t h e fo r m 5 n 1 or 5 n 1 .
3 . If n is e v en ,
a n d n ot a
. m ul t i p l e of 3, n
2
2 is d i v i s i bl e
by 6 .
F or n mu s t be i n t h e fo r m 3 m j; 1 , w h e r e m is o d d .
T h en ,
n
2
2 9 m j :6 m
2
1 2, w h i ch i s d i v i s i bl e by 3 .
Aga in , it
2
2 is even ; h e n ce , i t i s d i v i s i b le by 6 .
4 E v e ry e v en o w e r of an odd n um ber is i n t h e fo r m
.
p
8 n 1
‘
Now , an y o dd n um ber is in o ne o fth e fo r m s
8 mi 1 ,
or 8 mi 3 .
I f t h i s be rai s ed to an y e ve n p o w e r ,
th e r e s ul t wi l be l a
m ul ti p l e of 8 plus 1 ,
or a mul ti pl e of 8 pl u s an e v en p o w e r
o f3 .
No w mul t i pl e
‘
an y ev e n p o w e r of 3 i s i n t h e fo r m of a of
8 , p lu s 1 .
H e n ce ,
any e ven p o w e r o f an o d d n um b er i s i n t h e fo r m
8 n 1 .
xx xvi . D E TE R M I NA N TS
Th e s o lu t ion o f t h e e qua ti o n s
alc
c bl y cl ,
9 23 : be on
is
6201
a i bz
bi c2
a 2b1
,
y C2‘1 1
“1 52
C1 ‘1 2
Ga bi
Th e co m mo n d e n om i na to r m ay b e w r i tt e n i n t h e fo r m
“1 :
1
a 2,
Th i s i s un d e r s t oo d a s s i gn i fy i n g th e p r o duct o f t h e upp e r
:
'
l e ft h a n d a n d l o w e r r i g h t—ha n d n u mb e r s m i n u s t h e p r o d uct of
-
‘
t h e l o w e r l e ft -h a n d a n d up p e r r i gh t -h a n d '
.
T h e e xp r e s s i o n ( 1 ) i s ca ll e d a D et er mi na nt of t h e S econd
Th e num e rators of v r ci n
th e ab o e f a t o s ca n a l s o be exp r ess ed as d e te r
min a n ts ; th us , I
b
o
g; Z;
a
62 6 1 61 62 an d cl a g
68 4 . Th e s o lu t i on o f t h e e qua t i on s
bl y 01 2 d1 ,
+ bey + = dn
1I
a 2x cez
b 'C z (1 3;
(1 337 ‘
I ay I a
‘ ‘
is a: ( 1 )
a1 b2c3 (1 1 53 02 a 2 b3cl “ 251 03 “ 3 51 02 3 5201
00
w i th r e s ul t s o f s i mi la r fo r m fo r y a n d z .
Th e d e n o m i n a t o r o f ( 1 ) m a y b e w r i t t e n i n t h e fo r m
“ 22 b2: 02
D E TE R MI NAN TS 4 79
Th i s d e r s t o o d as s i g nify i n g th e s u m o f th e p r o duct s o f
is un
th e n um b e r s co nn ect e d by li ne s p a r a ll e l t o a li n e j o i n i n g t h e
u p p e r l e ft-h a n d co r n e r t o t h e l o w e r r i gh t-h a n d i n t h e fo ll o w ,
i ng d i a g r a m m i nu s t h e s um o f t h e p r o d u ct s o f t h e n umb e r s
,
c o nn e ct e d by l i n e s p a r a l l e l t o a l i n e j o i n i n g t h e l o w e r l e f
. t-h an d
co r n e r t o t h e u p p e r r i g h t -h a n d .
Th e r
e xp e s s i o n ( )
2 i s ca l le d a D et ermi nant of t he Th i r d Or der .
Th e n ume rat or of th e v xp r es s e d as a d e te r m in an t ,
as fo ll o w s :
as may b e v e r i fi ed by ex p an d in g r ul e .
68 5 . Th e n um ber s i n th e fir s t ,
s e co n d ,
e tc .
, h o r i z o n t al l i n es ,
ofa d e t e r mi n an t a r e s a i d t o be i n t h e fi r s t s eco nd e tc ro ws
, , ,
.
, ,
r e s pect i v e ly ; a n d t h e n u m b e r s i n t h e fir s t s e co n d e tc v e r ti ca l , , .
,
co l um n s i n t h e fi r s t s e co n d e t c
,
co lu mn s
, ,
.
,
.
Th e n u m b e r s co n s t i tu ti n g th e d e t e r mi n a n t a r e ca ll e d i t s
elemen ts a n d t h e p r o d u ct s i n t h e e x p a n d e d fo r m i t s te r ms
,
.
Th u s i n t h e d e t e r m i n a n t h e el e me n t s a r e
,
of
68 4 t ,
a l a 2 a 3 e tc
, ,
a n d t h e t e r m s a b2c3
,
.
, a 1 b3c etc l , 2, .
EX ERC S E “4 I
E val uate th e fol l o w in g d e te r m in a n ts 7
1 5’ 2
: y
’
a “ b 2 a
L
y, x + y
. 2
2 5 7 “ _b . 3 4 L 3
6
9‘ 8 , f
4 80 AD V AN C E D C O URS E 1 N ALG E B R A
6, 4, 7 2, — 3 1 1 x, a
, ,
4 9, 0, 8 5 -2 4, 5 6 1 b
, .
, y,
5, 3, 2 3, — 1
,
— 4 1 z c
, ,
a, b, c x + y, z
, z
7 . b, a, d 8 . a, y+ z , a:
09 d7 a y:
i
V e r fy t h e follo w ing by ex p an d in g th e d et e rmin a n ts
(1 1 , b1 , 01 63, 53 , as ma l : bi , 01 an 7
71 51 , 01
9 . a2, b2 , 62 C2 , b2 , a2 1 0 . 7
72 02 , b2 , 62 a2, 7
73 62 , 62
a 3) b3 7 c3 61 , b1 , “1 7nd 3 9 b3 : C3 (23 , 7
73 19 3 , 03
a1 ,
b1 : 01
52 02 as 02 a 2’ b2
c2 —b1
.
1 1 . 0
1 2, b2 , a1 + 01
b3 , 03 a3, 03 a3, b3
68 6 . r m ut a t i o n o f t h e n umb e r s 1 2 3 m n a
If, i n an y p e , , , , ,
g r e a t e r n u m b e r p r e ce d e s a l e s s t h e r e i s s a i d t o b e a n i n ve r s i o n , .
Th us in th e c a s e o f five n umb e r s th e p e r muta t i o n 4 3

, 5 2 h as s ix , , , ,
inve rs i o ns ; 4 b efo re 1 3 b efo re 1 4 b e fo re 2 3 b efor e 2 5 befo re 2 an d

, , , , ,
4 b efo re 3 .
C on s i d e r , n ow, th e n
2
l
e em en s t
“2 1 )
a 2 27 a 2 37 a2 n
, , , ,
an 1 7 a n 2) a n 3) an n
, , , ,
Th e t
n o a ti on in r e ga rd to s uf xe s , fi in is th a t th e first
s uf
fix d e n ot e s th e r o w, an d th e s e con d t h e co l um n , in w h i ch
th e element i s t
s i ua e t d .
Th u s , a, i s th e e l e m en t i n th e lath r o w a n d r th col u mn .
“
L et a llb l e p r o d u ct s o f t h e e l e m e n t s t ak e n n a t a t im e be
p o s s i
fo r me d s ubj e ct t o t h e r es tr i ct i on t h a t e ach p r o d uct s h a l l co n
,
t ai n o n e a n d o n ly o n e el e me n t fr o m e ach r o w a n d o n e an d o nly ,
o n e fr o m e ach c o l um n a n d w r i t e t h e m s o t h a t t h e fi r s t s ufl
,
iwes
s h a ll be i n t h e o rd e r 1 2 3 m n , , , ,
.
T h i s i s e quiv al e n t t o wr i t in g all th e p e r mut at i o n s o f th e n umb e rs 1 2 , ,
m n in th e s eco nd s ulfid es
,
.
M ak e e ach p r o duct or a cc o rd i n g a s t h e n um b e r o f i n v e r
s i on s i n t h e s econ d s uffi xe s i s even o r o dd .

4 82 AD V AN C E D CO URSE IN ALG E B R A
68 8 . If, i n a ny p e rmuta ti o n of th e lette r s 1 ,

2, 3 , m ,
n, two
nu mbe r s be i n te r ch a nged , th e n u mber of i n ve rs i o ns i s i n cr ea s ed
o r d i mi n i s h ed by a n o dd n u m ber .
If two co n s e cuti ve n u mbers b e i n t e r ch an ge d , th e n um ber of
i n v e r s i o n s i s i n cr e a s e d o r d i m i n i s h e d by 1 .
T h u s i f a kmb i s a p e r m u t a ti o n o f 1 2 3 m n t h e
, , , , , ,
n u mb e r o fi n v e r s i o n s i n o a kmb o d iffe r s by 1 fr o m t h e num b e r

o
i n --a mk b m ; fo r t h e n u m b e r o f i n v e r s i o n s s o fa r a s t h e
o
n u m b e r s p r e ce d i n g 1 6 a n d fo ll o w i n g m i s c o n ce r n e d i s n o t
, ,
af fe c t e d by t h e i n t e r ch an ge .
No w l e t a k bc ef mg b e a p e r mut at i o n o f t h e n u m b e r s
1 2 3 m n h a v i n g p n u m b e rs b e t w e e n 1 6 an d m
, , , , ,
.
B y i n t e r ch a n g i n g m w i th f t h e n m w i t h e a n d s o o n i n s uc
, ,
ce s s i o n w i t h e ach o f t h e p 1 n um b e r s t o t h e l e ft o f m m m ay ,
be br ou gh t t o t h e l e ft o f h .
Th e n by i n t e r ch a n g i n g It w i th b t h e n It w i th c a n d s o o n i n
, , ,
s u cce s s i o n w i th e ach o f t h e p n um b e r s t o t h e r i gh t o f k k m ay ,
b e br o ug h t t o th e r i g h t o ff .
T h u s It an d m m ay b e i n t e r ch an ge d by p 1 p o r 2 p 1
, ,
i n t e r ch a n g e s o f con s e cut i v e n u m b e r s t h at i s by a n o d d n um be r ,
o f i n t e r ch a n g e s o f co n s ec ut i v e n u m b e r s .
I t foll o w s fr o m t h i s t h at i f k a n d m b e i n t e r ch an g e d t h e
, ,
nu m b e r o f i n v e r s i o n s i s i n cr ea s e d o r d i m i n i s h e d by an o d d
n umb e r .
689 An y p e r mut at i on o f t h e n umb e r s 1 , 2, 3 ,

. n can be
o bt a i n e d fr o m a n y o th e r by r ep e at e d i n t e r ch an g e s o f t w o
n u mb e r s .
If w e c o mme n ce in th i s w a y w i th t h e p e r mu t a ti o n 1 , 2 , 3 ,
m ,
n i t s e l f,
t r on e af e s u ch i nt e r ch a n g e t h e r e w i ll b e a n od d
n umb e r o f i n v e r s i o n s i n t h e r e s u l t i n g p e r m ut a t i o n
I f i n t h e l at t e r w e i n t e r ch a n g e tw o n um b e r s w e s h al l h a v e ,
a p e r mut a t i o n w i t h an even n umb e r o f i n v e r s i o n s .
P r o ce e d i n g i n t h i s w a y s i n ce t h e w h o l e n um b e r o f p e r mut a
,
t i on s i s an even n umb e r w e s h all fin d t h at t h e n um b e r o f p e r

,
muta t i on s w i th a n o d d n u m b e r o f i n v e r s i on s e qu a ls t h e n umbe r
w i th a n eve n n um b e r o f i n v e r s i o n s .
D E TE R MI NAN TS 4 83
I t foll ow s fr o m t h e a b o v e th at i n t h e e xp a n de d fo rm , of th e
d e t e rmi n an t of 686 t h e n um b e r o f p o s i t i v e t e r m s
, e q ua l s
t h e n um b e r o f n e g a t i v e t e r m s .
69 0 . Th e d e d fo r m o f th e d ete rm i n an t
e xp a n 686 m ay ,
a l s o be o bt a i n e d by w r i t i n g t h e s eco n d s ufii r es i n t h e o rd e r
1 2 3
, ,
m n an d m ak i n g e ach p r o d uct o r acco rd i ng as th e
, , ,
n u mb e r o f i n v e r s i o n s i n t h e fi r s t s ufii zves i s e v e n o r o d d .
F o r l e t t h e ab s ol ut e v al ue o f a n y t e r m o bt ai n e d by t h e r ul e ,
of 6 86 , be al
’ p
ag
’ q
an
” ; (1 )
w h e r e p , g, ,
r i s a p
m
e r m u t a t i o n o f 1 ,
2 ,
m , n .
T h i s i s obt ai n e d fr om t h e fir s t t e r m
“a
m ( )
2
by ch an gi ng s e co n d s uf
fix e s , 1 t o p , 2 t o q, -
,
n to r .
S i n ce p , q, -
,
r i s a p e r m u t at i on of 1 ,
2, m
,
n,
( )
2 m a
y be
w r i tt e n a
P P - a
r e
a
n “
an d ( 1 b
m a y be a i n e d fr o m t h i s by ch a n gi n g fi rs t s uf
fi
) t o x es ,
p t o l q t o,
2 o r t o n, ,
In t h e s e t w o m e t h o d s th e r e i s t h e s a m e n u m b e r o f i nt e r
,
ch a n g e s o f t w o s u ffi xe s a n d th e t e r m (1 ) w i ll th e r e for e h av e
,
th e s ame s i gn .
PR O PER T E S O F I D E TE R M INAN TS
69 1 . A d eterm i n a n t i s n ot a lte ed r in va lue if i ts r ows a re
ch a nged to co lu mns , a nd r o ws
i ts co lu mn s to .
Th e t rut h o f t h e t h e o r e m fo r a d e t e rm in a n t o f th e th i rd ord er may

e as i ly b e s e e n b y e xp a n d in g th e d e t e r m in a n t s
(1 1 , b1 , 61 a1 , a2, as
a2, 62 , C2 an d 61 , 62 , 63
“3 3 b3 : 63 01 1 C2 ) C3
in ea ch of wh i c h ,
by 68 4 , t h e ex p an d e d fo r m i s
al bncs “ 1 1 73 02 a nbaci a ebi cs a s bl cz “3 b2cl
P r oof ofth e th eo r em .
4 84 AD V AN C E D CO URS E IN ALG E B R A
C on s i d e r t h e d e te r mi n an t s
“1 , 2: “1 n “n 1
, ,
“2 1 : “ 2 2: “2 n “1 2: “ 2 2: 5 ° “n 2
an d
, , , , . ,
0 0
an 1 ) a n 2) an n a1 1 2)
“2 n) an n
, , , , , ,
S i n c e th e s econ dfir s t d et e r mi n an t a re th e
s u f xe s fi of th e
s am e a s th e fir s t s u f fi xe s of t h e s econ d i f th e fir s t d et e r mi n an t ,
be e xp a n d e d by th e r ul e o f 6 8 6 a n d t h e s e co n d by t h e r ul e ,
of 69 0 t h e r e s ul t s w i ll b e th e s ame
,
.
Th e r e fo r e t h e d et e r m i n an t s a re e qu al .
69 2 . A d ete r mi n a n t i s ch a nged i n s ign if a ny two cons ecuti ve
r o ws , o r a n y two co n s ecuti ve co lu mns , are i n te r ch a nged .
T h e t uth r of r em wh e n th e fi rs t an d s e c o n d r o ws o f a d e te rmi
t h e th e o
n a n t o f th e t h i r d o r d e r a r e in t e rc h a n ge d m a y b e s e e n b y e xp a n d in g ,
d ete r min a n ts
01 : b1 : 61 a 2: 52 : 02
a n, be, 02 a1 . b1 , 61
“3 : b3 : 03 “3 : b3 : 03
By 684 , th e ex p an d e d fo r m s are , r esp e c tiv ely ,
(1 1 52 03 011 53 02 02 53 01 (1 2 5 1 03 a s bi cz 03 132 01 :
and a z bl cg a 2 63 6 1 ai bs cz ai bz cs (1 3 5201 a 3 b1 6 2
o n e of w h i ch n egat iv e o ft h e oth e r
i s th e .
P r o of of th e theo r em .
C o n s i d e r t h e d e te r m i n an ts
“1 1 :
a
9. ”
a
n?)
a
q m ar 1
, )
a r 2)
,
.
2
ar
:7 '
ar l : ar “
, m g m
a n, 1 )
a n 27 .
2
an n an 1 a n 2) an
, , , ) , , n
th e qth a n d rt h r ow s of th e first b ei n g r e s p ect i v e ly , ,

th e rt h
a n d q th r ow s o f t h e s econ d .
L et t h e a b s o l ut e v a l u e o f o n e o f th e t e r ms of the first d e t e r
0 0 .
ar u a’ ” ;
7s ’ b
wh er e s, m ,
t, u, m , v is a p e r mut ati on of1 ,
2, m ,
n .
4 86 AD V AN C E D C O URS E IN A LG E BR A
69 4 . Cy cli ca l I nte r ch a nge of R ows or Co lu mn s .
By n 1 s u cce s s i v e i n t e rch an ge s o f t w o c o n s e cut i v e r ow s ,
th e fir s t r o w of a d e t e r mi n a n t of th e nth o rde r may be m a d e

t h e l as t .
Th us by 6 9 2, th e d t e r m i n an t
,
e
“1: b1 : m1 m2
a” 62’ o m2
is e q ual to
a n, b” , oo 0
, m n
i
bn ) m u
“1 : bl : ml
Th e a b o ve d a cycli ca l i nte rch an g e o f r o w s

is ca ll e .
In l i k e m a nn e r by n 1 s ucce s s i v e i n t e rch an
, g s o f t wo
e
c o n s ecut i v e col u m n s t h e fir s t co l um n o f a d e t e rm i n an t o f t h e
,
n th o rd e r ma b e m a d e th e l a s t
y .
69 5 . If two r o ws , o r tw o co lumn s , ofa d ete r mi n a nt a re i d en

ti ca l, th e v a lue o f th e d ete r mi n a n t i s z er o .
Th e t ruth o ft h e th e o re m wh e n th e fir s t t wo ro ws of a d et e rm in a n t o f
th e th i r d o rd e r a r e i d e n t i c al m a y , be s ee n by ex p an d ing th e d e t e rmin a n t
a1 : 51 : 61
a1 : bi : 61
“2 : b2 : 62
By § 6 84 , th e ex pa n d e d fo rm i s
01 61 62 a1 62 01 (1 1 61 62 a 2 61 6 1 (22 61 6 1 , or 0 .
P r o of of th e th e o r em .
L et D b e t h e v al u e o f a d e te r min an t h a v in g tw o r o w s o r ,
t wo col um n s i d e n t i ca l ,
.
'
I f th e s e r o w s o r co l u mn s a r e i n t e r ch a n ge d th e v a l ue o f th e
, , ,
r e s ulti n g d e t e r mi n an t i s D
B ut s i n ce th e r o w s o r co l umn s w h i ch a r e i n t e r ch an g e d a r e
, ,
i d ent i cal th e t w o d e t e r mi n a n t s a re o f e q ua l v al ue
, .
H en ce D ,
D a n d th e r e fo r e D O .
69 6 . If ea ch e le men t i n o ne co lu mn , or in o n e r ow, m
i s th e su
ofm te rms ,
th e d ete r mi n a n t ca n be exp r es s ed as th e s um of m
d etermi na nts .
D E T E R MINAN TS 4 87
Th e t r uth r e m wh e n e a c h e le me n t in th e firs t c ol umn o f a

o f th e th e o
d e t e r min a n t o f t h e t h i r d o rd e r is t h e s um o f t wo t e r m s m a y b e s ee n b y ,
e xp a n d in g th e d et e r min a n t ; c o ns i d e r fo r e x a mp le t h e d e te r min a n t , ,
01 21 :
0 bl a 61
a2 “2 : 52 : 02
“3 "
I d3 : b3 :
"
63
By § 68 4 , th e ex a p n de d fo r m i s
61 1 ) ( 52 03 b3 02 ) ( a2 d 2 )( 53 6 1 331 03 )
( as d3 ) bz 01 )
(1 1 ( b26 3 b3 02 ) 052093 6 1 51 03 ) 23 ( b1 02 52 01 )
d1 ( 3
b 2 0 53 02 ) d2 ( bs ci 51 03 ) d 3 ( b1 02 332 6 1 )
an b1 : 01 di : b1 : 01
“2 : b2 : 62 d 2 : b2 : 02
as, 63 , 03 da, 63 , 63
P roofofth e the o r em .
Co n s i d e r t h e d e t e r m i n an t
0 0 0
,
al r,
. 0 0
,
a1 ”
’ ,
a2 1 )
.
1
a2 r)
.
1
CL2 n
, , ,
an l’
,
c o o
, an
' r,
a
L et h e l e men t
eac i n th e rt h co l um n be t h e su m of m t e rms ,
as foll o w s :
+ fh
“
a r
: [9 2 + C2 + +f2:
H .
+ fn '
L et a
“ ,
a
w
a,
“
be th e a b s ol ut e v a l ue o f o n e o f th e el e
me n t s of th e n ,
a
q’ r ( q+
b c
q + an
"
( (1 1
, p
It i s e v i d en t fr om th i s t h a t th e d e t e r m i n an t (1 ) can be ex
p r e s s ed as th e s um o f th e d e te r m i n an t s
a1
, 1 ,
0 0 0
, a1 "
c o o
, a1 ”
, ,
a2 ” . 0 0
, a2 ”
6 0 0
,
c o o
,
, ,
an ”
,
0 0 0
’ b", an
’ n
0 0 0
, f, “
0 0 0
’ a n, ”
4 88 AD V AN C E D C O URS E IN AL GE B R A
69 7 If . a ll th e ele men ts i n o n e co lumn , or i n o n e r ow, a r e

multip li ed by th e s a me n u mber , th e d etermi n a n t i s m ultip li ed by
th i s n um be r .
Th e t rut h of re m wh e n all th e ele me n ts in th e firs t c olumn

t h e th e o ,
o fa d e t e r m in a n t o f t h e th i r d o r d e r a r e mult ip l i e d b y th e s ame numb e r ,
may b e s e e n b y exp an d in g th e d e t er min a n t .
C o ns i d e r for e xa mp l e t h e d e t e r m in a n t
, ,
a1 , b1 : 01
a 2, b2 , o
as: bs : 03
Mult iply in g e a ch eleme n t in th e fir s t c ol umn by m, we h ave

ma n b1 , 01
ma 2 : b2 : “2 ( )
2
ma s : 03
Th e ex p an d ed form of ( 2) i s
ma 1 ( b2 03 been) 7
7 0 9 3 01 b1 03 ) + ma ( b 62 bid )
2
2 2 3 1 ,
'
w h i ch i
is m t me s th is e xp a n d e d fo r m o f
It i s e vi d e n t fr o m th i s t h a t ( 2) e qua ls ( 1 ) mult ipl i ed by m .
P r o of of th e th eo r em .
C o n s i d e r t h e d e t e r m i n an t
c o o
,
afl r,
. 0 0
,
a1 , ”
’
c o o
,
a2 r’
a2 "
( 1 )
’ ,
an ” an ” a
, , mn
Mul t ip ly i n g eac h e l e me n t i n th e r th co l u mn we h av e
a1 1
, )
ma l , ”
a
m n
o n e
,
ma 2 , r,
o n e
,
a’n 1
, ?
ma n , ”
"
3
a
mu
L et a -
a a c
an be t h e a b s olut e v a l ue o f o n e o f th e t er ms
pp ,1 ,
of
R ep l a ci n g ma m , th e a bs ol ut e
aw .
by v al u e of th e co rre
s p on d i n g t e r m o f ( 2) i s ma L P a
w
- a
m
m n
.
It is evi d e nt fr o m t h i s th at th e d e t e r mi n an t (2 ) e qual s m
t i mes th e d e ter min an t
490 AD V AN C E D C O U RS E IN ALG E B R A
It i s ob t a i n e d by e r a s i n g t h e s eco n d a n d fou r th r o w s ,
an d
th e s e co n d a n d t h i rd co lu m n s o f t h e l a tt e r d e t e r m i n a n t
, .
700 . To fin d th e co efii ci en t of a1
, 1 i n th e d ete r mi n a n t
“1
m
“ 2 2:
( 1 )
,
a an ” a
ml ) mn
H .
, )
By 68 6, t h e b s olu t e valu es of t h e t e r ms w h i ch i n v ol v e
a
a a r e o bt a i n e d by fo r m i n g a l l o s s i b l e r o d u ct s o f t h e el e
1 1 p p
me n t s t a k e n n a t a t i m e s ubj e ct t o t h e r e s tr i ct i o n s t h a t t h e
,
fir s t el e m e n t s h all b e a a n d t h a t e ach
1 , 1 , p r o d uct s h a l l co nt a i n
o n e a n d o n l y o n e e l e m e n t fr o m e ach r o w e x ce p t t h e fir s t a n d ,
o n e a n d o n l y o n e fr o m e ach co l u mn e x ce t t h e fir s t
p .
I t i s e v i d e n t fr o m t h i s th a t t h e co effici en t o f a ] 1 i n (1 ) m ay ,
b e o b t ai n e d by fo r m i n g a ll p os s i bl e p r o d u ct s o f t h e fo ll o wi n g
e l e me n t s t a k e n n 1 a t a t i me ,
“ a
m 3? mu
u .
s ubj e ct t o th e re s tri ct i o n t h at e ach p r o duct s h all con tai n o n e

an d o n ly o n e e l e m e n t fr o m each r o w a n d o n e a n d o n l y o n e fr o m ,
e ach c o l um n w r i ti n g t h e fir s t s u f
, fi x e s i n th e o r d e f2 3 m n , , , ,
a n d m ak i n g e a ch p r o d uct or a cco rd i n g a s t h e n um be r o f
i n v e r s i on s i n t h e s e co n d s uf fi x e s i s e v en or o dd .
Th en by 6 8 6 t h e coe ffi ci e n t o f a 1 1 i s
, ,
3
“ 2: “ ru n
m
H .
t h at i s , th e m i n o r obta i n e d by e r a s i n g th e fir s t r ow an d th e
fir s t co l um n o f th e g i v e n d e t e r mi n an t .
701 . By a id o f 700,d e t e r mi n a n t o f a ny o rd e r
a may be
e xp e r ss e d as a d e t e r mi n a nt o f a n y h i gh e r o rd e r .
D E TE RM IN AN T S 491
1 ,
0, 0, 0, 0
1 ’
0’ 0’ 0
al, In. c. 0, 1 ,
0, 0. 0
0’ a” 6" Cl
Th us 2
a 27 b2 , c2 . 03 03 a1 7 bl 7 cI etc.
0, a 2, b2 , 02
“3 : b3: 63 O: O: “ 2 : b2 : 02
0, a 3, b3, 03
O: O: “ 3: b3 : 03
702 . Coef
fi ci ent of a ny el e ment of a D et ermi nant .
To fin d t h e o fi
c e f ci en t o f bg i n t h e d e fé rm i n ant
p
“1 : b1 : cl
“ 2: bra: 02 ( 1 )
“ 3: b3: 03
B y tw o i n t e r ch an ge s o f co n s e cu t i v e r o w s th e l a s t r o w
,
m ay
be ma d e th e fir s t ; th us , by 6 92, t h e d e t e r m i n a n t e q ua l s
“ 3: b3: Cs
“1 b
: 1 : cl
“ 2: b2: 02
By i n t e r ch an g i n g th e fir s t tw o col u mn s , d e t e r mi n an t
( ) q
2 e ual s
b3, a 3, 03
b1 : “1 : 01 ( )
3
b2: “ 2: 6 2
By 700, th e fi
c oe f ci e n t o f b3, in is
“1 : cl
“ 2: c2
T h at i s th e coe ffici e n t o f t h e el e me nt i n t h e th i rd r o w an d
,
s eco n d col umn e qua l s mu lt i pli e d by t h a t m i n o r o f (1 )

w h i ch i s o b ta i n e d by e r a s i n g th e t h i rd r ow a n d s e co n d co lumn .
W e w ill n o w co ns i d e r t h e gene r al ca s e ; t o fin d th e co effici e n t

of a ,“
i n t h e d e t e r mi n a n t
“L n
“k
,
r : “k , n
°
( )
4
492 AD V AN C E D C O UR S E IN ALG E B R A
B y k — l i n t e r ch an ge s o f co n s e cu ti v e r o w s ,
and r 1 i nt e r
ch an ge s of con s e cuti v e column s t h e e l e me n t ,
a,
”
m ay be
br ou gh t t o th e u p p e r l e ft-h an d co r n e r .
1
Thu s by 69 2 th e d e te rmm ant e qual s

, ,
“It . r)
“k 1 ) “k n
, ,
-
l
1 )
k
1 )
r r) n
“n ” “u 1 : “
, , a n
Th en by ,
700, t h e fi
coe f ci e n t ofa,
“
is
“L n
—2
an 1 )
a n, n
,
h +r —2 e-4
‘
B ut 1 ) 1 )
h+r
l yI .
H e n ce ,
th e coe f
fic ien t o f t h e e l e m en t i n t h e kt h r ow an d rt h
co lumn e q u al s mul t i p l i e d: by th a t m i n o r of
( )
4 w h i ch
is o bt ai n e d by e r a s in g t h e k th r o w a n d r th c o l u mp .
703 . By ai d of d e te rm i n an t o f an y o rd e r may be
702 , a
e xp r e s s e d i n t e r ms o f d e t e r mi n an t s o f an
y l o w e r o rd er .
Th u s s i n ce e v e ry t e r m o f a d e t e rmi n an t co n t a in s o n e an d
,
I
o n l y o n e e l e me n t fr o m th e fir s t r o w w e h a v e , ,
:
:
2
“ 3: be: 03 : “3
“1
b2:
53:
C2:
C3:
“2
“3 b1
“ 2:
“ 3:
c2:
03:
“2
“3
“4 : b4: 04 : “4
“2: b2: “2 “ 2: b2: 02
C1 “ 3: bs: “3 “1 “3: be: 03 3

“4 : b4: “4 “4 : b4 : 04
an d e ac h of d e t e r m i n an t s m a y i n t u r n
th e l a tt e r be e xp e r ss e d
in terms o f d e t e r mi n an t s o f t h e s e co n d o rd e r .
704 . E val uat i on of D et ermi nant s .
Th e me t h od of 703 m ay be
d t o e xpr e s s a d e t e r mi n an t
us e
o f an
y o rd e r h i g h e r t h a n t h e t h i rd i n t e r m s o f d e t e r m i n a n t s
o f t h e t h i rd o rd e r w h i ch m a y be e v a l ua t e d by t h e r ul e o f
,
68 4 .
494 AD V AN CE D CO UR S E IN ALG E B R A
Add i ng th e s e co n d an d th i rd co lumn s in s ucce ss ion to th e

fir s t , th e g i ve n d et e r m i n an t e q ual s
a + b+ a c
c +a + a m b .
b+ c + m a a
S i nce e ve ry t e r m con tai n s an el e me n t fr o m th e first l

co umn,
a + b+ c i s a fact o r o f t h e g i v e n d et e rmi n an t .
2 3
x, x ,
x
3 . E val uat e y, y , y
3 e
2 3
z, 2 ,
2
Ifx b e p ut e qu al t o y, th e d e t e rmi nan t h as t wo r o ws i d enti cal ,
a n d e q u al s z e r o
Th en , x —
y mus t b e a fact o r an d in l ik e m ann e r ,
y z an d z x are fact o rs .
L et t h e g i v e n d e t e r min an t X(x y)(y z)(z

To d e t e r mi n e X , w e o b s e r ve th a t x, y, a n d z a r e fa ct o rs of
th e d e t e r mi n a n t ; th e n , X mu s t e qu a l xyz , a s i s e v i d e n t by
t i ci n g t h a t th e fir s t t e r m i n th e e xp an d e d o
'
f rm i 2 3
no s + xy 2 ,
'
an d th e v a ue l o f th e d e t e r m i n an t i s xyz x
( y)(y z )(z
I EX ERC S E “5
E v aluate th e foll owin g d ete r min a n ts

o
c 1 5, 2
7, ,
D
3
8, 9 1
\
, a, a
h 1 0, 1 4, 6
1 . 28 , 35 , 40 4 . 1 , b, b3 o 7 .
u
o
9
oi 9, 1 , 4
21 ,
26 , 30 1 , c, c3 a
cO \
1 5, 21 , 9
1 0
o
cU 1 5, 1 1
1 7
,
9, 1 3, 1 1 1
2 1 5, 1 9
,
2
,
2 2
m 0 1 6, 1 2, 9
1 1 5 8
‘
.
, . x , y , 2 .
1 7, 21 25 x 3 3
23
fi 1 4, 1 0, 1 1
, , 31 , a
1 8, 9, 1 2
:2
o9
w 3, 5, 9
w
1
, .
h
1 . o
o 0 7, 8, 1 1
3 1 1 9 6 9
‘
7’
,
. . .
3 1 0, 4,
z
8’ 1 o 2
1 7
’
21 1 4
1 ,
6, 6, 5 o
o 4, 5, 1 0
a, b, c , 0 x, x, x, x a, a, b, a
b’ 0’ c x’ 3” x’ x 1 2
b, b, b, a
1 0 .
C, 0, _a , b
1 1 .
x, x? y , x .
b, a, a, a
D E T E R M INAN T S 495
0, 1 , 1 , 1 5, 3, 2, 0
l, 0, ” b2 4,
a 1 6, 2
1 3 .
,
1 5
,
2
1 , a , 0, c2 1 , 3, 5
2 2
1 , b , c ,
0 0, 6, 4, 2
7, 1 0, 1 3, 3 1 , 1 , l, 1
1 4, 1 9, 27 6 a, b, d
1 6'
c,
1 4'
24 , 33 , 41 , 1 0 a
2
, b 2
, 0 2
, d 2
31 ,
4 7, 64 , 1 5 a
3
, b 3
, 6 3
, d 3
1 7 P . ro v e th at a b c is a fa c to r o ft h e d e te r m i n a nt
(a W , 6 2
. 6
2
a
2
, (b c 2
) , a
2
2 2
b , b , (6 a )2
1 8 . Pro ve th at a b c d is a fa c t o r o fth e d et e r m in an t
a, b, c, d
b, a, d, c
c, d, a, b
d, c , b, a
705 . L e t A,, B , ,
m , K” d en ot e th e fi
coef ci e n st of th e ele
me nt s a, , b, , m ,
r e s p ect i v e ly ,
i n th e d e t e r mi n a n t
(1 1 ,
b1 , kl
“ 2: b2: 7
92
( 1 )
a n, bu : kn
Th en s i nce e v e ry t e rm o f th e d e t e r mi n an t con ta i n s on e and

,
o n l y o n e e l e me n t fr o m t h e fir s t c o l u mn t h e v a l u e o f t h e d e t e r ,
m i n an t i s A1 “1 A2“ 2 A “n
n
In lik e m ann e r , t h e v a l ue o f th e d e t e r m i n an t a l s o e q ual s
B l bl B 2b2 I " "

B n bn : K 1 I
1 0 ' ‘ '
I "
706 W i th th e n o t at i o n o f 705 , i f ml , m2,

. m ,,
a re th e
e l e m e nt s i n a n y column o f th e d e t e r m i n an t of 705 , e x ce p t
th e fir s t , Al ml A2m2 A n
ni ,
'
i s th e v al ue of a d e t e r mi n an t wh i ch diffe r s fr o m (1 ) on ly ,
in
h a vi n g ml mg , ,
m m i n s te a d o f a 1 a m a as th e e le m en ts
, , , 2, , n
in
th e fir s t col u mn .
496 AD V ANC E D C O U RS E IN ALG E B R A
Th e n: Al ml A2m2 I' ‘
An m n
03
fo r i t i s th e l
v a ue of a d e t e r mi n a n t w h i ch h as t wo l
co umn s
i d e nt i ca l .
I n li k e man n e r, i f ml , mg, m ,
m" a re th e el e ments i n any
l
co um n o f t h e d e t e r mi n a n t e xce p t th e s e con d,
B l ml I B 2m2" "
B umu
an d s o on .
S O LUTI O N or E QU A TI O NS
707 L e t i t b e r e qui r e d t o s ol v e th e foll ow i n g syst em o f n
.
l i n e a r, s imul tan eo us e q ua t i o n s , i n v ol v i n g n unk n own n umbe r S

Z I ,
a l xl q ,
l x =p 1 .
( 1 )
“ 2931 + 2
( )
( )
3
L et Q1 , Q2 ,
m , Q d e n o te
,
th e coe ft
fici e n s of th e e e l men ts
Q2,
m , r e s pecti ve ly ,
i n th e d e te r mi n an t
a 2, . 0 0
q2,
0 0 0
D : , ’
a n! kn
Mul ti pl y i n g e q ua ti o n s ( )
3 by Q1 : Q2: Q: n
r e s p e cti ve ly , and a dd i n g , w e h av e
n ( Qi a l Q2“2 Q a )+ n n
( Q1 9 1
xr ‘
I ‘
Q29 2 N :
+ w ( Ql kln Q2652 l l Q1 2 92 a n
‘
By 706, t h e co e f
fici en t o f each u nk n o w n n um e b r ,
e xce p t
is ze ro .
By 705 , th e
fi t o f x i s D ; al s o t h e s e con d memb er
co e f ci e n , ,
i s t h e v a lue o f a d e t e r mi n an t w h i ch d i ffe r s fr o m D o nl y i n
h a v ing 1 9 2
m p i n s t ea d
,
o f q 1
, ( 2,
m ,
a s t h e e l e me n ts i n , , ,
th e r t h co l u mn .
D e n o t i ng t h e l att e r by D , ,
w e h av e
D .
D
498 AD V AN CE D C O U R S E IN ALG E B R A
By 707,
6 2, 0 0 0
, 02, 0 0 0
,
a n xl ) cm kn on )
97
2
b2, 0 0 0
,
c o o
,
bm on ) ' 9 n) on ? H .
7
w i th r e s ult s o f s i mi la r fo r m for 933 x , “

.
S ub s t i t ut i n g t h e s e v a l ue s i n t h e fir s t e qua t i o n of sy s t em
a n d cl e a r i n g o f fr a ct i o n s w e h a v e ,
b2; 02) 7
02 a 2) 029 k2 b2) a 2) "
U
b1 01
bn ) on) H .
)
kn a n) cm kn
b2; 3
hm “2
k1
bn ) hm an
By 69 3, th e fi
co e f ci e n t o f a5, e qu al s
0 0 0 c o o c o o
, , ,
“1 bl 61
bm kn a n ) cm “ 'k i n a n) bm dm kn
a1 : bl a
“2’ b”
Th at is ( )
4
an, bn , c o o
,
kn
I f th e d e te r mi n an t (4 ) e qu als 0, e quat i o n (3)i s s a ti sfi e d wh en

1 231 h as a ny r e al v a lue .
Th e n , i f th e d i s cr i mi n a n t sy s te m v an i s h e s t h e of t h e gi v en ,
s yst e m h a s a n i n d e fi n i t e ly g r ea t n u mb e r o f s ol ut i o n s .
If a ny r e al n umb er m be ta k e n a s a v alue o f 951 t h e c orres p on d ing

‘
, , ,
v alue ofa: mus t b e 2

d2 02 k2 a ,
a n, on , 0 0 0
, kn
D E TE R MINAN TS 499
S i mi l ar c on s id era t i o n s h old w i th r es p e c t t o mg , m
, as” .
71 0 C o n s i d e r th e foll o w i n g
. s y s tem of n l i n ea r e q ua ti o n s
i n v o l vi n g n 1 un k n o w n n u m e s b r
a m brwz -1 ki 0
'
i b2972 + k
+ 2 = 0
al 9 2xn —1
‘
a n x1 + bn xz gnxn —l kn 0
Mul ti p l y i n g th e t e r m s o f e a ch e q u a ti on by u, w e h av e
a l uxl bl uxZ g l uxi r l

- k1 “ 0
a z uzvl bz uxg o u
qz uxn _1 k2u O
. ( 1 )
d u
nml bn uxZ g n
uxn —l kn u
Th i s m ay be con s i d e r e d as a s y s t e m o f n h o mo g e n e o us li n ea r
e q ua t i o n s i n v ol v i n g t h e
,
n u nk n o w n n u m b e r s ux w e, m , l, ” ,
B y § 709 , t h e co n d i t i o n w h i ch m u s t h ol d i n o rd e r th at th e
s yst e m (1 ) m ay h a v e p o s s i bl e s ol u t i on s i s
an bl ) 91 : 7
51
“ 2) b2) 9 )
2 k2
a n) bm gm kn
Th i s th e n i s th e con d i t i on w h i ch mu s t h ol d i n o rd e r th at th e
, ,
e q u a t i o n s o f th e g i v e n s y s t e m m a b e co n s i s ten t
y .
71 1 . Mult i pli cat i on of D et ermi na nt s .
C on s i d e r t h e de te rmin an t
“ 1 01 and » bl cl bZd l
“1 02 “ 261 2; bi c2 b2d 2
By 69 6, th i s ca n be r
e xp e s s e d i n th e fo r m
( he, a l cl , b, d , a , d ,, bl c ;
bl c2 051 02; b2d 2 a zd z y 51 02
Th at is, by 69 7
a l bl
Cl : 0 1
a l b2
Cl ) d1
(, s
d1 ; Cl a 2b
02: d2 d 2: 02
500 AD V AN CE D C O U RS E IN AL G E B R A
Th e fir s t an d l as t d e t e r mi n an ts are z e r o s i n ce th ey h ave , tw o
co lumn s i d e n t i cal .
Th e n by 69 2 th e g i ve n d et e rm i n an t e qual s
, ,
01 : d1 01 : d1
a l bz
02: d2 02: d2
62 _a z bl )
01 2 d1 a1 bl 01 ) d1
(
;
a1 x
02: d2 “ 22 b2 02; d2
T h at i s , t h e p r o d uct d e t e r mi n an t s o f t h e s econ d or de r
o f tw o
can b e e xp r e s s e d a s a d e t e r m i n an t o f th e s eco n d o rd e r .
Aga i n con s i d e r t h e d e t e r mi n an t
,
ai d] “ 29 1 as f v
bl d l [329 1 b3f1 ) cl d l 029 1 C3 fi
a1 d2 “ 29 2 b1 d 2 523 2 bafm c1 d2 023 2
a l dS “ 29 3 “ Us: b1 d 3 b29 2 ,
01 d 3 029 3 Ca fe
'
By 6 9 6, th i s e qua l s th e su m of t w e n ty-s e v e n d e te rmi n an ts,
ofwh ic h th e fo l o w i n g l ar e ty p e s :
a i dD b26 1 , Cs i f a l d1 : bl d l ) C29 1 a l dl ) bl d l ) Gl d l
529 2; “ 1 61 2) bl d 2) 023 2 b1 d 2) cl d 2
a l d S) b29 3, Cafa 1 32
051 0 b1 d 3) C29 3 @ 1 51 3 ; bl d3) C ds
i
Th at i s, by 69 7,
an 91 : fl d1 ) di y 91 d1 ) d1 : d 1
a1 b203 d 2; 9 2: f2 2
“1 51 02 dz a d 2: 92 2
a l bl cl d2; d 2; d2
d e: 9 3: 7
.3 d a: d 3; 93 d 3: da; d3
Th e ht e e n d e t e rmi n an t s o f th e s e con d typ e

ei g
,
an d th e thr e e
o f t h e t h i rd t y e a r e a l l z e r o by 6 9 5
p ,
.
H e n ce t h e gi v e n d e t e r min a nt e qual s
,
d1 ) 91 : d1 : . fiy 91 91 ;
d1 :
“1 5203 d 2a 9 2: f é a1 b302 d 2: 7
3: .
92 a 2b1 03 9 22 d 2: fa
d 3; 3 3: f3 d 3: 7
3) .
93 9 32 d aa f3
91 ) f l) d1 f1 ) d1 ) 61 f: 6 1
1 7
d1
a 2b3 01 9 2; fé , d2 a 3 b1 02 f} : d 2; 92 053 5201 .
322
7 9 2; d2
i
f3 ;
d a: 93
1 3: ‘
33: da
5 02 AD V AN C E D CO U R SE IN AL G E B R A
XXX V II . TH E O R Y O F E Q UA TIO N S
71 2 E ve ry e q uati o n o f th e n th
. d egr e e , w i th o n e unk n o wn
n umb e r, ca n b e w r i tt e n i n t h e fo r m
m + plm
n n—l
+ p 2x
n
(1 )
w h er e th e fi
coe f ci e n s t may be p o s i t i ve o r n eg a t i ve ,
i n t e gr al or
fr a ct i o n al , r ati on al o r i rr ati on al r e al pur e i m agi n ary or com , , ,
l e x or z er o
p ,
.
If n o coe f fi ci en t e qual s z e r o t h e e quat i on i s s ai d t o be Oom ,
p l e te ; o th e r w i s e i t i s s a i d t,
o be I n comp lete .
W e s h al l ca l l ( 1 h e G en er a l F o rm o f th e e qua ti o n o f th e
q ) t
n th d e g r e e .
71 3 . I t w ill be p r ov e d i n th e Appen di x th a t e v e ry e q uati on

o f th e a b ov e fo r m h a s a t l ea st o n e r oo t r eal p ur e i ma g i n a ry o r , , ,
co mp l e x .
71 4 .
( C o n v e rs e of If a i s a roo t o th
f e equa ti on
n —l
O) ( 1 )
”
a? "
FPIx +Pn -1 w
th e firs t member i s d i vi s i ble by a: a .
If a i s a r oot of a
”
+p la
"“ 1
+1 0, :2 0 .
by 1 3 9 a + jel a + 1 9 i s t h e r e m ai n d e r obta i ne d
1
B ut ” n ‘
, ”
by d i v i di n g t h e first memb e r o f (1 ) by a: a .
Th e n th e fir s t memb e r o f (1 ) i s d i vi s i bl e by a: a
, .
71 5 . Number of R
p g ts .
A n equa ti o n ofth e n th d egree h a s n ro ots , a nd n ot mor e th a n a .
L e t t h e e q uat i on b e
0'
—l n —2
m '
u
1 p lx
"
n
+ P2x + p n- 1 x + p n
By 71 3 , t h i s e q uati o n h as at l ea s t r oo t
on e .
L et a be t h i s r o o t ; t h e n by 71 4 , th e fir s t me mb e r i s d i v i s i bl e
by :
a a , an d th e e q u a ti o n m ay b e p ut i n t h e f o r m
—1 u —2
( x a
)( m u
Qw 2 g —1 x
it q n ) 0'
T H E O R Y O F E Q UA T I O NS 5 03
By 1 8 2, th e l a tt e r e qu a ti on m a y be s ol v e d by p l aci n g
a; a 0,
( )
“
an d x 0 . 2
E qu a t i on(2) mus t al s o h av e at le as t on e r oo t .
L e t b be t h i s r o ot ; th e n (2) may be w r 1 tt e n
a:
(
2
b )( n.) 0,
’“
a
b
an d th e e qua t i o n m ay be s ol v e d by l a ci n g
p
x— b= Q
an d m ie
n —3
0 .
C o nt in ui n g th e p r o ce s s un t i l n b i n omi al fact o r s h av e
1
b e e n d i v i d e d out , w e s h all arr i v e fi n al ly at an e q uat i on o f t h e
fir s t d e g r e e , a; k 05 w h e n ce a : 16
,
.
Th e r e fore ,
th e g i v e n e qu a t i on h a s th e r o ot s a
n ,
b, k .
Th e r o ot s a r e n ot n e c e ss ari ly u n equa l ; c o mp a r e n o t e , 1 83 .
‘
V 71 6 .D ep r es s i on of E quat i ons .
I t fo l l o w s fr o m 71 5 th at i f m r o o t s o f a n e qua t i on o f t h e
,
n th d e g r e e a r e k n o w n th e e q u a t i o n m a y b e d e p r e s s e d t o
,
a n o t h e r e q uat i o n o f t h e (n m)th d e g r e e w h i ch s h a ll cont a i n ,
t h e o th e r n m r o ot s .
Th u s if all but t w o o f t h e r o ot s o f a n e quat i o n a r e k n o w n

, ,
th e s e t w o m ay b e o b tai n e d fr om th e d e p re s s e d e q ua ti on by t h e
r ul e s fo r qua dr at i cs
E x T w o r oot s o f th e e qua t i on 9 m
.
/ 4
3 7x 8x 20 O a re 2
2 an d w h a t a r e t h e o th e r s
By 71 4 t h e fir s t m e mb e r o f th e gi v e n e q uat i on i s d i v i s i b l e
,
by (a: 2) or -x 1 0 .
D i v i d in g 9 m 4
3 7x 2
8x 20 by 3 x 2
c
c 1 0, t h e quot i e n t
is 3 x 2
x 2 .
Th e n t h e d ep r e s s e d e qu at i o n i s
3 2
x £1 3 2 0 .
2
l
S o vi n g by th e r ul e s for qua dr at i cs , x: or 1
3
.
5 04 AD V A NCE D CO U RS E IN AL G E B R A
EX ERC S E "7 I
1 . O ne root o fx3 x2
3 2 te 60 0 is 5 fin d t h e r
o th e s .
2 . O ne ro t
o o f8 r 3 5 x2 3 4 x+ 24 0 is 3 ; fin d t h e o th e s r .
3 . O ne root o f 24 1 3 — 502 2 4 9 2:+ 20 = O i s find t h e o th e s r .
4 . O ne r oot o f 2 7x 3 54 x 2 1 41 x 28 0 is
3 ; find th e o th e rs .
d
5 . Tw o ro ots of 9 x + 6 4 x3 — 5 9 x2 — 2O x + 1 00 : 0 a re an 7
3
fin d th e o t h e rs .
6 . Tw o r o ots of 20x4 a re 4 an d
i ,
fin d t h e o th e s r .
7 Tw o
. r o ots o f x4
a x3 2 a a:
2 2 2 1 6a 3x 9 6 a4 : 0 ar e — 3 a a nd
4 a find t h e o th e s r .
8 . O ne r o ot of
—
( n 2 -4 n — l l ) x — n3 — 2 n2 + 5n + 6 =O is —n -3 ;
fin d t h e r
o th e s .
71 7 Format ion of E quat i ons

. .
I t foll o w s fr o m 71 5 th at i f t h e roo ts of
n -l
x
n
+ p lx + p n -l x + 1 9 2: O
ar e a , b_
,
k, th e e qua ti on may be w r i tt e n i n th e for m
— ) — — lc : 0
( aat( x b) m
( x
) .
H en ce, t o fo r m a n e qu a t i on w h i ch sh al l h a v e an y r e qui r e d
roo ts ,
S u btr a ct ea ch r oot fr om x, a nd p la ce th e p ro duct

ex
pr es s i on s equa l to z ero to .
n l . 9
Ex . F orm an e qu a ti on h i ch sh all h ave th e r oots 1 ,
1
’ an d
2 3
B y th e r ul e , ( a: 1 ) a: 0 .
Mul ti ply i n g th e te r ms of th e s ec o n d fa ct o r by 2, a n d of th e
th i rd by 3, w e have
— l 2 —0
( x )( x .
E xp an di n g , x —
3 2
6 x + 1 2 c
c +5 : 0 .
.
We w i ll
p r o v e b
y y e
l
n ow l a t h m a ti a
c l I n d uct i o n th at
fi
p
th e
a b o v e l a w s h o l d fo g an y n um b e r o f r o o t s,
.
A s s um e th e m t o h o l d fo r n r o o t s ; a b e d k l m , , , , , ,
.
T h at i s c — d (x m _m
(c , ) ( )
—l —3
= x
n
+ P1 m
n
+ p 2x
n — 2
+ p 3x
n
+
w h e re
+ lm ;
1 03 :
p ,
j:a bcd klm, rdi n g a s n i s e v e n o r o dd
a cco .
I f w e i n tr o duce an a dd i t i o n a l r o o t r w e e q ua t e t o z e r o
, , th e
p r o d u ct of
n —1 n —2 n -3
x
’
n
x +p lx + p 2x + p 3x N .
Th i s g i v e s th e e qu a tion
mm
( 3
“
(1 )w (202 9 0
“
01 r 1 9 7
7 02 0
0 rp . .
H e re, th e fi
c o e f ci e n t o f t h e s e c on d t e rm is
Of th e th i rd t e rm
ab + ac + bc + + m) .
O f t h e fo ur t h te rm
— + klm)
( a bc + + lm) .
Th e l a st te r m is mr ,
rd i n g a s n i s e v en o r o d d ;
a bcd a cco
o r j; a bcd r acco rd i n g a s n
,
1 i s e v e n o r o dd .
T h e s e r e s ul t s a re i n acco rd a nce w i t h th e a b o v e l a w s .
H en ce i f t h e l a w s h o l d fo r n r o ot s th ey h ol d fo r n + 1 r o o t s
, ,
.
B u t w e k n o w t h a t t h ey h ol d fo r fo u r r o o t s a n d h e n ce th ey
,
,
h ol d for fiv e r oot s ; a n d s i n ce t h e y h ol d for fiv e r o ot s th e y ,
h ol d for s i x r o o t s ; a n d s o o n .
H e n ce th e l a w s h o l d fo r a ny n umb e r o f r o o t s
,
.
\4 71 9 I t foll o ws fr o m 71 8 th at if a n e uat i on o f th e nth §

.
, q
de gr e e i s i n t h e g e n e r a l fo r m ,
t m o f th e
‘
a If th e s e con d t e r m i s w a n t i n g, t h e su r oo t s is 0 .
T H E O R Y O F E QUA T I O N S 5 07
JIf th e las t
t e r m i s w an t i n g a t l e a s t o n e r o o t i s 0 ,
.
4 W e a l s o s e e t h at i f t h e l a s t t e r m i s i n t e g r a l i t i s d i v i s i b l e ,
by e v e ry i n t e g r al r oo t .
72 0 If a ll but
. on e of th e r oot s o f a n e qu a t i on of th e n th
degr e e i n th e g e n e r al fo r m a r e k n ow n , th e r e m a i n i n g r o o t m ay
be fo un d by ch an g i n g th e s i gn o f t h e co e f fi ci e n t o f t h e s e con d
te r m of t h e g iv e n ti o n an d s ub t r act i n g th e s u m o f t h e
e qu a ,
k n o w n r o o t s fr o m t h e r e s ul t ; o r by d i v i d i n g t h e l a s t t e r m o f
,
t h e g i v e n e q ua t i o n i f n i s e v e n o r i t s n e g at i v e i f n i s o dd by
, ,
t h e p r o d uct o f t h e k n o w n r o o t s .
I f a l l but t w o a r e k n o w n t h e coe f fi ci e n t o f th e s econ d t e r m

,
o f t h e d e p r e s s e d e q u at i o n 71 6) m ay b e fo un d by a dd in g th e
s u m o f t h e k n o wn r o o t s t o t h e coe f fi ci en t o f th e s e con d t e r m
o f t h e g i v e n e q ua t i o n ; a n d t h e l a s t t e r m o f t h e d e p r e s s e d
e q ua t i on m a y b e fo un d by d i v i d i n g t h e l a s t t e r m o f t h e gi v e n
e q u a t i o n by p l us o r m i n u s t h e p r o d uct o f t h e k n o w n r oo t s
a cco rd i n g a s n i s e v e n o r o dd .
Ex . T wo r o ot s of th e e qu a ti on 9 x
4
3 7x 2
8 x 20 O
ar e 2 an d
g ; w h a t a re th e o th e s r
W e fir s t p u t th e e q ua t i on i n t h e g e n e r a l fo r m by di vi d i ng
e a ch term by 9 .
37 8 2 0
I t th e n b eco me s c
c
“
x
2
x + _ =o .
9 9
S i n ce th e r e is no 0
6
3
term ,
th e fi
co e f ci e n t o f th e s econ d t e r m
is 0 .
Th en th e co e f
fi ci en t of th e s e con d te rm of th e d ep r e s s e d
e q ua t i o n i s O 2 —
g ,
or
Th e fi
co e f ci en t of th e l a s t t erm of th e d epr e s s e d e q ua t i on
2O 2
IS
9 3
1 2
Th e d e p r e s s e d e qu a t i o n is x O .
3 3
2
S ol vi ng , a: or 1 .
3
5 08 ADVA NCE D CO U R S E IN ALG E B R A
K EX E RC S E “9 I
,
1
I
I 1 . Tw o r oo ts of 1 6 x3 3 7a: 21 0 a re 1 and ; fi nd t h e o th e r
ro o t .
2 . Th re e r o ots o f 4 x4 1 7x3 6 4 x2 25 7 x 60 z 0 ar e 3 , 4, and
5 find th e o th e r r o ot .
3 . F our r o ots o f 2 5
x + 3 x4 — 30x3 ~
1 ,
_2 ,
4, and fin d th e oth e r .
2
4 . F iv e ro ots of 36 96 6 4 75 x 4 4 31 3
96 91 x 2
71 x 1 2 O are
1 — 3, — l 1
a nd 1 ; fin d th e o th e r
6
, ’ ’ .
2 6
5 . O ne r oot o f x3 8 x2 23 x 21 0 O is 6 ; find t h e r
o th e s .
6 . Tw o ro ots of 6 x + 7x — 3 7x — 8 x + 1
42 3 2 = 0 a re 2 an d 1 ; find
2
th e o th ers .
7 Th r e e
. r oot s of 5
x 6 x4 2 7x3 1 4 8 x2
2 04 a: 72 0 O a re 2,
3, and 4 fin d t h e o th e s r .
8 . Two r o o ts o f x4 — 5 a
2
+4 = 0 are a — l
a nd a 2 ; fin d t h e o th e s r .
S y mmet r i cal Funct i ons of t h e R oot s .
Th e r
e xp e s s i o n s fo r p 1 , p 2, , p ”,
i n m 71 8, ar e sy mme tr i cal
1 4 6) fun ct i on s o f t h e r oo t s o f t h e e qu a ti o n , and c an be
e xp e r ss e d as fol l ow s ( co m p a e r
P1 2a .
p 2 2ab .
p 3 Ea bc, Ct C .
symme tr i cal fun ct i on s of th e r o ots can be e xp r e ss e d in

O th e r
t er ms o f th e co e ffi ci en t s .
E x If a b a n d c a
. r e t h e r o ots of t h e e ua t i o n
, , q
m 4 20l 3
w
+ p2 + 1 3
0 : 0,
fin d th e v a l ue s of 2a z
,
and Ea b
g
.
W e h ave 2a = a 3 2
+ b +
2
c
z =
( a + b+ ) c
2
2 ( 2 a b) _
( PI)
2
2 P2 = P1 2
2 P2
Aga i n , Ea b
g
a
2
b a o
g
bc 2
ba
2
0a
2
6
2
b
— 3 a bc
_
( Pl ''3 7
)p 2 I 1 3 3 1 03
—
PIP2
L et + bi , w h e r e a a n d b h a v e t h e
a s am e m ean i n gs as in
4 1 5 , be a r o o t o f th e e q ua t i o n ; t h e n ,
( bi ) + 1 9 1 0 + p n _1 (a bi )+ 1 0” 0
”
a »
E xp an d i n g by th e B i n o m i al Th e o r e m, w e h a v e by 41 1 ,
I? I
§
3 z
”
b
"
I 2
( )
2
C oll e cti n g t h e r e al an d i m a gi n a ry te rms ,

we h a ve a r e s ult of
th e fo r m P 0
.
( )
3
H ere , .
P t
s an ds for th e t e r m s con t a in ing a
s um o f a ll th e
a l on e t o g e th e r w i t h a l l t h e t e r m s co n t ai n i n g e v e n p o w e r s o f i ;
,
Q i f o r a ll t e r m s co n t a i n i n g O d d p o w e r s o f i .
”
I n o rd e r th a t e q uat i o n (3) m ay h ol d w e mu s t h a v e ,
P : o, an d Q o gs
No w su b s t i t uti n g a bi for x in th e fir s t me mb e r of it
b e co me s
( bi) + p 1 ( ( bi) ( )
4
”
a a a
E xp an d i n g th e p o w e r s o f a bi , w e s h a l l h a v e a r es ult w h i ch
d iffe r s fr o m t h e fir s t m e mb e r o f (2) on ly i n h a v i n g th e even
t e r ms in e a ch e x p an s i on , or th os e i n v ol v i n g i as a fact o r,
ch a nged in s ig n .
The n , coll e c ti n g th e r e al an d i m a gi n a ry terms ,

th e r
e xp e s s i on
( ) q
4 e u a l s
P _ Qi ;
w he re P an d Q h av e th e s am e m ean i n g s as be for e .
B ut s i n ce P : 0 an d Q : 0, P Qt = 0 .
“ I
H e n ce ,
a r o ot o f
bi i s a
Th e a b o v e d e mo n s t ra t i o n h o l d s w i th o ut c h a n g e w h e n a e qu a ls r
z e o ;
t h us t h e t h e o r e m h ol d s fo r a n y p ur e i m a g in a ry n u mb e r
72 4 . It fo l l o w s fr o m 71 3 and 72 3 t h a t e v e ry e qua ti o n of
o dd degre e has at r eal r o ot ;

le as t one fo r an e q ua t i o n ca n n o t
h ave a n o dd n umb e r o f com p l e x r o o t s .
an d a — b\ /— 1 ,
is
[ x ( a + b\ / ( a b\/
w— > > ;
2 2
( (
2
a x a + 6
an d is th e r e fo r e p o s i t i ve fo r e v e ry r e a l v a l ue o f x .
TR AN S F OR M ATI O N OF E QUATI O NS
72 6 . To tr a n sfo r m a n e qu a ti o n i n to a n o th er w h i ch s h a ll h a ve I/
the s a me r oots w i th r
co n t a ry s ign s .
L et t h e e q ua t i o n be
n —l —2
0 ( 1 )
”
+ P2x
fl
53 +l + P n —i x + 1 9 1 .
S ub s t i t ut in g y fo r x, we have
—1
y) (
"
"
I
’
+ p n _1
D i v i ding e ac h te rm by we h ave
"
y + PI _ + P2 + Pn
y p. 0
_
.
( 1 ) (
0r, —
( )
1 2
" "
+ 1 9 2y
”
:
t 0; 2
‘ ‘
y p ly
t h e u pp e r or lo we r s i gn s b e in g t ak en a cco rd i n g as n is o d d or
e v en .
(
I t fo l l o ws fr o m ) (d1 an d ( )
2 t h a t th e
e s i r e d tr a n s fo r m a t i on
3
m ay be e ffe cte d by ch a ng i ng th e s igns of th e te r ms of o dd d eg r ees

"
r m
1
1
ifth e d egr ee of th e e q u a ti o n i s eve n or t h e s ig n s of th e te s of ,
even d eg r e e a n d of th e i n c en d en t te r m if th e d egree of th e
e qua ti o n i s o d d
0
pli W LW
p
.
, r
Th e ve rul e appl i es wh e th e r th e e quati o n is c ompl ete or in c o mplet e

ab o .
E x Tr a n s fo r m th e e q u at i o n x
.
3
1 0x 4 0 i n t o a n o th e r
w h i ch s h al l h a v e t h e s a m e r oo t s wi th co n t r a ry s i g n s .
B y t h e r ul e th e t r an s fo r m e d e q ua t i o n i s x
,
3
1 0a: 4 0 .
P u
tt in g m : a y, th a t is, y
— fo r v,
. we h av e
n
+p1 +1 72 + p n —1
M ul t i ply i n g ea c h te r m by m ”
+ p 2m y
2
" 2 ”
0
“
y
H e n ce ,
to d e s i r e d tr an s fo r mat i on mul tip ly the
ef
fec t th e ,
eco nd te r m by m th e th ir d te r m by m
2
,
a n d s o on ,
.
E 23 T r a n s fo r m t h e e qu a t i o n :
. 6
3
7x 2
6 0 i n t o a n o th e r
w h o s e r o o t s s h a ll b e r e s p e ct i v e l y 4 t i m e s th o s e o f t h e fir s t .
S up p ly i n g t h e m i s s i n g t e r m w i th t h e co e f fici en t z e r o an d ,
a p p ly i n g t h e r ul e w e h av e ,
x
3
+4 -7x2 + 4 2 -O x — 4 3
0r x
3
+ 28 x
2
7
28 . To tr a n sfo r m a n e qua t i o n w i th f r a cti o n a l co efii ci en ts i n to
a n o th er wh os e co e i
fi en ts
i c s h a ll be i nteg r a l th a t of th e fi rs t te r m
,
bei ng un i ty .
Th etr an s fo r m a t i o n m ay b e e f f e ct e d by tr an s f o rmin g th e
f
I
e qua t i on i n t o a n o t h e r w h o s e r oo t s s h a ll b e r e s p e ct i v el y m t i me s
t h os e o f t h e fir s t a n d t h e n g i v i n g m s u ch a v al ue as
w i ll m ak e e v e ry c o e f fi ci e n t i n t e g r al .
B y gi v i n g t o m t h e lea s t v al ue w h i ch w il l m ak e e v e ry coef fi
ci e n t i n t e g r a l t h e r e s ul t w ill be o bt a i n e d i n i t s s i m pl e s t fo r m
, .
2
93 x l —=
Ex . Tr an s fo r m th e e qu a t i on x
3 — O i nt o an
36 3 1 08
oth e r wh o s e fi
co e f ci e n s s t h all be i n t e g r a l, t h a t o f t h e first t erm
b e i n g u n i ty .
By 727, th e e qu a t i on
m 2 m 2
m 3
x x 0
6 36 as
h a s i ts r o o t s r e s p e ct i v el y m t i m e s t h o s e of t h e gi v e n e qu a t i o n .
'
It i s e v i d en t by i n s p e cti o n th at t h e l e as t v al ue o f m w h i ch
, ,
wi l l m ak e e v e ry co e f fi ci e n t i n t e gr al i s 6 ,
.
P utt i n g m : 6 w e h av e ,
x — 3
2w2
wh os e r oot s ar e 6 t i me s t h o s e o fth e
gi v en e ua
q t i on .
H e n ce bt ai n th e coe ffici e n t s o f t h e tr an s fo r me d e qua ti on :

,
to o
D i vi d e th e fi rs t membe r of th e g i ven equa ti o n by m+ m ; th e

r ema i n d er w i ll be th e la s t ter m of th e r equi r ed equa ti o n .
D ivi d e th e quo ti ent j us t fo un d by a: m th e r ema i n d e r wi ll be

th e co efii ci en t of th e n ext to the la s t te r m of th e tr a nsfo r med equd
‘
ti o n a nd s o on .
'
Ex . Tr an s fo r m th e e quati on 96 7a: 6 0 i 1 1 t 0 a n o th e r 3
wh o s e r o ot s s h al l be r e s p e ct i v e ly th o s e o f t h e fir s t i n cr e a s e d
by 2 .
D i v i din g m 3
7x 6 by a: 2, w e h av e t h e q uot i e n t x 2
2 a:
3, an d th e r e m ai n d e r 1 2 .
D ivi d in g x
2
2 ac 3 by x 2 , w e h a v e t h e q uo t i e n t :
6 4,
an d r e ma in d e r 5
th e .
D i vi d i n g w 4 by a: 2 w e h a v e t h e r e m ai n d e r ,
6 .
Th en t h e tr an s fo r m e d e qua t i on i s
,
3
w
C om p a r e E x 729
3
.
, .
1 73 1 . tr an s fo r m an e quat i o n i n t o a n o th e r wh os e r o ots
To
S h a ll b e t h o s e o f t h e fir s t d i mi n is h ed by m w e ch a n g e y m to ,
y + m i n t h e m e t h o d o f 7 2 9 a n d a: m t o x m i n t h e r ul e ,
of 730 .
k 73 2 . To tr a nsfor m th e equa ti o n
x
”
Effigy
! 1
+ p n —1 x + 277: 0)
"
"
wh er e p 1 is n ot z er o, i n to a n o th e r wh o s e s eco nd term s h a ll be
w a n ti ng .
E x p an d i n g th e p ow e rs of y m i n th e fi rs t me m b e r of
72 9 , a n d coll ect i n g t h e te r m s i n v o l vi n g l ik e p o w e r s of y, w e
h av e
y
”
( .
20 WW W “
0.
If m b e t ak e n t h at p 1 mn O wh en ce m
so t h e co e f
fi ,
ci e n t o f y w i l l be z e r o
1 ” ‘
H e n ce th e d e s i r e d t r an s fo r m a ti o n m ay b e e ffect e d by s ub
,
p1
s ti t ut i n g i n th e g i v e n ti on
.
e q ua y In l
p a ce ofx .
n
T H EO R Y O F E Q UA T IO NS 51 5
M
733 . S y nt h et i c
Div i s i on .
Th e o p e r a t i o n o f d i v i s i o n i n e xa m pl e s l i k e th a t o f
, 73 0, ma y
be co n v e n i e nt ly p e r fo r m e d by a p r o ce s s k n o w n a s S ynthe ti c
D i vi s i o n .
L e t i t be r e qu i r e d t o d i v i d e x
3
1 2 £6
2
29x 21 by : 3
a .
U s ing d etach e d co e ffi ci e nt s we have
1 — 21 1 — 3
1 Q uoti e nt .
1 5 , R e m ain d e r .
W e m ay o mi t fir s t t e r m o f e a ch p a rt i a l p r o d uct fo r i t Is
th e ,
me r e l y a r e p e t it i o n o f t h e t e r m i mm e d i at e ly a b o v e .
Al s o t h e s e co n d t e r m o f e ach p a rt i a l p r o d u ct m ay be a d d ed
,
t o t h e co rr e s p o n d i n g t e r m o f t h e d i v i d e n d p r o vi d e d w e ch a n g e ,
t h e s i g n o f t h e s eco n d te r m o f t h e d i v i s o r b e fo r e m ul t i p ly i n g .
Th e w o rk n o w s t a n d s :
1 — 21
3 1
9
27
+ 2
6
—1 5
Th e fir s t te r m d i v i s o r b e i n g un i ty i n a l l a pp l i cat i on s
of th e
of 73 0 i t m ay be o mi tt e d ; a n d t h e fir s t t e r m s o f t h e s u cce s
,
s i v e d i v i d e n d s con s t i t ut e t h e q u o t i e n t
O
.
R a i s i n g th e o b li qu e co l umn s t h e p e r a t i,
o n w i l l s t a nd as
fo llo w s :
D i v id end , 1 — 1 2
+ 29 _2 1 + 3
P a r t i a l p r o d uct s , 3 _ 27 6
Q uo t i e n t , 1 9 2, — 1 5 R e mai n d e r .
Th e co mpl e t e r e s ul t is o btai n e d as fo l l o w s :
51 6 AD V AN C E D CO URSE IN AL GE B R A
Mul ti pl y i n g fir s t t e r m o f t h e d i v i d e n d by 3 an d add i n g
th e ,
th e r es ul t t o t h e s eco n d t e r m o f t h e d i v i d e n d g i v e s t h e s e co n d ,
t er m o f t h e q u ot i e n t .
Mul ti pl y i n g t h e l a tt e r by 3 an d a dd i n g t h e r e s ul t t o t h e ,
th i rd t e r m o f th e d i v id e nd gi v e s t h e l a s t t e r m o f th e q uoti e n t
, .
Mult i pl y i n g th e l att e r by 3 a n d add i n g t h e r e s ul t t o th e l a st

,
t e r m o f t h e d i vi d e n d gi v e s t h e r e mai n d e r
,
.
H en ce t h e q u o t i e n t i s x
,
2
9 a: 2 a n d t h e r e mai n d e r 1 5 , .
If t h e t e r m inv o lvin g a n y p o w e r o f a:i s w a n t in g i t mus t b e s upp l i e d ,
w i th th e c oeffic i e nt 0 b e for e a pp ly in g t h e r ule .
Th e w ork of tran s fo r mi n g by , S y nth e t i c D i vi s i on, t h e

e qu a t i on x
3 _ 7x + 6 2 0
i nt o th e r wh os e r oot s s h al l be r e s p e ct i v el y th o s e
ano ofth e first
i n cr eas ed by 2 w i ll s t an d a s foll o w s (co mp a r e
,
1 — 7
+ 0 6 L
— 2 + 4 6
— 2 — 3 + 1 2 l s t R em
, .
— 2
+ 8
— 4
+ 5, 2 d R em .
-2
—6
,
3 d R em .
Th us , th e tran s fo r me d e q ua t i on is
EX ERC S E I2 I I
Tr a n s form e ach o f th e follow in g int o a n e quati on wh i ch s h all ha v e th e
s a me r o o ts w i th c o n t ra ry s i gn s :
1 4— 8x3
2 x5 6 4 — 2 x
. x .
+ x
3 . T ra n s fo rm x3
1 0a ? 5 a: 7 0 in to an e qu t i na o wh os e r o ots
s h all be,r e s p e ct ive ly ,
i
5 t m e s t h os e o f th e fir s t .
4 . T ra n s fo r m x4 4 x 3 2 x2 3 0 in to an e qu t i na o wh os e ro ots
s h a ll b e r e s p e c t iv e l y
, ,
i
6 t me s t h o s e of th e fir s t .
5 . T r a n s f o r m 3 x 3 5 :
6 2 2 0 in to an e uat o n q i wh os e roots s h a ll
be , res p ectiv ely ,

3 t h o s e o f th e firs t .
51 8 A D V AN C E D CO URS E IN ALG E B R A
If w e i ntr o duce a n ew
p os i ti v e r oot a, w e m ul t i pl y t h i s by
x — a w r i t i ng o nl y th e s i gns w h i ch o ccu r i n th e
p r o c e ss , we h av e
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
+ + o — + o o (1 )
( )
2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0
wh ere m s i g ni fie s a te rm w h i ch m ay b e O, or
No w, in le t a d o t be p l a c e d over th e fir s t m i n us S i gn ,
th en o v e r th e n ex t p l u s s i g n ,
t h en o ver th e n e xt m i n us s i g n,
and s o o n .
Th e n um d ot s s h o ws th e n u mb e r o f v a r i ati o n s ; t h us
ber of ,
i n (1 ) th e r e a r e t h r e e v a r i a t i o n s .
O
I n t h e a b ov e r e s ul t w e b s e rv e th e fo ll o w i n g l a w s :
,
I D i r ectly un d e r e ach d o tt e d t e r m o f ( 1 ) i s a t e r m of (2)

.
h a ving th e sa me s i gn .
Thus ,
th e t e r m s n umb e r e d 4 , 5, an d 8, i n ( 1 ) an d h a ve
th e s am e s i gn .
II . Th e l a st t e rm of ( )
2 i s o f o pp o si te s i gn t o th e te r m
di r ectl y un der d ott e d t e r m of
th e la s t
Th e a b o ve l a w s a r e e a s i l y s e e n t o h o l d u n i v e r s all y .
B y t h e fir s t l a w h o w e v e r t h e t e r m m a r k e d m i s t ak e n
, ,
th e r e ar e a t le a s t a s many v a r i at i o n s i n t h e fir s t e i gh t te r ms o f
a n d by t h e s eco n d l a w t h e r e i s a t l ea s t o n e
( )
2 a s i n (1 ) ,
v a r i a t i o n i n t h e r e ma i n i n g t e r m s o f
H e n ce t h e i nt r o d uct i o n o f a n e w p o s i ti v e r o ot i ncr ea s e s th e
,
n um b e r o f v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e e q uat i o n by a t l ea s t o n e .
If t h e n w e fo r m th e p r o d uct o f a l l t h e fact o r s co rr e s pon d

, ,
i n g t o t h e n e g at i v e a n d i m a gi n a ry r o o t s o f a n e q uat i o n m ul t i ,
p l y i n g t h e r e s u l t by t h e fa ct o r co rr e s p o n d i n g t o e a ch p o s i t i v e
r oo t i ntr o d uce s a t l ea s t o n e v a r i at i o n .
H en ce t h e e qua ti o n ca n n ot h a v e a g r e a t e r n umb e r of p o s i
,
t i v e r o o ts th an i t h a s v a r i at i on s o f s i gn .
WTH E O RY
b
I! wu i 6
Q
u
”7 “
.
O F E Q U ATIO l S 51 9
To p r o v e t h e s e con d p a rt o f D e s ca rt e s R ul e, l et — y b e
’
6 i n a ny co mp le te e q uat i o n
s ub s ti t ut e d for : .
Th e n s i n ce t h e s i gn s o f t h e a l e n a e t r t t e r ms co mme n ci n g w i th
th e s e co n d are c h an ge d th e o r i gi n a l p e rma nences of
s i gn b eco me va ri a ti ons .
B ut t h e tr an s fo r m e d e quat i on ca nn ot h a v e a gr e a t e r n u mb e r
o fp os i tive r o o t s t h a n i t h a s va r i a ti o n s .
H e nce th e o r i gin a l e quat i o n can no t h a v e a g r e at e r n umb e r

,
o f n ega ti ve r o o t s t h an i t h a s p e rma n e n ces .
.
In a ll a ppl i c at i o n s o f D es c a r te s R ule t h e e quat i o n mus t c o n ta in a
’
,
t e r m in d e p e n d e n t o f x ; th a t i s n o r o o t m us t e qua l z e r o
,
1 82 ) for a .
z e r o r o o t c a nn o t b e r e ga r d e d as e i th e r p os i t iv e o r n e gat iv e .
736 . I t foll o w s fr o m t h e l a s t p a rt o f 73 5 , a n d fr om 72 6,
th a t in a n y e qu a t i o n , c o m pl e t e o r i n co m l e t e , t h e n um b e r o f
p
n e ga ti v e r oot s t e x ce e d t h e n u m b e r o f v a r i a t i on s i n t h e
c an n o
e q u a ti o n w h i ch i s fo r m e d fr o m th e gi ve n e q u at i o n by ch a n g i n g
t h e s i g n s o f th e t e r ms o f o dd d eg r ee .
$ 73 7 In an y co mp lete e qua t i o n, th e s um o f th e n umb e r o f

.
p e r m a n e n ce s a n d v a r i a t i o n s e q ua l s t h e n u mb e r o f t e r m s l e s s
one, o r th e d e gr e e o f t h e e q uat i o n .
Th a t i s , th e s um o f th e n um ber of p e rman en ce s an d v a ria

ti op s e qu al s th e n um ber o f oo s r t
H e n ce ,
i f th e r oo ts ti o n are al l r e a l
of a co m p l e e t e qu a ,
h e n umbe p q p s i t i v e r oo t s e qua l s th e n umb e r o f va r i at i o n s V

,
a n d t h e n umb e r o f n e a t i ve r oo t s e ual s t h e n umb e r o f p e r

g q
v
m a n e n ce s .
"
Afi 6 q uati on wh o s e t e r m s a r e all p os i t i ve can h a v e n o p o s i

.
ti v e r o ot ; a nd a comp l e te e q ua t i on w h os e t e r ms ar e alt e rn at e ly
p o s i t ive an d n e g a ti v e ca n h a ve n o n e ga tive roo t .
I
738 . E 90 . D e t e r mi n e th e t r
n a u e o f th e root s of
x
3
2 a: 5 0 .
Th er e i s no v ari at i on an d con s e que n tly n o p o s i ti v e r oo t

,
.
C h angi ng t h e s i gn of t h e i n de p e n d e n t t e r m, w e h ave
x 3
+ 2 x — 5 = O .
H e r e th e r e r i at i on ; an d t h e r e fo r e th e g i v e n e qua
is on e v a
ti o n can n o t h a v e m or e t h an on e n e ga t i v e r o o t
Th en s in ce t h e e q uati on h a s t h r e e r oo t s o n e o f th e m
mu st be n e g a t i v e a n d t h e o th e r t w o i m a g i n a ry .
If t w o o m o r e s ucc e s s iv e t e r ms o f a n e quat i o n a re w a n tin g i t fo llo ws

r ,
by D es c a rt es R ule th a t t h e e q ua t i o n mus t h a v e i mag in a r y r o o ts

’
.
EX E RC S E IZ ZI
If t h e r o o ts o ft h e fo ll o w in g a re a ll re al ,
d e t e rm in e th e i r s ign s :
1 . x +x — 1 4 x
3 2
3 . x —
4
x3 — l 9 x2
+ 49 x
— 3+ 1
4 2 —
2 . 4 x 3
4 . 5x 4 3 x 2
1 x 68 x
5 . x4 — 4 x3
6 . 2
5 4 1 1 2 4
+ 3 s 3
x + 1 1 x2 —
1 64 x
7 .
D ete r min e th e n ature of th e r oo t s o f th e fo ll o w ing :

8 . 11 3
3— 2 21 2 —
3 2 0 . 1 1 . x5 + 4 x3 — 1 =O .
9 . 1 2 . 3 16 6 — 5 2 0 .
x5
—
1 0 .
+ 32 O . 1 3 .
1 4 . Pro v e t h at t h e e q ua t oi nx 5
x3
x 2
3 0 h as at le ast tw o i magi
n ary r oots .
LIM ITS To TH E R OO T S
73 9 r io r li mi t to th e p os i ti ve '
. To find a s up e r oo ts f an
o
e qua ti o n .
Th e fo ll ow in g e xa m pl e s i ll us tr at e t h e p r o ce s s of fi n d in g a
s up e r i o r l i mi t t o t h e p o s i t i v e r oo t s o f a n e ua t i on
°
q .
1 . F in d a s up e r i o r li mi t t o t h e p o s i t i v e r o o ts of
G r o up i n g t h e p o s i t i v e an d n ega ti v e te rm s, we can
i
W r te th e
fir s t me mb e r i n th e form
x
2
(:v
( 1 )
It is ev i d e nt th a t i f as e qua ls o r e x ce e ds 3, t h e e xp e s r si on (1 )
i s p o s i t i ve .
522 AD V AN C E D CO URS E IN ALG E B R A
By g r o up mg t h e x5 a n d te rms in , we ob ta in a s maller li mit th an

i f we g r ou p 3
t h e x an d t e ms r .
EX ERC S E IZ S I
In e a c h o f t h efo llow in g find , a su p e r i o r l i mi t to th e pos itive ro ots ,
an d
a n in fe r i o r l i mi t t o t h e n e ga t iv e
1 . v 3
+ 3 x2
+x 4 . 3 x4 — 5 x2 — 8 x
2 . x 4
+ 5 x — 1 5x
3
5 . x5 — 4 x4 + 6 x3
+ 32 x2
3 . x 4
+ 3 x — 5x 2
6 . 2 x5 + 5 x4 + 6 x3 — 1 3 m2
7 .In e q ua t i o n x
th e 2 x 7 3 2: 1 3
0 p r o v e 3 a s up e r i o r l i mi t t o
2
,
t h e p o s i tiv e r o o ts a n d 2 an in fe r i o r l i m i t t o th e n e gat ive

, .
8 In t h e e qua t i o n 2 x3
. 5x 7x 3 : 0 p r ov e 4 an in fe r i o r li mi t
2
,
t o t h e n e g at ive r oo ts a n d find a s up e r i o r li m i t t o t h e p os i t iv e
, .
9 In. t h e e q in
u a t o 3x 9 x 2 1 2 a: 1 0 O p r o v e 3 a s up er i o r
3
,
l i mi t t o t h e p os i t iv e r oo ts and 6 a n in fe r i o r l i mi t
, i ve .
L O C A TI O N O F R OO TS
74 1 . If two r ea l n umber s , a a nd b, n o t r oo ts o f th e equa ti on
m
f( ) = w + p 1 w ”
+ pn
wh en s u bs ti tuted f or x f( ) in a , g i ve r es ults of opp os i te s ign, a n
o dd n u mbe r of r oots off(at ) 0 li e between a a nd b .
L et a be r
g r
a lgeb a i ca lly e a t e r t h a n b .
L et d, m g be t h e r e a l r o ot s o ff(x)
,
O lyi ng b e tw e en a anl
d
b, an d h, m k th e r e ma i ni n g r eal r oot s
,
.
T h en , by 71 7 ,
iv — ( (x— k) ( 1 )
(iv - d) ( g) G-
C h)
w h e r e F (v ) i s t h e p r o d uct
. of th e fact ors co rr e s pon d i n g t o th e ,
co mp l e x ro ot s o ff(x) 0 .
S ub s t i t uti n g a a n d b fo r x in w e h av e
5
= Ob — — k T
f( )
a ( 9) (
( a — d) ( O): 06 - h) Gt
)
a nd — d) ( b —
g) ( b — h ) ( - b — k)
S i nce e ach o f th e n umb e r s d m g i s l e s s th a n a a n d gr ea t e r , ,
th an b e ach o f t h e fact o r s a d m a g i s po s it i ve a n d e ach

, , , ,
o f t h e fa ct o r s b d m b g n e ga t i ve , ,
.
T H EO R Y OF E QUAT ION S 5 23
A g ai n , s i n ce n on e o f t h e n u m b e r s h m It li e b e t w e e n a
, , an d
r ss i on (a h ) — k h a s t h e s ame s i n a s b
b, t h e e xp e (a
) h) g (
( b k ) ,
Al s o F (a ) an d F ( b) a re p os i t i v e ; fo r th e p r o duct o f t h e
,
fa ct o r s co rr e s p o n d i n g t o a p a i r o f co n j ugat e co mpl e x r o o t s
i s p o s i t i v e fo r e ve ry r e al va l ue o f 2:
B ut by hy p o th e s i s f(a ) a n d f(b) a r e o f o pp o s i t e s i gn
, .
H e nce t h e n u mb e r o f fact or s b d m , b — g mus t be o dd

, ,
th at i s an o d d n u mb e r of r oot s li e b e t w een a an d b
,
.
If t h e n umb e rs s ubs ti tut e d d i f fe r b y uni ty i t i s e vi d e n t th at th e i h ,
t e gra l p a r t o f a t l eas t o n e r o o t i s kn o w n .
Ex . L
ocat e t h e r oo t s o f
2
£1 3 6 a: 7 0 .
B y D e s ca rte s R ul e t h e e q ua t i on ca nn o t h a ve mo r e
’
t h a n o ne p os i t i v e n o r m o r e th an tw o n eg at i v e r oo t s
,
.
Th e va l ue s o f t h e fir s t m e m b e r fo r th e va l ue s 0 1 2 3 1 , , , , ,
2 and,
3 o f a:a re a s fol l o w s :
m= 0 ; — 7 .
— 7
. x= —1
;
— 1 . x= — 3
;
-7 .
— 1 1 x = — 2 1
.
; .
S i n ce t h e s i g n o f t h e fir s t m e mb e r i s — w h e n an d
+ w h e n w = 3 , o n e r o o t li e s b e t w e e n 2 an d 3 .
Th e o th er s li e b e t we en —1 a nd _ 2, an d — 2 an d — 3
,
re
s p e ct i v ely .
In lo c a tin g ro o ts b y th e ab ov e me th od firs t mak e t r i al o f th e n umb e rs ,
0 1 2 e tc c o n tin uin g t h e p o c e s s un t i l th e n umb e r o fp o s i t iv e r o o ts d e t e r

,
r
.
, , ,
m in e d i s t h e s a me as h as b e e n p r evi ous ly in d i c a t e d b y D es c a r te s R ule ’

.
Th us in t h e a b o v e e xa mp l e t h e e qua t i o n c a nn o t h a v e mo r e t h a n o n e
, ,
p os it ive ro ot and wh e n o ne h as b e e n foun d t o lie b e t we e n 2 and 3 th e re ,
i s n o n e e d o f t r y in g 4 o a n y gr e at e r p o s i t iv e n umb e r
.
,
r .
Th e wo r k ma y s o m et i m e s b e a b r i d g e d b y fi n d in g a s up e r i o r l i mi t t o
t h e p o s i t ive r o o t s a nd a n in fe r i o r l i mi t t o t h e n e g a t iv e r o o ts o f th e giv e n
,
e q uat i o n 73 9 fo r n o n u mb e r n e e d b e t ri e d wh i c h d oes n ot fall

,
b e t w e e n t h e s e l i mi t s .
EX E RC I S E I2 4
L ocate th e roots ofth e fo llo w in g

1 . x3 4 332 6 0.
3
2 . x
5 24 ADVA NC E D C O UR S E IN A LG EB RA
3 . x4
+ 3 x — 4 x 3
4 . x4
+ x — 1 9 x2 3
5 . r v
P o e t h a t t h e e ua t o q i n x3 2 x 2
5x 5 0 h as e i th e r on e o r
r
th e e r o o ts b e t w e e n 1 a nd 2 .
6 . P r o v e t h at t h e e qu t i n :
a o 54 5x 2
79c 2 O h as a r oo t b e t w ee n
2 a nd 3, a nd at l e as t one b e twee n 0 a nd 1 .
7 Pr o v e t h a t t h e
. e qu ti n x
a o 4
3x 3
x 2 3x 4 0 h as a root be
t we e n 0 an d 1 ,
and at le a s t on e b et we e n 3 an d 4 .
’
9 1
v
,
74 2 L ocat i on of R oot s by S ynth et i c D i v i s i on
. .
W i t h t h e n ot ati on o f 74 1 i ff(a ) an d f(b) a re of pp os i te ,

O
s i g n a n o dd n um b e r o f r o ot s o f
,
0 li e b e t w e en a a n d b .
NO W by S 25 1 2
a
n "
I
‘
+ p n —l a + 1 07»
n —1
an d f 0 5 b + Pn ( )
2
”
P 1 P n- I
Al s o, (1 ) an d ( )
2 a r e th e r e mai n d e r s o btai n e d by d i vi d i ng
96
”
0
21 29
“
H on — 1 9 :+ 1 9 .
by w r es p ecti ve ly
a an d x b,
H e n ce i f w h e n f ,
i s d i v i d e d by w
, a an d w b th e ,
r e mai n d e r s a r e o f opp os i t e S i g n an o d d n u mb e r of r o ot s of ,
0 l i e b e t w e e n a an d b
f
O
.
Th e r e m a i n d e r s m ay b e bta i n e d by S yn th eti c D i vis i on .
Ev . L ocat e th e r o ot s o f 96
3
x
2
5 ac 4 0 .
B y D e s ca r t e s R ul e , t h e ’
e qu a t i o n ca n n o t ha v e mo r e th a n on e
po t i ve n or m o r e th a n t w o n e g at i v e r o o t s
s i ,
.
D i vi din g x 3
x
2
5 a: 4 by 93 t h e r e m ai n d e r i s 4 ( )
3 ,
.
Di v i d i n g th e fir s t m e m b e r s u cce s s i v e ly by a: 1 a: 2 v 3 , ,
.
,
x+ 1 r + 2 a n d n + 3 w e h ave
, , ,
— 5 4 ll ( )
4 + — 5 _ 4 L 7
:_ ( )
I
1 1 o 5
2 — 3 — 7 0 — 5 1
— 5 — 4 —2
5
( ) l ( )
8
2 6 2 _2 2 6
s 2
( )
6 — 5 —4 L ( )
9
s 1 2 21 6 — 3
4 7 1 7 — 2 1 — 7
5 26 A D V AN C E D C O URSE IN ALG E B R A
S t ur m
’
s Th e o r e m 75 8 ) a ffo rd s a m e t h o d fo r d e t e r mi ni n g
co m p l e e t ly th e num e b r an d s i t uat i o n of th e r e a l r o o t s of a n
e qu a t i on .
It 1 8 mo r e d i ffi cul t t o a pp ly th an th e m e th ods o f 74 1 an d
74 2 , and s h oul d be u s e d o n ly i n ca s e s w h i ch th e l a tt e r can no t
r es o l v e
‘
W 744 . Graph i cal R epr es ent at i on .
Th e g r ap h o f a n e xp r e s s i o n of h i gh e r d e g r e e th a n th e s econd,
w i th o n e unk n o w n n u m b e r , may be foun d a s i n 4 65 .
E x F i n d t h e g r ap h
. of
M— Z fl— 2x+3
P ut y = m 3 — 2 x2 — 2x+ 3 .
I fx = O, y = 3 If v = 3 ,
. =
y 6 .
If If
I fm= 2, y = — 1 . If x : — 2, y = — 9 .
e tc .
Th e g r ap h i s th e cu r ve AB C, w h i ch e xt en ds i n ei th er d i r ec
t i o n t o a n i n d efi n i t ely g r e at d i stance fr om XX
74 5 . Graph i cal Locat i on of R oot s .
Th e p r i n ci p l e o f 28 0 h o l d s f o r th e g r a h
p of th e first me m
be r o f an e qua ti o n o f h i g h e r d e g r e e th an th e s econ d w i th on e
'
,
un k n ow n n um e b r .
Th u s , t h e 744 i n t ers e cts X X at m= 1

g r ap h of ,
b et we e n
a n d v = 3 ,
a n d b
. e t w ee n x = - 1 a n d x : 2 .
And th e e q ua tion 2 2 a: 3 0h a s one r o ot e qua l to

1 ,
one b e t w ee n 2 an d 3 an d on e b et w e e n , 1 and 2 .
T h i s m ay b e v e r i fi e d by s olvin g t h e e quati o n ; c
t h e fa t ors of th e firs t
me mb e r ar e x 1 and x 2
a: 3 .
Th is me th o d o f l o cat i n g r oot s i s s i mpl y a gr ap h i cal r ep r e s e n

t at i o n o f th e
p r o ce s s of 74 1 ,
a n d i s s ubj ect t o t h e l imi t a t i o n s
t t d
s a e
I fth e g r aph
in 74 3 .
d oe s n ot i n te rs ect XX '
,
th e e qua t i on h as no r e al
r oo t .
T H EO RY OF E Q UA T ION S 5 27
Th e n o te to 74 1 a pp li es w i th e qua l fo rc e in t h e g a h ca l r p i me th o d of
lo c ating roots .
EX ERC S E | 2 6 I
L o c ate th e roots o ft h e follo w in g e quat i o n s graph i c ally : Q
1 .
3 —3
x x 3 . x3 — 7x2 + 1 2 x 5 . x3 — 8 x2 + 1 9 x— 1 2 .
2 . 4 . 6 . x —3
3
x2
3—6
7 . x4 +2 x x 2
‘
S/t
’
o
V DIFF E R E NTIATI O N
In a ny fun ct i on o f 96 le t a : h be s ub s t i t ut e d for a ;
s ubtr act fr om th e r e sul t t h e g i ve n fun ct i on a nd d i vi d e th e
,
r e mai n de r by h .
Th e li mi t i n g v al ue o f th e r e s ul t h r hes t h e l i mi t
‘
as a p p o ac
z er o, is cal e l d th e d e r i va ti ve fthe functi on

o wi th r esp ect to :
6 .
L et i t b e r quir d
e e ,
for exam ple , t o fin d t h e d e rivative of
2
x3 2x 5
w i th r e s p e c t t o 96 .
S ub s t i tu tin g :
2
6 h for x, a nd s ub t a r ct in g fr om th e result th e g ive n
func t i on , w e h av e
— — 2 x2 + 5
( x + h) 3
(v 3
)
— 3 x2h 2
h3 — 4 xh — 2 h 2
+ 3 xh + .
Divi d in g th is res ult b y h , we h a ve

3 x2 + 3 xh + h2 — 4 x — 2 h .
( 1 )
i i ing v alue o f ( 1 ) as
Th e l m t h a pp r oa c h es 0 i s 3 x 2
,
4 :
6 .
He n c e th e d er ivat iv e o fx3
, 2x 2
5 w i t h r es p e c t t o a:i s 3 x2 4x .
Th e p r o ce s s e x e mp l i fi e d ab o v e is ca ll e d Differ ent i at i on .
74 7
S up p o s e
. I n g e n e r al , l e t u r e p r e s e n t an y fun ct i on o f
t h at , w h e n x i s ch a n g e d t o a: h , u b e com e s u
x;
h ' an d
Th en th e d e r i v at i v e
, of u w i th r e s p e ct to x is e xp e r s sed as
foll ow s (co mpa r e
l im
h i O
5 28 A D V AN C E D CO U RS E IN ALG E B R A
1
l
It fo l o w s fr o m t h e b o v e th at
5x u ( 1 )
~
%
a
h
wh ere u s an t ds fo r t h e d e r i v a t i ve of u w i th r e s p e ct to x .
74 8 . Th e p r o ce s s o f d iffe r e n t i at i on i s fa ci li t a t e d by m e an s
of th e foll o w i n g fo r mul ae, i n w h i ch a r e p r e s e n t s a ny co n s t a nt ,
n a ny p o s i t i ve i nt e g e r, a n d u, v, w, n o
, an y fun ct i on s ofx :
—oc = 1
dx
d d
II
dv
< )
+
u a
dx
u
Cl
III .
i (a u) = a ——-u .
dx dx
d d d d
IV .
— w+ "
u
i
d m ) = (vw d d
V .
—
dx
( uvw + (uw
d n —l d
VI .
( ) u
n
nu u
dw dx
V II ,
74 9
w hen
. l
In p rov m g th e fo r mu ae o f 74 8, w e sha s uppo s e th at ,
x + h i s s ub s t i t ut e d fo r v, u i s ch a nge d t o u + h , v t o.
ll
'
"
v h ,
w to w et c .
P r o of of I .
B y s 74 7, 1 .
Th at i s , th e d eri va ti ve wi th r esp ect to a o : fv i ts elf i s

. un i ty .
P r o of of II .
li m
CC :0 h da;
by § 74 7,
Th a t i s , th e d e r i va tiv e w i th r esp ect to : f a functi on of :
a o 6 p lus
a cons ta n t equa ls th e d er iva tive o f th e fu n cti o n

f
o x.
5 30 AD V AN CE D CO U R S E I N ALG E B R A
r t h e l imi t r th e r e
"
A s It a pp oa ch e s 0, h a l s o a p p oa ch e s 0, an d
fo r e th e l i mi t i n g "
v a l ue of v h is v .
z
Wh en ce , ( ) uv u
£ 3
v v
i
—
bx
u .
( 1 )
C on s i d e r n ex t th e ca s e o f th r ee fact o rs .
i
d
( uvw ) w] w ( ) uv uv w, by (1 )
dx
w u
gi
v
agg
v - —u uv
é w .
vw + uw
g éé w
u ~v uv
gfig
.
In li k e mann e r th e th e o r e m m ay be p r o v e d for a ny n u m be r
of f t r
ac o s .
Th a t i s th e d er i va ti ve wi th r esp ect to a:of the p r od uct of a ny

,
n umbe r off u n ct i o n s of :6 e qu a ls th e s um of th e r es ults o bta i n ed by
multip lyi ng th e d er i va ti ve of ea ch fa ctor by a ll th e o th er fa cto r s .
d d d
e xa mp 1 e ,
2
(
2
F or
x
) + x x
x
( xI
P r o of of V I .
If w e s up p o s e v, w, m ,
i n V , t o be a ll e q ua l t o u, an d th at
th e n um ber o f fact o s r is n, w e h av e by V,
d n -l
d n -1
d _1 d
= + to terms fl
’
u u u + n : nu u
,
z6 N .
.
d a) .
d oc dx dv
j
fl
1
m pl e ,
5
2
p]
2
F or e xa — 1 3 (e
D 23
E
.
lCB
P r oof 0f V II .
d d d
By III = l
by V I,
-
)
n
,
a a nx x,
(j dx
a nw
n ’
l
,
by I .
Th at i s , th e d er i va tive wi th r esp ect to x of a con s ta n t times a ny
p os i ti ve i n teg r a l p o we r o f as equa ls th e co n s ta n t, ti mes th e e xp o n en t
of th e p o wer,
ti mes :
a r a i s ed to a p o wer wh os e exp on en t i s les s by 1 .
T H E O R Y O F E Q UA T I O N S 5 31
F or e x am p e , l (3 x
4
) 1 2:
5
3
.
Ex . F i nd th e d e r i va t i v e w i th r e s p e ct t o a:o f
2x — 5 x + 7x — 6
2
3
.
By II an d IV ,
d d d d
( 5 + 74:
3
dx
6)
dx
( x )
-6 23
2 — 1 0x + 7 by V II
,
.
EX E RC S E I2 7 I
F ind th e der ivat ive w i th re s p e ct t o a:o f
1 . 5 x2 + 7a: . 5 . 4 x5 — 7x4 + 8 x3 — x .
2 . 3 x3 — x2 + 3 . 6 . x6 — 4 x4 + 6 x3 + 7x2 — 6 .
3 . x4 + 5 x —31 2 :
c — 4 . 7 2 x
.
6
+ 3 x4
4 . x5 +9 x4 — 4 x2 . 8 . 5 m e — 2 x5
75 0 S ucces s i v e
. D ifferent i at i on .
If u i s an y funct i o n o f 96 t h e d e r i v a t i v e o f th e d e r i v a t i v e ,
of
u i s call e d th e S eco n d D er i va ti ve of u w i th r esp ect to 96 a n d

.
,
is
2
d
repre s e nt e d by —u .
dm z
Th e d e ri v at iv e of th e s econ d d e r i v a t i v e of u is d th e
ca l l e
T hi r d '
D e r i va tive of u w i th r esp ect to a a n d ,
is r e p r e s e n t e d by
Ex . F i n d th e s u cce s s i v e d e r i v a ti v e s w i th r e s p e ct to 96 o f
x —
3 2
3 513 9 l2 x +2 .
we
g: =9 — 1 8 — 1 2
a 2
h av e, .
a
(e w x x .
— 9 x2 — 1 8 .
3
d 3 — 9 2
3 (3 x x
dx
:
4
3 — 3 2
( x 9 e t c.
‘
a
4
x
532 AD V AN C E D C O U RS E IN AL G E BR A
It w i ll b e un d e rs t oo d h e r eafter th at w h e n we s p ak
e o f th e derivati v e of
a fun c ti o n o f x t h e firs t d e r iv a t iv e i s me a n t
, .
I
EX ERC S E l 2 8
F in d th e s ucc es s ive d erivat iv es w i th re s p e ct t o a; of
1 . 4 x2 + 7x — 3 . 4 . 7x + 4
x 3
+9 x 2
.
2 . 2 x3 — 1 1 x2 + 4 . 5 . 3 x5 + 2 x4 + 6 x2 — 5 .
3 . a4 — 5 x3 — 2 x . 6 . x6 — 4 x5
75 1 . Gr aph i ca l R epres efi
D eri v at i v es
t at i on of .
L e t P Q b e t h e g r a p h o f a ny fu n ct i on o f a f
' ,
L e t P be an y p o i n t o n t h e g r a ph h a v i n g t h e a b sci s s a at, an d
Q a n oth e r p oi n t h a v i n g t h e a b s ci s s a
:
a h
'
.
D raw P M r p e n d i cul a r t o
and QN p e
X X a n d P R p e r p e n d i cu l a r t o QN
, .
Th e n P M r e p r e s e n ts f
, a n d QN
r ep r e s e n t s f h) .
Wh e n ce QR r e p re s e nt s f(a: h)
,
f( )
93
f ( x -I h _ f ( i s r e r e s e n t e d by
x
Th e n:th e I ati O ‘
p
h
Ifw e d e n ot e th e d e ri v at i v e of f w i th r e s p e ct t o a:by f
1
r e) s
c
'
,
Th en f , ( ) r
x is r
e p e s en e t d by th e l i mi ti n g v al ue o f th e r a ti o
QR as h r
a pp o a ch e s th e l i m i t 0; th a t i s a s Q a p p rbach e s P .
,
PR
H e n ce ,
if P T i s t a n ge n t t o th e g r ap h at P , m e e t i ng QN
p r o d u ce d at T, m
f( ) s
i r e pr e s e nt e d by th e r at i o
PR
Th e l a t t e r rati o i s th e t a ng e n t o f th e a n gle TF R .
75 2 . By a p pl i ca t i o n o f th e p r i n ci pl e s of 75 1 ,
we
' can de t e r
'
m i n e t h e p oi n t s w h e r e any r
g p a h i s p a r a lle l to X X .
TR
F o r, i f th e g r a p h i s p a r a l l e l t o XX at P , th e r at i o
PR
is e vi d ently e
q ua l to r
ze o ; so th at f (x) i s ’
z e o at r th at po i nt .
5 34 AD V AN C E D CO U RS E IN ALG E B R A
I t i s e v i d en t t h at t h e e xp r es s i on (3) i s di v i s i b l e by ( v— a
"H
; .
a n d th e r e f o r e t h e e q uat i o n fo r me d by e q ua t i ng i t t o z e r o w ill
h av e m 1 r o ot s e qua l t o a .
H e nce if a ny equa ti on of th e fo r m ( 1 ) h a s m ro o ts equa l to a

, ,
th e e qua ti o n fo r med by equating to z er o th e d e r i va ti ve of i ts fi r s t

member w i ll h a ve m 1 r o o ts e qua l to a .
I t foll ow s fr o m t h e a b o v e th at t o d e t e r mi n e , th e e xi st en ce of
mul ti ple r o ots i n an e quati on o f th e fo r m

—1 '
Pox
” ‘
I PIx
‘
n
I‘
p it —1 x + 1 9 22 O:
w e p r o ce e d as foll o w s :
F i n d th e H 0 F . . . o f th e firs t membe r a nd i ts d e r iva ti ve .
If th ere i s no H O F . . .
, r
th e e ca n be n o multip le r oo ts .
If th er e i s a H O F .
’
. .by e qua ti ng i t to z e r o a nd s o lvi ng th e
, re
s ulti ng e qua ti o n , th e r e qui r ed r o o ts ma y be o bta i ned .
Th e b e r o f t i m e s th at e a ch r oo t occur s i n th e gi ve n
n um
e qu a t i o n e x ce e d s by o n e t h e n u mb e r o f t i me s th a t i t o ccu rs i n
t h e e q ua t i o n o bt a i n e d by e qua t i n g t h e H C F t o z e r o . . . .
Ex . F in d a ll th e r oot s of
—
(
3 2
x
4
6x + 1 2v 1 )
Th e d e r i va t i v e o f th e fir s t m e mb e r i s
3
4 22 + 24 x 1 0 .
2—
Th e H , C; F ,
of th i s and th e fir s t m e mb e r of (1 ) i s x 2 23 +
S ol v in g th e e q u at i o n x
2
2 a: 1 O, t h e r o ot s ar e 1 an d 1 .
H e n ce mul ti pl e r oo t s o f (1 ) ar e 1 , 1 , an d 1
, th e .
S ubtr a ct i n g t h e s um o f 1 , 1 , an d 1 fr om 6, the r e ma i n i n g
ro ot is 3 .
EX E RC IS E 1 29
F in d al l th e r oots o f ea ch o ft h e fo llo w in g e quat i on s :
3
1 . x 3 . x3
2 . x3 + 3 x2 — 9
m 4 . 1 8 x3 + 1 5 x2 — 4 :
c
5 . x4
+2 x3 —1 1 x2
6 . x4 —l l x3 + 36 x2 ~ 1 6x
T H E O R Y O F E QUA TI O NS 5 35 V
7 . x 5
8 . x + 1 1 4
x3
+ 3 3 x2
+ 5 as — 50 2 0 .
9 . x5 — 3 x4 — x3 + 7x3
1 0 . x 5
+ 6 x4
+ 1 1 x3
+ 2 x2 —
1 2 x — 8 =O .
75 5 . We w ill n o w con s truct th e g r a ph o f th e firs t membe r

of 75 4 .
Th e fir s t m e m be r ca n b e p ut i n t h e
fo r m
'
( x 1 )( :3
a
( 1 )
Th i s s h ow s t h at t h e g r ap h c ut s XX
at an d
S i n ce ( a: 1 ) (
3
x3 ) i s p o s i t i v e w h e n
x is 1 ,
or 3 , a n d n e gat i v e w h e n a:
is b etw e e n 1 and 3 , t h e g r a ph i s a bo v e
XX
’
w h en x is 1 , or 3 , and below
wh en x is b e tw e e n 1 an d 3 .
By 74 8 , V , t h e d e r i v ati v e of
( 1 ) i s
( s a r i 93
— = (x 1 + 3 11 : 9 )
(
2
x 1 )
3
+ (oc 3 ) 3 (x 1 2
) 1 )( x
— x
( a3
E qua t i n g th i s to ze ro we ha ve x 1 or
'
,
T h en t h e g r a ph i s p a r a ll e l t o X X a t a: 1 a nd x :
3 (g
If a ny e qu t i n
w i th o n e unkn ow n n umb e r h as a mult ipl e
a o ,
th e ,
r o ot ,
gr aph o f i ts firs t m e mb e r i s t an ge n t t o X X
’
.
If th e r o o t i s a tr ip le r o o t th e c ur v e cr os s e s th e a xi s o f X a t t h e p o in t
,
o f t an g e n c y a n d r e v e rs e s i ts d i r e c t i o n a t t h a t p o in t
, .
If th e r o o t i s a d o ubl e r o o t t h e c ur v e i s e n t i r e ly a b o v e o r e n t i re ly , ,
b e l o w X X a t t h e p o in t o f t a n ge n c y
’
( C o mp a r e .
L e t th e p upi l c on s t r uc t th e g ra p h s o ft h e fir s t m e mb e rs o f t h e e qua ti o n s
in E xs 1 2 3 4 9 an d 1 0 E xe rc i s e 1 29 ; fi nd ing a ll t h e p o in ts wh e re
.
, , , , , ,
t h e g r a p h s a r e p a ra ll e l t o X X ’
.
75 6 . An e q ua t i o n o f t h e fo r m x
"
a O ca n hav e no mult i
p l e r o ot s ; for th e d e r i v at i v e o f a3
”
a is nx
n ‘
l
, an d x
”
a an d
nx
n ‘
l
h av e n o common fact o r e x ce p t un i ty .
5 36 A D V AN CE D CO URSE IN AL G E B R A
Th e r efo r e t h e n r oo ts o f x
, a a r e a l l di f
fe r e n t "
.
It fol l o w s fr o m t h e a bo v e th a t e v e ry e x p r e s s i o n h a s t w o di f
fer e nt s qua r e r o o t s thr e e d i ffe r e n t cub e r o o t s a n d
, ,
i n ge n e r a l n
I
‘
v
d i fie r en t nt h r oots .
S TUR M S TH E O RE M ’
75 7 W e wi ll
. d e mon s trat e t w o th e o r e ms w h i ch a re u s ed
no w
i n t h e p r o of o r ap pli ca t i o n o f S t ur m s Th e o r e m 7 ’
I Ifx be ta ken s ufii ci ently gr ea t a ny te r m ofth e exp r es s i on

.
,
” “
1 000
6
1 01 92 H on —l x in.
ma y be ma d e to n ume r i cally exceed th e su m of a ll th e fo llowi ng

terms .
F o r th e r ati o o f th e ( 1 th t er m to th e s um o f al l th e fol
r
)
l o w ing te rms is
-
+p n a +i Pn
2 n —r
x x x
By t aki n g x s uffici ently gr eat th e d e n o mi n at o r o f (2 ) can be ,
ma d e n um e r i cally a s s ma l l a s w e p l ea s e ; h e n ce th e r a t i o o f ,
p r
x
n"
t o t h e s u m o f t h e f o ll o w i n g t e r m s ca n be m a d e n um er i
c a l ly as g r e at a s w e p l e as e .
II . If x be ta ken su fii ci en tly s ma ll, a ny ter m f

o th e e xp r es s i on
ma y be ma d e to nume r i ca lly e xceed th e s um of a ll the p r eced i ng
te rms .
F o r th e ra ti o of th e ( r +1 )th t e rm t o th e s um o f a ll th e
p r e ce d i n g t e r ms is
f
or
u-l '
or ( )
3
P om + F i x
n v r r
Poal
‘
i Pl x
’
i ‘
+p r + Pr —1 x
Byt ak i n g x s uffi ci en tly s mal l th e d e n om i n a t o r of (3 ) can be ,
ma d e n u m e r i cal ly a s s m al l a s w e pl ea s e ; h e n ce th e r at i o o f ,
t o t h e s um o f t h e p r ece d i n g t e r ms can be ma d e n umer i c
cal l y as g r e a t a s w e p l e ase .
5 38 A DV AN C E D C O U R S E IN A LG E BR A
F o r i f, fo r a n y v a l u e o f x, fl ( ) x O an d 0, th en by ,
0; an d s i n ce f<
2® 0 fa ) 0, by
and x f a)
x 0;
con t i n ui n g i n t h i s w a y w e ,
h a v e fi n ally f (x) 0 n
.
B u t by h y p o th e s i s f (x) i s i n d e p en d e n t o fx a n d con s e quen tl y

, n ,
can n o t b e co m e 0 fo r a n y v a lu e o f x .
H e n ce n o t w o con s ecut i ve fun ct i on s ca n b eco m e 0 for th e

,
s a me v a l u e o f x .
II . If a ny fun cti o n , excep t f a n d f (x ,

) n beco mes 0 foi ‘
a ny
v a lu e o f x, th e a dj a cen t fun cti o n s h a ve opp os i te s i gn s f or th i s va lu e
of m
F o r i f, fo r a ny v al u e o f x, : 0, th e n ,
b y w e mu s t
h a v e f1 (x) fo r th i s v a l u e o f x .
T h e r e fo r e fl (x)a n d f3 (x) h a v e o p p o s i t e s i gn s
, fo r th i s v a l ue
o f x ; fo r by I n e i t h e r o f t h e m ca n e u a l z e r o
, , q . .
III . L et c be r o ot
a of th e e qu a t i on f(x) ,
0, w h ere is
any fun ct i on e x ce p t f an d
By II ,
an d f4 1 (
,
x
) h av e t
O p p o s i e s i gn s w h en x 0 .
N ow l e t h be a p o s i t i ve n u mb e r ,
so t ak en th a t n o
'
r oo t of
O z : 0 li e s b et w e e n c h and c h .
Th e n a s x ch a n g e s fr o m c h to c h, n o ch a n g e o f s i g n t ak e s
p l a ce i n or f ( )
, +1
x w h il e r e d uce s t o z e r o an d ch an g e s ,
[
or r e ta i n s i ts s i g n a cco rd i n g a s th e r o o t 0 o ccurs an o d d o r e v en
n um b e r o f t i m e s i n 0 .
Th e r e fo r e fo r v a l u e s o f x b e tw e en 0
, h a n d c a n d a l s o for ,
v a l u e s o f x b e tw e e n 0 a n d c h t h e th r e e ,
an d p r e s e n t o n e p e r m a n e n ce a n d o n e v a r i at i o n .
H e nce a s x i n cr ea s e s fr o m c h t o c h, n o ch a n g e o ccurs i n
,
t h e n umbe r o fv a r i at i o n s i n th e fun ct i on s an d
th at i s n o ch a n g e o ccu r s i n t h e n um b e r o f v a r i at i on s a s x i n
,
c r e a s e s thr o u g h a r oo t o f 0 .
IV . r o o t o f t h e e qu at i o n f
L et c be a 0; an d l e t h be a
p o s i t i v e n um b er s o t ak en th a t n o r o o t o ff, (x)
, 0 lie s b e tw ee n
c h an d c h .
Th e n , as x i n cr e a s e s fr o m c h to c h, no ch a n g e o f s i gn
t ak e s pl a ce i n f1 (x), w h i le f(x) r e d uce s t o z e r o, an d ch a n g e s s i gn .

TH E O RY O F E Q UA T I O N S 5 39
P utt i n g x c h in we o bt ai n
f( c h) (
c h)”
p 1 ( c h) “ 1
p _1
n ( c h) p n
.
E x pa n d i n g by th e B i n o m i al T h e o r e m , an d co l l e c t in g th e
te r m s i n vo l v i n g li k e p o w e r s of h , w e h a ve
M m
"- 1
f( h) "
C 0 +19 ”
'1
h [ nc (n
"
+P n— l ]
t e r m s i n v ol v i n g h h
2 3
h , ,
"
.
B ut s i n ce c i s a r o ot o ff x
( ) 0 w e h a v e by ,
o
n "
l j
m
hc
n— 1
+ p n-l c + p n 0'
Al s o , i t i s
v i d e n t t h a t th e coe ffi ci en t o f h i s th e v al ue of
e
f1 ( )
x w h e n 0 i s s u b s t i t u t e d i n p l ace o f x ; t h e r e fore ,
f( c h ) hf( )
1 c t e r m s i n v o l v i n g h 2
h 3 m h ( )
5 , , ,
”
.
I n l ik e mann e r i t m ay be s h o wn th at
f( c h ) hf 1 ()
c t e r m s i n vo l v i n g h 2
h 3
h ( )
6 , ,
”
.
No w i f h be t ak en s uffici e n tly s ma ll t h e s i gn s o f th e s econ d ,
m e m b e r s o f (5 ) a n d (6 ) w ill b e th e s a m e a s th e s i g n s o f t h e i r
fir s t t e r m s , hf1 (c) an d hfl (c) r e s p e c t i v e ly 75 7 II ), ,
.
H e n ce if h be tak e n s uffici e n tl y s m a l l t h e s i g n o f f(c h)

, ,
w i ll b e co n tr a ry t o t h e s i g n o f fl (o) a n d t h e S l gn o f f(c h) ,
th e s a me a s th e s i gn o f
Th e r e fo r e , fo r va l u e s o f x b e tw e en c h a n d c, t h e fun ct i o n s
f( ) x an d f1 (x) p r e s e n t v a r i a t i o n a n d fo r v al u e s o f x b e t w e e n
a ,
c an d c h th e y p r e s e n t a p e r ma n e n ce .
H e n ce , a va r i a t i o n i s l o s t a s x i n cr e a s e s t h r o ugh a r o o t o f
0 .
W e m ay now d e mon s tr at e S t ur m
’
T h e o r em ; fo r a s x i n
s
'
r
c e a s es fr o m b t o a , s u pp o s i n g a a lge br a i ca lly g r e a t e r t h a n b,
a v ar i a tio n i s lo st each t i m e t h a t x p a s s e s t h r o ugh r oo t o f a
f( )
x 0 a n d , on l y th en ; f o r w h e n x p a s s es t h r o ug h a r oot o f
f( ),
x 0, w h e r e f(x) i s,
any fun ct i o n e xce pt f(x a n d f (x
) ) no n ,
ch a n g e occu s r i n th e b e r o f v a r i at i o n s
n um .
H e n ce ,
th e n umb e r o f v a r i a t i o n s l o s t a s x i ncr e a s e s fr o m
b to a e qu al s t h e n u mb e r o f r e al r oo t s o f f 0 i n c l ud e d
b e tw e e n a an d b .
54 0 AD V AN CE D C OU RS E IN ALG E B R A
9
759 It i s cu s o m a
ry i n ap p li cat i on s o f S tu r m s Th e o r e m
t ’
.
, ,
t o s p e ak o f t h e s ub s ti t ut i o n o f a n i n d e fi n i t e ly g r e a t p o s i ti v e
n umb e r fo r x i n a n e xp r e s s i o n a s s u bs ti tuti ng
,
00
f o r
,
x ; a n d
th e s ub s t i tu ti o n o f a n e g at i v e n u m b e r o f i n d efi n i t e l y gr eat
a b s ol ut e val u e a s s ubs ti tu ti ng 00 f or x .
Th e s ub s t i t ut i o n o f + 00 a n d — 00 fo r x i n S t u rm s Fun c ’
ti on s d e t e r min es th e nu mb e r of r e al r o ot s off(x) 0 .
Th e s u b s t i t u t i on of + 00 a n d 0 fo r x d e t e rm i n e s t h e n umb e r
o f p o s i t i v e r e a l r o o t s a n d t h e s ub s t i t ut i o n of
,
-cc a nd 0 th e
n um b e r o f n e g a t i v e r e al r o o t s .
S i n ce S t u r m s T h e o r e m d e t e r mi n e s t h e n um b e r of r e al r oo ts
’
o f an e q u at i o n t h e n um be r o f i ma g i n ar y r oo t s a l s o be co me s
,
k n own
76 0 . If fi
a s uf ci e n t ly gr ea t num e b r be s ub s t i tut ed fo r x in
th e r
e xp e s s i on
n 'l
= p 011 3 "
p lw + Pn —1 w pm
th e s i gn o f th e r e s ul t w i ll be th e sa me as th e S i gn of i ts first
t erm , p ox
“
75 7 I ) ; h e n ce
, ,
If + 00 be f ( ),
s ubs ti tute d or x in F x th e S i gn o h
f e
t r es u lt wi ll
be th e s a me a s th e s ign of i ts fi r s t ter m .
—
If 00 be s ubs ti tu ted for x i n F x ,
( ) th e s ign f
o th e r es ult w i ll
be th e sa me a s , o r co n t a ry r to , th e s ig n o f i ts fi rs t ter m, a ccordi ng
as th e d eg r ee of F (x) i s e ven o r o d d .
76 1 . We w il l n o w co n s i der a n e xam l e
p .
L e t i t be r e qui r e d t o d e t ermi n th e um b er an d s i tuati on of

a p r ‘ o
t h e r e a l r o ot s o f = s __
f( )
x x
l
H ere , f1 ( )
x a e
o : 4 x 1 .
I n t h e pr oce s s of fi n d in g f2(x) f3 (x) e tc any p o s i tive n ume ri , , .

,
ca l facto r m ay b e o mi tt e d o r i n tr o d u ce d at l e a s u r e fo r t h e
p ;
s ig n o f t h e r e s ul t i s n o t af
,
fect e d t h e r e by ; i n th i s w ay fra cti ons
m a y be a v o i d e d .
I n t h i s ca s e w e mult i pl y f(x) by 3 t o mak e i t s first te r m

,
d i v i s i b l e by 3 x 2
.
54 2 A DVAN C E D C O UR S E I N ALG E B R A
76 2 . It w ill be fo un d u s e ful to c on
s tr uct th e g rap h s of f( ) x and f( ),

l x in
th e e x am p l e o f 76 1 .
Th e r
g pa h o f f( ) s t h e cu r v e
x i .
AB C ; cu t t i n g XX at A b e t w e en ,
x= O a nd x = — 1 ,
at B, be t w e e n x — O .
an d x 1 ,
an d at 0, bet w e e n x 2
‘
v
’
an d £6 3 .
Th e g r a p h of f (x) i s t h e d o tt e d rv e
D E ; cutt i n g XX
cu
D, b e tw e e n x =0 an d x =— 1 ,
an d a t E b e t w e e n x = l a n d
’
{1 3 2 .
To fin d t h e a b s ci s s a s o f D an d E , we s ol ve th e e qu a t i on
2
3 x 4 x 1 0 .
L in /4 + 3 2 i 2 64 +
Th en
.
, x
3
I f w e p ut x 21 , i n f(x), th e . r e s ul t i s p o s i ti v e .
T h i s s h o ws th a t D i s b e t w e e n 0 an d A .
Th e g r ap h i l lu s t r at e s i n an e xce l l e n t w ay th e tr uth o f 758,

I V ; th a t a s x i n cr e a s e s fr o m a v a l ue j u s t b e l o w t o a v al ue j u s t
a b o ve a r o o t o f f(x) 0 n o ch a n ge t ak e s p l a ce i n t h e s i gn o f
,
f1 ( )
x w
,
h il e f r e d uce s t o z e r o a n d ch an g e s si gn .
76 3 A s. x i n c r e a s es fr o m — cc t o + 00 f x a n d f
( ) 1 ( )
x c h a n g e ,
s i gn s al t e rn a t e ly fo r t h e y a r e a l w ay s u n l ik e i n s i gn j u st b e fo r e
,
f( ) x c h a n g e s s i g n 7 58 I V ); h e n ce i f t h e r oo t s ,
o f f( )
x : 0
,
an d f l (x) 0 a r e a ll r e al a r oo t of f(x) 0 l i e s b e t w e e n e v e ry
,
t w o a dj ace n t r o o t s o f f(x) 0 .
Th at a r oot o f f1 (x) 0 li e s b e tw e e n e v e ry p ai r o f a dj ace n t

r oot s o f f(x) 0 i s a d mi rab ly s h o w n i n t h e fi gu r e of 762
,
.
764 . We w il l gi v e one mo r e i ll us tr a t i v e exa mpl e .
D e t e r mi n e t h e n um ber a n d s i ua t ti on of th e r e a l r o ot s of
f( ) = 4 x
3
x — 6 x
omi tti n g th e fact o r 6

2
H e r e, f(x) 1 2 x
2
6 ; o r, 2 x 1 ,
.
2 —
x —
3 —
2x l )4 x 6 5 (2 x
4 fi — 2 x
— 4 x— 5
T HE ORY O F E Q UA T I O N S 54 3
2
2 x 1
2 .
4 + 5 )4 2 (x
2
x x
2
4 x + 5 x
— 5 x— 2
— 20 x 8 (— 5
— 2 0x — 25
Th e l as t s te p in th e d ivis i on may b e om itte d ; fo r w e o n ly ne ed to
kn o w th e s ig n of fa ( x); a nd it i s vi d e n t b y in s p e c t i o n w h e n
e , th e
r e ma in de r 5x 2 is o bt a in ed , th a t t h e s i g n o f f ( x) w i ll b e
3
f( ) a?
fi (x) fa(€v) f3 (96)
cc , 2 v ari atio n s .
0 2 v a r i a ti o n s .
x 1 , 2 v a ri at i o n s .
2, 1 v a r i a t i on .
x: 00 , 1 v a rl a ti o n .
Th e r efor e ,
th e e q ua t i on h as a r e al r o o t b e t w e e n 1 an d 2, and
tw o i m a gi n a ry r oot s .
I n s ubs ti t ut in g th e n umb e rs i t i s b es t t o w o rk fr o m O in e i th e r d i re c
,
t i on s t o ppin g w h e n t h e n umb e r o f v a r i a t i o n s i s th e s ame as h as b e e n

,
p revi ous ly foun d for + or - a s th e c as e may be00 cc , .
EX ERC S E I3 O I
D e te rmin e th e n ature o f th e r o ot s o f th e fo llow ing :
1 x3 2 — —2
1 =O 5 x —48x2
.
+ x x . .
2 — l0
x + 3 x — S =O — 3
2 .
3
. 6 .
4
x + 2x 5x x
3 . x3
7 . x + 3 x
4 3
4 . x3
+ x — l2
5 x — 28 =O . 8 . x +44 x3
+ 2 x2 — 6
x — 7= O .
765 . Cont i nuit y .
A fun ct i o n o f x, f( ), x is s ai d t o be Cont i nuous at x a wh e n

i n d e fi n i t el y m all h an g e in r o d uc e s a n i n d e fi n it e ly s ma ll
an s c a p
ch a n g e i n f(a ) .
54 4 ADVAN C E D C OU R SE I N ALG E B R A
C on s i d e r t h e r at i on al i n t e g ral fun ct i o n ofx
= p 0x n
" '
l p l f‘v
fl F 1
+ p n —l x
P utt i n g a h i n p l ace o f x, we h av e
f( a 7
1
) = p o ( a h) + p 1
“
( a
E xp an d i n g by th e B i n omi al Th eor e m ,
-1
f( a’ h ) = P0a + p l an
’ ’
n
+ P —l a + 1 9 n 7
;
+ t e r m s i n v o l v i n g h h ” m , , ,
h ”
f( )
a t e r m s i n v o l v i n g h h 2 m , , ,
h “
.
Th en f(a h) f(a ) t e rm s i n v ol v i n g h h
,
h ,
2
,
m ,
”
.
I f h be tak en i n d e fi n i t e ly s m a ll f(a + h ) f(a ) w ill be i n d efi ,

«
fi ci en t s o f h h m h ar e fi n i t e
n i t e l y s m al l ; fo r t h e co e f
2
, , ,
"
.
H e n ce a n i n d e fi n i t el y s m a ll ch a nge i n a p r od uce s an i n d e fi
,
n i t el y s m al l ch an g e i n f( a ) .
Th at i s a r a ti ona l i ntegra l fun cti on ofx i s continuous a t every

,
v a lue o fx .
It fo ll ow s fr om th e ab o v e t h at th e grap h ofa r ati onal i n t egr al

fun ct i on of x is a co nti n uo us li n e, wi th o ut br ea ks .
W e have as s u me d th i s i n th e fi gur e s o f Ch ap X IV .
,
4 65 ,
4 67, 4 82 , an d 4 83 , a n d all th e fi gur es of Ch ap X X X V I I . .
766 . We w il l i llu str at e a d i s con ti n uous fun ct i on of x by a
fi gur e .
C on s i d e r t h e fr acti on
P ut y x — l
i
i
As x i n cr e a s e s fr o m — cc t o 1 , y
i s
n e ga t i v e a n d i n cr e a s e s
,
i n d e fi ni t el y i n
a b s ol ut e v al u e .
As x i ncr ea s e s fr o m 1 t o 00 y i s p o s i ,
t i v e ; an d co m me n ci n g w i th a n i n de fi
n i t e l y g r e a t v a l u e d e cr e a s e s i n d e fi n i t e l y
,
.
Th e g r a p h co n s i s t s o f t w o br an ch e s AB a n d OD ; a n d i t i s ,
e v i d e n t th a t at 93 ,
1 a n i n d e fi n i t el y s m all ch an ge i n :
2
,
2:p ro
du ce s a n i n d e fi ni t el y gr e a t ch an ge i n y .
D e s ca r t e s R ul e ’
o f S i gn s 735) m ay al s o b e a d va n t a g e o u s l y
e mpl oy e d t o s h o rt e n th e p r oce s s .
Any m ul ti pl e r o o t s h oul d be r e mo v e d 75 4 ) b e fo r e a ppl y

ing ei th e r m e th o d .
Ex . F in d al l th e r oot s of x
4
1 5x 2
1 0x 24 0 .
B y D e s ca rt e s R ul e , th e ’
e q ua ti on ca n n o t h a ve mor e th an tw o
p o s i t i ve ,
n or m o r e t h a n t wo n e g at i v e r oot s .
We ca n fir s t m e mb e r x (x
w r ite th e 2 2
1 5) 1 0x 24 ; th e n
n o r oo t ca n be a s g r ea t a s 4
Ch an gi n g t h e s i g n o f t h e x t e r m t h e ,
fir s t me mb e r b ecomes
4 2
x 1 5x l 0x 24 .
We wr i t e th i s i n t h e fo r m ( see E x 2, .
§
2
( 2 x
T h en n o n e ga ti v e r o o t can be a s s mal l a s 5
Th e i n t e g r a l d i v i s o r s O f 24 w h i ch a r e l e s s th an 4, an d g r e a t e r
th an —5
,
a re 1:1
: ,
j:2 j; ,
3, an d — 4 .
By su b s t i t ut i on ,
w e fin d t h a t 1 is n o t, a n d th at 1 i s, a r o ot
o f t h e e q u at i o n .
D i v i di n g t h e fir s t m e mb e r by x— 2 and x — 3 we
h a ve
_1
\
1 +o 5 + 1 0 + 24 xx 1 +0 + 1 0 + 24
2 4 -7 22 -24 3 9 — 1 8 — 24
2 — 1 1 — 1 2, O R em . 3 6 8, O R em .
Th e w o rk s h ow s th a t 2 an d 3 a re r oot s o f th e g i v e n e q ua t i on ;
an d s i n ce ti on can n o t h av e m o r e
th e e qu a th an t wo p os i ti ve
r o ot s t h e s e a r e t h e on ly p o s i t i v e r oot s
,
.
T h e r e m ai n i n g r oo t m ay b e fo un d by d i v i d i n g 24 by t h e
‘
"
p r o d u c t O f —1 2 a nd 3 ,
o r by t h e s a me
, p r oc es s a s
abo v e .
D i v i d i n g th e first me m b e r by x 2 x 3 e t c w e h av e , ,
.
,
— 2 — 3
— 2 4 22 — 64 — 3 9 1 8 — 84
_2 — 1 1 32 — 40 — 3 6 28 — 60
S O LU T I O N O F H IGH E R E QU A T I O N S 54 7
—
1 + 0 1 5 + 1 0 + 24
l — 4
4 1 6 4 — 24
— 4 1 6 O
Th e w o r k s h o ws th a t t h e r e ma i n i n g r o o t is 4 .
768 . By 728 ,t i o n O f t h e n t h d e g r e e i n th e g e n e r a l
a n e q ua
fo r m w i t h fr a ct i o n a l coe f
, fi ci e nt s may b e t r an s fo r m e d i nt o ,
a n ot h e r w h o s e co e f fi ci e nt s a r e i n t e g ra l t h a t O f t h e fir s t t e rm ,
be i ng u n i ty .
Th e co m me n s u r a b le r o o t s O f t h e tr a n s fo r m e d e q ua ti o n m ay
th e n be fo un d a s i n 767
Ex . F i n d a ll t h e r oo ts O f 4 x 3
1 2x 2
2 7x 1 9 O .
D i v i d i n g thr o ug h by t h e coe f fi ci e n t o f x w e h a v e
3
,
2 7x 1 9
x —
3 2
3 x + O .
4 4
P r o ce e di n g as in 72 8, i t i s e v i d e n t by i n s pe cti on th at th e
mul t i pl ie r 2 w i l l r e mo v e th e fr act i o n a l c o e f
fi ci e n t s ; th u s th e
tra n s fo rme d e q ua t i o n is
x
3
2 3 2
x +2 2 3 1 9 .
O r,
3
x — 6x2
+ 2 7x — 3 8 = O; ( 1 )
w h os e r o o ts ar e th o s e o f th e g i v e n e qu a ti on m ult i p l i e d by 2 .
B y D e s ca r t e s R ul e , e q u at i o n ( 1 ) h n o n e gat i v e r o ot
’
a s .
Th e p o s i t i v e i n t e g r a l d i v i s o r s o f3 8 a r e 1 ,
2, 1 9 , and 38 .
D i v i d i n g th e fir s t m e mb e r by x 1 ,
x 2, e tc .
,
weh a v e
— 6 _ — 6 + 27 — se
1 + 2
'
7 38 L
1 1 l g
1 5 22 2 s 38
— 5 22 —1 6 — 4 1 9 0
Th e w o r k th a t 2 i s a ro o t o f
s h o ws
Th e r e m a i n i n g r o o t s m a y n o w b e fo u n d by d e p r e s s i ng th e
eq u a t i o n ; i t i s e v i d e n t fr o m t h e r i g h t-h a n d o e r a t i o n a bo v e
p
th a t t h e d e p r e s s e d e q uat i o n i s x 4 x 1 9 0 2
.
S o l v i ng th i s , x z :2 j; 1 5 .
Th u s th e r o ots of ( 1 ) are 2 a nd 2 j; 1 5 .
54 8 AD V AN C E D C O U RS E IN A LG E B R A
D i v i di ng by 2, t h e ro ot s O f th e g i v e n e q ua t io n a r e
1 a nd 1 i 1 5 .
769 . New t on s Met h od ’

of D i v i s ors .
I fa i s an i n te g ra l r o ot o f t h e e q ua t i o n
n '1 ?
+ rlw 0.
"
x a n ew Ion — 1 x n.
w h e re m , p n
a re i n t e ge r s , th e n
a
"
+ -la 20a =0 .
Tr a n s p o s i n g , and d i v i d i n g by a,
'2 —l
—
l ( 1 )
n n
P a n P a (I ;
fr o m w h i ch i t i s s een . th a t B m us t b e
3
an i nt e ge r .
W e m ay w r ite ( 1 ) i n t h e fo r m
— 2
+ p n _l
”
n _2a
‘
. p la
R epr e s e n t i n g + p n _1 by and d i v i d i n g by a,
n -3 -2
— - rt
p . p .a a ;
9 4
fr o m w h i ch i t i s th at mu s t b e i n t ege r
s ee n
2 an .
P r oce e d i ng i n th i s w ay , i t i s e v i d e nt th at ,
if a is a root of
H an —2
o num e s — QM
th e t
e qua i o n , e ac h of th e b r or
T
3:
a
+ 1 91
(1 1 ql
or , mus t be a n In e ge t r and 1 m ust e q ua l 0
a ,
E
.
W e th e n h a v e t h e fo ll o w i n g r ul e :
D i vi d e th e la s t te r m of th e e qua ti o n by o ne o f i ts i nteg r a l
d i vi s o rs , a nd to th e qu o ti en t a dd th e coefli c i en t o fx .
D i v id e th e r es u lt by th e s a me d i vi s o r , a nd , i f th e quo ti ent i s an
i n tege r , a dd to i t th e co efii ci en t of x2
.
P r oceed i n th i s ma nn er w i th ea ch co e filci en t i n s ucces s io n ;
th en , if th e d i vi s o r is a ro o t o f th e e qua ti o n, ea ch q u o ti e n t w i ll be
i ntegr a l, a nd th e la s t quo ti ent a d d ed to un i ty wi ll equa l zer o .
5 50 A DVAN C E D C O UR S E IN ALG E B R A
1 0 . x 4
+ 8x + 1 1 3
x2 — 32 x
1 1 . x — 2
4
x3
1 2 . 4 x4 — l 2 x3 — 9 x2 + 4 7x — 3 O = 0 .
1 3 . 6 x 4 — 7x 3
1 4 .
5
x + 8 x — 7x3 4
1 5 . 3 x4 + 2 x3
1 6 . x4 + x3 — 6 x2 + 1 6 x
R E C IPR O C AL O R R E C UR R ING E Q UA TI O NS
770 A . R eci p r ocal E quat i on i s one s uc h th at i f a ny n um e b r

is a r oo t o f t h e e q ua t i on i t s r e ci p r o ca l i s al s o a r oo t
,
.
It fo llo ws fr o m t h e a b o v e t h a t i f 1 b e s ub s t i t ut e d
,
fo r x in a
x
r e ci p r o cal e q uat i o n t h e tr a n s fo r m e d
,
e qu a tio n w il l h av e th e
s a m e r oo t s a s th e gi ve n e qua t i o n . I
771 . L et
’
-2w 0 ( 1 )
"
x H on —1 x + 1 0n
be a r e ci p r o ca l e q uat i o n .
P utt i n g 1 fo r x t h e e q ua t i o n b e co m e s
,
x
1 PI P2 Pn _2 Pn —I
+ Pn — O
x
2
x
Cl e a r i n g r ti on s
o f f ac ,
an d r e v e r s 1 n g th e o rd e r O f th e t e r ms ,
n —l -
2
Pa w
"
p n -l
x Pat + 1 9 1 9? 1 0
D i vi d i n g t h r o u g h by p m
Pn —I Pn —e P P 1
x
n
x
-1
x
-2
+ o -+ —
2
x
2
+
I
( )
2
0
1 “ p n I9; E
By 770, th i s e qu at i o n h as t h e s a me r oo t s a s h e nce
an d
th e fo l lo w i n g r e l a t i o n s m u s t h o l d b e t w e e n t h e fi ci e nts o f
co e f
( 1 ) an d
P2 P 1
Pn —I P n-z
t
"
6 ) p n —2 p n —l
I
’ pn _ ( )
3
n . n. n. p .
F r o m t h e la s t e q u a t i on , pf 1 w h e nce , p ,, 1 :1
: .
S O L U T ION O F HIGH E R E Q U A T ION S 551
Th en th e e q ua t i o n s (3 ) b e co me
: i Pn — I : P2 : i Pn —x
PI 3
a ll t h e upp e r s i gn s , o r a ll t h e l ow e r s i gn s , b e i n g t ak e n t o ge th e r .
W e th en h a v e fo u r
r i et i e s o f r e ci p r ocal e q uat i o n s :
va
1 . D e g r ee Odd an d co e ffici e n t s o f t e rms e qu ally d i s t an t fr o m

,
t h e e xt e m e s r o f t h e fir s t m e m b e r e q ual i n a b s o l ut e v a l u e a n d o f
like s i gn as , x —3
2x2
;
2 . D e gr e e Odd ,
a n d co e f t
fici e n s o f t e rm s e qu all y di s t an t fr om
th e tre me s o f th e fir s t
ex e q ual i n a b s o lut e va l ue a n d m e mb e r
4 — 2 —
o f o p p os i t e s i g n ; a s 3 x + 2 x
5 3
x + x 2x— 3 = O ,
.
3 D e g r e e e v e n a n d co e f
. fici e nt s o f t e r m s e qually d i s t a n t
,
fr om t h e e xtr e me s O f t h e fir s t m e m b e r e qu al i n a b s ol ut e v al ue
a n d o f lik e s i g n — 4
5x3 2
; as , x + 6x
4 . D e gr e e e v en ,
and fi t o f t e rm s e q ually di s t an t
co e f ci e n s
fr om t h e e xt e m e s r Of t h e fir s t m e mb e r e q ua l i n a b s ol ut e
v a l ue an d o f o pp o s i e t s i gn an d mi dd l e t e r m w a n t i n g ; a s
, ,
2 a + 3 x — 7x + 7e _s x — 2 = O
On a cco un t of r
p p o e rti th e
e s s t a t e d a b o v e r e ci p r o cal ,
e q ua
t i on s ar e a l s o cal l e d R ecurr i ng E qua ti on s .
772 . E v e ry r eci p r ocal e q ua t i on of th e fir s t va r i e ty may be

w r i tt e n i n t h e fo r m
+ 1 9 1 2:+ 1 00
""
Pow
“
+ p 2x 0,
0; ( 1 )
2 2
1 ) ) p 2( )
”
+ x
“
90 0
0
'2 = 03
p 0( ) (
1 1 ) +1 )
” "
o r, x p l x x
t h e n um be r o f t e r ms b e in g e v en .
By 1 4 2, s i n ce n is o dd , e ac h Of th e r
e xp e s s i o n s x
"
1 ,
x
" ‘
2
1 d i v i s i bl e by x 1
, etc .
,
is .
Th e re fo r e 1 i s a r o o t o f t h e e qu a t i o n
,
.
D i v i d i n g t h e fir s t m e m b e r O f (1 ) by x + l ,
th e d epr e ss e d
e q ua t i o n i s
—l —2 -3
p o(w {t x
n
x
2
x n ii
H .
3 2
)
2
(
"
x 90 x a3
‘
P1
+ x
4
o.
552 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN AL GE B RA
( 1 01 p )
0 (1 02 p +11 )
90
+ (p2 ( Pl 0;
w h i ch i s a r e ci p r o ca l e qu a t ion of t h e t h i rd va r i e ty .
773 . E v e ry r e ci pr o cal e qu a t i on of th e s e con d va r i et y may

be w r i tt e n i n th e fo r m
w
-2 — 0 962 —
H o 1 2 p1 w —
po 0,
w
-2
1 a or 0, 1
or ) 5 r ) ( )
2 4
( 1 ) ) ( ) 1 1 0
" ”
x p 2x x
“
or , p o .
S i n ce e a ch O f t h e e xp r e s s i o n s x 1 x 2
1 is d i vi s i
" ”
et c
‘
, , ,
.
bl e by x 1 1 i s a r o o t o f t h e e qu a t i o n
,
.
D i v i d i n g t h e first m em b e r O f (1 ) by x 1 ,
th e d ep r e ss e d
e qua t i o n i s
“ " 3 2
pa w 1 )
n
w w n
+ + + 3 + x
’
3 2
90 + x + 93
)
7H
)
-‘-96 i 3 2
‘
l 1
-
x l 90 + 7
3 0,
“ “ ”
or, 1 0093 (1 01 (1
+ 1 00)1 v ) 92 + 1 01 + 1 9 0 93
2
(P P P )
2 + I + o x ( PI + P O)90 + 0
1 0 05
w h i ch i s a r e ci p r o ca l e q ua ti on o f th e th i rd va r i e ty .
774 . E ve ry r e cip r o cal e qu a t i on o f th e fo urth va r i e ty may be

w r i tt e n i n t h e fo r m
P o w )
”
1 ) PAM
—l
) 50
)
2
50 O: ( 1
1 ) w eare
-2 -4
or .
1 ) + A w(a r
1 ) 0; r
th e n umb e r O f t e r m s b e i n g e v e n
S i n ce e ach o f t h e e xp r e s s i on s x 1 1 e t c i s d i v i s i bl e
“
, ,
.
,
by x 1 b oth 1 an d 1 ar e r o ot s O f th e e quati on
2
, .
D i v i d in g th e fir s t m e m be r O f (1 ) by x 2
1 th e d e p r e ss e d ,
e q ua t i o n i s
—2 —4 '—6
p (
0 m + w n
+ x +
n
+ 33
4 n
H .
5 7 5 3
)
" ”
x x x
‘
x x
‘
—6 -8 t
oa +x
r
a a
.
s ?
w)r
0,
m"
Ha
“
(1
“
w 1 )
t
0r , p o r 02 + 00 a
2
( P PO
2 F P + P l x
fP
“
o 0 5
" ‘
w h i ch i s a r ec i pr ocal e qu a ti on of t h e t h i rd v ar i et y
D iv i d i ng by x th e d e pr e s s e d e q ua t i o n is
2x — 3x3 —4
1 6x — 3 2
x + 2 = 0;
a r e ci p r ocal e qu a ti o n o f th e th i rd v a r i e ty .
D i vi d i n g by x
2
,
2 x
2
1 6 0
.
P utt i n g
i 1 =y h av e
2 2
x y, and x 2 we
2
$
2 (y — 2) — 3 y — 1 6 = O
2
.
S o l vi n g th i s e q ua ti on , y 4 or
T aki n g th e fir s t v a l ue , x
i 4, or x
2
4 x 1 .
Wh en ce ,
x 21 V3 .
1
T aki n g th e d l
g
2
s e co n v a ue , x + or 2 x 5x 2
;5
.
,
1
Wh e nce ,
x 2 or
1
Th e r o ot s o f th e g i v e n e qu a ti on are 1 ,
2, an d 2 j:
T h at 2 3 an d 2 V3 ar e r e c ip r o c als may b e s h o w n by mult iply ing

t h e m ; t h us , ( 2 3 1 .
EX E RC S E I3 2 I
S ol v e th e follo w mg
l . 4 x3 1 2
+ 2 x + 21 x + 4 =0 3 . x 3 5 x2
2 . x + 4
3
x2 — 4 x — I : O . 4 . 6 x4 + 1 3 x3 — l 3 x — O = O .
5 . 24 x — 4
l 0x3 — 77x2
6 . x5
+ 2 x4 — 5 x3 + 5 x2 — 2x— l =0 .
7 5 . x5 — 5 6 x4 + 1 3 1 x3 + 1 3 1 x2
8 . 3 x5 + 4 x4 — 2 3 x3
9 . 6x — 5
7x — 2 7x + 2 7x + 7x
4 3 2
— 1 9 235 — 1 9 x4 +1 9 2
x +1 9 x
778 . B i nomi al E quat i ons .
A B i n o mi a l E qua ti on i s an e qua ti o n o f th e fo r m x "

a .
B i n o mi al e q u a t i o n s a r e al s o r e ci p r o ca l e q ua t i o n s , an d, in
ce rt ai n s s may
ca e , be l d by
s o ve th e me th o d 777 .
SO L U T I ON OF H I GH E R E Q UA TI ON S 555
P utt in g x = a y, th e t i on b ecome s
j; 1
” "
e qu a x : a
w h i ch i s a fo r m t o w h i ch e ve ry b i n o m i a l e ua t i o n
q m ay be
r e duced .
In 4 60, m e th o d s w e r e g i v e n fo r th e s ol uti o n of th e bi:

n o m i a l e q ua t i o n s x
3 4 6
1; 1 , x
: :t 1 , a nd x : : 1; 1 .
Th e fo r m s 5
x : 1 ; 1 m ay be
v e d by th e me th o d O f 777 s ol
B in o mi al e quatio ns of any d egre e m ay b e s ol ved b y a me th od inv olving

Tr i g o n o m e t ry .
EX ERC S E I3 3 I
S ol ve th e follo w ing :
5 =—
1
1 2 1 5
. . x . 3 . x
I
I
9
0
.
779 . Th e Cube R oot s of Uni t y .
By Ex 1 .
,
4 60, t h e r oo t s o f t h e e qu a t i on x
3
1 are
i
2
Th e thi r d r oot i s th e r
s qu a e o f th e s eco n d; fo r
2
1 — 3 — 1 — s
Th e s eco n d r oot is al s o th e r
s q ua e O f t h e th i rd .
H e n ce ,
i f th e s ec o n d roo t be d e n o t e d by w th e thr e e ,
cu be
r o ot s O f un i ty are 1 w , ,
a nd
3 1
S in c e 3 1 th ey are 1
(0 , ,
w, a n d or
w w
78 0 If th e s econ d r o o t be d e n o t e d by a , th e thr ee r o o t s a r e
.
a , a m, a n d mi ; fo r t h e s e e q u al co, a n d ( 5 o r 1 , r e s p e ct i v e l y
3
.
In lik e m a nn e r , i f t h e t h i rd r oo t be d en ote d by a, th e thr e e

r o ot s a r e at , a m, a n d a a
z
.
H e n ce ,
if e i th e r of th e cu e b r oot s o f a nu mb e r be d e not e d
by a, the o th e r tw o r o ot s a r e a m an d a w
z
.
C UB C E QU I ATI O NS
78 1 . A Cubi c E quat i on i s an e q ua ti o n of t h e th i r d deg r ee
c o nt a i n i n g bu t one un k n o w n num be r .
5 56 A DV ANC E D C O URS E IN A LG E B R A
78 2 . By 73 2, t h e cu bi c e qu a t i on
+ 29 29:+ 1 0,
9’
96 93
wh ere p 1 i s n ot z e r o m ay
,
be t r an s fo rm e d i n t o an o th e r w h os e
s econ d t erm s h a ll be w an t i n g by su b s t i t ut i n g y fo r x .
H en ce, e ve ry cu b i c e quati on can be r e d uce d t o t hie fo r m

3
27 ax b 0 .
783 . Ca r da n ’
s Met h od for t h e S olut i on of Cubi cs .
L e t it be r e q ui r e d to s ol ve th e e q ua ti on x 3
ax b 0.
P utt i n g x yjg ,
th e e qu at i o n b e co m e s
o r,
W e m ay i
g ve s uc h a v a l ue to 2 th at 3 yz a s h al l equal zero .
Wh e nce ,
z ( 1 )
Th en , y
3
i
3
b 0 .
( )
2
S ubst i tut i n g th e l
v a ue of z fr o m (1 ) i n we h av e
a
2 7y
3
3
b O2 or y 6 "
Ib
‘
CL
27
3
l
C
I
x
Th i s is a n e q u a t i on i n t h e qu a dr at i c fo r m
S ol v i n g by th e r ul e s for q uadr at i cs , w e h a v e
b W a
3
3
+
2 V4
= y
— b= —
g
3 3 —
Th e n by z .
l ( )
4
T aki n g t h e upp e r s i gn s b e for e th e r a d i cal s ,

in ( )
3 a n d
a n d s ubst i t ut i n g i n t h e e quat i on x y 2, w e h av e
x ( )
5
Th e l ower ign s b efor e th e rad i c als give th e s a me va lue o fx

s
M
.
Th e o th e r t w o r o ots m a
y b e fo un d by de pr e s s i n g t h e g i v e n
e qua t i on
558 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN ALG E B R A
Th i s w oul d a pp a e nr tl y i n di ca t e th at x h as ni n e d i ffe r en t
v al ue s .
B ut by 783 , yz th a t i s ,
t h e p r o d uct of t h e t e rms
a
w h os e s um I s a v al ue o f x mu s t b e
3
H ence ,
th e onl y p o s s i bl e v al ue s o f x a r e
h-— 2 2
I k, h w + kw , an d h w + kw ;
for i i i e ac h of th e s e th e p r o d uct of th e term s i s hit ; th at i s,

2 3
b “ a,
or -
; w h i l e i n any o th e r cas e t h e p r o d uct 1 3
4 if
,
g
O) 01
' 9 h
r
T
.
3
P utt i n g fo r a) an d
2
(0 th e i r v a ue s l th e s e co n d and
th i rd l
v a ues o f x b e co m e
an d
H en ce , th e th r e e v a l ue s of x ar e
a+ x h— k h+k h— k
h + lc, d
2 2
Th us in th e e xampl e O f 78 4 , h 1 a nd k 3 .
Th e n t h e v a l ues o f y a r e 4, 2 v 3, a nd 2 v 3 .
I
EX ERC S E l 3 5
S ol v e th e foll o w in g :
1 . 2 . x3 + 1 8x
78 6 . Di s cus s i on of t h e S olut i on .
If h : an d k :
th e r o ots of x
3
+ ax + b = 6 ar e
h + k, an d w i
’
i i ’
v s
—
S OL U T ION O F HIGH E R E Q UA TION S 55 9
1 . If a i s p o s i t i v e , o r i f a i s
b2
n e ga ti v e and
g? n um e r i cal ly
le s s th an h a n d k a r e r e a l a n d un e q ual
Z
.
,
Th e r e fo r e , one ro ot is r e al ,
an d th e o th e r t w o p u r e i m agi
na ry or co mpl e x .
3 2
a
2 If a i s n e ga tive an d —
- n um e ri call y e qu al to h an d It
,
I ,
.
27
ar e rea l a n d e q ua l , a n d h k is ze ro .
H e n ce, th e r oots ar e al l r e al an d t wo of t hem a r e e q ua l
%
.
,
' 3
r i cally g r eate r t h an i
2
3 . If a i s n e g a tiv e , an d n ume
i ,
th e
v a l ue s o f h a n d k i n v o l v e p u re i m a g i n a r y
’
n um bers
'
.
I n th i s ca s e , h m us t h av e s ome v al ue Of th e fo r m
w h e re h r e al
’
a nd h
'
are
Th at is, h h hi ’
.
( 1 )
Th en, '( h zen, s
' '
' ' '
Th e r efo r e, k h h 2h ,
an d h : 2 ki .
' ''
h t r r t
Th en t e h e e oo s ar e 2 h an d h ; h i v 3
T h at i s 2 h a n d h 2F h x/3
,
j L
.
.
Th e r efo r e th e r oo t s a re r e al an d un e qua l
,
.
In th e ab ov e c as e Card a n s m e th od i s of n o p ra c ti c al v alue for s in c e

,
’
,
th e r e i s n o me t h o d in A lg e b r a fo r fi n d in g t h e c ub e r o o t o f a n e xp r e s s i o n
in th e fo rm of a r ati o n al expre s s i o n plus a quad rat i c s urd th e
v alues o f h a nd I:c a nn ot b e foun d ; in t h i s c a s e w h i c h is c alle d th e
t ,
I rred uci bl e C a s e C a r d a n s me th o d i s s a i d t o fa i l
,
’
.
It is p o s s i b le in c as e s wh e r e C a r d a n s m e th o d fa i ls t o find th e r o o ts
,
’
,
b y T r i g o n o m e t ry ( s e e b ut in p r a c t i c e i t i s e a s i e r t o find t h e m b y
§ 767 or b y H o r n e r s m e th o d a cc o r d in g a s th e e qu a t i o n h as o r
’
,
h as n ot a c o mme n s urab l e r o ot .
7
87 . C on s i d e r t h e equ ati on 3
x ax
2
bx c 0 .
P u tt i n g
g e q ua t i on be com e s
“
x y , th e
O r) '
9 I
3 "
3 b — a
2
y 2 a
3 — 9 ab
27
4 - 2 7c
o.
( 1 )
Tr an s fo r mi n g t h e e quati on i n t o an o th e r w h o s e fi
co e f ci e n s t
s h all be i n te g r al t h a t O f t h e fir s t te r m b e i n g un i ty
, we
have
y
3
+ 3 ( 3 b — a
2
) y + 2 a
3
w h o s e r o o t s a r e r e s p e ct i v e ly 3 t i me s t h os e o f
T h en i t fo ll o w s fr om 78 6 th at :
1 . If 3 b a
2
is p o s i t i v e, or if 3 b a
2
is n ega tive and
r n um e
cal l y l e s s th a n (2 a 7
2 3 2
4 (3 b ) a i 9 ab 2 c
) t h e gi v e n
3
,
cub i c h a s o n e r e a l an d t w o pu r e i ma g i n a ry o r com p l e x r o o t s .
a i s n e gat i v e a n d a ) n um e r i call y e u a l
2 l g
2 If 3 b
. b , q
t o (2 a
3
9 a b + 27 th e r oot s a r e a ll r e al a n d t w o O f th e m ,
n um e r i cal ly gr e at e r
2 g g
3 If 3 b is n e g a ti v e , a n d 4 (3 b
. a a
)
th an (2 a 3
9 ab 27c) , th e 2
r oot s a re a l l r e al a n d un e
q ua l .
78 8 of Cubi c E quat i ons by Tr i gonomet ry i n Cardan

’
. S ol ut i on s
Irr educi bl e Ca s e .
3
To s olve th e equa ti on x ax b O,
3 2
wh er e a i s p os i tive, a nd
g? ( C o m p a r e 78 6,
P utti n g x 2 m cos A, t h e e qu a t i on b e co me s
8m 3
co s
s
A— 2 a m co s A — b = 0;
6
A—
i A 0
3
or, 4 co s co s .
2m
; 3
It i s p r o v e d i n T r i go n o m e try ( s ee E x 1 6, p 3 5 ,
. . We ll s ’
Co m
p l e t e Tr i g o n o m e try ) t h a t
4 CO S
3
A= cos 3A+3 co s A .
Wh en ce ,
co s 3A+3 co s A -
m % co s A
2m
b
3
O.
b
O r, c os 3 A co s A 0.
( 1 )
2 m 3
l o g 64
log cos z 1 0
Th e n ,
N 49
°
N
Thus ,
°
O
1 6
C
a
a nd 2 l
e
D
Th e n v a l ue s o f x a re :
°
co s 1 6
( 1
° °
1 20
°
co s + 6 co s 1 36
s in
0
46
an d
1
3
9 co s (1 20
°
1 6
°
co s 1 03 302
° '
°
Si n 1 3
lo g
3 2
(l og 1 6 l o g 3) ( 1 )
log ( )
2
°
co s 1 6 1 0
.
l og ( )
°
sin 46 1 0
. 3
( )
4
°
l og s in 1 3 1 0
.
an d 4
( ) t o t h e l o ga r i th m s Of th e a bs o
l ut e v a lu e s o f x ar e
an d — 1 0 .
Th e n um b er s co rre s p on d i n g to th e s e ar e
an d . 5 39 3 .
Th e n, x 5, or . 53 9 3 .
S OL U T IO N O F H IGH E R E Q UA T ION S 5 63
If th e g iv n q
e e ua t o i n h ad bee n x3 4 x 2
: 0, w e s h o uld ha ve h ad
a 4, b 2; a nd c os 2 wo uld ha v e bee n g .
64
zl
If cos z
64
cos ( 7r z ) co s z :
‘ I64 .
We s h o uld th e n h av e fo u d n 1 r z 49 °
a nd z 1 30 °
Th e t h re e v alues o fx w o uld th e n h av e b e e n
13
3
c os 43 °
and cos ( 1 20
°
i 43 °
We s h o ul d ha ve fo u d x n or . 539 3 .
In any c as e wh e re a a nd b are p os i t iv e , 2 is c
a ut e , a nd th e e qu t i n
a o
h as one p os i t iv e a nd t wo n ega t ive r o o ts ; i f a is p os itive and b n eg at ive ,
2 is o b tus e , a n d th e e quat i o n h as t wo p os i t iv e a n d o n e n e gat iv e r oo t .
EX E RC S E I3 6 I
S ol ve t h e foll o w mg
1 . x — 4 x — I =O
3 . 3 . x3 6
+ x2 -x
2 . 112 8 — 6 23 4 -3 7
2 0 . 4 . x3 — 3 x2
B IQUADR ATI C E QU AT IONS

79 0 A B i quad rat i c E quat i on i s
. a n e q ua t i on of th e f r
ou th
d eg r ee, t
co n a i n i n g but one un k n o w n n u mb e r .
E ul er
’
s Met h od for t h e S olut i on of B i qua d at i cs r .
B y § 73 2, eve ry b i qua dra t i c e qua ti o n ca n be r e du ce d to th e

fo r m 0 ( 1
?
)
4
x ax bx c .
L et th e n ,
2
o r, x
S qua r i n g b oth m e mb e r s , w e h a v e
— z
(
2 2 2
I z u)
4 2
x 2x u +y ( u «
’ ’ 2
(
2
(u
’ ’
4 u y y z z u
) 8 uyz y
S ub s t i tut i n g x fo r u y z ,
an d t r a n s p o s i ng ,
‘
x — 8 uyz x
2 ’ " ’ ’
31 4 y z z u
) O.
5 64 A D V A N C ED C O U RS E IN A LGE B A R
Th i s e q ua ti o n w i l l b e i d e nt i ca l w i t h ( 1 ) p r o v i d e d
a =
b :2 8 u z,
y
(
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
a nd C y z
) 4 u y y z
g
" 2 2
Th e n ,
u
2
y
2
2
2
z
,
an d u y 2
2
a
—4
V
— c 4 a
2
c
Al s o, u
2
y + y
2
z +
z 2
z u
2
4 4 1 6
I f, n o w, w e fo r m t h e cu b i c e q ua ti on
2 2 2
t3
( u
2
y
2
2
2
)t
2
( u
2
y
2
y
2 2
z z u
2 2
)t u y 2 0,
th e v al ue s of t w i l l be y
2
u ,
’
, an d
H e n ce ,
i f th e r o ot s ofth e cu bic e qu a tio n
a — 4
2 2
c b
fi+
g fi+
1 6
t
64
O (a
be l, m, an d n, we sh al l h av e
—
y = i x/ni , and
NOW x: u y+2; a nd s i n ce e a c h of th e num be r s u , y, an d
2 h as t w o v a l ue s , a
pp r y
a e n tlx h a s e i h t v a l ue s
g .
B ut by th e p r o d u c t o f t h e t h r e e t e r m s w h os e s um is a
v al ue o f x m us t be
H e n ce , th e o nl y v a l ue s o f x a r e , w h e n b i s p o s i ti ve,
x/l — x/I
h
X/l — m an d l -
V I V VE
-
an d w h e n I) i s n ega ti ve ,
+ x/h, x/l — x/m
a nd
E q u at i o n ( )
3 i s ca l l ed th e a uxili a ry cubi c o f
79 1 Ex S o lve th e 4
46 x 24 21 0
2
. . e q ua t i o n x x .
H er e, a = - 4 6, 24 ,
5 66 AD V AN C E D C O URS E IN ALG E B R A
D en o t i n g 2 a, a — 4 c, a n d
2
by2
b
'' ' r tv y a b, an d c e s p ec i el
'' ' ' '

, , ,
it i s n e ce s s a ry b e fo r e w e can d t r
e e r m i n e th e
r nat u e o f t h e oot s
'
,
co m put e t h e v al ues
2
of to Of 3b a a nd 2 a
g
9 a b -I
2 7c
'
Now ,
''
''
- 3b — 4 c
) -4 a 2 =
b + 2 7c - 2 7b2
2
an d 2 a
3
9 a : 1 6 a
3
1 8 a (a 4 c
)
(2 a
3
72 ac + 2 7b ) 2
.
Th en i t foll ow s fr om 78 7 th a t :
1 . If a + 1 2 c i s n e g at i v e , o r i f a + 1 2 c i s p o s i ti v e an d 4 (a
2 2 '
1 2 le s s t h an (2 a 3
72 a c 2 7b ) , t h e a uxil i a ry cub i c h a s
2 2
one p o s i t i ve an d t w o p ur e i m a g i n a ry o r co m pl e x r oots .
—
If V m = q + rV -1
,
and x/ h =q I, th e
r oo t s ofth e b i q ua dra t i c ar e
p i 2 q an d p i 2 r\ / — 1
,
or p i 2q and — 1
,
a ccordi n g a s b i s p os i ti v e o r n e ga ti ve .
Th at i s th e b i q uadr ati c h a s t w o r eal

, an d t w o p ur e i magi
n ary O r co mp l e x r oo t s .
2 . If a
2
1 2 c i s p o s i t i v e , a n d 4 (a 1 2 c) i s 2 3
e qual to
7 b ) , th e cub i c h as tw o r oot s e qual

3 2 2
(2 a 2 ac .
If n m, th e r o ot s of t h e b i qua dr at i c are
—
l, a nd \ / l, or an d
a cco rd i n g as b i s p o s i t i ve o r n e ga t i v e .
Th a t i s ,
th e b i qua dr a t i c h as t w o r o ots e qua l .
3 . If + 1 2c
a
2
ti v e an d 4 (a + 1 2 c) g r eat e r th an
is
p os i 2 3
( 2 a
3
72 a c 27 t h e c u b i c h a s e i t h e r thr e e p o s i t i v e or ,
o n e p o s i t i v e an d t w o n e g a t i v e r oo t s .
I n t h e fir s t cas e th e r o ot s o f th e b i qua dr at i c ar e all r e al

,
i n t h e Se co n d cas e th ey a re a ll pu r e i ma g i n a ry or co mpl e x
,
.
2
a
4 . Ifa + 1 2°
c = 0 an d 2 a
3 — 72 a c + 2 7b2 = 0, t h en c
1 2
S ub s t it ut i n g fr o m t h e th i rd e qu a ti on i n th e s e co n d ,
% 2
7b = 0, — b
g h
3 2 2
fi
8 a + or a : ; w e n ce , a
S OL U T I O N O F H I GH E R E QU A T I O N S 5 67
I n th i s s
ca e , th e au xili a ry cu b i c b e comes
3 3 b 2
0% 3
bi i + — bi t
o
3
t
2
_ 0’ 01
"
t 0’
4 1 6 64
i
a n d eac h o f i ts r oot s is e qual to
3 bt i t
Th e r oot s o f th e b i quadr ati c are ’ and or
2 2 2
3bs bi i bs
,
an d a cco rd in g as b is p o s i t i ve or
2 2
n e ga t i v e ; th at i s , th e b i qua dr at i c h as th r e e r oots e qu al .
5 . If a 2
4 c 0 and b O, t h e b i q ua dr a ti c b e come s
2
x
4
ax
2 g O, or
and i ts r oots ar e i
Th at i s , th e b i quadr a ti c h as t wo p ai r s o f e q u al r oots .
IN C OMME N S U R AB L E R OOTS
79 3 . We w ill n ow s h ow h o w t o fin d th e app r o xi mat e nu
me r i ca l val ue s o f th o s e r o o t s o f a n e q ua t i o n w h i ch a r e n ot
co m m e n s ur a b l e 767
79 4 . Hom er ’
s Meth od of App r oxi mat i on .
L e t i t be r e q ui r e d t o fin d t h e a pp o xi ma e v al ue O f t h e
r t r oot
be t w een 3 an d 4 of th e e q ua t i on
W e fir s t tr an s fo r m t i on i nt o an oth e r w h os e r o ot s
th e e qu a
s h al l be r e s pe cti ve l y th o s e of th e fir s t d i mi n i s h e d by 3 7
1 3 _ 2 + 5 (le s
e .
3 0 — 6
o _2 1
o
c 9
o
c 7
o
o
z
c
Th e tr an s fo r m e d e q ua t i o n i s y 6 y 7y 1 0 ( )
1 3 2
.
W e k n o w t h a t e qu a t i o n ( 1 ) h a s a r o o t b e t we e n O a n d 1 fi
.
I f th e n w e n e g l e ct t h e t e r ms i n v o l v i n g y an d y w e may
, ,
3 ’
,
O btai n an ap p r o xi m a t e v alue O f y by s ol v i n g t h e e qu at i on
7y r 1 : 0; th us a pp r o x i m at e ly y : 1 a n d x : 3 1
2
, ,
.
.
Tr an s fo r mi n g (1 ) i n t o an e q uat i o n w h o s e r o ot s s h al l be
r e s pe ct i vel y th o s e O f (1 ) d i mi ni s h e d by 1 w e h av e ,
1 +6 +7
. 1 . 61 . 76 1
. 23 9
. 1 . 62
0 1 ‘
Th e tran s fo rme d e qua ti o n is

3 ’
2 2 z . 23 9 0 .
( )
2
Neg l ectin g th e 2
3
an d 2
2
t er ms ,
we h av e ,
a p p o xi m a e
r t ly ,
'
239
2 . 02 .
T h us , t h e v a lue o f x t o t w o p l a ce s of d e ci mal s i s
Tr an s fo r m i n g (2) i nt o a n e q u a t i o n w h o s e r o o t s s h al l be
r e s pe cti ve ly th o s e of (2) d i mi n i s h e d by 02 w e h av e .
,
1 23 9
. 02 . 1 264 1 6 71 23
071 8 72
. 02 . 1 2 68
. 02
Th e tr an s fo r me d e q ua t i on is
u
3
a
2
u 4 071 8 72
. 0.
D i v i d i n g 071 8 72
. by we h av e . 008 s u gg e s e t d as th e
fo urth fi g ur e O f th e r o ot .
5 70 A D V AN C E D C O UR S E IN ALG E B R A
Tr a n sfor m th e la s t e qua ti o n i n to a n o th er wh o s e r o o ts s h a ll be
r esp ecti ve ly th o s e o f th e firs t fi
d i mi n i s h ed by th e g ur e of th e r o ot
7 la s t O bta i n ed , a n d d i vid e as fi
befo r e for th e n ext g ur e of th e root ;
a n d s o on .
In p ra ct i c e , th e w or k m ay b e c o n t ra c t e d by d ro pping su ch i
dec mal
fi gur e s fro m t h e r i gh t of ea c h c olumn as a r e n o t n ee d e d fo r t h e r e qu i re d
d e gre e o f a cc ur a c y .
In d e t e r minin g th e in teg ra l p a rt o ft h e ro o t it will b e foun d c o nve ni en t

,
to c on s truc t t h e gr a p h o f th e firs t m e mb e r of t h e g iv e n e qu a ti o n .
79 5 . To fin d t h e a pp o xi ma er t v al ue o f a n ega ti v e i n co m me n
s u r a bl e r o o t t r an s fo r m t h e e q u ati o n i n t o an o th e r w h i ch s h all
,
h a v e t h e s a m e r o o t s w i t h c o n t r a ry s i g n s 7 a n d fin d t h e
c o rr e s p on d i n g p os i t i ve i n co mm e n s ur a b l e r o o t o ft h e tr a n s fo r m e d
e qu ati on .
Th e r e s ul t w i th i ts S i gn c h a n ge d w i ll b e t h e r e qui r e d n e ga t i v e
r oo t .
79 6 I n fi n d i n g any p art i cul a r r oot-figure by th e m e th o d o f

.
79 4 , w e ar e l i a b l e , e s p e ci ally i n t h e fir s t p a rt O f t h e p r o ce s s ,
t o ge t t o o g r e a t a r e s ul t ; th e s a m e t h i n g o cca s i o n a lly h app e ns
w h e n e x tr a cti n g s qua r e o r c ub e r o o t s o f n umb e r s .
S u ch rr o r m ay be d i s co v e r e d by b s e rv i n g t h e s i gn s o f
an e O
t h e l a s t t w o t e r m s o f t h e n e xt tr a n s fo r m e d e q ua t i on ; fo r s i n ce
e ach r o o t-fig ur e O
b ta i n e d a s i n 79 4 mus t be p os i ti ve t h e l as t ,
t w o t e r m s o f t h e t r a n s fo r m e d e q ua t i o n mu s t b e O f opp o s i te s i gn .
I f th i s i s n o t th e ca s e t h e l a s t r o ot fig ure mus t be d i m i ni s h e d
,
un t il a r e s u l t i s O bt a i n e d w h i ch s a t i s fi e s t h i s c o n d i t i o n .
L e t i t be r e qui r e d fo r e x a mp l e t o fin d t h e r o o t b e t w e e n 0
, ,
an d — 1 o f t h e e q uat i o n x + 4 x —9 x
3 2
C h a n g i n g t h e s i gn s O f th e x t e r m a n d t h e i n d e p e n d e n t t e r m
2
w e h a v e t o fili d th e r o o t b e t we e n 0 a n d 1 o f t h e e qu a
ti o n x 4 x 9 x + 5 = 0
3 — 2 —
D i v i d i n g 5 by 9 w e h a v e 5 s u gge s t e d a s t h e fir s t r o ot -fig ur e ;
,
.
bu t i t w ill b e fo un d t h a t i n t h i s ca s e t h e l a s t t w o t e r m s O f th e
fir s t t r an s fo r m e d e q uat i on a r e an d 3 75 . .
S OL U T ION O F H IGH E R E QUA T ION S 5 71
Th i s s h ows th a t 5 i s t oo gre at ; w e th e n try

.
. 4, an d find th at
t h e la s t t w o t e rm s of t h e fir s t tr an s fo rm e d e q ua t i on a re of
o ppo s i e s i gn t .
Th e w o r k ( if fi n d i n g th e fir s t thr e e r oot-fig ure s is sh ow n
belo w :
1 9 5
. 4
( 1 ) . 8 24
. 4 . 71 3 064
( 1 ) ( )
2 1 1 09 3 6
. 4 . 1 644
( 1 )
. 06 . 1 608
( )
2
. 06
. 06
( )
2
Th e r e q ui r e d r o o t is 4 69 , t o thr e e p l a ce s of d ecimal s .
79 7 In ca s e t oo s ma ll a n u m b e r i s t ak e n fo r t h e r o o t-fig ure ,
.
th e n umb e r s ug ge s t e d fo r t h e n e xt r o o t-
fig ur e w i l l b e g r e a t e r
t h a n 09 . .
L e t i t be r e qui r e d ,
fo r e xa m p l e , t o fin d th e r o o t b et w een 0
an d 1 o f th e e qu at i o n
D i v i di n g 1 by 3, we ha v e . 3 s u gges e t d as th e fir s t r oot
fig ur e
1 2 3
.
. 3 51 . 74 7
2 53
. 3
. 3
Th e n um ber s ug g e s e t d by t h e t d i v i s i on i s g r e ate r th an
n ex
1 ; s h ow i n g t h at t o o s m al l a r o o t-figu r e h a s b ee n t ake n .
5 72 A D V ANC E D C O U RS E IN A LG E B A R
79 8 I f t h e co e ffi ci e n t o f th e fir s t p o w e r O f t h e un k n o w n
.
num b e r i n a ny tr a n s fo r m e d e qu a t i o n i s z e r o , t h e n e x t fi gu r e
O f th e r Oo t m ay b e O
bt ai n e d by d i vi d i ng the a bs o lute va lue of
th e la s t te rm by th e a bs o lu te va lue o f th e co efii ci e ht of th e s qua re
of the unknow n n umber, a nd ta ki ng th e s qua r e r o o t o f th e res ult .
F or i f t h e tr an s fo r me d e qu a t i on is y 3
ay
2
b 0, i t i s e vi
den t th at ap p r ox i mate ly
, ,
ay
2
b 0, or y
We p r oce e d i n a s i m il a r m a nn e r i f an y n u m b e r o f c o n s e cu
t i v e t e r ms i m me d i at e ly p r ece di n g th e l a s t t e r m ar e z e r o .
Ho rn e r s m eth od m ay b e us e d t o find a ny r o ot of a n umb e r app roxi

’
ma t ely ; fo r t o find t h e nth r o ot o f a i s th e s a me t h in g as t o s olve t h e

e qu a t i o n x n
a 0 .
79 9 If a n e qua ti o n h a s t w o o r m o r e r oots wh i ch h a v e th e
.
sa m e i n t e g r a l p a rt ,
t h e fir s t d e ci m a l r oo t fi
-
g u r e o f e a c h m u s t
O
be b t a i n e d by t h e m e t h o d o f 74 1 o r 74 2, o r by S t ur m s ’
Th e ore m .
I f t wo o r mor e r oots h a v e th e s ame i n te gr al p a rt, an d als o

th e s a em fir s t d e c i m a l r o o t figur e , t h e s econ d d e ci m al r o o t
-
figur e of e ach m us t b e bt ai n e d by t h e m e th o d o f O 74 1 o r
74 2, o r by S t ur m s Th e o r e m ; a n d s o o n
’
.
H o rn e r s ’
m e th o d m a y b e us e d t o d e te r m in e su cc es s iv e figures i n th e
i nteg r a l , as w ell as in th e d e c i mal p o rt i o n
, o ft h e r oot .
If all b ut on e o f th e roots o f a n e u at oq i n ar e kn o wn th e re mainin g

,
ro ot may b e foun d by ch an ging the S ig n of th e c oe ffic i e nt o f th e se c on d

t e rm O f th e g iv e n e quat i o n a n d , s ub t a r c ting th e s um O f t h e kn o w n ro ots
fr om th e r es ul t
EX ERC S E I3 SI
F in d th e root b et we e n :
1 . 1 and 2, o fx3 —9 x2 + 23 x
2 . f
4 and 5 , o x3 — 4 x2
3 . O and —1 , of x 3
+8 x2 —9 x
4 .
— 2 an d — 3 , O f x3 — 3 x2
5 . 3 and 4, o f x3 — 6 x2 + 1 5 x
3 2 —
6 . O an d 1 , Of x + 4
x 2
+ x x
5 74 A D V AN C E D C O U RS E IN A LGE B A R
Th e n , y
i s s m a l l ; an d by n e gl ec t i n g t h e t e r m s i n v o l v i n g y,y,
’ ’
etc . an
'fir
a p p r o x i m a t e v al u e o fy i s O
bt ai n e d, w h i ch , w h e n a dd e d t o
a, g i v e s a ,
r m a t i o n t o th e v a l ue of x
a s t a pp o xi .
S ub s t i tut e i n t h e gi v e n e qu at i on a z fo r x ’
.
Th e n by n e gl ect i n g t h e t e r m s i n v o l vi n g 2
3
e tc w e bt a i n , .
,
O
an a p p r o xi m a t e v a lu e o f 2 w h i ch w h e n add e d t o a
’
g i v e s a , ,
s e co n d a pp r o x i m a t i o n t o t h e v a l ue o f x .
Th e p r oce s s m ay be con t i n ue d un t il t h e r o ot i s foun d t o a ny

d e s i r e d d e g r e e O f p r e ci s i on .
1 . F in d th e r oo t b e t we en 2 an d 3, and n ea r 2, of th e
e qu a ti on (1 3
3
2 513 5
P utt i n g x y 2, w e h a ve
3 i
0r y + 6 y + 1 Oy
Th e n , ap p r o x u n a t e ly , 1 0y 1 0, or y . 1 .
Th u s , is a firs t app r oxi m a ti on t o th e v a l ue o f x .
P utt i n g i n th e g i v e n e qu at i o n x z we h ave
3 2
2 2 2 . 06 1 0 .
Th e n a pp r o xi ma t el y
,
2 061 0 and z ,
.
,
T h us i s a s e co n d a p p r o xi m a t i o n t o th e v al ue O f x
, .
Th e a pp r ox i mate v a l ue s O f y 2 e t c s h oul d b e O b t a in e d t o o ne s i g nifi

, .
, .
,
ca nt fig ur e .
2 . F i n d th e r o ot b etw e e n 5 an d 6, an d n e a r 6, of th e
e qu a t i on x
3
x
2
25 x 81 0 .
P utt i n g x = y — 6 , w e h a ve y
3
1 9 y + 95 y 2
21 : 0.
Th e n , r
a pp o xi m a e l t y , 95 y 21 0, a nd y 2
Th us , 6 . 2, or is a first a p p o xi ma r t i on to th e v a ue l
Ofx .
P utt in g i n t h e gi v en e q ua t i on x z we h a ve
3 2
2 2 2 0 .
Th e n , ap p o xi m a e l
r t y ,
8 75 2 z . 52 0, an d z
Th u s , 0r is a s e con d a pp o xi ma r ti on to
th e v al ue of x.
S O L U T ION O F H IGH E R E Q UA TION S 57
5
EX ERC S E l3 9I
1 . F in d th e ro ot b etw een 1 an d 2, an d n ear 1 ,
of
x3 — 3 x2
2 . F in d th e r oot b etw e e n 0 and 1 ,

a nd n ear 1 , of
x +32 x2 —x
3 . F in dth e ro ot b et w ee n 2 a nd 3, and nea r 2, of
x3 — 3 x2
4 . F in d th e roo t betwe e n 2 and 3, an d n e a r 3, of
2 — 5 x
x3 + 2 x
5 . i
F nd th e r oot b et we e n 3 an d 4, a nd n ea r 4 , of
fl — 6fl + 9 x
6 . F in d th e root be tw ee n 5 a nd 6, an d n e ar 5, of
x —
3 2 x3 ‘
5 78 A DV A N C E D C O U RS E IN ALGE B A R
V II . x” i, wh e r e n is e ve n .
As in V , x m ay b e O b ta in e d in th e fo r m a bi .
8 03 wi ll n o w c on s i d e r t h e g e n e ral c as e
. We .
To p rove th a t th e ge n e ral e quat i o n o fth e nth d e gre e
+ p a _i x
n- l
x ”
plx To 0 ( 1 )
h as a r o ot of th e fo rm a bi , wh e re a an d b a re r e al n umb e rs .
S ub s t t ut i in g a bi for x in we h a ve
” -1
( a bi ) + p 1
”
(a bi ) bi ) pn 0 .
Expan d in g b y t h e B in omi al Th e o r e m , and c olle ctin g th e r eal and
i magin a ry te r ms w e Sh all h a ve , a r e s ul t of th e fo rm
U+ ( )
2
wh e re U a nd V r r e al n um b e rs
a e .
We w i ll n ow p r o v e t h at s uc h r eal v alues ma y b e fo un d for a an d b as
w i l l m ak e U : 0'a n d V : 0 .
W e w i ll firs t p r o ve t h a t s uc h r e al v alues m a y b e fo un d fo r a a n d b as
w i ll ma ke U2 V 2 0 .
A as a n d b c h n
a g e in v a lu e U a n d V a l s o c h a n e
g ; a n d if U,
2
V 2
c ann ot b e c o me z e r o for a n y v alue s o f a a n d b i t mus t h a v e s o me p o s i t ive ,
r e al m ini mum v a lue .
L et a n d 6 b e t h e v alue s o f a a n d b r e s p e c t iv e l y f
a o r w h i c h U2 V 2
, ,
h as t h is m ini mu m value .
L et P + Qi be t h e v a lue o f th e fir s t m e mb e r o f ( 1 ) w h e n a Bi i s
s ub s ti tut e d fo r x th e n P Q
2 i s th e m
2
ini m u m va lue o f U V 2 2
W r i t in g [3 i a h in p l a c e o fx in w e h av e
( a 1 % h ) +pi ( a I o
"1 a
n-
82
. : 0.
E xp a n d in g b y th e B in o m i al Th e o r e m , an d a rr a n gin g th e r es ult in
as c e n d in g p o w e rs o f h ,
n —1
( a i9 1 (a co + p n —i ( a 13 0+ Pn
n- -2
h [n (a co
1
+pi cz n( a 90
°
+2 .—i l
( te rm s inv o lvin g h 2 , h 3
,
m , h ”
) 0.
( )
3
Th e firs t l in e o f ( 3 ) i s e qual to P Qi .
Th e c o e f fi c i e n t s o f s o me o f th e p o w e r s o f It may b e z e r o ; b ut th e y
c ann o t a l l b e z e r o S in c e th e c oeffic i e n t o f h is uni ty
,
“
.
L e t h m b e t h e lo w es t p o w e r o f h wh o s e c o e f fic i e n t i s n o t z e ro ; an d
d e n ot e i ts c o effic i e n t b y R S i w h e r e R a n d S ar e n o t b o th z e r o ,
.
T h e n ( )
3 b e c o m e s P Q i ( R S i )h m
( te rms inv olvin g p o w e rs of h i

h gh e r t h a n th e mth ) 0 .
APPE ND IX 5 79
L e t th i s b e d e n o te d by P ’
Q i ’
0 .
(4 )
No w l e t [2 . 2 at, w h e re c is a p os i t ive real n umb e r , and t a ro ot of th e
q
e ua t o i n tm 1 or tm 1 .
'Q'
By 8 02 , t is in e i th e r cas e a n umbe r o ft h e fo r m a bi .
n
'i
m
Th e ,
P i P Qi :
I; ( R S )c
i
'
Wh e n c e P P R om
Q Qi
'Q'
and : Sam
'Q'
Th e r efo re , P 2 2
P 2
Q
2
j; 2 (PR Q )
S cm
Th at is , P 2
+ 2 — P2
( te rms inv o lving p o w ers o f 6 h igh er th a n th e mth ) .

(5)
If P R QS i s n o t z e ro 6 ma y b e t ak e n s o s ma ll th a t th e s i gn of th e
se o c n d m e mb e r w i ll b e t h e
,
s am e a s th at of i 2 (PR
' Q )
S cm .
H e n c e i f P R QS is p os i tive
, ,
th e s ign ofP 2
Q
2
P 2
Q ma2
y b e
'Q'
ma d e n ega t iv e by t akin g t 1 a nd i f PR + QS is n ega t ive th e ign
r
, s
/
O fP 2 2
P 2
Q m ay b e mad e
2
n eg a tive by takin g t r 2 1 .
in e i th er c as e
Th us , , P ’2
Q 2 can b
’
y p r o p e r ly,
c h oos in g c an d t, b e
mad e l ess th a n P 2 Q 2
.
I f PR + QS = 0,
l e t tm z
i i in
By 8 02 , t i s in e i th er c as e a n umb er o fth e form a bi .
Th e n , P
’
Q
’
i z P + Q i
i (R S i) icm
+
—P S) m
+ Qi
i (R i c +
Wh en c e P
' S om
+
'
,
an d Q Qi R cm
Q i
''
Th e refo re , P ’2
Q
’2
P + 2 2 2 ( QR FS) cm
— Pz — PS m
Th at i s , P 2
+ Q z
)c +
No w , ( P R 2 ZR 2
Q
°
S 2
QR
2 2 2
P S 2
‘
QS ) + ( QR PS) 2
P
( +
P °
An d , by
s in c e
h y oth e s p is , P2 + Q
2 is n o t z e o , and r R and S a re n o t
b oth 0, i t fol l o w s th a t ( P R QS )
2
( QR PS ) is
2
not z e o r .
B ut P R QS n c e QR P S is no t e ro
Th e r e fo re i f c b e t a k e n s uf
,
0, a nd he
fi c i e n t ly s m all t h e S i g n o fP + Q
2 2—
P 2
Q 2
,
z .
’ '
w i ll b e t e s a e as
h m t h e s ign o f + 2 (Q R P S )c m a n d w e c a n e n sur e t h a t
t h i s s i g n s all b e n e g t iv e b y t a kin g t
h a m i w h e n QR P S is p os i tive ,
an d t r = i w h e n QR P S i s n e ga t iv e .
5 80 ADV A N CE D CO U RS E IN A LGE B A R
p p
Th us , b y r o e rly c h o os g h , P + Q m a y b e m ad e l e s s th a P 3 + in ’2 ’2
n Q
9
v
t h a t i s , a a l ue o f U 2 V 2 m a y b e o b t a e d w h c h i s l es s t h a P 2 in i n Q
2
,
a n d t h e l a t te r i s n o t a m mum a lue o f U2 V 2 ini v .
He n c e , p os i tive re a l n umb e r ca n b e a mini mu m v alue o f U2 V 2 ;

no
a nd t h e r e fo r e v a l ues o f a a n d b ca n b e foun d w h i c h w i l l mak e U2 + V 2 0 2 .
If U + V 2 2 2 0, U2 = V 2, a nd Uz i Vi .
Th e n b y 4 1 8 U : 0 a nd V : 0
, , . t
H e n c e s uc h re a l values may b e foun d

, for a a nd b as w ill m ak e U : 0
a nd V: 0 .
We w i ll n o w p r o v e th at th e v alues o f a a nd b wh i ch ma ke 2
U + V 2 0
are fini t e .
Th e firs t me mb e r of ( 1 m
) ay b e wri tte n
( fl
n
1 + p
x +
x x x"
Putt in g a bi in p lac e o fx , we h a ve
U Vi = bz ) l
‘
a n
6
Co n s i d e r t h e t e rm
Pr b”
.
r
— b
( a + bi r or
b: m
[ ]
p l
“
—l r -2 ?
a
v
Ta
r
] a b o n
Ar + B r i , s ay
:
.
M 1
I
NOW 9 pr r —2 2
5
r
r
2 a
2 2
(a b ) [2
,
—2 2
[( )
b
)(
r
a a
_pr +
2 2 2 z 2
[
z
a +b 2 'a +b u +b
r (r 1 )
L 2
.
b2
No w if a a ndin d e fi ni tely in crea s ed in abs olute value a
b a re a nd ,
—
2 2 2 a
( b
2 b a e in d e fi ni t ely in cr e a s e d in ab s olut e v al ue fo r — an d
r
a
h av e th e ,
s a m e s i g n s a s a a n d b r e s p e c t iv e ly , .
He n c e i f a a n d b a re in d e fi nit ely in creas e d in ab s olute value A is

, , ,
in d e fini te ly d i mini s h e d in abs olute value a s als o i s B , .
'
T h us ( 6 ) m ay b e wr i t t e n
' ( 7)
U + Vi (a A H i] ,
wh e r e A an d B
' inare de fini tely d i mini s h e d in ab s ol ut e value wh e n a a nd
b a re in d e fini te ly in cre a s ed in ab s olute va lue .

Th i s boo k i s d u e o n t h e l ast dat e st a m p e d
o n t h e d a t e t o w h i ch r e n e w e d
.

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A D V A NC E D CO UR S E

d e g r ee s ; see 1 1 6—1 23 , 1 8 2, 233- 6, 39 6, 4 4 2, 4 70, 4 77, an d

o f li n ear e quat i o n s w i t h t w o u n k n o wn n u mbe r s , an d o f l i n ea r

Th e p r i n c i p l e s are fur th e r d e v el o p e d fo r s i mul t an e ou s q u a d

o f th e g i v e nd e n omi n a tor s ; and is s h ow n h ow s u ch a dd it i on al

8 . All w or k c omi n g un der th e h e ad of th e B i n o mi al Th e o

1 1 .The de v el op ment o f t h e th e o ry of th e Irrati o n al Num

for P ur e Imag in a ry and Co mp l e x Numbe r s ( Ch a p XV I II) .

1 5 . ch ap ter o n Con v e rg e n cy an d Di ve rge ncy of S eri e s

1 9 Th e ch apt e r o n Th e o ry o f Numbe r s (Ch a p XXXV )

21 . In C h a p XXX V II w ill b e foun d S y mm e t ri c al F u n c ti on s

many s ugg e s ti on s ; the s e h av e a dde d mat e ri ally t o th e v al ue

P ARE NTH ESE S 23

A V D VI S ION O F A E A E PRESS ION S

XI F RA C TION A L A D L IT ERA L E Q UA TION S

X III D I S C USS ION O F L IN EAR E Q UA TION S

X IV GRAP HI C A L R EPRESE NT A TIO

XV INVOL U TION A ND E VOL U TIO

X X X III C ONTIN UE D F RA C TIO S

X X X V III S OL U TIO O F H IGH ER E Q UA TION S

A PPE NDI X . C AU C HY S P R OO F TH A T E V E R Y E Q UA TION H A S A R OOT

Th e n ume r a l s d e te rmi n at e n umbe r s

Numbe rs o cc upy i n g s i mil a r r el at i on s i n th e s a m e i n v e s ti ga

S YM B OL S RE RESE P NTING OPE R AT IONS

Th e S i g n of Mu l t i p l i cat i on, x , i s r e ad ti mes , “ ” “

Th e S ign is so me t imes us e d for t h e w o d s r “

Th e S i gns of Inequ al i t y , an d s tan d fo r “

Th e S i g n of Cont i nuat i on, m i s r ea d a nd s o

8 . Th e n u mb e r o f thi n gs i n on e g r oup is s ai d t o be gr ea ter

A p os i t ive i nte ge r i s a l s o c all ed a wh o le number .

to s ign i f y th a t t h e n u mbe r i n th e ﬁr s t g roup i s g r e at e r or l es s ,

Th e s e s t at e m en t s ar e c all e d Inequ alit i es .

ADD IT ION OF PO S IT IV E INT E GE RS

Aft e r al l t h e g r ou p s h a v e b e e n u nite d i n a s i ngl e r

1 2 . Th e Commut a t i v e A s s oci at i v e Law s for Addi t i on

Th e Co m mutat i v e an d As s o c i ati v e L a w s fol l o w fro m 6;

Th e C o mm ut a ti ve a n d A s s o ciat ive L a w s e vi d e nt l y h o l d for t h e s um o f

M UL T IPLIC A T ION OF PO S IT IV E IN TEGER S

Th e r e s ul t is e xp r e s s e d a x b, o r s i mpl y ab; thus,

gn o f mul tipl i cati on i s us ually omi tt ed i n Algebra

W e c al l a th e Mult i pl i ca nd , an d b th e Multi pli er .

1 5 . Proof of t h e Commut at i v e Law .

1 6 . Proof of t h e A s s oci at i v e Law .

1 7 Proof of t h e Di s t ri buti v e Law .

Th e D is trib uti ve L a w fo r Mul tip l icati on h ol ds fo r th e sum of any

S UBT R A C T ION OF PO S ITIV E I N TE GE RS

21 . The re mai nde r, wh e n b i s s ubtrac te d from a , i s e xpre s s ed

24 . R ul e s for S ubt ract i on .

25 . Pr oofs of t h e R ul es for S ubt ract i on .

tio n s , o r of a d d iti on s and s ubtrac ti on s , ca n be p e rfo rme d in an y

as s o c i a ti v e law s fo r a ddi t i o n a n d s ubtr a c t i on .

W for m ult i pli c a t i o n .

In thi s y mb oli c d e ﬁ ni ti on o f an e q uati on i t i s unn e c e s s a ry

W e s h al l atta c h th i s m e a n i n g t o e v e ry e quati o n thr o ugh o ut

34 . S y mbol i c S ubt rac t i on .

It i s p e r fe c tl y l ogi c al t o d e ﬁ n e a n o p e r ati on by m ean s o f

Z ER O AND TH E N E GAT IV E IN TE GER

36 . S i n ce th e re s ult s of 24 a r e s i m pl y fo rmal c on se que n ce s

Fr om by t h e C o mmuta t i v e L aw for Mult i p l i c ati on ,

Th e s y mbo l d is c all e d a Negat i v e Int e ge r ; i n co n t r a d i s

i n t e g e r, is c all e d a P os i t i v e Fra ct i on, an d a Negat i v e

foll o w s t h at t h e r e s ul t s o f 24 h ol d for t h e s y mbo l

46 . S i n c e th e r e s ul t s o f 3 0 a n d 31 are s i mpl y fo rmal co n

I n C h ap II, . we a ssu med th e fun d a m e n tal l aw s of 1 2, 1 4 ,