Ophthalmic Dictionary and Vocabulary Builder For Eye Care Professionals

Ophthalmic Dictionary
and
Vocabulary Builder
for Eye Care Professionals
Melvin I Freeman MD FACS
Clinical Professor of Ophthalmology, Emeritus, University of Washington
School of Medicine, Seattle, Washington, USA
Affiliate Clinical Investigator, Benaroya Research Institute at Virginia Mason, Seattle
Washington, USA
Medical Director, Emeritus, Department of Continuing Medical Education, Virginia Mason
Medical Center, Seattle, Washington, USA
Past Vice President, International Contact Lens Council, Osaka, Japan
Past President, Alliance for Continuing Medical Education, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
Past President, Contact Lens Association of Ophthalmologists, New Orleans, Louisiana
Past President, Joint Commission on Allied Health Personnel in Ophthalmology
St. Paul, Minnesota, USA
Chair, Joint Commission on Allied Health Personnel in Ophthalmology Education and
Research Foundation, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA
John S Massare BA MS PhD

Executive Director, Contact Lens Association of Ophthalmologists, Inc.
Executive Vice Chairman, Contact Lens Association of Ophthalmologists Education and
Research Foundation, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA
Adjunct Instructor, Department of Ophthalmology, Tulane University School of Medicine
New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
Ophthalmic Dictionary
and
Vocabulary Builder
for Eye Care Professionals
FOURTH EDITION
FOURTH
Harold A Stein MD MSc (Ophth) DOMS (London) FRCS(C)

Professor of Ophthalmology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Attending Ophthalmologist and Past Chairman, Department of Ophthalmology
Scarborough General Hospital Scarborough Ontario, Canada
Attending Ophthalmologist, Mount Sinai Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Past President
Contact Lens Association of Ophthalmologists, New Orleans, Louisiana
Joint Commission on Allied Health Personnel in Ophthalmology, St. Paul, Minnesota and
Canadian Ophthalmological Society, Ottawa, Canada
Director, Professional Continuing Education, Centennial College of Applied Arts
Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Co-Director, Maxwell K Bochner Eye Institute, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Chairman, Toronto Eye Foundation, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Trustee, CLAO Education and Research Foundation, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA
Raymond M Stein MD FRCS(C)

Chief, Department of Ophthalmology, Scarborough Hospital, Scarborough, Ontario, Canada
Associate Professor of Ophthalmology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Attending Ophthalmologist, Mount Sinai Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Past President, Canadian Society of Cataract and Refractive Surgery
Montreal, Quebec, Canada
Past Commissioner, Joint Commission on Allied Health Personnel in Ophthalmology
Co-Director, Maxwell K Bochner Eye Institute, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Editor, Clinical and Surgical Ophthalmology, Medicopea, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
Foreword BENJAMIN F BOYD

®
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© 2012, Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means
without the prior permission of the publisher.
Inquiries for bulk sales may be solicited at: jaypee@jaypeebrothers.com
Notice:
Medical knowledge and best practice in the field of health care is constantly changing.
Health care practitioners and those assisting the practitioners in health care delivery must
always rely on experience and knowledge in evaluating and using information, methods,
procedures, pharmaceuticals, or instruments discussed in this publication. It is the
responsibility of the health care provider, relying on experience and knowledge of the patient,
to determine pharmaceutical dosage and the best treatment for each individual patient. In
using this information and methods they should always be mindful of their own safety and
the safety of others, including all those for whom the have a responsibility.
With reference to all pharmaceuticals, procedures and instruments, readers are advised to
check the most current product information provided by the manufactures of each
pharmaceutical and instrument to confirm dosage, methods and duration of delivery, and
contraindications and proper instrument and device use and safeguards.
Neither the Publisher nor the editors, authors or contributors assume any liability for any
injury and or damage to persons or property arising from this publication.
The Publishers nor the editors or authors endorse any drug, procedure or equipment referred
to in this publication.
Ophthalmic Dictionary and Vocabulary Builder for Eye Care Professionals
First Edition: 1982

Second Edition: 1987
Third Edition: 1992
Fourth Edition: 2012
ISBN 978-93-5025-365-6
Printed at
Dedicated to
The Memory of
Dr Maxwell K Bochner
Dr Bernard J Slatt
Contributors
Joseph D Freeman MD
UCSF/SFGH Emergency Medicine Residency
University of California, San Francisco
San Francisco, CA, USA (Chapter 17, 18)
Robert E Freeman MSEE

Senior Manager
Synopsys, Inc.
Mountain View, CA, USA (Chapter 8)
Korosh Nikeghbal RO
Contact Lens Fitter
Bochner Eye Institute
Toronto, ON, Canada (Chapter 11)
Penny Cook Pilliar RO

Contact Lens Fitter
A Ghani Salim MD
Associate Medical Director
REVIEWERS
Chiara Cinco OD
Robert Pillier PhD

Foreword
Harold A Stein, MD FRCS(C) and his distinguished co-authors have taken

the time and made enormous efforts to prepare an Ophthalmic Dictionary
and Vocabulary Builder for Eye Care Professionals for all of us.
Even though I have written and published 32 hard bound volumes
of THE HIGHLIGHTS since I established HIGHLIGHTS OF
OPHTHALMOLOGY in 1950, and 20 editions of the MINI
HIGHLIGHTS, that contain 24 pages of text each with first class
illustrations, I still need to consult the dictionary because I respect the
language and, of course, the readers. There is nothing as bad as writing
with orthographic mistakes.
In order to produce a Dictionary and Vocabulary Builder of superb
quality as this is, it requires a substantial amount of effort and time.
Dictionaries are not expensive publications to obtain and every
ophthalmologist should have one at his/her side consulting the dictionary
will assure that you will write well. I refer to your correspondence and
scientific material or chapters of whatever you are requested to produce
from a source that wants to serve the public well.
If you are going to write a letter or a brief description of your
professional experiences and you want to do it promptly and well, I highly
recommend that you take with you The Dictionary and Vocabulary Builder
as your companion.
The Vocabulary Builder is a unique, creative and original book. It
organizes words into chapters by sectors and provides origins of
ophthalmic words for easy recall and interesting reading.
Benjamin F Boyd MD FACS

Past President, Academia Ophthalmologica Internationalis
Past President, Panamerican Association of Ophthalmology
Honorary Life Member, International Council of Ophthalmology
Life Member, American Academy of Ophthalmology
Preface
“Our sight is the most perfect and most delightful of all our senses.
It fills the mind with the largest variety of ideas, converses with
the objects at the greatest distance and continues the longest
in action without being tired or satiated with its proper enjoyments”
Joseph Addison
(The SPECTATOR 1711)
Our first edition arose out of the numerous requests and suggestions
made to us from individuals in the ophthalmic field who wished to have
a handy reference manual of ophthalmic vocabulary. We attempted to
produce a desk-size reference companion that would serve not only as a
source book of ophthalmic words but also in developing a vocabulary in
one or more specialized divisions of ophthalmology.
The second edition was designed to help several groups of individuals
in the ophthalmic professions. It was designed to help the individual just
entering the field by presenting words in generalized and specialized areas
of ophthalmology with cross-references. The text serves as a reference
source for secretaries, ophthalmic technicians, and professionals in both
the English and non-English speaking world in looking up specific
spellings as well as definitions.
The aim of the third edition was to help individuals build a strong
vocabulary in ophthalmology by linking roots and other words.
The fourth edition introduces a new collaborator, John S Massare PhD
the Executive Director of the Contact Lens Association of Ophthalmolo-
gists Inc., who has added his expertise in many areas of this dictionary.
Ophthalmic Medical terminology is rapidly proliferating, with
etiological terminology frequently replacing long-standing descriptive
terminology and even historical eponymic designations. It is often difficult
to identify just when a term has become obsolete and a new term has
become common usage.
We have attempted to deal primarily with the more commonly used
words. The book is oriented for fast delivery of meaning and definitions,
with the emphasis on simplicity and practicality. It is definitely not a
reference tome to give impressive weight to an ophthalmic word and
syndrome in a costly compendium. We have prepared a practical book
whose function, at the bottom line, is to assist in communication and to
help develop vocabulary. A new chapter on refractive surgery has been
xii Ophthalmic Dictionary and Vocabulary Builder
added to this rapidly expanding subspecialty. Imaging words such as OCT

have been added. It is truly amazing how many new words and new short
forms have crept into our ophthalmic language.
To clarify definitions we have used several illustrations from our
previous works, The Ophthalmic Assistant and Fitting Guide for Hard
and Soft Contact Lenses, published by Elsevier/Mosby, St. Louis,
Philadelphia, London.
Harold A Stein
Raymond M Stein
Melvin I Freeman
John S Massare
Acknowledgments
In Memory of
Dr Maxwell K Bochner MD
Dr Bernard J Slatt MD
In Appreciation
We would like to thank our spouses Anne, Nancy, Nanette and Susan
and our children and their families for graciously allowing us the time to
spend on this project.
We would like to thank Elsevier/Mosby Co. for use of artwork and
photos from our previous publications.
We would also like to thank Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers (P)
Ltd. for the use of colored photographs from Basak’s Atlas on Clinical
Ophthalmology.
How to Get the Most
Out of this Book?
This book is divided into sections. Part of the book is divided into a
cross reference in an alphabetical dictionary format. While looking for
any particular word, you can look in the dictionary section and refer to
the vocabulary-building portion. The text of each chapter introduces the
most commonly used words in the section.
One important reason for swiftly learning additional words will be
that your attitude toward words will change. You will become enthusiastic
about them. You will be curious about them. You will no longer pass
over unfamiliar ones. You won’t be happy if you do so. They will challenge
you to discover their meaning. This book is a first step toward forming a
new and helpful habit of adding word power to your education. If you
form this habit, you will learn words automatically and it will become
effortless. It is not true that as you get older it is more difficult to learn.
As you grow older you lose nothing in mental power if you keep up active
interest. You may however, lose slightly in speed of mastery. Everyone
can profit by word study. You can feel more confident by understanding
ophthalmic jargon. On the other hand, few things can make you feel more
inferior than stammering words that you are using incorrectly. There are
a few simple rules to follow.
Good habits
If you are new in the field, plan to use this book a short time each day. It
really does not matter how fast or how slow you proceed; this depends
on you and your time schedule. What is important is the consistency of
your efforts. This is not a book that should be read in its entirely; it should
be read in “bite-sized” portions that we have divided in chapters.
Words
Underline words throughout the book with which you are familiar and
hear regularly. When you return to the section, you can then learn new
words that have not been underlined with which you are unfamiliar. Write
these words down on a separate card and carry them with you for a few
days to remind you of these words. Try to recall the definitions. The recall
of these words will heighten your working vocabulary. Use the words in
xvi Ophthalmic Dictionary and Vocabulary Builder
an ophthalmic practice. Place the card where you will see it many times
during the day so that you can refresh your memory. Try to get the correct
pronunciation from others you are in contact with. Try to explain the
word to others who do not know the term. This is an important test as
to whether or not you grasp the essence of its meaning.
Suggested program
The first approach is to read an entire chapter through. Then begin the
following day taking a few of the selected words and writing them as
suggested. On the last weekend of each month, test yourself on all the
words in the section.
Pronunciation
Pronunciation is difficult for most people. The trouble is that our language
does not have enough vowels to carry the many different sounds.
Consequently, linguists have devised a phonetic system that is rather
complicated. It is easier to try to gain pronunciation from staff and others
who are familiar with the words. Develop a phonetic system of writing
them down so that you will recall them.
Contents
PART ONE: DICTIONAR

ART Y
DICTIONARY 1-57
PART TWO: VOCABULAR

PART Y BUILDER 59-400
VOCABULARY
SECTION 1: BASIC SCIENCE

1. Anatomy 61
2. Physiology 78
3. Optics 86
4. Pharmacology: Ophthalmic Drugs and Toxic Substances 92
5. Genetics 118
6. Embryology 123
7. Research Terms 127
8. Basic Computer Terms 134
SECTION 2: REFRACTION, SPECTACLES,

SPECTACLES,
AND CONT ACT LENSES
CONTACT
9. Refraction 145
10. Spectacles 154
11. Contact Lenses 180
SECTION 3: DISORDERS OF THE EYE

12. Disorders of the Cornea and Conjunctiva 210
13. Glaucoma 232
14. Strabismus 246
15. Disorders of the Retina and Vitreous 261
16. Ocular Tumors 278
17. Systemic Diseases and the Eye 287
18. Neuro-ophthalmology 300
SECTION 4: SURGERY OF THE EYE

SURGERY
19. Cataract Surgery 322
20. Intraocular Lenses 334
xviii Ophthalmic Dictionary and Vocabulary Builder
21. Glaucoma Surgery 342

22. Corneal Surgery 345
23. Eyelid, Lacrimal and Orbital Surgery 351
24. Laser Surgery 357
25. Retinal and Vitreous Surgery 362
26. Strabismus Surgery 367
27. Refractive Surgery 370
SECTION 5: OPHTHALMIC TESTS, DEVICES,

IMAGING AND MISCELLANEOUS TERMS
28. Ophthalmic Tests and Devices 375
29. Miscellaneous Terms 392
APPENDICES
A.Abbreviations and Symbols in Clinical Use 402
B.Metric Conversion (US) 404
C.Estimating Visual Loss 406
D.Vertex Conversion Table 408
E.Conversion Table Relating Diopters by Corneal
Refracting Power to Millimeters of Radius of Curvature 410
F. Compensation for Effect of Vertex Distances
(Used When Plus Lens is Moved Away from the Eye) 412
G. Compensation for Effect of Vertex Distances
(Used When Plus Lens is Moved Toward the Eye) 414
H. Dioptric Curves for Extended Range of Keratometer 416
Bibliography and Supplementary Readings 419

PART TWO
VOCABULARY BUILDER
VOCABULARY
SECTION 1: BASIC SCIENCE
C H A P T E R 1
ANATOMY
ANAT
The word anatomy is derived from the Greek word anatome, a compound
of ana-, “over,” and -tome, “to cut”. Hippocrates, Galen, and many other
ancient authors were familiar with the study of human dissection, and
they coined a great number of terms whose use and meaning remain
unchanged. Anatomy and its sister science pathology (Greek for “that
which happens” plus “knowledge”) were revived in 1315, when Modino
performed the first documented human dissection since classical times.
Pathology is the study of changes caused by diseases in the structure and
function of the body. Embryology is the study of the origin and
development of an individual organism.
Eyelids
The globe is covered externally by the eyelids to protect it from injury and
excessive light and to spread a thin film of tears over the cornea. From
blepharo, Greek meaning “eyelid,” we derive words such as blepharoplasty,
referring to any plastic surgery performed on the eyelid, and blepharoptosis,
drooping eyelids. The muscle that elevates the eyelid is the levator palpebrae
superioris, from the Latin levator, “to raise,” palpebra, “an eyelid,” and superioris,
“upper”. The triangular spaces at the junction of the upper and lower
lids are called canthi from the Latin and Greek kanthas meaning “angle”.
These canthi are denoted by the terms medial or lateral, the former being
close to the nasal bridge (Fig. 1-1).
In the medial angle of the eyelids lies the caruncle, from Latin meaning
“flesh,” because this is a fleshy mound on the eye (Fig. 1-2). Adjacent to
it lies a fold, the plica semilunaris, from plica (Latin plicare, “to fold”) and
semilunaris (Latin “half moon”) because the tissue is folded over in a half-
moon shape; this was originally a remnant of the third eyelid as found in
lower animals.
The eyelids have as part of their structure hard plates called tarsus
(Greek, “flat”), a term used by the ancient Greek for various flattened
62 Basic Science
Fig. 1-1. Surface anatomy of the eye
Fig. 1-2. Inner canthus, showing the semilunar fold and the caruncle.
Normally the punctum is not visible unless the lower lid is depressed (With
permission from Stein HA, Stein RM, Freeman MI. The Ophthalmic Assistant. A
Text for Allied and Associated Ophthalmic Personnel, 8th edition. St. Louis/
Philadelphia: Elsevier-Mosby, 2006)
objects such as the wing of a bird, the rudder of a ship, and the blades
of oars. Because of the similar fluttering movement of the eyelids, the
term tarsus was applied to the fibrocartilaginous plate that is found in the
eyelid.
Within the tarsal plate of the eyelid lie the meibomian glands, named
after Heinrich Meibom (1638-1700), who published the first accurate
description of these secreting glands. A disorder of the glands gives rise
to a chalazion, a word derived from Greek meaning “hailstones,” because
of the similarity of these lumps in the eyelid to the appearance of large
hailstones.
Anatomy 63
Fig. 1-3. Lacrimal apparatus. Tears produced by the lacrimal gland are drained
through the punctum, lacrimal sac, and nasolacrimal duct into the nose (With
Tear duct system

On the medial aspect of the lower lid is a small papilla, meaning
“elevation”. At the apex of this elevation is a small opening, the punctum
(Latin, “point”), which leads to a small canal called canaliculus leading to
the lacrimal sac. Lacrima is Latin for “tear,” and from it lacrimation, lacrimal
gland, and other words pertaining to tears are derived (Fig. 1-3).
Conjunctiva
Conjunctiva is the filmy, moist membrane that covers the structure of the
globe adjacent to the cornea. Conjunctiva covering the eye itself is referred
to as the bulbar conjunctiva, whereas the portion that lines the inner surface
of the upper and lower eyelid is called the palpebral portion. The junctional
bay created when the two portions of the conjunctiva meet is referred to
as the fornix.
Cornea
The cornea is a clear, transparent structure with a brilliant, shiny surface.
Kerato, from Greek meaning “hornlike,” is the prefix pertaining to the
cornea. Ancient Greeks believed the cornea resembled a thinly sliced horn
of an animal.
64 Basic Science
Sclera
The sclera (Greek scleros, “hard”) is the hard, firm, fibrous outer coat of
the eye, which is continuous with the cornea (Fig. 1-4). At its posterior
attachment, which is the optic nerve, the sclera becomes a thin, sievelike
structure called the lamina cribrosa (Latin cribrum, “sieve”), in which the
fine retinal nerve fibers leave the eye to form the optic nerve. The tissue
overlying the sclera is the episclera (from Greek epi, “upon”).
Uvea
Uvea was derived in ancient times from the Latin word uva, meaning
“a grape,” because the appearance seemed similar to a grape in which the
stalk was torn out leaving a hole in the front, the hole being the pupil.
Although at first the term uvea referred to the complete tunics of the eye,
its use later was restricted to the inner coats. The uveal tract consists of
three structures: The iris, ciliary body, and choroid.
The iris is derived from the Greek iris, meaning “rainbow,” because of
the beautiful and abundant colors that were present, particularly in the
irises of animals and birds. The Greeks even named one of their
goddesses. Iris because when they saw a rainbow in the sky, they thought
Fig. 1-4. Cutaway section of the eye (With permission from Stein HA, Stein RM,
Freeman MI. The Ophthalmic Assistant. A Text for Allied and Associated Ophthalmic
Personnel, 8th edition. St. Louis/Philadelphia: Elsevier-Mosby, 2006)
Anatomy 65
Fig. 1-5. The eye cut in horizontal section (With permission from Stein HA, Stein
RM, Freeman MI. The Ophthalmic Assistant. A Text for Allied and Associated
Ophthalmic Personnel, 8th edition. St. Louis/Philadelphia: Elsevier-Mosby, 2006)
it was their goddess flying through the sky producing a multicolored trail.
The central opening, the pupil, is derived from the Greek pupa, a small
doll-like figure that was reflected from the center of the eye when one
looked at someone’s eyes.
The ciliary body is that body of muscle that supports cilia of hairlike
processes called ciliary processes, which are responsible for the major
production of aqueous or watery fluid that passes from the posterior chamber
to the anterior chamber of the eye (Fig. 1-5). The lens of the eye is suspended
from the ciliary processes by zonular fibers (zonule being from both Greek
and Latin meaning “ring” or “belt”), in which the fibers ring the equator
of the crystalline lens.
The term choroid is derived from the Greek chorion, which is the vascular
membrane that envelopes the fetus and attaches it to the uterus. The
choroid is a highly vascular coat of the eye that nourishes the outer layer
of the retina.
Angle structures
The angle of the anterior chamber is the angle that lies between the iris
and the cornea and through which the aqueous fluid flows out of the
66 Basic Science
eye (Fig. 1-6). The anterior chamber contains this aqueous (Latin for
“water”).
The prefix gonio- from the Greek, meaning “corner,” refers to the angle
of the anterior chamber. Combining it with scopy, meaning “examination,”
results in the word gonioscopy, which refers to “examination of the angle
of the anterior chamber”.
Lens
The lens of the eye is a transparent biconvex structure situated between
the iris and the vitreous (Fig. 1-7). The lens is covered by a capsule and
consists of a central nucleus and an outer cortex.
Vitreous
The vitreous is a jellylike substance occupying the posterior concavity of
the globe. The term is derived from the Latin vitreous meaning “glass,”
because of its transparent nature. Vitrectomy is a surgical procedure to
remove a portion of the vitreous from the eye.
Retina
The retina is the sensory receptor for light and is composed of rods and
cones whose names represent their physical configurations in the shape of
rods and cones (Fig. 1-8). There is a concentration of the cones in an
area of the retina known as the macula lutea from the Latin macular meaning
“a spot” and lutea meaning “yellow,” because this portion of the retina
appears as a yellow spot when seen in the stretched-out specimen of the
retina. The junction of the retina and ciliary body in the periphery is called
the ora serrata because of the serrated appearance of the attachment of
the retina in the periphery. If the retina is detached at the periphery, it is
said to be disinserted.
Ocular muscles
Of the six ocular muscles, the medial, lateral, superior, and inferior rectus
muscles are named after their relative position to the globe. The superior
oblique and inferior oblique muscles are also named after their anatomic
relationship to the globe and, in addition, after the oblique nature of their
mechanical pull on the rotations of the globe when the muscles contract
(Fig. 1-9).
Anatomy 67
Fig. 1-6. Angle structures of the eye. The angle is formed between the iris and
the back surface of the cornea, with aqueous humor of the anterior chamber
Interposed. The angle structures include corneoscleral trabeculum, canal of
Schlemm, scleral spur, a small extension of the ciliary muscle, and the root of
the iris (With permission from Stein HA, Stein RM, Freeman MI. The Ophthalmic
Assistant. A Text for Allied and Associated Ophthalmic Personnel, 8th edition. St.
Louis/Philadelphia: Elsevier-Mosby, 2006)
Visual pathways
As retinal fibers leave the optic nerves, half of the nasal fibers cross
to the opposite side of the brain while half pass to the same side
(Fig. 1-10). The place in the brain where fibers from the two eyes cross is
called the optic chiasm after the Greek chi or , which represents a crossing.
The resemblance to the Greek chi was first recorded by Galen, the famous
Greek physician to the emperor of Rome in 150 AD.
The fibers then form a band called the optic tract and pass to the lateral
geniculate body, so named because this body in the brain is shaped like a
knee (Latin genu, “knee”). The geniculate body is a relay station. From
68 Basic Science
Fig. 1-7. Crystalline lens
Fig. 1-8. Normal fundus. Note that the central retinal vein emerges from the optic
disk lateral to the central retinal artery (With permission from Stein HA, Stein RM,
here fibers spread out in a fan-shaped manner and extend to the parietal
and temporal lobes of the brain. From here the fibers continue to their
final destination, the posterior segment of the occipital lobe, where the
conscious recognition of objects occurs.
A craniotomy is a surgical exploration of the brain to identify and localize
areas interrupting function. A lobotomy is a removal of a lobe of the brain.
A neurectomy is an excision of a nerve either peripheral or central in origin.
Anatomy 69
Fig. 1-9. Showing the ocular muscles from above (inferior rectus and inferior
oblique muscles would be seen from the below) (With permission from Stein HA,
Stein RM, Freeman MI. The Ophthalmic Assistant. A Text for Allied and Associated
A
Abducens: The external rectus muscle.
Abducens nerve: The sixth cranial nerve; the nerve that innervates the lateral
rectus muscle that abducts the eye.
Abduction: The outward rotation of an eye.
Aberrant: A deviation from normal.
Adductor: A muscle that exerts force toward the midline (for example,
medial rectus).
Adnexa oculi: Accessory structures of the eye, such as the lacrimal apparatus
and the eyelids.
Anterior: In front.
Anterior chamber: The portion of the eye lying between the cornea and
the iris-lens and bathed in aqueous.
Anterior segment: Referring to the front part of the eye.
Appendage of the eye: The accessory structures or adnexa of the eye,
including the lacrimal apparatus, the conjunctiva, the cilia, the eyelids,
and sometimes the extraocular muscles.
B
Bergmeister’s papilla: Embryologically, a small mass of glial cells that
surrounds the hyaloid artery in the center of the optic disk and persists
in the adult eye.
70 Basic Science
Fig. 1-10. Visual pathway. One-half of the visual receptors from each eye extends
to one side of the brain. Thus, visual impulses from the right visual field of each
eye will be transmitted to the left occipital lobe (With permission from Stein HA,
Anatomy 71
Blind spot: The natural blind area of the retina where the optic nerve enters
the eye.
Bowman’s membrane: The thin membrane that lies between the corneal
epithelium and the stroma. The second layer of the cornea.
Bruch’s membrane: The membrane that lies between the choroid and the
retinal pigment epithelium; same as lamina vitrea.
Bulbar: Pertaining to the globe.
C
Canal of Schlemm: Schlemm’s canal (see Fig. 2-2).
Canaliculi: The two passages from the puncta to the lacrimal sac.
Capillaries: The smallest blood vessels, either arterial or venous in function.
Capsule: A thin membrane that encloses the crystalline lens.
Carotid: Refers to the internal carotid artery, one of the major blood vessels
supplying the brain, or the carotid artery that serves the neck, face,
and side of the head.
Caruncle, lacrimal: See Lacrimal caruncle.
Cephalic: Pertaining to the head, or the head end of the body.
Choroid: Vascular, intermediate coat that furnishes nourishment to the
other parts of the eyeball.
Cilia (plural), cilium (singular): Eyelashes.
Ciliary body: Portion of the vascular coat between the iris and the choroid;
consists of ciliary processes and the ciliary muscle.
Cloquet’s canal: The space in the vitreous that formerly contained the hyaloid
artery during development.
Collarette: The junction of ciliary and pupillary zones of iris.
Cones and rods: Two kinds of cells that form a layer of the retina and act
as light-receiving media. Cones are concerned with visual acuity and
color discrimination; rods are used for motion and vision at low degrees
of illumination (night vision).
Conjunctiva: Mucous membrane that lines the eyelids and wraps around
the front part of the eyeball to end at the limbal junction of the cornea.
Conjunctival sac: The potential space, lined by conjunctiva, between the
eyelids and the eyeball; cul-de-sac.
Cornea: Clear, transparent portion of the outer coat of the eyeball, forming
the covering of the anterior chamber.
Corneal endothelium: A single layer of cells that lines the layer of the cornea
facing the anterior chamber.
Corneal epithelium: Multiple layers of cells that form the most superficial
layer of the cornea. It rests on Bowman’s membrane.
72 Basic Science
Corneal lamella: One of the connective tissue sheets of the corneal stroma.
Corneal stroma: Multiple sheets of collagen in the center of the cornea,
which make up 90% of its thickness.
Cortex: The portion of the crystalline lens within the capsule that
surrounds the central nucleus (see Fig. 1-7).
Cryptophthalmos: The congenital absence of eyelids.
Crystalline lens: A transparent, colorless body suspended in the front part
of the eyeball behind the iris. Along with the cornea, it functions to
bring the rays of light to a focus on the retina.
Cul-de-sac: The upper or lower conjunctival recess.
E
Elevator muscle: An eye muscle that rotates the eye upward, that is, the
superior rectus and inferior oblique muscles.
Epicanthus: Congenital skin fold that overlies the inner canthus and
simulates the appearance of esotropia.
Episclera: A loose structure of fibrous and elastic tissue on the outer surface
of the sclera, containing a large number of blood vessels in contrast
to the sclera, which contains none.
Episcleral veins: The small veins on the surface of the sclera that collect
aqueous from Schlemm’s canal and blood from the anterior superficial
portions of the eye.
Epithelioid cell: A macrophage that resembles an epithelial cell.
Equator: The sagittal midportion of the eye.
Eversion of the eyelid: The folding back of the eyelid.
Extraocular: Pertaining to the structures outside the globe of the eye, such
as the eyelids and lacrimal apparatus.
Extraocular muscles: The six muscles that cause movement of the eye: medial
and lateral recti, superior and inferior recti, and superior and inferior
oblique.
Eyeball: The globe or ball of the eye.
F
Fissure: Elliptical space between the open eyelids.
Fornix: A loose fold of the conjunctiva, occurring where that part of the
eyeball meets the conjunctiva lining the eyelid.
Fovea: Small glistening depression in the retina; the part of the macula
adapted for most acute vision and color vision. It consists largely of
specialized cone receptors.
Anatomy 73
Fundus: Inside of the eye (primarily the retina, the macula, the optic disk,
and the retinal vessels) that can be seen with an ophthalmoscope.
H
Hyaloid artery: An artery that was present during the embryologic period,
running from the optic disk to the posterior lens.
I
Inferior oblique muscle: Muscle that tilts the eyeball up and inward.
Inferior rectus muscle: Muscle that pulls the eyeball downward.
Infraversion: Downward rotation of both eyes.
Intorsion: Rotation of the eye on an anteroposterior axis so that the upper
portion of the eye moves inward toward the nose. The right eye rotates
clockwise and the left eye counterclockwise.
Intraocular: Within the eye.
Intraocular pressure: The pressure of the fluid within the eye measured in
millimeters of mercury.
Intrascleral nerve loop: A minute, dark spot of uveal tissue on the sclera in
which a long ciliary nerve loops in the anterior sclera.
Intrinsic ocular muscles: The muscles situated inside the eyeball, consisting
of the ciliary muscle, the sphincter pupillae, and the dilator pupillae.
Irido-, irid-: Pertaining to the iris.
Iridodonesis: Trembling of the iris on eye movement, such as occurs with
loss of lens support as in aphakia, dislocated lens, or pseudophakia.
Iris coloboma: A notch or defect in the iris.
Itis: Inflammation of.
L
Lacrimal apparatus: The tear-producing and tear-disposal system of the eye.
Lacrimal caruncle: Pink, fleshy, and relatively isolated tissue located in the
medial canthus area adjacent to the plica semilunaris.
Lacrimal gland: A gland that secretes tears; it lies in the upper outer angle
of the orbit.
Lacrimal sac: The dilated upper end of the lacrimal duct.
Lamina cribrosa: A perforated area of the choroid layer through which the
optic nerve enters the eye.
Lateral rectus muscle: Muscle that pulls the eyeball outward.
Lenticular: Pertaining to (or shaped like) a lens.
Limbus: The annular border between the clear cornea and the opaque
scleral-conjunctival area (see Fig. 1-1).
74 Basic Science
Longitudinal ciliary muscle: The portion of the ciliary body muscle that
originates near the scleral equator and passes anteriorly to insert on
the scleral spur.
M
Meibomian glands: Sebaceous glands of the eyelid.
Meninges: The three membranes that cover the brain and spinal cord (dura
mater, arachnoid, and pia mater).
Microphkia: Anomaly in which the crystalline lens of the eye is abnormally
small.
Mittendorf dot: Opacity of the posterior lens capsule marking the former
site of congenital hyaloid artery attachment.
Mural cells: Pericytes in retinal capillary walls.
N
Nasolacrimal duct: The channel connecting the lacrimal sac with the nasal
cavity.
Neuro-: Pertaining to nerves.
Neuroepithelium: Rods and cones.
Nucleus: The central hardened portion of the crystalline lens (see Fig. 1-7).
O
Oculocardiac reflex: See reflex, oculocardiac.
Oculomotor: Pertaining to the movements of the eye.
Oculomotor nerve: Third cranial nerve.
Optic cup: The depression in the optic nerve head, which reveals the lamina
cribrosa.
Optic disk: See optic nerve head.
Optic nerve head: The portion of the optic nerve (the second cranial nerve)
that can be seen ophthalmoscopically in the fundus of the eye. It is
almost round, pink, and usually has a depression (or cup) in its center.
The retinal vessels emerge on the surface of the optic nerve.
Optic tract: A band of nerve fibers extending from the optic chiasm to the
lateral geniculate body and conducting the nasal half of the nerve fibers
of the retina of the opposite eye and the temporal fibers from the
retina on the same side.
Orbicularis oculi: The eyelid muscle surrounding the eyelids, which closes
the eye.
Orbit: The bony cavity containing the eye, which is formed by the frontal
sphenoid, ethmoid, nasal, lacrimal, and maxillary bones.
Anatomy 75
P
Palpebral fissure: The visible opening between the eyelids.
Papilla: Head of the optic nerve.
Pars plicata: The part of the ciliary body having the ciliary processes.
Periorbita: The loose connective tissues lining the inside of the orbit.
Phakic: An eye possessing a crystalline lens.
Photochemical visual pigment: Light-sensitive visual pigment.
Photoreceptor: Rod or cone cells; the visual receptors of the eye.
Pigment epithelium: The most posterior layer of cells in the retina containing
pigment granules.
Pituitary: A gland attached to the brain that secretes a number of important
hormones; it is located near the junction of both optic nerves (the
chiasm).
Posterior chamber: Space between the back of the iris and the front of the
lens. This space is filled with aqueous.
Posterior pole of eye: The center of the posterior curvature of the eyeball.
Precorneal tear film: The tear film, composed of three layers, that covers
the surface of the eye. The outermost layer consists of the oily secretion
of the meibomian glands and the accessory, sebaceous glands. The
primary function of this layer is to regulate the evaporation rate. The
middle layer of the precorneal tear film is secreted by the lacrimal
glands and the accessory glands. This aqueous layer contains nutrient
and protein materials. Uptake of oxygen through the tear film is
essential for normal corneal metabolism. The third layer, or mucous layer,
is secreted by the goblet cells of the conjunctiva. Its primary function
is to adhere to the corneal epithelium to provide a wettable surface
that retains the aqueous component of the tears (Fig. 1-11).
Pterygium: A triangular fold of growing membrane that may extend over
the cornea from the white of the eye. It occurs most frequently in
persons exposed to dust or wind over a long period of time.
Pupillary reflex: See reflex, pupillary.
R
Radiation, optic: A band of neural fibers in the temporal and parietal lobe of
the brain, which carries visual impulses to the occipital lobe of the brain.
Rectus muscle: A muscle attached to the eveball that controls eye movements.
Reflex, oculocardiac: A slowing of the rhythm of the heart following
compression of the eyes; if ocular compression produces acceleration
of the heart, the reflex is called inverted.
Reflex, pupillary: Constriction of the pupil when stimulated by light and
dilation of the pupil when exposed to dim light.
76 Basic Science
Fig. 1-11. Three-layer structure of the precorneal tear film (With permission from
1-11.
Stein HA, Stein RM, Freeman MI. The Ophthalmic Assistant. A Text for Allied and
Associated Ophthalmic Personnel, 8th edition. St. Louis/Philadelphia: Elsevier-
Mosby, 2006)
Retinal element: Any point on the retina.

Rhodopsin: Light-sensitive pigment contained in the rods.
S
Sac: See Conjunctival sac, lacrimal sac.
Schlemm’s canal: A small narrow channel located in the anterior angle of
the eye that carries the aqueous from the eye out to the aqueous veins.
It lies between the root of the iris and the limbus (see Fig. 1-6).
Scleral spur: The protrusion of sclera into the anterior chamber angle, onto
which the ciliary body attaches from behind.
Second sight: Increase in myopia with improved reading ability, as occurs in
the early stages of cataract.
Situs inversus: A mirror reversal of the appearance of the optic disk in
which the large vessels run predominantly nasalward from the disk.
Socket: The conjunctival-lined orbit that remains after enucleation.
Spherophakia: Small round lens found in patients with certain mesodermal
anomalies (Marchesani syndrome).
Anatomy 77
Sphincter iridis: The constrictor muscle of the iris.

Subcutaneous: Beneath the skin.
Suprachoroid: Outer layer of the choroid.
Suture of the lens: Junction of the ends of the lens fibers, which results in
the formation of Y -shaped and stellate figures within the lens.
Synapse: The anatomical junction between nerve fibers.
Syndrome: A symptom and sign complex; a group of symptoms and signs
that occur together and that may affect the whole body or any of its
parts.
T
Tarsal plate: The framework of connective tissue that gives shape to the
eyelid.
Tear film: The liquid coating that covers the anterior surface of the eye.
It is composed of three layers (see Fig. 1-11).
Tenon’s capsule: Connective tissue layer that envelopes the whole eyeball
except the cornea.
Trabecular fibers: The fibers that make up the trabeculum or filtering area
for the aqueous humor.
Trabecular meshwork: Multiple sheets of connective tissue with pores covered
by endothelium through which the aqueous leaves the anterior
chamber.
Trabeculum: Filtering tissue through which the aqueous humor passes on its
way to Schlemm’s canal. It lies in the iridocorneal angle (see Fig. 1-6).
Trochlear nerve: Fourth cranial nerve, which innervates the superior oblique
muscle, which depresses the eye and produces extorsion.
Tunica vasculosa lentis: Vascular network that surrounds the fetal lens.
V
Vossius’ ring: A ring of pigment visible on the front surface of the lens
after trauma to the eye.
Z
Zonule of Zinn: The suspensory apparatus of the lens. Numerous fine tissue
strands (ligaments) that stretch from the ciliary processes to the lens
equator and support the lens in place.
78 Basic Science
C HA PT E R 2
PHYSIOLOGY
Physiology (from Greek physis, “nature,” and logos, “study”), deals with the
vital functions of an organ or organism. The eye, in converting light
images into information for the brain, undergoes numerous complex
processes.
Light first traverses the cornea by impacting at its sharp, clear surface
maintained by a healthy precorneal tear film. The corneal stroma itself is
transparent as a result of a state of deturgescence or dehydration
maintained by the endothelial pump mechanism. The greatest optical
power of the eye is provided by the anterior corneal curvature.
Light must then pass through two optically empty fluids—the aqueous
humor anteriorly and the gel-like vitreous further posteriorly. In between
is the crystalline lens with its supporting zonules and their ciliary body
attachments. These can alter its shape and therefore its power to focus
on near objects. A cataract represents an opacity in the usually clear lens.
At the retina light induces photochemical processes through which light
energy creates chemical reactions in the photoreceptor cells, the rods, and
cones. These reactions ultimately result in nerve impulses transmitted
through the optic nerve to the brain.
The critical shape of the eyeball results from its intraocular pressure.
A normal intraocular pressure is a balance between the production of
aqueous humor by the ciliary body and its drainage through the trabecular
meshwork and Schlemm’s canal. An upset of this balance (usually poor
drainage) results in a high pressure and glaucoma.
There are several advantages to having two eyes, including increased
peripheral field and stereopsis, or depth perception. Stereopsis requires binocular
vision and fusion, activities in which eye movements are precisely coordinated
(Fig. 2-1). Children with strabismus who do not develop binocularity will
not have stereopsis.
Other factors maintain eye health. The intact conjunctival and corneal
epithelium act as a barrier to infection, and any disruption such as corneal
abrasion leaves the eye vulnerable until healed. The constant flow of tears
Physiology 79
Fig. 2-1. (A) Binocular vision (both eyes see the same figure). (B) One eye is turned
in, resulting in double vision. In this case the figure is received by the macula of
one eye and a point nasal to the macular of the turned eye. The projection of this
nasal point results in the individual seeing two images instead of one of the same
figure. This is an example of uncrossed diplopia, as seen In eso deviations (With
brings fresh oxygen, carries away wastes, and suppresses bacteria through
its enzyme component called lysozyme.
A
Abduction: Horizontal movement of the eye away from the midline.
Accommodation: Focusing of the eye on a near object through relaxation
of the ciliary muscle and thickening of the lens (Fig. 2-2).
Adduction: Horizontal movement of the eye toward midline.
Amblyopia: Diminished vision in one or both eyes usually resulting from
lack of proper sensory input during the developmental childhood years.
Amplitude of accommodation: The amount of accommodation or near
focusing that the eye is capable of as measured in diopters (diminishes
with age).
80 Basic Science
Fig. 2-2. Flow of aqueous humor. Aqueous humor is largely produced by the ciliary
processes in the posterior chamber and flows into the anterior chamber and leaves
the eye through Schlemm’s canal (With permission from Stein HA, Stein RM,
Anterior chamber: The space filled with aqueous humor bounded by the
cornea anteriorly and the iris and lens posteriorly.
Aqueous humor: The optically clear fluid in the anterior and posterior
chambers responsible for intraocular pressure. It is produced at the
ciliary processes in the posterior chamber, travels to the anterior
chamber through the pupil, and drains through the trabecular
meshwork in the iridocorneal angle (Fig. 2-2).
Aqueous tear layer: The middle layer of the tear film and major compound
of reflex tears produced by the lacrimal gland.
B
Basal tear secretion: The constantly present tear production not under any
reflex or nervous control.
C
Central vision: Refers to the fine central vision, produced at the fovea roughly
in the center of the retina by cone cells (also foveal vision).
Chamber depth: Depth of the anterior chamber. The distance between the
cornea and the iris/lens diaphragm, very shallow in narrow-angle
glaucoma.
Choroidal vessels: The vascular coat surrounding the retina and supplying
the outer one-third of the retina.
Physiology 81
Fig. 2-3. (A) Convergence: The eyes are turned in toward the midline plane
(B) Divergence: The eyes are turned out away from the midline plane (With
Chromophores: Pigments, primarily in the lens, that filter out ultraviolet light.
These increase with age and ultraviolet exposure.
Ciliary body: A circular muscle behind the iris that influences accommo-
dation.
Ciliary processes: Fingerlike projections from the ciliary body that produce
aqueous humor and provide attachment for the zonules.
Cones: The retinal photoreceptor cell responsible for color vision and fine
central vision.
Consensual light reflex: Constriction of the pupil in the opposite eye when
light is shone into its fellow eye.
Convergence: Movement of the eyes toward each other and the midline as
when focusing on a near object (Fig. 2-3).
D
Dark adaptation: Adjustment of the eye (retinal photoreceptors mainly)
to dark conditions.
Deuteranopia: Deficiency of one pigment mediating green.
Divergence: Movement of the eye outward from the midline (Fig. 2-3).
F
Fusion: The ability of the two eyes to see an object as a single image.
I
Intorsion: A rotational movement of the eye where the 12 o’clock position
of the cornea tilts toward the midline.
Intraocular pressure: The fluid pressure within the eye measured in
millimeters of mercury.
82 Basic Science
Iridocorneal angle: The space containing the drainage structures, such as the
trabecular meshwork located where the cornea meets the root of the
iris.
Iris dilator: Muscle fibers in the iris that dilate the pupil.
Iris sphincter: Muscle fibers in the iris surrounding the pupil that constrict
the pupil.
L
Light adaptation: Adjustment of the eye (mainly photoreceptors) to well-
lit conditions.
Lipid tear layer: The outermost component of the tear film secreted by
meibomian glands in the lid and responsible for slowing the
evaporation of tears.
Lysozyme: The antibacterial enzyme normally in tears.
M
Marginal tear strip (tear meniscus): The strip of tears adjacent to the eyelid
margin. Its height can be a measure of the tear film adequacy.
Miosis: Constriction of the pupil by the iris sphincter in response to light
or the near reflex.
Monochromat: The state of having only one of the three color-sensitive
pigments and thus grossly abnormal color vision.
Mucous tear layer: The tear layer closest to the cornea, secreted by goblet
cells in the conjunctiva and responsible for the even wetting of the
corneal surface.
Mydriasis: Enlargement of the pupil by the iris dilator muscle as occurs in
darkness or in response to dilating drops.
N
Near reflex (accommodative reflex): Through constriction of the ciliary muscle
the lens becomes thicker allowing the eye to focus for near. At the
same time the pupils constrict, and the eyes converge.
Nerve fiber bundle: Refers to the nerve fibers entering the optic nerve from
the retina as bundles because of the pattern of their distribution.
O
Optically empty: A liquid or material that is optically empty does not scatter
or interfere with the transmission of light.
Outflow: Drainage of the aqueous humor out of the eye through Schlemm’s
canal.
Physiology 83
P
Parasympathetic: The part of the involuntary nervous system mediated by
acetylcholine and responsible, for example, for constriction of the pupil
and accommodation.
Peripheral vision: Vision in the periphery of the visual field, grosser than
central vision and mediated by the rods.
Photochemistry: Chemical reactions induced by light, as occurs in the retina.
Photopic vision: Pertaining to vision in light adapted conditions; mainly a
cone function.
Photoreceptors: The cells in the retina (rods and cones) that receive light
energy, convert it into chemical processes, and transform the energy
into nerve impulses.
Posterior chamber: Space between the back of the iris and the front of the
lens. This space is filled with aqueous.
Precorneal tear film: The part of the tear film coating the cornea.
Primary action: The major action of an extraocular muscle, e.g. the primary
action of the superior rectus is to elevate the eye.
Protanope protanomalous: A form of color vision abnormality in which the
red color-sensitive pigment is deficient or absent.
Pupil block: Occurs in acute glaucoma when aqueous cannot pass through
the pupil because of iris/lens contact (Fig. 2-4).
Fig. 2-4. Pupillary-block glaucoma. The pressure in the posterior chamber exceeds
that of the anterior chamber. The iris is bowed forward (iris bombé) and occludes
the angle structures. Without treatment the iris becomes permanently adherent to
the angle structures, and intractable secondary glaucoma ensues (With permission
from Stein HA, Stein RM, Freeman MI. The Ophthalmic Assistant. A Text for Allied
and Associated Ophthalmic Personnel, 8th edition. St. Louis/Philadelphia: Elsevier-
Mosby, 2006)
84 Basic Science
R
Range of accommodation: The amount of accommodation of which the eye
is measured in centimeters from the nearest to farthest point of focus.
Reflex tear secretion: Aqueous tear production in response to physical irritants
or emotion.
Retinal vessels: The arteries and veins on the surface of the retina feeding
the inner two-thirds of the retina.
Rods: The photoreceptor cells of the retina most important in dim lighting
and peripheral vision. They are far more numerous than cones.
S
Schirmer test: A test for tear secretion in which the end of a 5 × 40 mm
piece of filter paper is placed in the fornix and its wetting is measured
in millimeters after 5 minutes.
Scotopic vision: Vision under dark-adapted conditions.
Secondary action: The second most important action (in moving the eyeball)
on an extraocular muscle, e.g. the superior rectus muscle adducts the
eye in addition to its primary action of elevating it.
Stereopsis (depth perception): A binocular function operating primarily at near,
allowing precise judgment of depth or relative distances.
Suppression: The sensory input from one eye is relatively ignored by the
brain when it would be otherwise confusing, e.g. as in a child with
strabismus who would have double vision with one eye deviated.
Sympathetic nervous system: The part of the involuntary or autonomic nervous
system with norepinephrine and epinephrine as its transmitters,
responsible, for example, for dilating the pupil or constricting blood
vessels.
T
Tear breakup time: A measure of the adequacy of the precorneal tear film
in which the eye is held open and the time measured for dry spots in
the cornea to occur. Sometimes referred to as BUT, or breakup time
of tears.
Tear pump: The hypothetical system involving the eyelid muscles, canaliculi,
and lacrimal sac responsible for actively draining tears from the eye.
Trabecular meshwork: The drainage network in the iridocorneal angle through
which aqueous humor leaves the eye.
Trichromat: The normal state of having all three color-sensitive pigments
in the cones and thus normal color vision.
Physiology 85
Trichromatic color theory: The theory of color vision production using a

neurological mixing of information from blue, green, and red-sensitive
pigments in the cones.
V
Venous pulsations: The normal pulsation of the central retinal vein,
coincident with the heartbeat, visible with the ophthalmoscope.
Vergence: Movement of the eyes in opposite directions as in convergence
or divergence.
Version: Referring to a binocular eye movement, e.g. levoversion is
movement to the left.
Z
Zonules: The supporting fibers of the lens that are attached to the ciliary
body from the lens capsule.
86 Basic Science
C H A P T E R 3
OPTICS
Optics may be divided into physical optics, which is concerned primarily with
the nature and propagation of light; geometric optics, which is the branch of
optics in which the laws of geometry can be used to design lenses that
include spectacles, optical instruments, telescopes, microscopes, cameras,
and other lens instruments; and physiological optics, which deals with the
mechanism of vision and the physiology and psychology of seeing.
Optical terminology is frequently linked with refractive terminology. The
latter represents terms used to describe the physiological basis of vision
and also the terms related to lens designs to correct those defects in the
human eye system in which the rays of light do not focus clearly on the
retina.
Physical optics
White light is composed of a number of colors in which the component
colors are always found in the same order. Sir Isaac Newton called this
arrangement the spectrum, and he called the spreading effect caused by a
prism, dispersion.
When a ray of light passes centrally through a lens or eye, it is said to
be axial, and the central ray is called the principal ray. Rays parallel and just
outside the central or principal axial ray are called paraxial and those in
the periphery called peripheral or marginal (Fig. 3-1). On the other hand, a
ray may enter from an angle and is called an oblique ray.
When light passes from one medium to another, it changes its direction
or is refracted or bent back because light travels at different speeds in
different media. A ray of light entering a medium is called the incident ray,
and the ray emerging from the media is called the emergent ray. The angle
that the incident ray makes with the perpendicular surface of the new
media is called the angle of incidence. The angle the ray makes in the new
medium by its change of direction is called the angle of refraction (Fig. 3-2).
For any given medium, a fundamental law of optics exists, called Snell’s
law; it states that the index of refraction is equal to the sine of the angle of
incidence divided by the sine of the angle of refraction.
Optics 87
Fig. 3-1. Relationship of the axial and paraxial rays of light. The focal point is
the point at which emerging rays come to a focus, and the focal length is the distance
from the center of the lens to the focal point (With permission from Stein HA, Stein
Fig. 3-2. This diagram shows the incident and emergent rays of light through glass.
Note the incident angle and the angle of refraction (With permission from Stein
HA, Stein RM, Freeman MI. The Ophthalmic Assistant. A Text for Allied and
Mosby, 2006)
Geometric optics
The discovery of the law of refraction in 1621 by Willebrod Snell was
the first advance in geometric optics since Euclid. Before this, methods
that had been discovered empirically were used to manufacture spectacles
and other optical devices. Snell’s law combined facts about light and the
media through which it passes with geometry to formulate a principle by
which a refractive index could be calculated.
A concave lens is a lens of plastic or glass in which one or both surfaces
are curved inward toward the center of the lens. A convex lens is one in
which one or both surfaces are curved outward with the thickest part at
the center of the lens. When light strikes a concave lens, the emergent
rays diverge or spread out, whereas in the case of convex lenses the
emergent rays converge or come together. These lenses are thus sometimes
referred to as diverging or converging lenses.
The former are minus lenses used to correct myopia; the latter are plus
lenses used to correct hyperopia.
88 Basic Science
Focus is derived from Latin meaning “hearth” or “fireplace,” because

this was the central point in any room in ancient times. The focal point of a
lens or mirror is the point in which all the rays emerging from a lens or
mirror system come to a common point. The distance this point is from
the lens or mirror is the focal length (see Fig. 3-1). The point of convergence
of the rays is called the real focus. For diverging rays, the point at which
they would meet if their direction were reversed is called the virtual point.
A lens must be considered in terms of its focal length. The power or strength
of the lens is expressed in diopters, a term introduced in 1872 by Felix
Monoyer to overcome the cumbersome methods of explaining front and
back surfaces of lenses. The diopter is the reciprocal of a given lens’ focal
length in meters. A lens that converges parallel rays of light at a distance of
1 M has a value of 1 D. A focal length of 0.5 M has a value of 2 D. The
shorter the focal length, the higher the dioptric value. A prismatic dioptric
value of 1 is given to a prism that bends a beam of light 1 cm at 1 M.
Aberrations or deviations from ideal optical conditions do occur with
lenses.
Spherical aberration exists when peripheral rays, in striking the lens edge,
do not come to the same focal point as the paraxial rays or rays near the
center of the lens (Fig. 3-3). Chromatic aberrations occur because the edge
of a lens behaves like a prism and breaks light up into its spectral
components, permitting color fringes to appear.
A spherical lens is one in which every point comes to a common focal
point.
A cylinder is a lens with one power in one direction, known as a meridian,
and with a different power in the opposite meridian, set 90 degrees apart.
The axis or cylinder axis is the opposite to the meridian in which the cylinder
is oriented. For example, a lens with a stronger curvature meridian at 90
degrees would have its axis at 180 degrees. Spherocylinders are combinations
of spheres and cylinders. Such a lens system has two focal points. The area
between these two focal points is cone shaped and called the conoid of Sturm.
A small muscle imbalance or deviation between the two eyes may be
corrected by prisms ground in spectacles. A prism results when any
transparent body is bounded by two planes that are not parallel, resulting
in a wedge-shaped, with an apex at its thinnest point and a base at its
thickest point. In optics, a prism lens will refract light towards its base.
A
Achromatic: A lens that is corrected for color aberration.
Angstrom unit: Unit of wavelength to one ten-millionth of a millimeter
(now preferred: nanometer, or one millionth of a millimeter).
Optics 89
Fig. 3-3. Spherical aberration. The rays of light refracted by the lens converged
in a meeting area rather than at a single focal point (With permission from Stein
Mosby, 2006)
Aspheric lens: A lens that corrects for peripheral distortion by having a

peripheral ellipsoid shape.
B
Bicentric: A lens that is ground with two optical centers.
Bioconcave lens: A lens that is bowed inward at the center of the lens.
Bioconvex lens: A lens that is bowed outward at the center of the lens.
C
Critical angle: The angle beyond which a ray of light passing from a higher
to a lesser refractive medium cannot emerge.
D
Diffraction: Cancellation of wavelengths of light when passing by an edge
or through a slit and bending of the light in the removed portion of
the wavefront.
Distortion: An aberration through any optical system that causes objects
to appear in other than their true form.
E
Electromagnetic spectrum: Range of radiant energy that has a variable
frequency and wavelength and a constant velocity (Fig. 3-4).
Emergent ray: The ray of light leaving a medium.
F
Flint glass: Glass sometimes used in ophthalmic lenses with a higher index
of refraction (1.62) than crown glass. Also used as bifocal segments
when fused with main lens of crown glass.
Focal point: The point at which distant light comes to a focus after being
reflected or refracted.
90 Basic Science
Fig. 3-4. Electromagnetic spectrum (With permission from Stein HA, Stein RM,
Footcandle: Unit of illumination. One footcandle is generated by 1 lumen

of light on 1 square foot of surface.
I
Incident ray: The ray of light entering a medium.
Index of refraction: The ratio of the velocity of light in air to the velocity
of light in a given medium. Index of refraction equals speed in air
divided by speed in medium.
L
Laser: Initials stand for light amplification by stimulated emission of
radiation; an instrument that transforms an intense beam of light into
heat to seal holes in the retina, destroy new blood vessels, and produce
iridectomies for glaucoma.
N
N: Usually the symbol for index of refraction.
Nanometer: Unit of wavelength equal to 1 millionth of a millimeter.
O
Optical bench: A bar on which are mounted slidable adjustable holders for
lights, lenses, mirrors, and screens. It is used for demonstrations of
the optical functions of lenses and light.
P
Parallax: The apparent displacement or change of position of an object
when viewed from different places, such as the alternate use of the
Optics 91
right and left eye or the viewing of an object through a moving lens.
A plus lens creates an “against” movement of the image. A minus
lens creates a “with” movement of the image.
R
Radius: The straight-line distance from a point to a curve (for example,
from the center of a circle to its boundary).
Reflection: The rebounding of light from a surface.
Refractive index: The refractive power of a substance in comparison with
that of air.
S
Schematic eye: An artificial eye composed of all the constants of an
emmetropic or normal eye.
Slab-off: A method of creating a bicentric lens by grinding a prism-shaped
slab from one surface of the lens, usually the convex surface.
Snell’s law: The law of refraction of light, based on the fact that light travels
at different speeds in different media. Snell’s law states that the index
of refraction is equal to the sine of angle of incidence divided by the
sine of the angle of refraction.
Stiles-Crawford effect: Light passing through the center of the pupil of the
eye is more effective in evoking the sensation of brightness than the
same amount of light passing through an equal area near the edge of
the pupil.
V
Vertex, back: The point from which the neutralizing or back focus of a
lens is measured.
Vertex, front: The point from which the neutralizing or front focus of a
lens is measured.
Vertex distance: The distance from the back surface of a spectacle lens to
the apex of the cornea. For practical purposes the measurement is
taken against the closed lid. It is important to measure the vertex
distance if the trial lenses are greater than ± 4 D, since it can affect
the final power of the lens.
Visual axis: A line that connects a point in space with the fovea centralis
of the retina.
92 Basic Science
C H A P T ER 4
PHARMACOLOGY
PHARMACOLOGY::
OPHTHALMIC DRUGS
AND TOXIC SUBST
TOXIC ANCES
SUBSTANCES
Drugs
Most drugs that are used by ophthalmologists are standardized. They are
made by commercial drug firms and are uniform in quality. The role of
the pharmacist has changed. That person is no longer preparing drugs
but is instead explaining to the patient the method of taking the drug, its
shelf life, and its side effects. The physician has to be concerned about
toxicity, allergic reactions, and normal side effects of each drug taken.
Despite the uniformity of drugs, those working in the eye care field
should be knowledgeable about ophthalmic medications to render the
best service to the patient. Certain drugs such as the eyedrops pilocarpine,
may have a duration of activity of only a few hours and may need to be
used three to four times a day to yield satisfactory results. The terms
relating to a drug should be understood.
A solution is a liquid vehicle for drug delivery to the eye. The problem
with solutions is their short contact time (measured in minutes) with the
eye and their absorption systemically, particularly when they drop through
the lacrimal punctum and travel down the nasolacrimal duct and empty
into the nose where they are absorbed into the general circulation.
The pH of a drug refers to its acid-base balance. Most ophthalmic
solutions with a range of 3.5 to 10.5 are acceptable to the eye.
Tonicity refers to the amount of sodium chloride in solution. Initially,
ophthalmic solutions were prepared to make them isotonic with tears having
a 0.9% sodium chloride equivalent. To achieve this, many buffers were used,
the phosphate buffer being the most commonly used at present. The range
of tolerance of sodium chloride equivalents is quite broad, ranging from
0.7 to 2%.
Solutions that are below normal saline concentrations are referred to
as hypotonic. Those that are of higher concentrations than normal saline
are referred to as hypertonic.
Pharmacology: Ophthalmic Drugs and Toxic Substances 93
Some solutions are affected by exposure to air as they oxidize.

Epinephrine and phenylephrine hydrochloride oxidize in the presence of
air, and when this occurs they turn brown and alter their chemistry.
Physostigmine partially oxidizes and changes to a pink color. Some
solutions alter or hydrolyze on exposure to water.
Sterility means that the solution is free from all vegetable organisms
such as bacteria, viruses, or fungi or their spores. Some bacteria grow
well in fluid media, so the active pharmaceutical is prescribed dry and
reconstituted in solution when dispensed. Fluorescein is frequently
prepared dry on strips to avoid contamination by the bacterium Bacillus
pyocyaneus (Pseudomonas aeruginosa).
Most drugs are sterilized by autoclaving. Once a drug container has
been opened, it can easily be contaminated. This happens by touching
the orifice of the bottle or dropper to the eye. So for surgical cases when
the eye is opened, single-dose solutions are used.
To keep a solution sterile, often a preservative is needed. Preservatives
inhibit the multiplication of organisms. This is important for any drug that
is going to be used more than once. Preservatives can be irritating. The
more commonly used preservatives include benzalkonium chloride, chlorobutanol,
quaternary ammonium compounds, phenols, and organic mercurials. Milder
preservatives are used in contact lens solution. Some of these have been
incorporated in glaucoma and other drugs.
Administration of drugs
Iontophoresis is a method of achieving better drug penetration. The drug
is applied to the eye with an eyecup that has an electrode. The charged
eyecup creates a difference in potential that aids the passage of the drug
across the corneal barrier. It is not used too often in modern therapeutics.
Subconjunctival injection refers to the injection of a drug under the con-
junctiva or Tenon’s capsule. This approach is used to treat severe
intraocular infections and to dilate a pupil bound down by adhesions.
A retrobulbar injection is an injection into the muscle cone behind the
eye with a long needle. It is used to anesthetize and immobilize the eye
before cataract surgery and also for chorioretinal infections.
A peribulbar injection is an injection that is given around the eye rather
than in the muscle cone behind the eye.
A intraocular injection is an injection directly into the globe of the eye.
This approach is used to deliver drugs directly into the eye such as in the
treatment of forms of macular degeneration.
A contact lens made out of collagen can be hydrated with an antibiotic
solution and placed on the eye. This has been shown to provide excellent
delivery of the drug to the anterior segment of the eye. The collagen
shield usually dissolves within 12 to 72 hours.
94 Basic Science
Drug therapy
Alkaloids are solutions with a pH greater than 7. Ophthalmic solutions
are more stable if the pH is reduced artificially to 5. As the pH is lowered,
the stability of the drug increases. Frequently a 2% boric acid solution is
used to reduce the pH to 5.
An alkaloid is a solution in dissociated or undissociated form. In the
dissociated form it is water soluble, and in the undissociated form it is
fat soluble. Alkaloids are ideal for passing through the cornea, since both
types of solubility enable penetration through corneal epithelium and
stroma. Solutions are often used for daytime delivery of drugs.
Ophthalmic ointments are more stable, and a petrolatum base is most
commonly used. In such a matrix, there is no worry about tonicity, pH,
oxidization, or ionization. Ointments are usually not sterilized with
autoclaving or preservatives. They are used at bedtime for a longer duration
of effect.
Chelating agents such as ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) are used
to remove calcium deposits in the cornea. The epithelium of the cornea is
removed, and the EDTA is kept in contact with the eye with an
eyecup. The calcium ions become incorporated into the molecule of EDTA.
A staining agent is a dye used to demonstrate epithelial defects of the
cornea. Fluorescein is the most commonly used.
Tattooing is a method of injecting mineral pigments into the cornea to
change the color of an ugly white corneal scar. Gold and platinum salts are
introduced into the stroma of the cornea. When they oxidize (by exposure
to the air), they produce a black color, the same as the pupil of the eye,
and thus tattoo the cornea by obliterating the unsightly white color of a
corneal scar.
Drugs given in the form of eyedrops are called topical drugs. Many topical
drugs such as antibiotics do not enter the eye. The epithelium of the cornea
is a barrier to any drug that is not fat soluble. Penicillin has a low lipid
solubility, and therefore it does not enter the anterior chamber of the eye.
Chloramphenicol has sufficient lipid solubility to enter the eye.
Corticosteroids penetrate the eye but only as far as the anterior chamber.
Systemic drugs are those taken by mouth or given intramuscularly or
intravenously. They are used for inflammations of the lids, orbits, retina,
and optic nerve. For these areas using such drugs is the only way to reach
the site of the problem. A drug must be lipid or fat soluble to pass the
blood-aqueous barrier.
Parasympathomimetic agents stimulate structures innervated by the
postganglionic parasympathetic nerves. These agents enhance the release
of acetylcholine, which activates smooth muscle, skeletal muscles, sweat
glands, and all autonomic ganglia. They are called cholinergic drugs. They
cause secretion by salivary, gastric, lacrimal, and bronchial glands. They
also stimulate involuntary muscles such as in the bladder, bronchi, and
gastrointestinal tract. These agents also activate the ciliary muscle and the
sphincter muscle of the iris. Because of this action, they are used to
constrict the pupil. Pilocarpine falls into this category of drugs.
Sympathomimetic agents stimulate structures innervated by the sympathetic
nerves, that is, heart, blood vessels, and the dilator muscle of the iris.
Because of this action, they are used to dilate the pupil. In ophthalmic
practice, they are used to dilate the pupil before ophthalmic examination.
Phenylephrine hydrochloride (Neo-Synephrine) is such a drug. These
drugs are called adrenergic agents because their action is similar to that of
epinephrine (Adrenalin).
Drugs that block the action of acetylcholine are called cholinergic
blocking agents. Included in this group are atropine, scopolamine,
cyclopentolate (Cyclogyl), and homatropine.
Anticholinesterase drugs permit the accumulation of acetylcholine by
inactivating the eyzyme cholinesterase. The most commonly used drugs
in this category are physostigmine or eserine and neostigmine. These
agents cause constriction of gastrointestinal, urinary, and bronchioli
muscles. They also cause increased salivation, sweating, and lacrimation.
In the eye, they cause pupillary constriction and stimulate the ciliary
muscle.
Complications of drug therapy

The major complications of drug therapy are hypersensitivity and toxic reaction.
Hypersensitivity reaction is an inflammatory response to a drug that previously
had sensitized the tissues. For example, the drug neomycin is quite sensitiz-
ing to ocular tissues. When neomycin is given locally for infection, the
condition may seem to become worse if a local hypersensitivity inflam-
matory response is initiated. The most common type of allergic reactions
are skin eruptions. Other areas of sensitivity include asthma, drug fever,
hepatitis, and anaphylactic reactions.
An idiosyncrasy is a peculiarity in which an individual reacts in a bizarre
fashion to a drug.
A toxic reaction is predictable and is an exaggerated response to the
medication. Sometimes a toxic effect can occur with small doses, whereas
in other instances the tissues are so devitalized that the response to the
drug is toxic and not beneficial.
96 Basic Science
Toxic substances
A toxic substance in ophthalmology is defined as any substance that can
cause damage to the eye. A reaction may be dependent on dose, having a
largely beneficial effect within a given range and a harmful effect when
this range is exceeded.
Acid burns to the eye depend on the type of acid and its pH. If the
pH is 2.5 or lower, the degree of acid burn may be devastating. Yet
between a pH of 7 to a pH of 2.5, such acid solutions induce a strong
stinging sensation but no real destruction of the affected tissues. The worst
acids as far as tissue destruction is concerned are rather common and
include sulfuric acid, hydrochloric acid, and phosphoric acid. Weak acids
such as boric acid are so safe that they are used as eyewashes (Murine).
Alkali burns generally cause a more toxic reaction to the eye than acid
burns, the severity of which is largely related to the pH of the eye. The
higher the pH is above 7, the more severe the tissue destruction. Alkali
burns are very common simply because these chemicals are found in many
households. Frequently offending alkalis include lime (calcium hydroxide),
lye (sodium hydroxide), and ammonia (ammonium hydroxide). But the pH is
not the sole factor in tissue reaction. The severity of alkali burns also
depends on the length of exposure, the area of the eye struck, the
concentration of the alkali, and the pH. Over 11.5 pH values usually mean
that the eye will be severely damaged. Some chemicals penetrate the eye
easily, whereas others do their damage superficially. For instance, ammonia,
which is most dangerous as liquid ammonia, can cause opacification of the
cornea, iritis, and lens damage. The internal damage is related to ammonia’s
ability to penetrate the tissues, especially the cornea, and to cause destruction
of the walls forming the anterior chamber, including the lens. So hypopyon,
hemorrhage, and glaucoma frequently result from ammonia burns.
On the other hand, calcium hydroxide penetrates the cornea more
slowly. It is one of the most common toxic substances—it is better known
as lime, which is the basic ingredient of mortar, plaster, cement, and
whitewash. The grayish white pasty lime becomes very adherent to the
cornea, which makes irrigation very difficult. It can cause the cornea to
become white with extensive tissue destruction but does not usually go
deeper than the cornea. Lime burns are dreaded because they do not lend
themselves to immediate correction by simple irrigation of water. They
form an adherent complex with the cornea which causes damage for hours
and even days after the event. First-aid treatment of lime burns still
involves washing the eyes with running water, the removal of solid
particles, and irrigation with sodium EDTA.
Some of the most commonly used ophthalmic drugs can cause toxic
damage. Local anesthetics that are routinely used in intraocular pressure
testing for glaucoma frequently cause stinging of the eyes and can cause
irregularity of the cornea. Since local anesthetics create depression of wound
healing, it is important to use local anesthetics in the office only and not as
a pain reliever. It is easy to contemplate the cycle of events that can result
from the wanton use of local anesthetics. The eye is injured, which causes
pain. The local anesthetics depress the pain but enlarge the injury or retard
its healing, which makes the need for pain relievers even greater. In cases
where a local anesthetic agent has been used to control discomfort, the
corneal epithelium appears as a heaped-up gray ridge surrounding a crater
of bare stroma.
Common household items can be toxic to the eyes. Hair sprays and
lacquers are largely composed of polyvinyl pyrrolidone or shellac dissolved
in alcohol. Hair spray can cause erosion of the corneal epithelium, which
can vary from a mild stinging sensation to a severe punctate keratitis that
needs a day or two to recover. If the person also happens to be wearing
contact lenses, the lens may be spoiled, and the corneal reaction more
severe because the congestion of the tissues with swelling causes the lens
to form an airtight bond with the cornea.
Even ordinary talc has been incriminated as a toxic agent. Talc is
powdered magnesium or steatite and is used as a dusting powder for
surgeon’s gloves. The talc can cause the formation of granulomas in the
eye. It is for this reason that surgeons attempt to remove the talc powder
from their gloves before commencing surgery. In the anterior chamber
talc can cause an iritis with secondary glaucoma.
Some agents are erroneously implicated as being toxic. Selenium sulfide,
which is the basic ingredient of many antidandruff solutions sold on the
commercial market, does not cause any permanent eye damage whatso-
ever. Occasionally it can cause a chemical conjunctivitis that is brief and
mild or a transient keratitis that is self-limiting. Yet the warnings on the
bottles of these solutions create such anxiety that the thought of allowing
some of this shampoo to enter the eyes fills many people with dread of
imminent blindness.
A germicidal soap, pHisoHex, also can create minor irritation to the eyes.
It contains hexachlorophene and a detergent. It is the detergent, known as
Triton, that can cause conjunctival congestion and corneal edema. In rare
cases, the corneal edema has been severe with a marked reduction of vision.
Smog is one of the commonest toxins to the eye and is endemic in many
cities. The eye irritation is believed to be caused by unsaturated hydrocarbons
in the atmosphere which come mainly from automobile exhaust systems.
The effects of smog are irritating to the eyes but do not cause permanent
injury. The features of smog irritation include redness and tearing of the
eyes with variable degrees of irritation. It is worse when the sun is highest,
98 Basic Science
and its effects diminish as the sun goes down. Los Angeles has one of the
worst smog conditions because of its climate and the prevalence of
automobiles.
The more common toxic substances found in industry, home, or
recreational areas are listed in the following glossary.
A
Acetaldehyde: A volatile liquid that can cause superficial injury to the cornea.
Acetazolamide (Diamox): A drug available in tablet or syrup form and used
to reduce intraocular pressure. Side effects include pins-and-needles
sensation in the hands, loss of appetite, myopia, urinary stones, skin
rashes, and dizziness.
Acetic acid (vinegar): A solution that causes corneal irritation and swelling
or permanent corneal damage with scarring.
Acetone (solvent): A liquid that if splashed in the cornea causes superficial
injury with no permanent side effects.
Acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin): A drug used as an antipyretic (reduction of fever),
an anti-inflammatory (for arthritis), an anticoagulant (after coronary
occlusions), and an analgesic (relief of common headaches). Mild
chemical irritant to the eyes.
Acid-resistant penicillins (propicillin, phenbenicillin): Forms that can be used orally
because of their resistance to gastric acid inactivation.
Acids: Solutions with a pH less than 7. Acids with a pH of 2.5 or lower
can cause permanent ocular damage. Severe burns can cause loss of
corneal tissue up to Descemet’s membrane.
ACTH: Adrenocorticotropic hormone of the anterior pituitary gland. The
output of ACTH depends on the blood level of adrenal steroids.
Acyclovir: An antiviral drug taken orally that may be used in the treatment
of herpes zoster (shingles) and herpes simplex.
Adrenalin: See epinephrine.
Adverse reaction: An unwanted reaction to normal therapeutic dose which
causes significant morbidity.
Alkalis: Solutions with a pH greater than 7. At pH 12 or greater, the ocular
damage is profound. Calcium hydroxide (lime) has the slowest
penetration into the eye, whereas ammonium hydroxide (ammonia) is
the worst. Alkali binds to the corneal stroma with tenacity. There is a
tendency for damage to the cornea to occur 1 to 3 weeks after injury.
Aluminum chloride: A compound used in a 10 to 25% solution as a
deodorant and antiperspirant. It can cause corneal irritation.
Aluminum metal: Metal particles that are well tolerated in the eye.
Amiodarone: An oral antiarrhythmic agent that is associated with a whorl

like pattern of micro deposits of the cornea, and complaints of bluish
halos, and observed optic neuropathy.
Ammonia: A colorless gas used as refrigerant or fertilizer. Household
ammonia is a 7% solution and is the most toxic to the eye. It can
cause edema of the cornea, iritis, and lens damage.
Amphetamine (speed): A stimulant that can cause dilation of the pupils and
blurring of near vision. It also causes loss of appetite, restlessness,
and insomnia.
Amphotericin B (Fungizone): An antibiotic agent used intravenously for the
treatment of fungus infections—histoplasma, blastomyces, crypto-
coccus. Side effects include renal toxicity, gastrointestinal upset, chills,
and fever.
Analgesic: A pain reliever.
Androgens: A hormone of the adrenal gland that governs the development
of sexual features.
Anectine: See succinylcholine.
Anesthetics (local): Anesthesia by injection in which only the area infiltrated
is locally treated. Agents used in ophthalmology include procaine and
lidocaine (Xylocaine).
Anesthetics (topical): Anesthetics applied to the surface, the most popular
being tetracaine (Pontocaine), cocaine, and proparacaine (Ophthaine).
They provide surface anesthesia of conjunctiva and cornea. Topical
anesthetics such as Pontocaine or cocaine can depress corneal healing
and can cause irregularity of the surface of the cornea.
Antibiotics: Antibacterial drugs originally derived from bacteria and fungus
molds. Synthetic antibiotics are common.
Drug Comment
Bacitracin Used topically and systemically. Can cause kidney damage.
Chloramphenicol Wide-spectrum antibiotic fallen into disfavor because of
connection with aplastic anemia, especially in children.
Erythromycin An antibiotic that can cause nausea and vomiting and
is mainly effective against gram-positive bacilli.
Methicillin A synthetic penicillin.
Neomycin A wide-spectrum antibiotic with a high incidence of
allergic reactions. Used topically only.
Penicillin A bactericidal drug effective against gram-positive cocci.
Hypersensitivity in allergic people. Results in urticaria,
asthma, fever, rash, and at times death from anaphylactic
reaction. Not used locally because of high incidence of
allergic reaction.
100 Basic Science
Streptomycin Given intramuscularly. Can cause hypersensitivity

reactions and deafness. Rarely used in ophthalmology.
Synthetic penicillin Used for penicillin-resistant bacteria. Includes methicillin
and ampicillin. The penicillin-resistant bacteria produce
penicillinase, which does not interfere with the activity
of the synthetic group.
Tetracycline Broad-spectrum antibiotics. Cause gastrointestinal upset
and superinfections of the bowel.
Antibiotic resistance: Some bacteria develop of strains that become resistant

to the chosen antibiotic.
Antihistamines: Drugs used in treatment of allergies; occasionally cause
dilation of the pupils and impairment of accommodation.
Apresoline: See hydralazine.
Aralen: See chloroquine.
Atabrine: See quinacrine.
Atropine: A drug obtained from Atropa belladonna to block parasympathetic
nerves. In the eye, it causes pupillary dilation and can last 2 to 3 weeks.
If this drug is absorbed, it can cause fever, dryness of the skin, skin
rash, and acceleration of the heart. Available as a drop, ointment,
injection, or tablet.
B
Bacteriocidal agents: Antibacterial agents that include penicillin, polymyxin
B, bacitracin, neomycin, kanamycin, colistin, vancomycin, ristocetin,
and streptomycin.
Bacteriocidal antibiotic: A drug that destroys bacteria, such as penicillin.
Bacteriostatic agents: Bacteria-inhibiting agents that include tetracycline, the
sulfonamides, erythromycin, novobiocin, amphotericin B, and
chloramphenicol.
Bacteriostatic antibiotic: A drug that inhibits bacterial replication; such as tet-
racycline and sulfa drugs.
Barbiturates: A group of drugs used as sleeping pills and in ophthalmology
as preanesthetic sedatives. Phenobarbital and Seconal are common
barbiturates. The shorter acting drugs are usually prescribed (Nembutal
and Seconal).
Bee stings: Iritis, hypopyon, congestion of the eye, and corneal edema can
result if a bee sting penetrates the cornea. If Descemet’s membrane
is not perforated, the lens remains normal.
Belladonna: A leaf or root from the plant Atropa belladonna. It yields several
alkaloids including atropine, hyoscyamine, and scopolamine.
Benadryl: See diphenhydramine hydrochloride.
Benzalkonium: A quaternary ammonium wetting agent used as an antiseptic

and preservative. At dilutions of 1 : 1000, it can cause mild-keratitis.
Benzalkonium chloride (Zephiran): A quaternary ammonium antiseptic and
preservative.
Benzoquinone: See quinones.
Bishydroxycoumarin (dicumarol): A synthetic anticoagulant that acts by
inhibiting prothrombin formation. It must be monitored with
prothrombin time tests to avoid bleeding.
Boric acid: An antiseptic with germicidal powers. Used mainly as an eyewash
(Murine).
Botulismotoxin: A toxin produced by Clostridium botulinum. It can cause severe
food poisoning, leading to death. In less severe cases, it can cause
ophthalmoplegia and pupillary dilation.
Brake fluid: Product composed of alcohol, glycols, and a lubricant; causes
superficial injury to the cornea if splashed into the eye.
Broad-spectrum antibiotic: An antibiotic effective against bacteria that consist
of rods and cocci, for example, chloramphenicol. Bacteriocidal agents
effective against cocci include penicillin, bacitracin, and vancomycin.
Bacteriostatic agents effective against rods include streptomycin and
colistin.
Brolene (propamidine): An over-the-counter medication in Europe that has
been shown to be effective against a parasite called Acanthamoeba
that can cause a severe corneal infection.
Burdock burs: Prickly bracts from the plant Happa algaris. If caught in the
eye, the bristles can cause severe conjunctival and corneal reactions.
Butazolidin: See phenylbutazone.
C
Caffeine: An alkaloid in tea or coffee that has no effect on vision.
Calcium carbonate chalk: An agent that has no toxic effect in contact with
the eye.
Calcium hydroxide (lime): Product used for mortar, cement, and whitewash;
one of the most common causes of alkali burns to the eye.
Calcium hypochlorite (bleaching powder): Chemical that causes superficial injury
to the epithelium of the cornea.
Cannabis (marijuana, hemp, hashish): Drug with ocular effects that include
dilation of the pupil, impairment of accommodation, and visual
hallucinations. Impairment of color vision may also ensue.
Carbachol: A cholinergic drug that causes miosis, spasm of accommodation,
and a fall in intraocular pressure from improved aqueous flow. Used
mainly as a drop for control of glaucoma; it is contraindicated in people
with asthma, cardiac problems, or peptic ulcer.
102 Basic Science
Carbon: Element that has no toxic effect in the eye. As part of graphite
or soot, the carbon complex may cause inflammation of the lid and
cornea.
Carbon monoxide: A nonirritant gas that results from the incomplete
combustion of gasoline, coal, or wood; found in the exhausts from
automobiles and furnaces. It can cause loss of vision, convulsions,
and death.
Carbon tetrachloride: A solvent used for dry cleaning. General absorption
can cause optic neuritis and death.
Cardrase: See ethoxzolamide.
Caterpillars: Larvae of butterflies or moths. Their sharp hairs are very
irritating to conjunctiva and cornea and can cause severe keratitis and
iritis.
Cephalothin: A derivative of cephalosporin C; active against gram-positive
bacteria, including penicillinase-producing staphylococci and many
gram-negative bacilli. Allergic reactions are absent.
Chloramphenicol (Chloromycetin): A broad-spectrum antibiotic that when taken
systemically can cause optic neuritis or fatal aplastic anemia.
Chlordiazepoxide (Librium): A drug that is used as a sedative and muscle
relaxant. It can cause skin rashes, mental problems, constipation, and
blurring of near vision.
Chlorine: A gas, liquid, or solid used for water purification, which can cause
self-limiting ocular irritation when used in pools. No serious or
permanent damage occurs.
Chloroacetophenone (tear gas): Substance that causes blepharospasm and
tearing. The effects are usually transitory, although occasionally corneal
scarring has occurred.
Chloromycetin: See chloramphenicol.
Chloroquine (Aralen, Resochin): A synthetic quinoline used for the treatment
of malaria, arthritis, and lupus erythematosus. It can cause a bull’s-
eye maculopathy, pigment degeneration of the retina, whorls of corneal
deposits, and skin rashes.
Chlorpheniramine (Chlor-Trimeton): A histamine antagonist used in allergic-
based disorders such as asthma and hay fever. Can be given orally,
intramuscularly, or intravenously. It also has mild sedating effects. Used
to treat allergic eye conditions.
Chlorpromazine (Thorazine, Largactil): A tranquilizer without ocular
complications; may reduce intraocular pressure.
Chlor-Trimeton: See chlorpheniramine.
Cocaine: A potent topical anesthetic agent that causes mydriasis and partial
cycloplegia. An addictive drug that also can cause rapid heartbeat,
delirium, chills, fever, and convulsions.
Codeine: A mild analgesic that is a derivative of morphine. Available by

tablet, solution for injection, or syrup.
Corticosteroids (cortisone, hydrocortisone, triamcinolone, prednisone, dexamethasone):
Steroids that are used locally for the treatment of nonspecific ocular
inflammation including iritis, keratitis, and blepharitis. Postsubcapsular
cataracts can occur with use of steroids for 1 year. Local steroids can
cause a rise in intraocular pressure.
Corticotropin: A hormone derived from the anterior lobe of pituitary glands
from farm animals; stimulates the secretions of the adrenal cortex to
produce all the steroid hormones with the exception of aldosterone.
It is used intramuscularly and intravenously and is effective only if
normal adrenal cortical tissue is present.
Coumadin: See warfarin sodium.
Cyclogyl: See cyclopentolate.
Cyclopentolate (Cyclogyl): A rapid-onset, short-acting synthetic drug that
causes mydriasis and cycloplegia after being dropped into the eye. Used
before refraction, especially in children.
Cyclosporine (Restasis): A 0.05% emulsion used for dry eyes or to increase
tear production in patients with ocular inflammation associated with
keratoconjunctivitis sicca.
D
Daranide: See dichlorphenamide.
Daraprim: See pyrimethamine.
Demecarium bromide (Humorsol): A cholinesterase inhibitor that causes miosis
and improved facility of outflow of aqueous. Used to treat glaucoma
(open-angle) and esotropia.
Demerol: See meperidine hydrochloride.
Detamide (M-delphine): A liquid insect repellent (Off). Can cause a temporary
mild keratitis.
DFP: See isoflurophate.
Diamox: See acetazolamide.
Dichlorphenamide (Daranide): A potent carbon anhydrase inhibitor used to
lower intraocular pressure in glaucoma. Side effects include
paresthesias, depression, loss of appetite, and tremor. Should not be
used in people with respiratory depression and kidney disease.
Digitalis: Drug derived from the dried leaves of Digitalis purpurea, contains
digitoxin, used in the treatment of heart failure. Side effects to vision
include flickering of light and yellow, orange, or green coloration.
Dicumarol: See bishydroxycoumarin.
104 Basic Science
Dimethyl sulfate: A gas that causes burns to the skin and eyes. When
absorbed by the skin, it can cause convulsions, kidney damage, liver
and heart toxicity, and death.
2,4-dinitrophenol: A drug formerly used to treat obesity until the
complication of cataracts was discovered and it was banned.
Diphenhydramine hydrochloride (Benadryl): Antihistamine used for nasal allergies
and hay fever. Side effects include dryness of the mouth, tremors,
nervousness, and loss of appetite. It has a mild sedative effect.
Drug interaction: A drug that may interfere with another drug.
E
Echothiophate iodide (Phospholine Iodide): A long-acting inhibitor of
cholinesterase that is used in open-angle glaucoma; a potent drug that
can cause severe spasm of accommodation and miosis. Iris cysts and
cataracts are other side effects that limit its use.
Edrophonium chloride (Tensilon): A curare antagonist that is given to
myasthenic patients and causes a brief increase in muscle power. Its
main use is as a diagnostic agent for myasthenia gravis when given
intravenously.
EDTA: See ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid.
Epinephrine (Adrenalin): Drug used to treat glaucoma; tends to stain the
conjunctiva with brown spots when oxidized and to sting when applied
locally.
Ethanol: See ethyl alcohol.
Ether: A general anesthetic whose vapor can cause a transient irritation
to the eye.
Ethoxzolamide (Cardrase): A diuretic used in the treatment of glaucoma.
Ethyl alcohol (ethanol): A liquid used as an antiseptic and a solvent. As a
drink it is the basis of the alcohol industry. It is available commercially
with toxic additives that make it unfit to drink. If splashed into the
eye, it causes a transitory irritation. Whisky, brandy, gin, or vodka in
the eye causes a temporary blurring of vision and stinging sensation.
Some shampoos with high alcohol content can do the same. Systemic
effects from alcohol ingestion include nystagmus, esophoria, and pupil-
lary dilation. Chronic alcoholism can cause ocular muscle palsies. Optic
neuritis and blindness can follow the ingestion of toxic ethyl alcohol.
Ethylene glycol (antifreeze): Water-soluble liquid that can cause death from
cerebral edema if ingested.
Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA): A solution that absorbs calcium into
its molecular structure and is used to remove calcium deposits from
the cornea. Used as a preservative in ophthalmic solutions.
F
Federal Drug Administration (FDA): The US government agency that is
responsible for regulation and supervision of foods, tobacco, dietary
supplements, pharmaceuticals, OTC medications, vaccines, veterinary
drugs and cosmetics in the USA.
Fire extinguisher fluid: A fluid that may be carbon tetrachloride, tetrachloro-
ethylene, or methyl bromide. Water-filled extinguishers may contain
sulfuric acid. A dry type may contain powdered sodium or potassium
bicarbonate.
Floropryl: See isoflurophate.
Flubiprofin: Nonsteroid anti-inflammatory drops.
Fluorescein: A phthalein dye used to outline abrasions or defects in the
corneal epithelial surface, to assess the fit of contact lenses, to outline
lacrimal patency, and in retinal angiography. The solution form is easily
contaminated by Pseudomonas bacteria so it is used either in its dry form,
in impregnated filter strips, or in freshly prepared solution. It produces
an intense green fluorescent color in alkaline solution.
Fluoroquinolones: Considered as fourth generation ophthalmic antibiotic,
e.g. gatifloxin, moxifloxicin, etc. that provides broader and more
effective antibacterial prophylaxis and treatment.
Fortified: An increased concentration of any drug to obtain more effect.
Fuel for model airplanes: Fuel that may be a mixture of methyl alcohol,
nitropropane, and castor oil. It can cause swelling and loss of the
corneal epithelium if splashed into the eye.
Fungizone: See amphotericin B.
G
Galactose: An enzyme that if not present causes galactosemia in a child.
The major ocular effect of galactosemia is that it can cause cataracts.
If diagnosed before 3 months of age and galactose is eliminated from
the diet, the cataracts may disappear.
Garamycin: See gentamicin.
Gentamicin (Garamycin): An antibiotic with a broad range of activity against
gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. It is unique in that it can
also work against Pseudomonas, Proteus, and Staphylococcus bacteria.
Glucocorticoids: A hormone of the adrenal gland that has its effect on the
metabolism of fat, protein, and carbohydrate. Cortisone is the prime
example of this hormone. It is used basically for its nonspecific
inflammatory effect. Systemic side effects are frequent and serious. These
include acne, diabetes, hypertension, bone fractures, psychoses,
106 Basic Science
cushingoid facies, hirsutism, cataracts, and amenorrhea. Local side effects

include glaucoma, depression of wound healing, and potentiation of
growth of viruses, especially important for herpes simplex keratitis.
Therapeutic uses of glucocorticoids in ophthalmology include iritis;
non-specific keratitis; phlyctenular conjunctivitis; alkali burns of the
cornea; superficial punctate keratitis; allergic blepharitis, keratitis, and
conjunctivitis; temporal arteritis; optic neuritis; episcleritis; traumatic
iritis, postoperative traumatic iritis; sympathetic ophthalmia; marginal
corneal ulcers; and toxic keratitis from soft lens cleaners.
Drugs used as systemic glucocorticoids
• Cortisone acetate (Cortisone)
• Hydrocortisone (Cortone, Hydrocortone)
• Prednisone (Deltasone, Prednisolone)
• Triamcinolone (Aristocort, Kenacort)
• Methylprednisolone (Medrol)
• Dexamethasone (Decadron)
Drugs used as topical glucocorticoids

• Dexamethasone phosphate (Decadron)
• Prednisolone acetate (Prednefrin forte)
• Hydrocortisone suspension (Hydrocortisone acetate)
• Dexamethasone solution (Maxidex)
Glycerol: A clear, colorless, syrupy liquid with a sweet taste; often combined
with lemon juice to reduce the sickly, sweet taste. At full strength it is
used to clear the haze of corneal edema. It is absorbed in the intestine
and causes a rise in the osmotic pressure and withdrawal of fluid from
the eye. It should not be used if diabetes is present. Usual amount
used is 1 to 1.4 ml/kg.
Golf-ball paste: The sodium hydroxide in the core of the ball that squirts
out when the ball is cut. There have been many ocular injuries reported
from the playful misuse of golf balls.
H
Hair sprays or lacquers: Products that contain polyvinyl or shellac dissolved
in alcohol. Cause mild keratitis in the eye.
Hair tonics: Liquids consisting largely of alcohol with perfumes. Cause
transient stinging and redness of the eye.
Henna: A natural reddish dye used for tinting the hair. It has no ocular
side effects or toxicity.
Herplex: See idoxuridine.
Homatropine (2 and 5%): A synthetic alkaloid with the same effects and
complications of atropine but much weaker. Mydriasis and cycloplegia
last only 72 hours.
Humorsol: See demecarium bromide.
Hydralazine (Apresoline): A drug used in the treatment of high blood
pressure; can cause swelling of the lids, flushing of the face, headache,
stuffy nose, and blurred vision.
Hydrochloric acid: A common acid that can cause mild irritation to total
opacification of the cornea, depending on its dose.
Hydrochlorothiazide (Hydrodiuril): A diuretic and an antihypertensive agent.
It may relieve some lid edema, conjunctival chemosis, and orbital
swelling.
Hydrodiuril: See hydrochlorothiazide.
Hydrogen peroxide: A liquid that can cause damage to the eye in high
concentrations. Pharmaceutical concentration is 3%, whereas in
industrial use, the concentration is 30%, and for use in rockets, it is
90%. It is used as a cleaning and disinfecting agent for soft contact
lenses.
Hydrogen sulfide: A poisonous gas with an odor of rotten eggs, it can cause
a superficial punctate keratitis. Deeper penetration is rare.
Hydroquinone: See quinones.
hydroxyamphetamine hydrobromide (Paredrine): A synthetic sympathomimetic
drug that produces mydriasis and no cycloplegia. It is used for
ophthalmoscopy.
Hydroxyzine pamoate (Vistaril): An antihistamine used as a preanesthetic
agent for its calming and tranquilizing effects.
Hyoscyamine: An alkaloid occurring in the plant Hyoscyamus niger, it causes
temporary dilation of the pupil and paralysis of accommodation for
near vision.
I
Idoxuridine (IOU, Stoxil, Herplex): A metabolic antagonist of the synthesis
of DNA. It inhibits the use of thymidic acid. It is used to treat herpes
simplex keratitis and vaccinia keratitis.
IOU: See idoxuridine.
Insulin: Pancreatic secretion that allows the proper metabolism of blood
sugar without it diabetic mellitus occurs.
Interferons: Naturally occurring proteins that are made and released by host
cells of the immune system in response to the presence of pathogens,
i.e. viruses, bacteria, parasites or tumor cells. Commercial interferons
108 Basic Science
are manufactured utilizing DNA technology. The mechanism of inter-

feron action is complex. They interfere with viral replication within
host cells and activate the body’s immune system respons to pathogens
Iodine: A solution that is irritating to the eye but causes no permanent
damage. It is used to chemically cauterize the epithelium of the cornea
infected by herpes simplex virus.
Ipecac: A plant material used to induce vomiting. In a powdered form, it
can be irritating to the eyes.
Iron: A toxic mineral. When it becomes an intraocular foreign body; it stains
rust brown any tissue with which it is in contact and destroys it. The
retina, lens, and iris are most prone to suffer the toxic effects of iron.
Isoflurophate (DFP, Floropryl): A potent parasympathomimetic drug that
causes an intense miosis and spasm of accommodation and an increase
in aqueous outflow. It is used primarily to treat refractory glaucoma.
Iris cysts and headaches are common side effects.
Isoniazid: A drug used to treat tuberculosis. Optic neuritis may be a
complication of continued use of this drug.
K
Kerosene: A petroleum hydrocarbon used as a fuel or a solvent that causes
no permanent injury to the eyes after contact.
L
Lanolin: Wool fat, consisting largely of cholesterol esters and cholesterol
and used as a base for cosmetics. Lanolin applied to the eye is not
toxic.
Largactil: See chlorpromazine.
Lead poisoning: A condition that can cause headache, convulsions, and coma.
Ocular involvement can occur with toxic effects found in the optic
nerves, cranial nerve palsy to the external muscles of the eye causing
facial palsy, ptosis, or strabismus. A lead line in the gums or lead in
the urine is usually found in these severe cases.
Lewisite: A war gas. Both the vapor and liquid cause a severe keratitis with
profuse tearing and blepharospasm.
Librium: See chlordiazepoxide.
Lidocaine hydrochloride (Xylocaine): A rapidly acting, common local anesthetic
agent used for infiltrative, nerve block, or topical purposes. Serious
side effects are not common.
Lime (calcium hydroxide): Product composed of sand, cement, and water;
causes severe alkali burn to the eye that may lead to marked corneal
scarring.
Lincomycin: An antibiotic effective against most gram-positive bacteria,

including pencillin-resistant strains of Staphylococci.
LSD-25: See lysergic acid.
Lysergic acid (LSD-25): An alkaloid derived from ergot that causes mental
aberrations and visual hallucinations.
M
Manganese: Metallic particles that can be absorbed by fumes or inhaled as
dust; toxic effects include fatigue, ataxia, and decreased movement of
the lids and eyes.
Mannitol: A hydroxy alcohol used to lower the intraocular pressure in
glaucoma (narrow-angle) and before cataract surgery. It does this by
osmotic effect. It is an aldehyde sugar that resembles dextrose in its
properties.
Mascara: A cosmetic for the eyelashes that is largely lampblack kaolin and
sulfonated castor oil. The pigments can accumulate in the tarsus and
cause a slight folliculosis. No serious side effects are known.
Mellaril: See thioridazine.
Meperidine hydrochloride (Demerol): A potent synthetic analgesic drug that is
highly addictive for the euphoria it induces. It is used as a preoperative
analgesic but it can cause vomiting and hypotension.
Mercury oxide (yellow): A heavy powder that can cause lens opacities and
staining of the conjunctiva. Corneal staining consists of a graying ring
just anterior to the endothelium.
Mescaline: Alkaloid obtained from the mescal buttons (flowering heads)
of a cactus; when taken internally, it can cause wild visual hallucinations.
Methazolamide (Neptazane): A diuretic similar in action to Diamox, it is a
carbonic anhydrase inhibitor and a sulfonamide-type drug. It is used
to lower intraocular pressure.
Methyl alcohol: A liquid known as methanol or wood alcohol and used as a
commercial solvent, antifreeze, and fuel. It resembles ethyl alcohol in
taste and has been used as a substitute. Toxic reactions occur within 1
to 2 days and include nausea, vomiting, headaches, loss of vision from
mild loss to total blindness, and respiratory failure and death. Severely
toxic patients also show features of acidosis.
Methyl salicylate (wintergreen oil): An oily liquid used for flavoring and
liniments; taken internally, it is quite toxic causing loss of vision,
convulsions, and stupor.
Methylene blue: A dye used as a stain in bacteriology; if splashed into the
eye, it causes no serious ocular effects. It may be used for skin markings
and for dyeing sutures.
110 Basic Science
Mineralocorticoids: Hormones of the adrenal gland concerned with the

regulation of fluid and electrolyte metabolism. Aldosterone and
deoxycorticosterone are examples.
Miotics: Agents used in the treatment of glaucoma, including pilocarpine,
carbachol, physostigmine, demecarium, phospholine iodide, and
diisopropyl fluorophosphate (DFP). These drugs may cause lid
twitching, conjunctival hyperemia, iris cysts, ciliary muscle spasm,
myopia, and cataracts.
Mitomycin: A drug used in chemotherapy that has been shown to decrease
the recurrence of pterygium following surgery.
Morphine: An addictive drug that is a powerful analgesic and produces a
tremendous euphoria. It causes miosis of the pupil, respiratory
depression, vomiting, and constipation.
Mustard gas: A war gas that causes corneal ulceration, vascularization, and
scarring. In severe cases keratoplasty is required.
Mycostatin: See nystatin.
Mydriacyl: See tropicamide.
N
Nail polishes: Enamels and lacquers that can cause swelling and blisters of
the lids. Itching is also common.
Nail polish remover: Product largely consisting of acetone, alcohol, and
benzene that removes polish from the nail. If splashed in the eye, it
causes a mild keratitis that lasts a day.
Nembutal: See pentobarbital sodium.
Neostigmine (Prostigmin): A potent inhibitor of acetylcholinesterase. Used
for the diagnosis and treatment of myasthenia gravis.
Neo-Synephrine: See phenylephrine hydrochloride.
Neptazane: See methazolamide.
Nickel: Metal that causes contact dermatitis.
Nitrous oxide: A general anesthetic; called laughing gas. Toxic if not
accompanied by adequate oxygen.
Novocain: See procaine hydrochloride.
Nystatin (Mycostatin): An antifungal agent primarily effective against Candida
albicans (moniliasis and thrush). Used topically as a cream for skin
infections or in the eye with a dosage of 100,000 units per milliliter.
O
Oil of cloves: A flavoring agent, topical anesthetic, and aseptic in dentistry.
Can cause a severe keratoconjunctivitis if splashed into the eye.
Ophthaine: See proparacaine hydrochloride.
Ophthetic: See proparacaine hydrochloride.

Opium: A drug that contains several alkaloids including morphine, codeine,
and papaverine. It has few toxic effects, but miosis is a telltale sign of
drug usage.
Over the counter (OTC): Pharmaceuticals (drugs) that do not require an Rx
(prescription).
Ozone: An oxidizing gas produced by action of the ultraviolet in sunlight
on the oxygen of the air. At concentrations greater than 1 ppm in air,
ozone is an ocular irritant.
P
Paredrine: See hydroxyamphetamine hydrobromide.
Parasympatholytic agents: Agents that relax accommodation and dilate the
pupil. Systemically they may cause dryness of the mouth, increased
pulse rate, disorientation, and visual hallucinations. In predisposed
patients they may cause angle-closure glaucoma.
Pathogens: Organisms that cause disease.
Penicillinase (methicillin, oxacillin, cloxacillin, nafcillin, ampicillin): An agent that
inactivates regular penicillin. Penicillin resistant, the drugs listed are
resistant to hydrolysis or inactivation by penicillinase. For ocular use,
methicillin and ampicillin are the most useful. NOTE: Hospital-
resistant Staphylococcus aureus is the major producer of penicillinase.
Pentobarbital sodium (Nembutal): A hypnotic (sleeping agent) and sedative;
effective sedation occurs 30 minutes after ingestion.
Pentothal: See thiopental.
Pepper: The dried unripe fruit of the plant Piper nigrum, it causes a mild
inflammatory reaction including swelling of the lids and redness of
the eyes.
Perphenazine (Trilafon): Drug used as a tranquilizer and antiemetic. Can cause
blurring of vision and a parkinsonian-like condition.
Phenergan: See promethazine.
Phenobarbital sodium: A barbiturate drug that is a strong, long-acting
hypnotic, sedative, and anticonvulsant. It causes a hangover-like
condition resulting from its prolonged effect.
Phenol (carbolic acid): Liquid that in a dilute solution is used as an antiseptic.
Concentrated solutions can burn the skin and eyes. A 2.5% solution
of phenol will give a serious burn to the cornea.
Phenothiazine derivatives: Drugs used in the treatment of major psychoses
and as tranquilizers and antiemetics. Complications include pigmentary
retinopathy and parkinsonian-like movements.
Phenothiazines: Drugs used as antiemetics. The most popular ones are
promethazine (Phenergan), triflupromazine (Vesprin), and
112 Basic Science
chlorpromazine (Thorazine). These drugs also are the mainstay of

antipsychotic therapy. They are used to potentiate the effects of
barbiturates and opiates. Complications of this group of drugs include
parkinsonian-like symptoms, motor restlessness, chorioretinopathy
(Mellaril), skin eye, purple-gray skin, as well as purple-gray pigmentation
of the cornea, and conjunctiva (Thorazine).
Phenylbutazone (Butazolidin): An anti-inflammatory agent used for arthritis,
gout, and traumatic bursitis. It appears to help in uveitis. Also used as
an analgesic and antipyretic. Side effects are common, including skin
rashes, gastrointestinal disorders, vertigo, anemia, and cardiac problems.
Phenylephrine hydrochloride (Neo-synephrine): A synthetic sympathomimetic
compound that on local application to the eye produces mydriasis
without cycloplegia. It is used for dilating pupils for examination in a
2.5% solution and as a decongestant (Visine) in a 0.125% solution. A
10% solution of the drug has caused death from systemic absorption.
The 10% solution should not be used in patients with heart disease
or hypertension, nor should the 2.5% solution be used routinely, but
with caution in patients with heart disease or hypertension.
Phenylephrine hydrochloride dilating drops are not recommended for
use in low birth weight infants.
pHisoHex: Germicidal soap used before surgery, it contains hexachloro-
phene and a detergent. It can cause a transient irritation to the
conjunctiva and cornea.
Phospholine iodide: See echothiophate iodide.
Picric acid: Strong acid that in 0.3 to 0.5% solution is used as an antiseptic.
It can be sensitizing and cause allergies.
Pilocarpine: A drug that is used as a parasympathomimetic agent. In the
eye, it causes increased facility of outflow, miosis (pupillary
contraction), and ciliary spasm. It is primarily used to treat open-angle
glaucoma. It has a duration of activity of 4 to 6 hours.
Pitch: A black residue from distilling tar. Exposure over years can cause
staining of the exposed eye, the cornea, and conjunctiva.
Plastics: Substances that are generally inert and do not injure the eye.
Methylmethacrylate is used for artificial eyes, contact lenses, spectacle
lenses, and intraocular lenses. Damage to the eye from hard or soft
plastic contact lenses is related to fit, the solutions used, or improper
care, but not to the plastics used.
Poison ivy (Rhus radicans) and poison oak (Rhus toxicodendron): Species that on
contact cause a delayed skin and ocular inflammation.
Pontocaine: See tetracaine hydrochloride.
Potassium hydroxide (potash): A fertilizer, it is one of the potent alkalies.
Potassium permanganate: Chemical that in dilute solutions is used as an

antiseptic. It can cause a severe keratoconjunctivitis.
Procaine hydrochloride (Novocain): An effective local anesthetic, it cannot be
given in drop form.
Promethazine (Phenergan): A potent antihistamine drug used to treat allergic
states and to control motion sickness. Preoperatively it is used as a
sedative.
Proparacaine hydrochloride (Ophthaine, Ophthetic): An excellent local ocular
anesthetic agent that offers fast action but a short duration of activity.
Toxic side effects are rare, although on rare occasions a diffuse
temporary clouding of the corneal epithelium may occur.
Prostigmin: See neostigmine.
Prussian blue (ferric ferrocyanide): A blue inert pigment used to tattoo the
cornea.
Pyrimethamine (Daraprim): A synthetic antimalarial drug that is a folic acid
antagonist. It is used to treat malaria and toxoplasmosis. It can be toxic
and cause bone marrow depression of platelets, red blood cells, and
white blood cells.
Q
Quinacrine (Atabrine): A drug used to treat malaria, rheumatoid arthritis,
and lupus erythematosis, it can cause blue-gray staining of the
conjunctiva and corneal deposits. Cessation of the drug stops the
corneal deposits, but the retinal changes may be permanent. A related
drug, chloroquine, also causes a bull’s-eye maculopathy with subsequent
permanent visual loss.
Quinine: A natural drug derived from cinchona bark and used as an
antimalarial drug; can be very toxic, causing mild blurring of vision
to blindness, and can cause extreme narrowing of retinal vessels and
optic atrophy.
Quinones (benzoquinone, hydroquinone): Drugs that cause staining of the outer
eye in workers exposed to the vapors of aniline dyes, but the inner
eye is not affected by these drugs.
R
Reserpine (Serpasil): An alkaloid derived from Rauwolfia serpentina, it was a
popular drug for the treatment of hypertension. It can cause conjunc-
tival vascular congestion and slight miosis.
Resochin: See chloroquine.
Rose bengal: A dye that in a 5% solution is used to stain devitalized tissue,
such as filamentary keratitis in keratoconjunctivitis sicca. It has no toxic
effect to the eye.
114 Basic Science
S
Salicylic acid: See acetylsalicylic acid.
Scopolamine hyoscine: An atropine-like drug that is antiparasympathetic. In
the eye, its effect is shorter than that of atropine, but it is seldom
used because of its hypnotic effect (induces sleep). As with atropine,
it causes mydriasis, cycloplegia, dryness of the mouth, central nervous
system excitement, tachycardia, and skin flush.
Secobarbital sodium (Seconal): A short-acting barbiturate, it is used as a sedative
and to induce sleep. Skin eruptions, excitement, and vertigo can occur
with use.
Seconal: See secobarbital sodium.
Selenium sulfide: A topical antiseborrheic in combination with a detergent;
used to treat dandruff, it can cause a low-grade keratitis but never does
severe damage to the eyes.
Serpasil: See reserpine.
Silica (quartz): A substance that is nontoxic to the ocular tissue.
Silver compounds: Agents that on local contact can stain the eye gray,
particularly the cornea at the level of Descemet’s membrane and the
conjunctiva. A 1% silver nitrate solution was used for years to prevent
ophthalmia neonatorum. The silver stain is harmless in dilute solutions.
In 5 to 50% solutions silver nitrate can cause gross corneal scarring.
Smog: A mixture of fog and smoke that causes ocular irritation. The
chemicals in the air, which include oxides of nitrogen and unsaturated
hydrocarbons, are promoted by sunlight. The hydrocarbons are a
product of automobile exhausts. By-products of these reactions are
ozone and aldehydes. Although the smog reaction to the eye is
unpleasant, no permanent injury has been reported.
Sodium carbonate (washing soda): Product that is mildly toxic to the cornea
and should be diluted with water on contact with the eye.
Sodium chloride (table salt): A salt that is harmless to the eye in solution.
Sodium hexametaphosphate: A chemical that is the principal component of
water softeners; not harmful to the eye.
Sodium hypochlorite: Agent used as a bleach (Clorox) and in Javelle water;
can cause transient corneal edema.
Stelazine: See trifluoperazine.
Stoxil: See idoxuridine.
Streptomycin: An antibiotic that causes vestibular damage but is not harmful
to the eye. It is rarely used for ocular disturbances.
Strychnine: A poisonous alkaloid. Poisoning is accompanied by painful
convulsions, deviations of the eye, and dilation of the pupils.
Succinylcholine (Anectine): A drug used with general anesthesia as a muscle

relaxant; it may cause a transient rise in ocular pressure and a tem-
porary contraction of the extraocular muscles. The effect of succinyl-
choline is potentiated by previous use of phospholine iodide eye drops.
Sulfa drugs: Drugs used in the treatment of bacterial infections, they are
the major component of carbonic anhydrase inhibitors. Ocular side
effects include myopia, conjunctivitis, pemphigoid lesions, and retinal
hemorrhages.
Sulfonamides: A group of drugs that are effective against gram-positive
organisms and some gram-negative bacilli. These drugs are bacterio-
static in that they prevent the replication of bacteria. Against bacteria
these drugs prevent the formation of folic acid, an essential growth
ingredient, and also stop bacteria from using p-aminobenzoic acid.
Toxic effects include skin rashes, gastrointestinal upsets, fever, renal
lesions, and peripheral neuritis. Some sulfonamides in use systemically
are sulfadiazine, sulfisoxazole (Gantrisin), sulfamethoxypyridazine
(Kynex), succinylsulfathiazole (Sulfasuxidine), and sulfadimethoxine
(Madribon). Sulfa drops are commonly used locally. They have a broad
spectrum of activity and rarely cause serious side effects except for a
tendency to irritate.
Sulfur dioxide: A chemical used for preserving fruit and as a bleaching agent.
As a gas, it is irritating to the eyes and to the respiratory tract. Serious
injury to the eye is rare, although severe burns of the cornea by liquid
dioxide have been reported. Oddly enough, discomfort is not acute
because the chemical damages the corneal nerves and anesthetizes the
eye. The most injurious form of sulfur dioxide is liquid sulfurous acid.
In this form, the acid penetrates rapidly through the corneal epithelium.
Sulfuric acid: Drug also used as battery acid; can chemically burn the eye.
Surfactants: Agents that are surface active. Three types are (1) ionic, the
most toxic (benzalkonium chloride); (2) anionic, the middle range (soap,
Triton); and (3) nonionic, the least harmful (Span, Tween).
Synergism: The use of agents that work together for a more beneficial effect
than can be expected with the use of one agent alone. For example,
the antibiotics neomycin, bacitracin, and polymyxin B are often used
together to treat conjunctivitis.
T
Tear gas: See chloroacetophenone.
TEM: See triethylenemelamine.
Tensilon: See edrophonium chloride.
116 Basic Science
Tetracaine hydrochloride (Pontocaine): A long-acting surface anesthetic agent

applied in drop form. It can also be injected. Topical use can cause
mild but transient corneal edema.
Tetragenic effect: Causing birth defects in pregnancy.
Thallium: A heavy metal used to kill insects and rodents. In the past, it
was used as a depilatory. It is very toxic. Systemic disturbances include
paralysis of a limb, mental derangements, and even death. Optic
neuritis can occur with chronic poisoning.
Thioglycolates: Sodium and ammonium varieties used as a cold wave for
hair. Optic neuritis has been reported with its use. Local splashing
into the eye can cause corneal damage and scarring.
Thiopental (Pentothal): A short-acting barbiturate given before general
anesthesia.
Thioridazine (Meuaril): A drug used in psychotherapy that can cause
pigmentary retinopathy.
Thorazine: See chlorpromazine.
Thyroid: A natural hormone in humans that can be obtained from farm
animals and used as a replacement in hypothyroid states.
Timolol (Timoptic): A beta blocker used for glaucoma. Very few ocular side
effects. It can depress the heart rate and aggravate asthma.
Timoptic: See timolol.
Toad poisons: Toxins secreted by the glands of the skin of the toad. Corneal
damage has been reported.
Tobramycin (Tobrex): An antibiotic of the same family as gentamicin with a
broad range of antibacterial activity.
Trichloroacetic acid: A strong acid used in 10 to 25% solutions to cauterize
the surface of the cornea in bullous keratopathy. It has been used to
chemically remove xanthoma about the eye.
Triethylenemelamine (TEM): A cytotoxic drug used in ophthalmology to treat
retinoblastoma.
Trifluoperazine (Stelazine): A phenothiazide used to treat psychotic people.
It can cause Parkinson’s syndrome.
Triflupromazine (Vesprin): A phenothiazine derivative used to treat psychotic
disorders and vomiting. The worst side effect is an induced
parkinsonian condition.
Trifluridine (Viroptic): An antiviral drug effective against the herpes simplex
virus.
Trilafon: See perphenazine.
Tropicamide (Mydriacyl): A short-acting (up to 4 hours) mydriatic and
cycloplegic agent used in refraction, in retinal photography, and to dilate
pupils in which the iris is bound down by inflammation.
Turpentine: A volatile distillate from pine trees; it can cause a superficial

epithelial keratitis if in contact with the eye.
U
Urea: An osmotic agent, it creates a hypertonic solution in the blood that
draws tissue fluids into it. It is used to lower intracranial pressure, brain
volume, and intraocular pressure.
Urethane: A drug used in pesticides, cosmetics, and in the treatment of
leukemia and multiple myeloma. Crystals in the cornea may occur from
its use.
V
Vesprin: See triflupromazine.
Vistaril: See hydroxyzine pamoate.
Vitamin A: Vitamin present in cod liver oil; overdosage can cause skin
rashes, enlarged spleen and liver, loss of hair, sores at the angles of
the mouth, and raised intracranial pressure with papilledema.
Vitamin D: Vitamin that when used to excess can cause kidney stones,
headaches, stomach upsets, and band keratopathy of the cornea.
Vitamin K: A fat-soluble vitamin needed to form prothrombin in the liver.
Given orally, intramuscularly, or intravenously. Its absence results in
bleeding.
Vortex keratopathy: Corneal pathology that can occur in Fabry’s disease
and in patients being treated with a variety of drugs including
amiodarone, chloroquine, amodiaquine, meperidine, indomethacin,
chlorpromazine and tamoxifen.
W
Warfarin sodium (Coumadin): An anticoagulant that works by depression of
prothrombin formation in the liver. It is given orally or intravenously.
Wasp sting: Sting that causes a greater and more powerful eruption than
the sting of a bee. If the eye is hit, it can cause iritis and corneal opacity.
X
Xylocaine: See lidocaine hydrochloride.
Z
Zephiran: See benzalkonium chloride.
118 Basic Science
C H A P T E R 5
GENETICS
Genetics (Greek gennan “to produce”) is the study of heredity and human
variation (more generally, that branch of science that deals with the
mechanism of inheritance in all living organisms). Chromosomes (Greek
chroma “color” + soma “body”) are darkly staining bodies of genetic
material that are passed from parent to offspring. Each human cell has
46 chromosomes, constituting 23 matched or homologous pairs. One
member of each chromosome pair is inherited from the father and the
other from the mother. Each normal sperm (Greek sperma “seed”) or ovum
(Latin ovum “egg”) contain 23 chromosomes, one representative from each
pair; thus each parent transmits half of the genetic information to each
child. Of the 46 chromosomes, 44 are autosomes or non-sex-determining
chromosomes, and two are sex-determining chromosomes. Males can pass
either an X or Y chromosome to their offspring. Females have 2 X
chromosomes and no Y chromosomes and therefore can pass only an X
chromosome to their offspring. If the offspring inherits an X and a Y
chromosome, a male child will be born. If the offspring inherits 2 X
chromosomes, a female will be born.
Genes are located on the chromosomes and are responsible for
determining specific traits of individuals. Genotype refers to the total genetic
pool of information of an individual. Phenotype refers to the total observ-
able physical, physiologic, or biochemical characteristics of an individual
that are determined by the genotype but often modified by the
environment.
Genes at a specific location (locus) on each pair of chromosomes can
have a variety of forms referred to as alleles (Greek meaning reciprocals).
If both members of a pair of alleles are identical, the individual is
homozygous. If the allelic genes are distinct from each other, the individual
is heterozygous.
Disease entities that are dependent on an abnormal gene can be
classified as being: autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive, sex linked, or
multifactorial. When an autosomes allele leads to an abnormality in the
heterozygote, the gene is termed dominant. With dominant genes, the term
Genetics 119
penetrance is used and refers to the presence or absence of a phenotypic

effect of the gene. If a dominant gene has any evidence of its phenotypic
effect, the gene is termed penetrant; if it is not expressed to any level of
detection, it is nonpenetrant. An autosomal dominant trait is transmitted by
an affected person (heterozygote) to an average of 50% of the offspring.
Neurofibromatosis and Marfan’s disease are examples of autosomally
dominant inherited diseases.
An autosomal recessive disease is expressed fully only in the presence
of a double dose of the mutant gene. Therefore for offspring to be
affected both parents must pass the mutant gene. An average of 25% of
the siblings will be affected. Tay-Sachs disease, oculocutaneous albinism,
and gyrate atrophy are examples of the diseases that are inherited by
autosomal recessive genes.
A trait determined by genes carried on either of the sex chromosomes
is properly termed sex linked. X-linked genes can be X-linked dominant or
X-linked recessive. In X-linked dominant disorders, females are affected
more often than males, and all daughters (no sons) of affected males are
affected. In X-linked recessive diseases, the females are carriers
(heterozygotes), and only males are affected. All daughters of affected males
are carriers. Choroideremia, juvenile retinoschisis, and ocular albinism are
examples of X-linked recessive disorders.
A condition that exhibits multifactorial inheritance means that it is
determined by multiple factors, genetic and nongenetic, each with only a
minor affect.
Genetic disease may also occur with chromosomal abnormalities that
may be either structural or numerical and may affect either autosomes or
sex chromosomes. Down’s syndrome (after John LH Down, an English
physician 1828-1896, who first described it) is the most common
chromosomal syndrome in humans. It is usually the result of an extra
number 21 chromosome and therefore is referred to as trisomy 21.
Characteristic eye findings include: Slanted lid folds (epicanthal folds), white
spots of the iris (brushfield spots), progressive thinning of the central cornea
(keratoconus), cataracts, and myopia. Edwards’ syndrome (trisomy 18) is the
second most common multiple malformation syndrome. Affected persons
usually die in the nursery before 4 months of age, although some live as
long as 15 years. Ocular findings include a small eye (microphthalmos),
corneal opacities, congenital glaucoma, and lid droop (ptosis). Partial
chromosome deletions can occur that are associated with a variety of
disease entities. A deletion of the long arm (q) of chromosome 13 can
be associated with retinoblastoma, a potentially lethal eye tumor in children.
Deletion of the short arm (p) of chromosome 11 can be associated with
aniridia and a kidney tumor that is referred to as a Wilms’ tumor.
120 Basic Science
Genetic counseling imparts knowledge of human disease to the patient and

his or her family, including a genetic diagnosis and its ocular and systemic
implications, and information about the risk of occurrence or recurrence
of the disorder within the family. Genetic screening is a method of testing of
persons designed to detect potential genetic handicaps in them or their
progeny. Amniocentesis (Greek amnion, “bowl,” + kertesis, “to prick”) is a
technique performed in certain genetic settings on the pregnant woman.
This procedure involves making a needle puncture of the uterus through
the abdominal wall to allow amniotic fluid and fetal cells to be withdrawn;
these then can be subjected to tests for various genetic diseases. One such
test involves chromosomal analysis by the technique of banding, in which
cells are stained with quinacrine (Q-banding) or modified Giemsa
(G-banding) techniques. This produces a characteristic pattern of cross-
bands that allows for individual identification of each chromosome pair.
Karyotype is the name given to a photograph of a set of chromosomes that
are usually arranged in pairs by size, shape, and banding pattern. Genetic
diseases that effect the eyes include congenital cataracts, retinitis pigmen-
tosa, strabismus and glaucoma. For any condition in which a genetic origin
is known or suspected a complete ocular examination to establish the
diagnosis and a genetic evaluation to determine a genetic involvement
should be undertaken. Because of the implications of genetic disorders
for the effected person and for their family members genetic counseling
is an important part of the management of genetic eye disorders.
A
Alleles: Different forms of a gene that may occur at the same locus on
homologous chromosomes.
Aneuploidy: An abnormal number of chromosomes, i.e. when the
chromosomes number other than 46.
B
Biochemical genetics: The science concerned with the chemical and physical
nature of genes and the means by which they control the development
of man.
C
Carrier: An individual who has a gene pair consisting of one “normal”
and one “abnormal” (or mutant) gene. The abnormal gene is usually
recessive; therefore, the carrier does not express the disease.
Centromere: The center portion of the chromosome.
Genetics 121
Clinical genetics: The study of the possible genetic factors influencing the
occurrence of a pathological condition.
Codominance: The state in which two different alleles of a pair of chromo-
somes are expressed to produce specific physical or metabolic traits.
Congenital: Present at birth, with no implications about the origin or
heritability of the trait.
Consanguinity: A genetic relationship by descent from a common ancestor.
E
Expressivity: Describes the variation in clinical manifestations between
patients with a particular medical disorder; the variability may be either
a difference in age of onset or in severity.
F
First-degree relatives: Individuals who share one-half of their genetic material
with the proband (parents, siblings, offspring).
Forme fruste: An expression of a genetic trait so mild as to be of no clinical
significance.
G
Geneticist: A specialist in genetics.
H
Haploid: The chromosomal number in the normal gamete, designated IN,
N = 23.
Hemizygous: A term that applies to the genes on the X chromosomes in a
male; since males have only one X, they are hemizygous (not
homozygous or heterozygous) with respect to X-linked genes.
Hereditary: Genetically transmitted or capable of being genetically
transmitted from parent to offspring.
Heterogeneity: Describes disorders that were once thought to be identical,
which are found on further scrutiny to be two or more distinct entities.
I
Inborn error: A genetically determined biochemical disorder in which a
specific enzyme defect produces a metabolic disturbance that may have
pathological consequences.
Isolated: A trait occurring in a single member of a family, whether or not
the trait is heritable.
122 Basic Science
L
Linkage: Genes that are tightly located so that the combination between
the two loci does not occur and is therefore not transmitted together,
e.g. retinoblastoma is tightly linked to esterase D on the q-arm of
chromosome 13.
Locus: The unique physical location on a chromosome occupied by a
specific gene.
M
Mendelian disorder: A trait or medical disorder that follows patterns of
inheritance suggesting that the entity is determined by a gene at a single
locus.
Molecular genetics: That branch of genetics concerned with the molecular
structure and activities of the genetic material.
Mutation: Any alteration in the genetic material regardless of whether the
change has a positive, indifferent, or negative effect.
P
P-arm: The short arm of a chromosome, with relationship to the centromere.
Pedigree chart: A shorthand method of visually recording genetic family
data.
Pleiotropism: Multiple phenotypic abnormalities produced by a single mutant
gene.
Polymorphism: The occurrence together in a population of two or more
genetically determined phenotypes, each with an appreciable frequency.
Polygenic inheritance: The interaction of a number of genes that act additively
to determine a given trait.
Proband: The affected family member who first draws attention to a
pedigree of a given trait; also called propositus or index case.
Q
Q-arm: The long arm of a chromosome with relationship to the
centromere; as opposed to the p-arm.
R
Recombinant DNA: Artificially synthesized DNA in which a gene or part
of a gene from one organism is inserted into the genome of another.
S
Second-degree relatives: Individuals who share one fourth of their genetic
material with the proband (grandparents, aunts, uncles, grandchildren).
C H A P T E R 6
EMBRYOLOGY
Embryology is the science that deals with the origin, structure, and develop-
ment of the embryo. It is derived from the Greek “em” meaning in and
“bryein” meaning swelling. The fascinating world of embryology leads us
to understand some of the congenital defects that arise. A coloboma is a
defect of ocular tissue such as the lid, iris, retina, and choroid that usually
results because of failure of the fetal fissure to close in embryonic life.
Microphthalmos is a small disorganized eye that often has a microcornea or a
small cornea of less than 9 mm in horizontal diameter. A multiple number
of eye defects can occur and are listed below.
A
Agenesis: Absence of an organ resulting from failure of the developmental
tissue to form.
Aniridia: A condition of absence of the iris. It may be associated with
cataracts, glaucoma, and foveal aplasia.
Anisocoria: Unequal size of the pupils in diameter.
Anlage: Primitive tissue from which an organ or part develops; the term
primordium has a similar meaning.
Anophthalmos: Absence of the eye caused by a developmental defect.
Aplasia: Lack of development of an organ or tissue.
C
Chievitz layer: An embryologic term that refers to a layer of the retina that
disappears by the eleventh week of embryonic life.
Choristoma: A mass of tissue histologically normal for an organ or part of
an organ other than the site at which it is located.
Coloboma: A defect of some ocular tissue, e.g. lid, iris, retina, and choroid,
which usually results from failure of the fetal fissure to close in
embryonic life.
124 Basic Science
Corectopia: Deformed pupil.

Cryptophthalmos: A developmental anomaly in which the skin is continuous
over the eyeballs without any indication of the formation of eyelids.
Cyclopia: A lethal developmental anomaly characterized by a single orbit,
within which the globe may be absent, rudimentary, or single.
D
Dysgenesis: Defective development.
Dysplasia: Abnormal development of tissues or cells with retention of
some features resembling normal structures.
E
Ectoderm: One of the primary tissues of the embryo that goes onto form
three cell lines: (1) neuroectoderm—which forms the retina, retinal
pigment epithelium, ciliary epithelium, iris epithelium, optic nerve, and
sphincter and dilator muscles of the iris; (2) surface ectoderm—which
forms the lens and the epithelium of the cornea, conjunctiva, lacrimal
gland, lacrimal excretory apparatus, and the lids; and (3) neural crest
cells—which form the corneal stroma and endothelium, iris stroma,
trabecular meshwork, ciliary body, choroidal stroma, sclera, and orbital
bones.
Ectopia: Displaced pupil.
Embryogenesis: The earliest stages of development of a new individual from
a fertilized ovum.
L
Lens placode: A thickened area of ectoderm in the early embryo from which
the lens develops.
Leukoma: A congenital corneal disorder characterized by discrete, white,
opacified areas in the central or peripheral cornea.
M
Megalocornea: A large cornea, greater than 12 mm in horizontal diameter.
Mesenchyme: The meshwork of embryonic connective tissue from which
are formed the connective tissues, blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels
of the body.
Mesoderm: One of the primary tissues of the embryo that gives rise to the
endothelium of the blood vessels and the extraocular muscles.
Embryology 125
Microcornea: A small cornea, less than 9 mm in horizontal diameter;

frequently found in microphthalmia.
Microphthalmos: A small, disorganized eye.
N
Nanophthalmos: A rare developmental anomaly in which the eyeballs are
abnormally small but are without other deformities.
Neural tube: A tubular structure of the embryo that goes on to form the
central nervous system.
O
Optic cup: A cup-shaped part or structure of the primitive eye formed
from the optic vesicle.
Optic pits: A stage of ocular development that follows the formation of
the optic primordia.
Optic primordia: The first identifiable structure destined to become the eye.
Optic vesicle: A structure of the embryonic eye formed from the optic pit.
Orbital encephalocele: Herniation of cranial contents, e.g. meninges, brain,
into the orbit through a bony defect.
Organogenesis: The development or growth of organs; period of
development after embryogenesis, begins about the fourth week in
ocular development.
P
Polycoria: Presence of many openings in the iris.
Posterior embryotoxin: A congenital opacity of the margin of the cornea;
also called arcus juvenilis.
Primordium: The earliest discernible indication during embryonic
development of an organ or part; also called “anlage” or “rudiment.”
S
Sclerocornea: The scleral rim extends anteriorly, replacing the peripheral
cornea and leaving 2 to 3 mm of clear cornea centrally.
Spherophakia: A spherical lens that has a tendency to dislocate; often
associated with various joint diseases; e.g. Marfan’s syndrome and Weill-
Marchesani syndrome.
Synophthalmia: A lethal condition in which parts of the two eyes are joined
in the midline.
126 Basic Science
T
Teratogen: An agent or factor that causes physical defects in the developing
embryo.
Teratoma: A true neoplasm made up of a number of different types of
tissue, some of which is native to the area in which it occurs.
Tunica vasculosa lentis: The vascular envelope that encloses and nourishes
the developing lens of the fetus.
C H A P T E R 7
RESEARCH TERMS
Statistics is the field of study concerned with (1) the organization and
tabulation of data, and (2) the drawing of inferences about a body of data
when only a part of the data is observed. There are a number of ways that
studies can be designed so as to collect important information. A retrospective
(case-control) study is one in which a group is identified with some specific
disease (case group) and another group is identified without the disease
(control group). The two groups are then compared as to the presence or
absence of an antecedent factor to determine its association with the risk
of developing a disease (Fig. 7-1). A prospective (cohort) study is one in which
a group of subjects is identified that is exposed to some specific factor
(exposed group) and another is identified that is not exposed to that factor
(nonexposed group). Both groups are then followed to determine the
association of the factor with the frequency of occurrence of some
subsequent event; e.g. the risk of developing a disease (Fig. 7-2). A clinical
trial is a controlled experiment on human beings designed to investigate
the efficacy of some form of medical treatment. This experiment may be
done in a double-blind fashion such that neither the physician nor the patient
is aware of which treatment the patient has received (Fig. 7-3).
Commonly used statistical terms and their definitions are presented
below.
The mean is the arithmetic average, i.e. the total of values of a set of
observations divided by the number of values. The mean age of five
patients are obtained as follows:
35 + 71 + 65 + 65 + 44 years of age
mean age = _________________________________________
= 56 years of age
5
The median is the middle value of data, ordered from lowest to highest.
If the number of values is odd, the median will be the middle value when
all values have been arranged in order of magnitude. When the number of
observations is even, there is no single middle observation, but two middle
observations. In this case, the median is taken to be the average of these
two middle observations. To obtain the median value of the ages in the
128 Basic Science
Fig. 7-1. Retrospective study
Fig. 7-2. Prospective study
Fig. 7-3. Clinical trial
sample above, we would arrange the values in order of magnitude; e.g. 35,
44, 65, 65, and 71. Since this is an odd number of values the median is the
middle value, or 65.
The mode is the most frequent value of a set of observations. If all the
values are different there is no mode; on the other hand, a set of values
Research Terms 129
Fig. 7-4. The normal (Gaussian) distribution of refractive

errors in the general population
Fig. 7-5. The median value of data is the middle value when all values are
arranged in order of magnitude. The mode is the most frequent value. The mean is
the arithmetic average of all values
may have more than one mode. In the example above, the mode value
would be 65 years of age since it occurs more frequently than the other
values.
A normal distribution is a bell-shaped (Gaussian) distribution in which the
mean, median, and mode are the same (Fig. 7-4). For example, let us consider
the ages for cataract surgery of nine patients: 65, 67, 68, 70, 70, 70, 72, 73,
and 75. In this sample, the mean, median, and mode are all equal to 70
years of age. If the mean, median, and mode differ at all from each other,
as in our initial example, than a skewed distribution results in contrast to
the normal bell-shaped distribution (Fig. 7-5).
Variance is a measure of variability. When the values of a set of obser-
vations lie close to their mean, the variance is less than when they are scatte-
red over a wide range. To compute the variance, subtract the mean from
each of the values, square the differences, and then add them up. This sum
is then divided by the sample size, minus one, to obtain the variance.
130 Basic Science
Standard deviation is a measure of dispersion obtained by taking the

square root of the variance. The standard deviation of a normal frequency
distribution (a bell-shaped curve) may be used with the mean to indicate
the percentage of items that fall within specified ranges. Thus if a
population of observations is in the form of a normal distribution, the
following relationships apply:
mean + 1 SD includes 68.3% of all items
In interpreting data it is important to question the reliability or
significance of the information. For example, suppose a study found that
33% of patients who had intraocular pressures greater than 30 mm Hg
developed visual loss. It is apparent that if the study involved a large
sample of patients it would be more reliable than if only a small group
was investigated. The 2 (Chi squared) test and the t test allow one to
measure the statistical significance that is determined by the “p” value. In
theory, a p value of less than 0.01 means that, if the same experiment
were repeated 100 times, 99 times the same results would be obtained
because of the experiment itself and one time as a result of chance alone.
Thus, p value less than 0.05 means that in less than 5 of 100 times the
results would be the result of chance.
Evidence based medicine requires valid data before a conclusion can
be made of the efficiency of a drug, treatment or type of surgery.
A
Analysis of variance (ANOVA): A statistical test that allows for the com-
parison of multiple means.
Association: Refers to a relationship between two quantities that makes them
statistically dependent.
B
Bias: An error in a study that results in incorrect estimate of the true
outcome.
C
Case report: Is the description of the experience of a person or a group
of people with similar diagnosis.
Chance: The happening of events; the way in which things occur.
Coefficient of variation: Used to compare the variability of two groups with
different units of measure, such as blood sugar level (mg/100 ml) with
respiration (breaths/minute); it is the size of the standard deviation
relative to the size of the mean (in percentage).
Research Terms 131
Control group: Comparison group for evaluating the effect of an

experimental procedure.
Correlation coefficient: A number that indicates the strength of association
between two variables.
D
Dispersion: Refers to the variety that the values of the observation exhibit;
if all the values are the same, there is no dispersion; if they are not all
the same, dispersion is present in the data.
Double-blind design: A study comparing two or more treatments in which
neither the investigators nor the subjects know to which treatment
group individual subjects have been assigned (See also term Masked design).
E
Epidemiology: A scientific discipline that studies the factors determining
the causes, frequency and distribution of diseases in a community or
given population.
Exclusion criteria: A list of specific conditions which make an individual
ineligible to enroll in a research study.
F
False-negative result: An error in a diagnostic test indicating a disease-free
state when the disease really exists.
False-positive result: An error in a diagnostic test indicating a disease state
when there is no disease.
Finite population: A collection of individuals that have a definable limiting
number.
Frequency: The number of occurrences of a given type of event, or the
number of members of a population falling into a specified class.
H
Histogram: A bar graph in which the values of the variable under
consideration make up the horizontal axis, whereas the vertical axis
has as its scale, the frequency of occurrence.
Hypothesis: The proposition, to be tested statistically, about the expected
outcome of the study.
I
Incidence rate: The total number of new cases of a specific disease during
a year, divided by the total population and multiplied by 100.
Inclusion criteria: A list of specific conditions that an individual must meet
to enroll in a research study.
132 Basic Science
Independent events: Two events are independent if the probability of one is

the same whether or not the other is given.
Inference: Estimation of population values (parameters) from sample data.
Informed consent: Informed consent means “knowing consent,” the exercise
of a free power of choice without undue inducement, force, fraud,
deceit, duress or other form of constraint or coercion. If the subjects
are minors or are not capable of giving consent, parental, guardian or
other legal representative consent is required. Use of a written consent
form that includes all of the basic elements of informed consent must
be documented by a signature of the subject or legally authorized
representative.
Institutional Review Board (IRB): A specially constituted review body
established or designated by an entity to protect the welfare of human
subjects recruited to participate in research.
Interpolation: The process of obtaining intermediate terms when other data
are available.
M
Masked design: A term that can be used in the case of ophthalmology/
optometry in stead of double-blind design where the word “blind” may
be taken in the literal sense.
Morbidity rate: The incidence rate of nonfatal cases in total population
during a specific period of time.
Mortality rate: The incidence rate of fatality in a particular population
during a specific period of time.
N
Null hypothesis: Represent the association, to be tested statistically, that the
experimental intervention has no effect or relationship, meaning that
the treatment and control groups will not differ as a result of the
intervention. Investigators usually hope that the data will demonstrate
some effect from the intervention, thereby allowing the investigator
to reject the null hypothesis.
O
Ordered array: A listing of the values of a collection (either population or
sample) in order of magnitude from the smallest value to the largest
value.
P
Parameter: A fixed figure (quantity) that characterizes a given population.
Research Terms 133
Percentiles: Values that divide a distribution of ordered data into 100 equal
parts.
Placebo: An inactive substance or preparation given to satisfy the patient’s
symbolic need for drug therapy and used in controlled studies to
determine the efficacy of medicinal substances.
Population: The entire group about which information is desired.
Prevalence rate: Defined as the total number of cases, new or old, existing
at a point in time divided by the total population at that point in time,
multiplied by 100.
R
Range: Differences between the highest and lowest values.
Rate: The number of events (cases) in a period of time divided by the
population exposed to the risk of this event.
Relative risk: Indicates the likelihood of the occurrence of the disease. It
estimates the association between the disease and exposure.
S
Sample: That portion of a population about which information is actually
obtained.
Sampling error: Error resulting from chance in the sampling process
resulting in some difference between the sample outcome and the
complete count carried out in the same manner.
Screening: Application of tests to asymptomatic person in order to find
the likelihood of that person to get sick or develop a condition or
disease.
Sensitivity: The probability that the diagnostic test will yield a positive result
when given to a person who has the disease.
Single-blind design: Typically, a study designed in which the investigator, but
not the subject, knows the treatment assignment. Occasionally the
subject, rather than the investigator, knows the assignment.
Specificity (Diagnostic specificity): The probability that the diagnostic test will
yield a negative result when given to a person who does not have the
disease.
Surveys: Studies designed to obtain information from a large number of
respondents through written questionnaires, telephone interviews,
door-to-door canvassing, or similar procedures.
V
Validity (accuracy): Closeness with which a measured value agrees with the
“true” value.
134 Basic Science
C H A P T E R 8
BASIC COMPUTER TERMS
Computer terms have become buzzwords in everyday use. New vocabulary

is added regularly. Some basic terms should become part of each
individual’s vocabulary. Many readers may already be familiar with them;
for others, this may be an entirely new area.
A microcomputer is a desktop or portable computer for a single user. It
is often called a personal computer or PC. Memory refers to the internal data
storage capacity of the computer. A memory chip contains millions of
tiny circuits, each holding a single bit of information. A bit is the smallest
unit of information in a computer, which can be either the number 0 or
1. The word “bit” is a contraction of the words binary digit.
Hardware refers to the physical devices and components of a computer
system. ROM stands for “read only memory,” where data are stored
permanently and can be read by the user but not altered. RAM stands
for “random access memory,” in which the memory may be retrieved,
altered, or erased by the user.
Network refers to a system in which two or more computers are
interlinked, either through physical wires or wirelessly. Internet refers to
the public network system. Intranet refers to a private network that is usually
restricted to users of a individual company or group.
Software refers to programs that permit the computer hardware to do
specific functions. The programs and data used by the programs may be
stored locally in a ‘hard disk’ or ‘solid state drive’ that is part of the computer
or externally on a portable device such as a memory stick, or remotely on
remote machines via the local area network (LAN) or via the external public
network “Internet”. A word processing program enables a user to create,
edit, annotate or review documentation or other text based material. A
web browser enables a user to access websites for the purposes of retrieving
information such as news or database search or sharing information via
upload of data or e-mail.
Basic Computer Terms 135
A
Access code: A code or password that must be entered to gain access to
information stored in the computer and that prevents unauthorized
use of computer data.
App: Slang for application. A small software program typically designed
for PDA or tablet computers.
ASCII: Acronym for American Standard Code for Information
Interchange (pronounced “askey”). It is a seven-bit standard code used
to exchange data between computer equipment.
B
Backup: The process of creating a duplicate of the information stored in
the computer in case of power failure or equipment malfunction.
Bandwidth: The data transmission capacity of a computer channel or
communication line pathway. It is usually measured in bits per second
(bps). The greater the bandwidth the more data that can be transferred
in a given amount of time.
BASIC: Acronym for Beginner’s All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code.
This is a simple programming language widely used in personal,
business and industrial computing.
Binary number system: A numbering system with two symbols, 1 and 0, that
has 2 as its base.
Bit: The smallest unit of information, represented mathematically as a
single digit consisting of a “one” or a “zero,” sometimes considered
an abbreviation for binary unit or binary digit.
Blog: Short for Web Log. An online publically accessible personal journal
or Web page.
Bluetooth: A standardized local area radio frequency (wireless) communi-
cation protocol that allows computers, printers, cell phones and other
small electronics to share information.
Browser (aka web browser): A program that facilitates the display of
information from the local computer or from the Internet. Many
programs contain user and help guides that are readable by a browser.
Most Internet websites are designed to share their information with a
browser.
Boot: To load and run a set of instructions that start up the computer.
Bug: An error in a program caused, usually accidentally, by the programmer.
Burn: A slang term referring to copying data onto a CD-ROM or DVD.
Byte: A piece of computer memory representing a letter, digit, or punctua-
tion mark. They are eight bits in length. A bit is the smallest unit of
the computer information represented by a choice between two
136 Basic Science
alternatives such as on-off, yes-no. A combination of bits makes up

the codes for different characters.
C
C: A programming language widely used for writing software.
C++: An advanced programming language widely used for writing
software. It extends the C programming language by adding advanced
programming concepts such as object oriented programming.
Central processing unit (CPU): Computer hardware chip that carries out data
manipulation and controls the sequence of operations the computer
performs. It is considered the “brain” of the computer.
Chip: An integrated circuit on a small patch of silicon made up of
thousands to millions of transistors and other electronic components.
Cloud computing: Using remote computers on the Internet to store data or
as a timeshare for processing large amounts information quickly, as
opposed to maintaining many expensive local computers. Many
services use cloud computing to save costs by accessing storage or
powerful computers only when needed.
Compatibility: The ability to interchange programs, data, etc., between
different computer systems or different computer programs.
Computer tower/computer case: The housing cabinet in which the actual
computer components (power supply, motherboard, storage drive, etc.)
reside.
Cookie: A token placed by a Web server on a personal computer to help
track and personalize the users experience.
Crash: A program or system shutdown caused by a hardware malfunction
or software defect; it can cause loss of information requiring inputting
of backup data.
Cursor: An indicator on the computer screen showing the location of the
next entry, which moves as keyboard strokes are made or a mouse is
moved.
D
Data: Numeric or similarly coded information that is or may be converted
into a suitable form for some computer storage medium.
Database: A file of data so structured that appropriate applications draw
from the file and update it or present it in various report layouts. It is
usually used to compile client information, accounting/billing/financial
information, inventory control, etc.
Data entry: The activity of putting information into a computer.
Debugging: The technique of detecting, diagnosing, and correcting errors

(also known as bugs) that occur in programs or systems (applies to
both hardware and software).
Desktop: A computer that is designed to be stationed at a desk.
Diagnostics: Also known as diagnostic programs—programs written for
the explicit purpose of testing certain devices or conditions; there are
printer diagnostics, disk diagnostics, and even process or diagnostic
programs.
Disk: Devices to store information. Hard disks are usually enclosed in
the computer or in a self-contained housing and can store large
amounts of information.
Disk controller: Controls the flow of data between the disk and the internal
memory.
Display unit: The television-like display used for computer output; also
called video display unit (VDU) or liquid crystal display (LCD).
Do-it-yourself: Mode of system development in which the user writes his
or her own program.
Docking station: A docking station can be purchased to enable laptops to
also function as desktop computers by allowing connections to larger
LCD screens and larger keyboards.
Dot matrix: A printing method or mechanism that forms images, such as
the letters of the alphabet, from individual dots on the paper; the
arrangement of dots is by rows and columns, hence the term matrix.
Download: The process of copying data from any source on to one’s
computer or handheld MP3 player.
Drive: Also called a disk drive—the physical mechanism that reads
information from and writes information onto a disk.
Driver: The operating system utility or module that enables the reading
and writing of a device, such as a disk, a mouse or a printer.
DSL/cable modem: A device that connects to a phone line or cable-TV
line and connects with a local ISP modem to provide Internet Access.
Many Wireless Routers contain a DSL or cable modem.
DVD: A storage medium typically used to distribute software, data and
video.
DVD-R and DVD-RW: A recordable storage medium to store large
amounts of data or video.
E
E-book: An electronic version of a book.
E-mail: Electronic mail: this is a form of message communication widely
used on the Internet. E-mail programs are designed to facilitate the
138 Basic Science
composition and reading of e-mail, through many websites offer

e-mail access that can be accessed by a browser.
E-mail address: A unique address for an individual or business on the public
Internet. The URL ‘mailto:’ and the symbol @ are used to signify an
e-mail address. An example is: jcahpo@jcahpo.org
Ethernet: A standardized hardware communication protocol that is used
to connect computers and associated equipment via a cables connected
to a router.
External memory: Where data are stored, such as on disk or memory stick.
F
Field: An individual component of a record, such as a name, address, or
birthdate.
File: A collection of records, i.e. patient database that would contain indivi-
dual records for each patient, each record consisting of various fields.
Firewall: A hardware or software based system designed to prevent
unauthorized access from a network therefore preventing computer
data access damage from illicit use.
Flash memory: A type of memory that will retain its settings after electrical
power is shut down.
G
Graphics: A specialized area of computer usage dealing with the generation,
enhancement, or analysis of images.
Gigabyte: A gigabyte is slightly more than 1 million kilobytes.
H
Hard copy: Printed copies of information generated by a computer.
Hard disk: An internal storage medium for computers and laptops that
contains a high density spinning disk.
Hardware: The physical devices and components of a computer system.
HTML (HyperText Markup Language): A simple scripting language for the
display of text and images on a browser.
http (HyperText Transfer Protocol): Tells a browser that the URL given can
be read by an HTML enabled browser. Example: http://
www.jcahpo.org
I
Icon: A small image on the computer screen that represents a file or
application in the computer.
Initialize: Running a program to prepare a disk for use by a computer.

This will mark the disk with instructions to the computer for storage
of information.
Inkjet (photo printer): A type of printer that can make high resolution color
photographs or inexpensive prints.
Integrated circuit: An electronic circuit on a chip (e.g. a microprocessor) in
which the circuit components themselves, the wires, and the insulators
are all formed together in a single block of silicon as part of a single
manufacturing process. The word “integrated” is used to distinguish
this type of circuit from the older type in which components (such as
transistors) were first made individually and then later formed into a
circuit using wires and solder.
Internet: A global public network that links computers all over the world
and allows the sharing of information by millions of individuals.
Interface: A physical component designed to interconnect two devices; a
format by which two program modules can be interconnected; in both
cases a set of rules is associated with the interface.
Internal memory: Storage area in which programs are run and manipulated.
There are two types of internal memory: RAM and ROM.
I/O: Acronym for “input and output”. Usually refers to a physical interface
of the computer to connect to a peripheral such as a printer.
Internet address: An internet address is a unique number that represents a
computer on the internet. Because numbers are hard to remember,
the internet offers a name resolution service that associates a unique
name to an internet address. Because these names and numbers are
unique, both can be referred to as an Internet address.
Internet: A public shared network that can transmit information at high
speed. Connection to the internet is provided through local Internet
service providers such as the local phone or cable company.
Internet service provider (aka ISP): Offers subscription access to the public
Internet to local businesses and residences for a sliding fee that is based
on the speed of data that can be transferred and the kinds and quality
of service provided. ISP service is usually provided via DSL or cable
modem access.
J
Java: An advanced programming language that facilitates the creation of
internet based applications or small application (applets) that run inside
browsers.
Java script: A simple scripting language inspired by the Java language.
140 Basic Science
K
K: Abbreviation for kilobyte; 1024 bytes of computer memory capacity;
2K represents 2 × 1024, or 2048 bytes.
Keyboard: The principal data entry device for most computers; consists of
keys most commonly arranged in the same fashion as the keys of a
typewriter.
L
Language: A set of symbols and a set of rules for expressing procedures
and relationships with those symbols.
Laptop: A portable computer that typically contains batteries and radios
such as Wi-Fi and bluetooth to enable remote operation. A docking
station can be purchased to facilitate the use of a laptop at a desk by
connecting a larger screen and keyboard.
Laser printer: A fine quality printer that produces the image onto a
photoconductor by a beam of light which is then transferred onto paper.
Letter quality: Of the same appearance as the print image produced by a
top quality typewriter.
Line printer: A printing device that produces an entire print line at one
time or in one movement; all the characters in the same line are
generated at the same time.
Link: A common way to refer to the URL (see URL). Many web pages
have links highlighted by a different color text to show they can be
directly clicked on by a mouse to connect to, instead of needing to
manually type in the URL.
Liquid crystal display (LCD): A type of computer monitor or television
display.
Local area network (LAN): A collection of computers and peripherals in an
office or residence, connected together by Ethernet cables or Wi-Fi.
M
Machine code: The coding system adopted in the design of a computer to
represent the instruction repertoire of the computer. The various
operations that can be performed are represented by numeric function
codes, and all store locations are allocated numbers to enable the data
stored in such locations to be addressed. Also known as computer
code, instruction code, instruction set, order code.
Mainframe computer: Originally implied the main framework of a central
processing unit on which the arithmetic unit and associated logic
circuits were mounted, but now used colloquially to refer to a
specialized high power computer.
Megabyte: One million bytes.

Memory: The part of a computer that holds instructions and data.
Memory stick: A flash memory device to store information that typically
connects to a computer via USB.
Menu: A display format in which the computer user’s options are presented
as a series of entries in a list, as in a restaurant’s menu.
Microcomputer: A computer whose central processor is a microprocessor.
A computer processor usually characterized by small physical silicon
chip and functions as the computer’s central processing unit.
Minicomputer: A computer whose central processor is faster, compared with
microcomputers, and whose instruction repertoire is quite large.
Modem: A device that converts computer signals to a signal that can be
transmitted over telephone lines.
Monitor: A common way to refer to a Display Unit (see Display Unit).
Motherboard: The main circuit board of a microcomputer that contains
the connections for all other components.
Mouse: A two-dimensional input device to control and use a computer’s
graphical user interface. A mouse is typically a wired or wireless device
connected to a computer via a USB port.
MP3: A standard audio format suited for music or audio files.
MSDOS: Disk operating system created by Microsoft.
Multiuser: A system that has more than one visual display unit and more
than one keyboard.
N
Netbook: A very small laptop that is designed primarily for Internet browser
usage.
Network: An arrangement of several computers interlinked over tele-
communications lines.
Notebook computer: A common way to refer to a Laptop computer (see Laptop).
O
Operating system: A program that allows the computer to accept commands
from the user, retrieve or record data on disk, and send it to the printer
and monitor.
P
Parallel interface: A method of transmitting data from device to device in
which an entire byte or word at a time has its component bits moved
simultaneously along parallel wires to achieve a high rate of data
transfer.
142 Basic Science
Peripherals: Additional computer equipment that hooks up to the computer

to enhance its use, such as printers, modems, and disk drives.
Personal digital assistant (PDA): A very small pocket or handheld computer
designed for very specific tasks such as note taking or reading books.
Plotter: An output device for making images, usually through juxtaposition
of tiny dots; the opposite of digitizer.
Plug-in: A hardware or software module component that plugs into an
existing system and adds functionality to a program.
Portable document format (PDF): A multiplatform file format by Adobe
Systems that captures information from numerous desktop publishing
applications, including text and graphics, and makes possible for them
to be mailed, viewed and correctly printed as intended.
Printer: Output device that produces copy on paper.
Programmer: A person who writes or codes programs.
Programs: Collection or packages of instructions organized in a logical
fashion so as to perform anything from a simple function to a complex
application.
Podcast: A downloadable audio stream of data that can be played back on
demand on a variety of devices including smartphones, PDAs and
computers.
R
Random access memory (RAM): An internal memory of a program that may
be altered or erased.
Read: Retrieve data from a storage medium.
Read only memory (ROM): Internal memory where data are stored
permanently and will not be lost in the absence of power. Commonly
used programs such as the operating system are in ROM so they may
be run without first being loaded into RAM from disk or tape; also
called firmware.
Record: A collection of fields pertaining to one group, i.e. information on
one patient (name, address, birthdate, etc.).
Router: A hardware device that connects to two or more networks and
forwards data among the networks.
S
Server: A computer on a network that manages network resources and
shares information to other computers. Servers typically provide access
to hard drives and printers.
Scanner: A device that can scan paper, photos or books. The scanner will
digitize the information into a computer graphics file or other machine
readable file.
Slot: A position in the microprocessor chassis that is designed for connec-
tion to another device.
Smartphone: A pocket sized cellular telephone that is also a very small
computer. Smartphones can have many features found in Netbooks
and PDAs though with limited capacity or functionality.
Software: Programs that allow the computer to perform specific functions.
Solid state drive: A hard disk that is comprised of fast flash memory instead
of a high density disk.
Spam: Unsolicited electronic junk mail.
Spreadsheet: A computer document arrangement of data in horizontal rows
and vertical columns. It is especially useful for processing numbers
and commonly used in scientific and financial applications.
Storage: Memory capacity or requirements of a system or application—
either memory, or disk, or both.
T
Tablet computer: A small hand held computer, typically in the shape of a
thin tablet or slab and containing a touch screen interface, designed
for very specific tasks such as checking status or reading books.
Terminal: An input/output device at which data leave or enter a computer
system.
Time sharing: A method for permitting several users or programs to have
access to the same machine at the same time.
Touchpad: A two-dimensional input device to control and use a computer’s
graphical user interface. A touchpad is typically a part of a tablet
computer, PDA or laptop. LCD screens can also be touch enabled.
U
Uniform resource locator (URL): Information given to a browser that contains
both the website address of a web server as well as the location within
the web server where information is requested. Example: http://
www.jcahpo.org
Upload: The process of transferring data from a local computer to a
network server or remote computer.
User: The person who is operating the computer or the person for whom
the computer is programmed or operated.
USB: A standardized hardware communication protocol that is used to
connect computers and associated equipment via a cable.
144 Basic Science
V
Video card: Also called a graphic accelerator. It is utilized to process the
graphic portion of a program. It is especially useful in performance
on a computer for image editing and three-dimensional games.
Virus: A malicious computer program that is loaded onto a computer
without the owner’s knowledge and causes annoyance or damage to
the computer data. An infected e-mail attachment is the most common
source of a virus.
W
Web page: By clicking on a link, or typing a URL, a user is asking the browser
to connect to a new location and display the resultant web page of
information.
Website: A destination on the internet that is available for anyone to connect
to via the URL. Typically a computer user will direct a browser to
connect to a website via a URL, and display a web page of information
as a result. Website addresses typically (but are not required to) begin
with the address “www”.
Wi-Fi (aka wifi): A standardized local area radiofrequency (wireless)
communication protocol that allows portable laptop computers or
handheld devices to connect to the Internet via a wireless router.
Wi-Fi allows the freedom and flexibility of movement for hand held
devices, computers and equipment since the connection is a two way
radio connection.
Wireless router: Acts as a base station to connect a local Wi-Fi network to
a local Internet service provider via DSL/cable modem hardware
connection. Wireless routers can be found in cafes, airports, offices
and in residences.
Word processor: A computer program that creates, edits and prints word
documents.
World Wide Web (WWW): This is a catchall phrase to refer to the Internet.
Most websites start with the letters www as a part of their website
address.
SECTION 2: REFRACTION, SPECTACLES,
SPECTACLES,
AND CONT ACT LENSES
CONTACT
C H A P T E R 9
REFRACTION
The term refraction refers to the sum total of refractometry (measuring the
refractive error of an eye), assessing the visual needs of an individual
and arriving at a clinical judgment as to which prescription to provide.
When light passes from one medium to another, it changes its direction
or is refracted or bent back because light travels at different speeds in
different media.
Emmetropia (Greek em, “within,” metro, “measure,” and opia, “the eye”)
is the measurement of a normal eye (Fig. 9-1A). Ametropia is the
measurement of an abnormal eye. Hyperopia (hyper, “beyond,” opia, “eye”)
refers to a far-sighted eye (Fig. 9-1B). Myopia (Greek my, “close” and opia,
“eye”) refrers to the nearsighted eye. Persons with myopia half close the
eyelid to gain advantage of the slit to see better.
Hyperopia may be latent (hidden), in which case it is completely
compensated by the eye’s ability to accommodate or adjust (Fig. 9-1C).
Absolute hyperopia cannot be compensated by the eye and requires a
convex lens to correct the hyperopia (Fig. 9-1D).
Myopia and hyperopia may be axial, meaning the eyeball is either too
long (axial myopia) or too short (axial hyperopia). It may be curvature myopia
or hyperopia caused by changes in the curvature of the cornea and lens,
which bend the rays of light an improper amount; or it may be index
myopia or hyperopia caused by changes in the index of refraction of the
lens, as may occur in the presence of cataracts and diabetes.
Astigmatism is a refractive error in which the rays of light do not come
to a point focus on the retina. It may be regular astigmatism, in which the
rays of light come to two focal points on the retina and is correctable by
cylinders, or irregular astigmatism, in which the cornea is damaged and
irregular so that rays of light come to many focal points on the retina
and which is not correctable by cylinders.
Astigmatism is said to be “with the rule” if the plus axis and the
steepest meridian is in the vertical or 90-degree plane (Fig. 9-2A). It is
146 Refraction, Spectacles, and Contact Lenses
Fig. 9-1. (A) Emmetropic eye. Parallel rays of light come to a focus on the retina.
(B) Hyperopic eye. Parallel rays of light come to a focus behind the retina in the
unaccommodative eye. (C) Latent hyperopia, Accommodation by the lens of the
eye brings parallel rays of light to focus on the retina. (D) Absolute hyperopia. A
convex lens is required to bring rays of light to focus on the retina (With permission
Mosby, 2006)
Fig. 9-2. (A) Astigmatism with the rule. The vertical corneal meridian has the
steepest curvature. (B) Astigmatism against the rule. The horizontal meridian has
the steepest curvature (With permission from Stein HA, Stein RM, Freeman MI. The
Ophthalmic Assistant. A Text for Allied and Associated Ophthalmic Personnel, 8th
edition. St. Louis/Philadelphia: Elsevier-Mosby, 2006)
said to be “against the rule” if the plus axis and the steepest meridian is
in the horizontal or 180-degree plane (Fig. 9-2B).
Astigmatism may be corneal astigmatism if caused by different radii of
curvature of the cornea, may be residual astigmatism if it remains after the
corneal astigmatism has been neutralized, and is sometimes also called
lenticular astigmatism because it is caused by the crystalline lens of the eye.
It may be regular or irregular.
Anisometropia is a condition in which there is a difference in the
refractive error of the two eyes. If the difference is very large, aniseikonia
Refraction 147
(Greek an, “not,” iso, “equal,” and eikon, “images”) exists, and images of
unequal size will appear on the retina and be transferred to the brain.
Aphakia (Greek a, “absent,” phako, “lens”) is the condition in which
the crystalline lens is absent from the eye. Presbyopia (Greek presbyo, “old,”
and opia, “eye”) or “old eye” is a condition in which the ability to
accommodate for near vision falls off because of loss of elasticity of the
crystalline lens of the eye and weakness of the ciliary muscle. The
individual is no longer able to read clearly.
Photopic vision is that vision occurring in daylight when the eye is light
adapted. Cones mediate daylight vision, precise vision, and color vision.
Scotopic vision is that vision occurring at night when the eye is dark adapted.
Rods are the active light receptors with scotopic vision.
Some other words relating to optics and refraction have been arranged
in alphabetical order.
A
AC/A ratio: Accommodative convergence/accommodation ratio;
expressed as the ratio between convergence caused by accommodation
(in prism diopters) and the accommodation (in diopters).
Accommodation spasm: Ciliary muscle spasm, often incorrectly termed spasm
of accommodation, causes accommodative excess. A ciliary spasm has
characteristic symptoms: headache, browache, variable blurring of
distance vision and an abnormally close near point.
Addition or add: The total dioptric power added to a distance prescription
to supplement accommodation for reading.
Afterimage: Image of an object that persists when the lids are closed.
Amblyopia: Loss of visual acuity without any apparent disease of the eye.
Cannot be corrected by spectacles or contact lenses.
Amplitude of accommodation: The total amount of increase in the dioptric
power of the eye made by maximum effort of the ciliary muscle.
Angle kappa: The difference between the direction of gaze and the apparent
direction in which the eye points; this normal structural feature may
cause a false interpretation of strabismus. The angle formed by the
visual axis and the central pupillary axis.
Anisometropia: A difference in the refractive power of the two eyes.
Aperture: The opening that permits light to pass through an optical system.
Asthenopia: Eye fatigue caused by errors of refraction, driving, prolonged
close work, dryness of the eyes, and so on. A term that embraces a
number of causes and situations.
Astigmatic clock: Clocklike pattern of lines used to determine the presence
of astigmatism and to determine the orientation of astigmatism
(Fig. 9-3).
Fig. 9-3. Astigmatic clock
B
Balancing: A technique used in determining a patient’s final refraction
prescription that produces equal clarity in both eyes.
C
Convergence: The process of directing the visual axis of the two eyes inward
to a new point.
Convergence excess: A convergent deviation, greater at near points than at
distance.
Convergent insufficiency: Inability to turn the eyes in at near.
Cross cylinder: A single lens consisting of two cylinders of equal power,
one being plus, the other being minus, set 90 degrees apart. Frequently
referred to as the Jackson cross cylinder.
Cycloplegic: A drug often used in refraction, which temporarily places the
ciliary muscle at rest and dilates the pupil. Used in refraction of children
and young adults.
D
Depth perception: Ability to perceive the solidity of objects and their relative
positions in space; also called stereoscopic vision.
Refraction 149
Dilation: Enlargement of the pupil of the eye by pharmaceutical,

physiological or pathological process.
Distometer: A caliper used to measure the vertex distance, which is the
distance from the cornea of the patient’s eye to the back surface of
the spectacle lens. It is inserted in the trial frame, phoropter, or glasses.
The distometer consists of a scale in millimeters, an indicator, a
movable arm, and a fixed arm. Always measure the vertex distance in
high minus or high plus lenses (>4 D) since the power of a lens in a
trial frame or refractor may change when the lens is positioned in a
spectacle frame.
Divergence: The outward rotations of the two eyes to see in the distance.
F
Farnsworth-Munsell color test: An effective method for testing a person’s color
vision. The test consists of 85 different color hues that the patient is
required to order. Specific deviations from placement in the proper
order (normal color vision) allows for determination of the type and
degree of the color deficiency present, e.g. red deficiency, green
deficiency, blue deficiency. Sometimes the test is referred to as the
100-Hue test. The test is also available in a less sensitive D-15 version.
Fixation disparity: A condition in which the object of fixation does not fall
on exactly corresponding retinal points, but in which the images still
fall within Panum’s fusional area, so that an object is seen singly.
Fresnel press-on prism: A series of small plastic prisms lying adjacent to each
other on a thin platform of plastic. It has the same deviating power
of the conventional prism but is only 1 mm thick. It is used as a
temporary lens because it can peel off, become soiled, and generally
has poorer optics than a glass prism.
Fusional reserves: The range of convergence, divergence, and vertical
vergence through which binocular single vision can be maintained.
This may be measured in degrees or prism diopters.
G
Glare: Irregularly scattered light that interferes with the focused retinal
picture and reduces visual acuity.
H
Halberg trial clip: A clip attached to spectacles to insert ophthalmic lenses
to over-refract. See also Janelli clip.
Hardy-Rand Ritter (HRR): A series of color plates to detect abnormalities

of color vision.
Hyperphoria: A latent tendency for an eye to deviate upward.
J
Jaeger: A numerical grading system for near vision devised by Jaeger in
the latter part of the nineteenth century.
Janelli clip: A variation of the Halberg clip, having a bubble level, an extra
trial lens cell, and a cylinder lock to keep the cylinder on axis.
K
Keratometer (ophthalmometer): An instrument used to measure the radius of
curvature of the central 3.3 mm of the anterior surface of the cornea
and the power and axis of the corneal cylinder if present. Based on
the principle of utilizing the mirror effect of the front surface of the
cornea.
L
Landolt broken-ring test: A test for the measurement of visual acuity
consisting of a circle subtending 5 minutes of arc with the thickness
of the ring and the gap subtending a 1 minute angle (Fig. 9-4).
Lensometer: An instrument designed to measure the prescription of an
optical lens (trade names include Lensometer, Focimeter, Vertometer,
Vertexmeter).
Light perception (LP): Refers to the state of profound visual loss where the
patient is only able to distinguish light from dark and possibly also
the direction of the light source presented.
Light projection: Ability to determine the direction of light from each
quadrant.
LP: See light perception.
M
Maddox rod: A lens composed of a parallel series of very strong cylinders.
When viewed through a Maddox rod, a point of light appears as a
line. Used to measure the latent muscle imbalance or phoria of the
eye.
Magnification: Increase in size achieved by a lens system (Fig. 9-5).
Minify: To reduce the apparent dimensions. The opposite of magnify.
Monocular: Pertaining to or affecting one eye.
Refraction 151
Fig. 9-4. Landolt broken-ring test (With permission from Stein HA, Stein RM,
Fig. 9-5. Magnification by a convex lens is obtained by bringing the object within
the focal distance of the convex lens. An erect magnified image is obtained (With
Multifocal: A spectacle or contact lens with more than one focusing power
area.
N
Near point of accommodation (NPA): The nearest point measured in
centimeters that each eye can maintain clarity of small print when it
is brought close to the eye.
Near point of convergence (NPC): The nearest point measured in centimeters
that a person can maintain binocular vision when an object is brought
close in the midline. The nearest point an individual can hold fusion
before seeing double.
Night myopia: An increase in myopia that occurs after dark; caused by
dilation of the pupil.
NPA: See near point of accommodation.
NPC: See near point of convergence.
O
Optotype: Any symbol or letter that is used for determining visual acuity.
The most commonly used today are the Snellen optotypes.
Orthophoria: A condition in which the eyes are straight; a condition in which
the visual axes are parallel even when the eyes are dissociated.
P
Panum’s fusional area: An area around corresponding retinal points, including
slightly disparate retinal elements, whose stimulation will result in
binocular fusion with stereopsis rather than diplopia.
Phoropter: Trade name for a refractor. An instrument for determining the
refractive state of the eye, phorias, and so on, consisting of a housing
containing a rotating disk with lenses, occluders, prisms and pinholes.
Pinhole disk: A disk with one or more holes to eliminate peripheral rays
of light and improve contrast. Used to determine the visual acuity by
eliminating the refractive error of the eye.
Progressive myopia: Refers to myopia over 6 D that is increasing in dioptric
power.
R
Refractive error: A nonpathologic defect in the eye that prevents light rays
from being brought to a single focus exactly on the retina.
Refraction 153
Retinal correspondence: Corresponding retinal areas in both eyes that perceive

the same point in space simultaneously.
Retinoscopy: Objective method of determining the refractive error of the
eye by observing the movements of light reflected from the back of
the eye.
S
Spherical equivalent: The equivalent of spectacle refraction expressed only
as a sphere. To obtain it, take half of the cylinder and algebraically
add it to the sphere.
Spherocylinder: A lens with one spherical surface and one cylindrical (or
toric) surface.
T
Telescopic lenses: Special lenses for persons with advanced degrees of sight
impairment; two lenses, properly ground, and mounted in a spectacle
frame with a short distance between them to form a Galilean telescope.
Transposition: The process of changing a spectacle prescription from a plus
to minus cylinder or vice versa without changing its refractive value.
Trial case and lenses: A tray of ophthalmic lenses and accessories used to
determine the refractive error of the eye.
Trial frame: An adjustable spectacle frame into which trial lenses are placed
during the refraction procedure.
Trifocal: A lens with three focusing points such as distance, intermediate,
and reading.
V
Visual acuity: The smallest identifiable symbol that is seen on an eye chart.
The measurement of the resolving power of an eye.
W
Wirt stereo test: A test to grade stereopsis or depth perception.
Worth four-dot test: An illuminated red, green, and white dot test to detect
the presence of binocular vision or suppression.
C H A P T E R 10
SPECTACLES
SPECTACLES
The first documented report of using an object to allow for clearer vision
appeared near the year 1000 AD with elderly monks using a “reading
stone,” likely some form of clear quartz that provided some magnification.
The earlier record is not clear, but there is information that early Greek
and Roman civilizations utilized myopic individuals as scribes since their
near vision was acute and to also avoid the near vision problem associated
with presbyopia. The use of lenses as optical aids in frames in China and
Europe was first mentioned by English Franciscan friar Roger Bacon in
1268. Thirteen years later spectacles were invented by either Alendresso
della Spina or Salvino degli Armanti of Pisa. Over Armanti’s tomb was
the inscription “Here lies Salvino degli Armanti, inventor of spectacles;
may God pardon his sins.” Marco Polo recorded that the Chinese were
using spectacles in 1270, but some sources claim that they served an
ornamental rather than functional purpose in this period.
Spectacles, originating from the Latin spectaculum meaning a “spectacle”
or “show,” are optical appliances consisting of lenses and a frame, the latter
with “earpieces,” loosely called temples, extending over the ears. The bridge
is the part of a spectacle frame that either joins the two lenses together
in the rimless type or joins the eyewire of the front with lenses inserted
in rigid frames. The lenses are held in the frame by means of screws or
clamps as in a rimless frame or by means of an eyewire in a full frame. The
eyewire may be composed of metal, plastic, a thread of nylon, or any
combination of the three.
Frames
Spectacle frames are now most commonly made of cellulose acetate, a
thermoplastic that is poorly flammable. They were formerly made (now
banned in North America) from cellulose nitrate, a highly flammable material
sometimes known as Celluloid, xylonite, zylonite, or zyl. Frames may be made
from polymethyl methacrylate, sometimes called Plexiglas, Lucite, or Perspex,
which is the same material used to make hard lenses. This plastic is strong,
Spectacles 155
retains its shape, and is available in solid colors. Frames may be made
from nylon, which is flexible but becomes brittle with age, or from Optyl,
a lightweight flexible material available in a variety of colors and popular
because of its semitransparent appearance. Molded frames are injection-
molded plastic frames, identified by plastic hinges and a seam and found
in less expensive frames and sunglasses.
The bridges of frames are of two basic types, the saddle type and the
keyhole type, designated by a shape resembling that of a saddle or keyhole.
These designs differentially affect the appearance of the spectacles on
the face. The saddle bridge with a wide nasal cut creates the illusion of
shortening a long nose whereas the keyhole bridge, with an elongated
nasal opening, is recommended to individuals with round, short noses.
Pads are the portions of the frame that rest on the sides of the nose. A
comfort bridge is a plastic insert, usually a saddle design, which inserts into
the bridge of a metal frame. This displaces the weight over a greater area
by resting equally on the bridge and the sides of the nose.
On the back of each frame are noted the millimeter measurements
of the eye size, (the inside distance of the lens aperture measured horizon-
tally) and the bridge size (the measurement of the width of the bridge).
The datum line represents an imaginary line running through the center
of the lenses (Fig. 10-1).
Cable temples, sometimes called riding bow or curl temples, have a flexible
portion that can be shaped to contour and curve behind the ear. They are
used for children, athletes, and active people. Straight temples, sometimes
called loafer, spatule, or library temples, fit around the side of the head and
are used for people who constantly remove their spectacles. Spring hinge temples
maintain lateral tension for a longer period of time. The spring hinge may
be used for any of the temple designs. Paddle temples, shaped like a paddle,
are sometimes called skull or hockey-end temples which contour behind the
ear to hold the frame and are the most popular (Fig. 10-2). Recently eyeglass
frames have become a fashion accessory similar to shoes and jewelry
Fig. 10-1. Frame measurements; a represents the eye size, b represents the bridge
size. The dotted line xy is the box system (With permission from Stein HA, Stein
Fig. 10-2. (A) Cable, riding bow, or curl side temples. (B) Straight, loafer, or library
temples. (C to E), Paddle, skull, or hockey-end temples (With permission from Stein
Mosby, 2006)
allowing the wearer to change their overall appearance. Numerous fashion

designers have thus entered the spectacle frame arena.
Measurements
The interpupillary distance or pupillary distance (PD) is the distance in milli-
meters between the center of the two pupils of the two eyes (Fig. 10-3). It
is conveniently measured from the nasal edge of the pupil of one eye to
the temporal edge of the pupil of the other eye. The optical center of a lens
is the point on a lens in which light rays are not bent and corresponds to
the thinnest portion of a minus lens and the thickest portion of a plus
lens. Under normal circumstances the optical center of a lens is aligned
with the corresponding pupil of the eye. The optical center of a lens does
not necessarily coincide with the geometric center of a lens (Fig. 10-4) or
the major reference point.
Fig. 10-3. Measurement of interpupillary distance. Measurements are commonly

made from the nasal edge of one pupil to the temporal edge of the other pupil.
Near ray measurements are several millimeters less than measurements at distance
(With permission from Stein HA, Stein RM, Freeman MI. The Ophthalmic Assistant.
A Text for Allied and Associated Ophthalmic Personnel, 8th edition. St. Louis/
Spectacles 157
Fig. 10-4. (A) Minus, or concave lens. Optical center is at its thinnest part.
(B) Plus, or convex, lens. Optical center is at its thickest part. PD—pupillary distance;
DBC—distance between centers of lenses (With permission from Stein HA, Stein
Lenses
In the past ophthalmic lenses were mostly made of glass, the most popular
being crown glass, which is primarily sodium silicate with a low refractive
index (1.523), and flint glass, made of lead oxide with a high refractive
index (1.62). Also used was Hidex glass a high index glass (1.86) used for
myopia or hyperopia prescriptions. Today most spectacle lenses are made
of either plastic, high index plastic, polycarbonate or Trivex. Every lens
has an anterior curve and a posterior base curve that is measured in
diopters. The anterior is a frontal curve, whereas the base curve is the
concave or posterior curve of the lens. The mathematical difference
between the two curvatures produces the power of the lens measured in
diopters. The base curve may be deliberately altered, minimally to allow
for eyelash clearance.
Lenses may also have a secondary curve adjacent to, but 90 degrees
away from, the base curve. These curves lie in different meridians of
power, and their purpose is to correct astigmatism. When the cylinder
correction is on the anterior plane of the lens, the lens has been made in
“plus cylinder form”; and conversely lenses designed in “minus cylinder
form” would have the cylinder correction on the concave plane (back
surface) of the lens.
Today most spectacle lenses are made of hard resin plastics (CR-39)
with a refractive index of 1.50 and polycarbonate with a refractive index
of 1.59. In addition a new urethane-based lens material Trivex has become
available. It is thin, light weight and has excellent scratch and impact
resistance. It has a refractive index is 1.53. These lenses have superior
impact resistance when compared to glass lenses and are preferred for
everyday safety as well as for sports glasses and goggles. The scratch
resistance capabilities of some of these lenses are lower than those of
glass, and therefore special coatings are available to reduce scratching.
Glass lenses may be treated by heat and are said to be toughened or
incorrectly hardened to resist breakage. Laminated lenses are safety lenses
made by sandwiching a sheet of plastic between two pieces of glass.
Chemically treated lenses result in a thinner lens with superior impact-
resistant qualities. Blooming a lens refers to coating a glass lens with
magnesium fluoride as an antireflection coating to minimize reflection.
The name is derived from its purplish sheen similar to the bloom on a
ripe plum.
Photochromic lenses are photosensitive plastic or glass lenses that darken
when exposed to the ultraviolet light at the short end of the spectrum
such as is found in natural sunshine.
Aberrations
Lenses may produce aberrations (from Latin ab, “from,” and errare, “to
wander”) or distortions of light. The term chromatic aberration is applied
when white light is broken up by a lens into its spectral color components
and observed as color fringes. Spherical aberration occurs when a lens fails
to focus a broad beam of light into a single point (Fig. 10-5). Distortion
from an optical lens occurs when objects appear other than their true
form. For instance, barrel distortion occurs when lines of a square are bowed
outward like a barrel. Such distortion appears when viewing an object
through highly myopic lenses. Pincushion distortion occurs when the lines
of a square are bowed inward similar to a pincushion (Fig. 10-6). This
type of distortion is seen with high-plus lenses such as those used for
Spectacles 159
Fig. 10-5. Spherical aberration. The rays of light refracted by the lens converge
on a meeting area rather than at a single focal point (With permission from Stein
Mosby, 2006)
Fig. 10-6. Optical distortion produced by lenses. (A) Strong concave lenses as in
high myopic corrections distort a square to a barrel shape. (B) Strong convex lenses
as in high hyperopic or aphakic corrections distort a square to a pincushion shape
aphakia. Another type of distortion, astigmatism, may occur when oblique

rays of light strike a spherical surface and may thus occur when spectacles
are angled to the light striking the lens.
Special types of lenses

Toric lenses are lenses designed to compensate for astigmatism, a condition
in which the refractive error is greater in one meridian than in the opposite
90-degree meridian.
Prismatic lenses are designed to compensate for or aid muscle imbalance
in one or both eyes. A prism is any optical material shaped like a wedge.
The apex of a prism is its thinnest portion. The base of the prism is the
thickest edge. Light that passes through the prism will be deviated toward
its base. The result of this deviation is that the image is seen toward the
apex of the prism.
Lenticular lenses are designed to minimize distortion and reduce weight
and are essentially smaller lenses mounted on a thin piano carrier lens
Fig. 10-7. Lenticular lens, single vision (With permission from Stein HA, Stein
Fig. 10-8. Aspheric lens, side view. Note the flatter curve in the periphery of the
lens. This eliminates many of the aberrations of the periphery of the lens and permits
a greater field of vision (With permission from Stein HA, Stein RM, Freeman MI.
The Ophthalmic Assistant. A Text for Allied and Associated Ophthalmic Personnel,
8th edition. St. Louis/Philadelphia: Elsevier-Mosby, 2006)
that is edged to fit the frame. They appear as an inverted bowl or small
lens placed on a flat surface (Fig. 10-7).
Aspheric lenses (from Greek a, “not,” and sphaira, “a ball”) are lenses
that do not have uniform power throughout the entire lens profile. For
instance, a high-plus lens has decreasing power toward the periphery
(Fig. 10-8).
An achromatic lens is a lens that is corrected for chromatic (color)
aberrations.
Multifocal lenses are lenses with more than one focal point, thus allowing
a person with presbyopia to see at more than one near distance. Bifocals,
trifocals and progressive additional lenses are all multifocal lenses. A slab-
off is a method of creating a bicentric lens, a lens with two centers, from a
one-centered lens by grinding a prism-shaped slab from one surface of
the lens so that the lens then has one center for distance and one for
reading. The advantage of slab-off or bicentric grinding is that vertical
imbalance (resulting from vertical prismatic differences between two lenses
of differing powers) is reduced.
The one-piece multifocal lens is made from the same type of material
(glass or plastic) throughout, whereas a fused multifocal lens uses glass with
Spectacles 161
Fig. 10-9. Fused bifocal. (1) Countersink is placed on the lens blank. (2) Segment
of a higher index of refraction is ground to fit into the countersink. (3) Two lenses
are fused together in an oven and cooled slowly. (4) Excess lens is ground off and
polished (With permission from Stein HA, Stein RM, Freeman MI. The Ophthalmic
Fig. 10-10. Flat top bifocal. The reading segment is combined with a carrier of
properties similar to the main lens. This button is then inserted into the countersink
of the main lens, fused, and ground off to produce a flat top bifocal. The carrier is
invisible, but the segment can be seen since it is a different type of glass (With
two or more indices of refraction in which one material is countersunk

and fused into the other (Fig. 10-9).
Bifocal segments may be referred to as flat top or round top depending on
the shape of the upper part of the bifocal segments (Fig. 10-10). Cement
bifocals are two lenses that are fastened together with cement such as Canada
balsam. Invisible or seamless bifocals are one-piece bifocals in which the
reading sector is blended into the distance lens so that the reading segment
cannot be seen. An addition or add is the additional lens power that is added
to the distance prescription to supplement accommodation for reading.
Progressive multifocal lenses are lenses in which the top half is for distance
and the bottom section for reading with a corridor joining the two in
which the power gradually increases from distance to reading so that the
lenses have a focus for all viewing distances.
Spectacle manufacture
The first spectacles were made out of naturally occurring transparent
quartz or beryl in the thirteenth century. Increased demand called for the
use of glass, and this in turn led Venice (already a center of glassmaking)
and later Nuremburg to become spectacle manufacturing centers. The
late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries saw a rapid expansion in all types
of technologies, including lens manufacture. In 1784, Benjamin Franklin
invented the bifocal lens by fitting two lenses in each spectacle frame.
This invention was improved in 1884 by cementing the lenses together,
in 1908 by fusing them, and finally in 1910 by making a one-piece bifocal.
As in the case of Franklin who made bifocals to correct his presbyopia,
in 1827, Sir George Airy made the first cylindrical lens to correct his own
visual defect, astigmatism. At first, astigmatism was thought to be a rare
disorder until FC Donders showed in 1864 how prevalent this visual
condition was in the general populace.
Several terms are used in the manufacture of spectacles. A blank is a
piece of glass or plastic molded to the rough shape of a spectacle lens.
The lens blank is blocked by affixing a handle to the glass or plastic lens by
a low-melting-point metal or adhesive pad so that the lens may be held
firmly during the process of generating, fining, and polishing, the three steps
involved in the manufacture of a spectacle lens. The term deblocking is the
removal of the lens from the block.
In the manufacture of a lens, generating is the term that refers to the
process in which the correct dioptric curve is ground into the lens blank.
This results in a frosted glass appearance to the blank. Fining is a process in
which an appropriate abrasive material polishes the frosted surface to a
satin-like finish. In polishing, the satin finish is changed to a highly polished
surface by way of a felt pad for plastic lenses combined with the use of an
earth compound as polishing material. This process results in an uncut
lens, which is the term used for a lens with a prescription ground in but
not cut to fit a spectacle frame.
A spectacle lens is referred to as edged when it is cut to fit a specific
spectacle frame. The lens is considered knife edged if the edge is extremely
thin or may be considered a flat edge edging as used for rimless frames, a
beveled edge for other frame types, or even a microbevel edge. The term Chamfer
refers to putting a slight bevel on the edge of a lens to prevent chipping.
Mounting, or glazing, is the term used for inserting the lens in the frame.
Spectacles 163
Tinting is the term used for the process in which hot dye solutions are
added to produce a color or tint on plastic lenses. In glass lenses, the
color may be a surface coated or a solid tint produced by adding oxides
to distribute the color through and through. Specific metal oxides are
used to create a specific color and/or absorption.
Coating is a term used for the vacuum treatment of lenses to add
antireflection coating, color coating, or mirror coating. Coating may be single or
multilayered. Multilayered coating reduces residual reflectance to a greater
degree, thereby increasing light transmission. This is accomplished as each
and every layer is applied for a specific wavelength of the visual spectrum.
Edge coating is a process used to darken the edge of a high-minus lens,
which eliminates the “myopic ring” and thus improves the appearance
of the lens cosmetically.
Box measurement of a lens or frame is the standard now in use by
spectacle manufacturers. The shape of the lens or front is “boxed” by
horizontal and vertical lines.
Additional terms used in conjunction with spectacles are given in the
following glossary.
A
Abaxial: Situated out of or directed away from the axis of a lens or optical
system.
Abbe number: This is the reciprocal of the relative dispersion of a refractive
medium and ranges from 59 for crown glass to 25 for index 8 glass.
The lower the Abbe number, the greater the amount of chromatic
dispersion. The Abbe number is also called the nu value.
Aberration: When rays of light from a point source fail to form a perfect
or single point image after traversing an optical system, i.e. when a
lens forms a poor image.
Absorption: The process in which radiant energy is converted into other
forms, usually heat, by passage through, or reflection from, a medium.
In spectacle lenses, the ability of a lens to not pass specific wavelengths
of light.
Accommodation: The ability, the mechanism or the process of the eye to
attain maximum sharpness of the retinal image at a variety of distances
by adjusting the dioptric power of the crystalline lens through
contraction or relaxation.
Acetone: A liquid ketone that serves as a solvent for many organic
compounds used for repairing plastic spectacle frames and as a cleaning
agent for plastic lenses before tinting.
Achromatic: A lens or optical system free from chromatic aberration.

Acuity: Distinctness, clearness, and clarity of vision. Sometimes equated
to the minimum resolving power.
Addition: Sometimes referred to only as Add. Refers to the strength of a
bifocal addition to a spectacle lens. It is the amount of plus power
which must be added to the distance prescription to assist the eyes
accommodation at a given distance, usually intermediate or near.
Afocal: Refers to a lens or optical system with zero focal power, resulting in
a system where light rays that enter parallel emerge parallel. Synonym is
plano.
Anastigmatic lens: Without astigmatism or corrected for astigmatism. Also,
a lens with no cylindrical component. One of two categories of
ophthalmic lenses, the other being astigmatic lenses.
Anneal: A regulated process of heating materials (glass and metals) and
the subsequent slow, controlled cooling to eliminate internal strains.
Antireflective coating (AR coating): Multilayer spectacle lens coating that
reduces and virtually eliminates distracting light reflections and
increases light transmission in a spectacle lens.
Aspheric: Literally, “nonspherical”, i.e. a nonspherical curved surface. Also,
a progressive lens where a single surface is marked by a variety of
elliptically changing curvatures. Progressive lenses are sometimes
referred to as “aspheric lenses”.
Astigmatic lens: A lens with one or both surfaces toric and therefore said
to have a cylindrical component and to produce two perpendicularly
oriented focal lines in the principal meridians instead of a single focal
point. Considered as one of two categories of ophthalmic lenses. The
other category being anastigmatic lenses.
Axis: The straight line normal to both surfaces of a lens. Also, the meridian
in a cylinder lens where no cylinder power is present.
B
Back vertex power: The reciprocal of the back focal length in meters. The
power of the lens or optical system in diopters as measured from the
back surface of the lens.
Base: Refers to the thickest edge of a prism and opposite to its apex.
Base curve: The singular dioptric front surface curve measured over the
distance portion of the spectacle lens. This term, depending on context
or specific lens style, may be defined in different ways.
B box measurement: A system of measurement that refers to the longest
vertical distance from the uppermost point to the lowermost point
of a shape. Used in both frame and lens measurement.
Spectacles 165
Bevel edge: The V-shaped edge ground on the periphery of a lens (about
135 degrees) to hold the lens in a spectacle frame.
Biconcave lens: Refers to a lens where both surfaces are concave (minus)
and sometimes referred to as a minus lens. This type of lens is used
to correct for myopia, sometimes referred to as “shortsighted,” or
“nearsighted.” Refer to lens.
Biconvex lens: Refers to a lens where both surfaces are convex (plus) and
sometimes referred to as a plus lens. It is used to correct for hyperopia,
sometimes referred to as “farsightedness.” Refer to lens.
Bifocal lens: Refers to a lens constructed of two separate lenses, each having
a different power. The upper portion is used for distance vision, and
the lower portion is used for near vision. Refer to lens.
Binocular PD: The single measured distance from pupil center to pupil
center, i.e. the distance in centimeters between the centers of the pupils.
Blue blockers: Typically refers to sunglasses that reduce or eliminate blue
wavelengths of light. It is believed that vision perception is enhanced
by reducing the haze caused by short wavelengths of light (blue blur).
There are no specific guidelines for these types of lenses.
Blue blur: Diffuseness of the borders of a pattern resulting in unclear vision
due to the scattered blue light in the visible spectrum.
C
C 39 Plastic: A lens made by Corning Glassworks that filters out the blue
light.
Canada balsam: A liquid resin from balsam fir tree, which grows in Canada
and is used to glue lenses.
Carbolite: A graphite-based material produced in Japan and used for making
plastic frames.
Cataract glasses: Usually a high-plus lens to compensate for the removal of
the lens in the human eye (cataract operation).
Chavasse glass: A lens with a crinkled surface on the back side to serve as a
partial occluder. According to the planned irregularity of the surface,
visual acuity is reduced to 20/200 or less.
Chromatic dispersion: The splitting of a beam of white light into its
component wavelengths (colors) through use of a prism or diffraction
grating.
Coma: An optical aberration where there is a defect in imaging objects
off the optical axis resulting in a bright central area and a tail of lesser
brightness as a result of rays of light striking a lens at an oblique angle
in the lens periphery. This form of optical aberration is generally not
a significant problem in the design of ophthalmic lenses since in the

human eye the pupil tends to act as an aperture, minimizing the effects.
Compound lens: A generic spherocylinder lens (plus on plus or minus on
minus) as distinct from a cross cylinder lens (minus on plus or equals
on minus).
Concave lens: A lens having the power to diverge rays of light. Synonyms
are diverging lens, reducing lens, negative lens, myopic lens or minus
lens. A concave or minus lens is denoted by a minus sign ( – ).
Contrast sensitivity: Refers to the ability to perceive objects from their
background and measured by the contrast sensitivity function (CSF) or
detection threshold. To be differentiated from the Snellen acuity test.
Convergence: The directional property of a bundle of light rays turned or
bent toward a real image point; to be distinguished from the divergence
property of a bundle of rays emanating from a point source. Also,
the turning inward of the eyes in order to intersect each line of sight
at a near finite point.
Convex lens: A lens having the power to converge rays of light and therefore
to bring the rays to a focus; also known as converging lens, magnifying
lens, hyperopic lens, or plus lens. A convex or plus lens is denoted by
a plus sign (+).
Coquille: Blown-glass piano lenses usually used for goggles, approximately
12.00 D curve; mid-coquille lenses have a curve of about 6.00 D. Today
lenses of this class are made by “drooping” (sagging) a flat lens with
heat.
Corrected lenses: A curving of the lens to correspond approximately with
the movement of the visual axis while rotating the eyeball.
CR-39 (allyl-diglycol-carbonate): A thermal-setting optical plastic used for
plastic ophthalmic lenses. For years the most commonly use plastic
lense and was named after the thirty-ninth trial by the first manufac-
turer, Columbia Resin Co.
Cylinder lens: A lens ground to give one power measured in diopters at
one axis and a different power (also in diopters) at right angles to the
first axis, e.g. a cylinder lens of + 2.00 + 1.00 × 90 has two focal points:
one at 50 cm ( + 2.00 sphere) and one at 33 cm (the spherocylinder
combination).
D
Datum line: The line at the midpoint between the top and bottom of a
lens also referred to as the 180-line. Unless otherwise specified optical
centers are ground on this line.
DBC: Distance between centers (the frame PD, pupillary distance).
Spectacles 167
DBL: Distance between lenses, i.e. distance between the nasal lines of a
frame.
Decenter: To displace. In the fabrication or the design of an ophthalmic
lens, the optical center is displaced with respect to the geometric center
depending on the size or power and fitting of the lens plus whether it
is used for distance or near vision.
Decentration: To displace, in the fabrication or the design of an ophthalmic
lens, the optical center with respect to the geometric center or to some
other mechanical point of reference. In spectacle fitting, the act of
moving the optical center of a lens away from the geometric center
of a shape for the purpose of aligning the optical center of the
spectacle lens over the pupil.
Densitometer: Instrument to measure the amount of light transmission
through a lens.
Detachment: See Chapters 15 and 25.
Diamond Dye: A trade name of BPI Company coating system to eliminate
ultraviolet light.
Diffraction: The tendency of light to deviate from a straight line path in
an isotropic (uniform in all directions) medium. Includes cancellation
of wavefronts when passing by an edge or through a slit and bending
in the direction of the removed portion of the wavefront.
Diffraction grating: A system of very close, equidistant and parallel groves
or slits on a surface, used for producing spectra by diffraction.
Diopter: The unit of measurement of the refractive power of a lens. The
reciprocal of its focal length in meters. For example, a lens of 2.00 D
has a focal point of 0.5 M.
Dispersion: The spreading of light waves such as occurs when a prism
breaks up light into its component colors or wavelengths.
Distometer: A caliper used to measure the vertex distance, usually from
the back surface of the lens to the closed lid.
Distortion: An aberration through optical glass that causes objects to appear
in other than their true form. Strong plus lenses (aphakic) produce
pincushion distortion (straight lines appear concave), whereas high
myopic lenses cause a barrel effect (a bowing outward of straight lines).
E
Effective diameter: Two times the longest radius of any given ophthalmic
lens shape. This value will give the smallest theoretical diameter needed
to cut out any given shape ophthalmic lens assuming the center of its
blank was superimposed over the geometric center of the shape.
Eudpiece: The extension attached to rimless lenses, metal frame eyewires,

or plastic frame rims that contains the joint or hinge to which the
temples are attached.
Executive: A type of one-piece bifocal or trifocal lens with the segment
across the entire lower portion of the lens. A modern version of the
original Franklin bifocal. The distance and near optical centers are
vertically aligned as opposed to the near optical center being decentered
nasally approximately 1.5 to 2.0 mm, as occurs with standard bifocals.
F
Face form: A spectacle frame where the wrap of its front approximates the
shape of the head. The necessary amount of wrap needed to parallel
the roundness of the head.
Far point of accommodation: Commonly referred to as “Far Point”. On the
visual axis, the point that is in focus on the retina (fovea) when
accommodation is relaxed. In emmetropia, the far point is said to be
at infinity; in myopia at some finite distance in front of the eye; in
hyperopia at some finite (virtual) distance behind the eye.
Fitting triangle: The imaginary triangle that has its apexes at the tops of
the ears and the point of contact on the bridge of the nose.
Flat top: A bifocal in which the addition portion has a flat horizontal top.
Focal length: The distance between the plane of a lens and the focal point
of an object from infinity. The dioptric power is the reciprocal of
this measurement in meters. All optical testing instruments and
prescriptions use back focal lengths or back dioptric powers.
Focal point: The convergence or divergence of a pencil of light, typically
through an optical system.
Focimeter: See Lensmeter.
Folding spectacle: A term given to eyeglasses that can be folded to fit into a
small pocket.
Frame scotoma: A ring of blind area at the periphery of the visual field
caused by the spectacle frame.
Franklin bifocal: A split bifocal made of sections of two lenses held together
in a frame. It was the first bifocal and invented by Benjamin Franklin.
Fresnel press-on prism: A series of small plastic prisms lying adjacent to each
other on a thin platform of plastic. It has the same deviating power
of the conventional prism but is only 1 mm thick.
Ful-vue: A glass with high refractive index (1.62), containing lead and
sometimes used in spectacle glass and bifocal segments. Trade name
of a spectacle frame or mounting in which the temples are attached
15 to 30 degrees above the datum line.
Spectacles 169
Fused bifocal: The glass bifocal lens that creates two separate foci by
combining glass of two separate indices. The carrier is generally made
of crown glass while the add segment, bonded with heat, is of a higher
index.
G
Ghost image: Dull identical images produced by reflections from the inside
surfaces of a spectacle lens. Antireflective coatings are utilized to reduce
this effect.
Geometric center: The physical center of an ophthalmic lens, i.e. the point
of intersection of the horizontal and vertical meridians which mutually
bisect each other. Does not necessarily coincide with the ground optical
center of the lens.
Glare: Irregularly scattered light that interferes with the focused retinal
picture and reduces visual acuity. When strong (bright) enough can
cause discomfort.
Glasses: Colloquial name for spectacles.
Grating: Refer to diffraction grating.
H
Half eye glasses: Spectacles who’s frames are designed to fit low on the
nose and are half as high as regular spectacles. They are utilized by
those who need reading correction but no distance correction. A
variant of design are half glasses for distance vision where the
spectacles sit high on the nose allowing the wearer to look under the
lenses for reading.
Hallauer glass: A green glass which absorbs ultraviolet light below
wavelengths of 400 nanometers.
Hemianopic glasses: A type of spectacle, incorporating a reflecting mirror
or a beam-splitter plano filter lens as an aid to patients with complete
blindness in one half of the visual field (Fig. 10-11). The purpose of
the mirror is to perceive within the observed field of vision caused by
the hemianopic field defect.
Hyperopia (Hypermetropia): A refractive condition of the eye where the
conjugate focus is behind the retina when accommodation is relaxed.
Can simply be thought as the state in which parallel rays of light
entering the eye focus behind the retina in the absence of accommo-
dation. Commonly referred to as “far sighted.” Traditionally, high
hyperopia would refer to a correction of +5.00 diopters or greater
Fig. 10-11. Hemianoptic glasses, mirror model for right visual field loss (With
10-11.
and low hyperopia would refer to a correction of +2.00 diopters or

less. Often caused by an eye that is anatomically short.
Hypermetropia: Same as hyperopia.
I
Image: In general, a likeness. The optical counterpart of an object produced
by a lens, a mirror or other optical system. The subjective perception
of a viewed object projected in visual space.
Image jump: The sudden prismatic displacement created by the edge of
the segment in a bifocal, especially one with a round segment. The
amount of jump is dependent on the strength of the add and the
distance the optical center of the reading segment is from the optical
center of the main lens—the less its distance, the less the jump.
Index of refraction: The ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum (or other
medium of reference) relative to the speed of light in a given medium,
obtained by Snell’s law, and designated by the letter n. The higher the
n of an optical medium, the greater the refraction ability (bending of
light) of a lens produced from this medium.
Infinity: The far distance (20 feet or 6 meters or over).
Invisible bifocal: A bifocal in which there is no segment line present. The
power is graduated.
Injection molded: A method of injecting plastic into a mold to obtain a plastic
rust of the mold. Used for making some frames such as nylon and
some lenses.
Inset: The nasalward displacement of the segment of a multifocal lens
with respect to the mechanical center or other reference point or line
in the lens.
Spectacles 171
Intermediate zone: The middle power in a trifocal lens design that allows
for clear vision between full near and full distance correction. Usually
this zone power is one half between the distance correction and the
near correction.
Interpupillary distance: The distance between the centers of the two pupils
when the eyes are fixed at infinity. Often abbreviated as PD. Also
referred to as binocular PD.
J
Jackson cross-cylinder lens, cross-cylinder lens: A single lens composed of a plus
cylinder and a minus cylinder of equal power located perpendicular
to each other (90° relative to each other).
Jackson cross-cylinder test for astigmatism: A test using the Jackson cross-cylinder
lens to refine the cylinder, axis, and dioptric power during refraction
of an eye with astigmatism.
Jaeger’s test-type: Refers to a series of type-sizes used in near point acuity
testing.
K
Kestenbaum formula: A formula used to estimate the power of a low-vision
aid that is needed for an individual, i.e. the dioptric power needed for
addition to a spectacle lens that will allow for reading of newsprint
(approximately Jaeger 5).
Kryptok: The name of one of the earliest types of round-segment fused
bifocal lenses.
L
Lap: A cast-iron or aluminum tool used in the grinding and polishing of
lens surfaces.
Lens: Any transparent substance (typically glass or plastic) existing or made
into a shape that allows rays of light to converge or to diverge.
Lensometer: Instrument designed to measure the back vertex power of an
optical lens (see lensometer, Chapter 9). Trade names include Lensometer,
Vertex meter, and Vertometer.
Light transmission: The percent of incident light that passes through a given
lens.
Lens clock: A gage that measures the radius of curvature of a lens surface
and records it in diopters. The gages are calibrated for Crown class
only and well give incorrect measurements for hard resins, aspheric
and progressive addition lenses.
Line of sight: The line that connects a point in space with the center of
the entrance pupil of the eye; the point does not have to be the point
of fixation, i.e. visual axis.
Lorgnette: Spectacles that are attached to a handle, or a folding case that
also serves as a handle, to hold the lenses before the eyes.
Lucite: See polymethyl methacrylate—trade name of E I du Pont Co.
M
Magnification: Optical magnification is the ratio between the apparent size
of an object or image and its actual size, i.e. the process of enlarging
an object in appearance, not actual size. Approximate magnification
of a device can be calculated by dividing dioptric power by 4.
Alternately, 25 divided into the back focal distance in centimeters will
give approximate magnification (The measurement in meters divided
into 10 will give the same answer).
Major reference point (MRP): The point of the front or back surface of a
spectacle lens at which the prism powerfully corresponds to that
prescribed.
Medium: Any material of substance through which light is able to pass.
Meniscus lens: A lens having a spherical concave curve on one surface and
a spherical convex curve on the other surface resulting in a crescent
shaped profile.
Minify: To reduce the apparent dimensions. The opposite of magnify.
Minimal effective diameter (MED): A system in which semifinished blanks
are ground to the smallest diameter creating the thinnest lens.
Mirror sunglasses: A type of sunglass with coating to act as a one-way mirror.
Monocular PD: The measured distance, usually in centimeters, between the
center of the bridge of the nose and the center of the pupil of one
eye. Specified as right monocular PD or left monocular PD.
Multifocal lenses: These include all types of bifocals, trifocals, and invisible
bifocals. May be one piece or fused.
Multilux: See Varilux.
Myodisk: A lens design utilizing a thin, nonoptical peripheral surface to
minimize the thickness of a high powered minus spectacle lens.
Myopia: The condition of the eye, when accommodation is relaxed,
whereby parallel rays of light entering the eye, focus in front of the
retina. A minus powered lens is required to correct this condition,
which is commonly referred to as “near-sighted.”
N
N: Usually the symbol for index of refraction, e.g. n = 1.523 for crown
glass.
Spectacles 173
Near point of accommodation: Commonly referred to as “near point.” The

point representing the maximum dioptric stimulus to which the eye
can accommodate. Any object closer to the eye than this point will
appear blurred.
Near visual point (NVP): The point in a lens that one looks through in the
act of reading. Usually about 8 mm down and 2 mm nasalward from
the distant optical center of a lens.
Neutral filter: A light gray filter that dampens illumination by reducing the
visible spectrum about equally and causing no color changes.
Neutralization: The combining of two lenses of opposite powers to produce
a resultant power of zero (one lens neutralizes the other). Commonly
refers to using a lensometer to determine the spherical power and
cylinder power with axis (if present) powers of a spectacle lens. Also
the method of determining the power of the eye or of a lens.
Nodal points: A pair of points on the axis of an optical system which have
the property that any incident ray directed toward the anterior point
leaves the system as though from the posterior point parallel to the
incident ray, i.e. its direction is unchanged.
O
Oblique: When used with reference to a spectacle lens, it refers to any axis
that is not at 90° or at 180°.
OD: Abbreviation from the Latin Oculus Dexter, literally “the right eye.”
One piece bifocal: Has come to refer to any bifocal lens that is made of
material of a single refractive index. The difference in distance and
near powers is determined by grinding a greater plus curvature in the
add portion of the lens.
Optical center: The point on the surface of a lens where the optical axis
intersects that surface, resulting in a point where light can enter the
lens without being deviated.
Optotype: Any symbol or letter that is used for determining visual acuity.
This term was originally introduced by Snellen for his “test type.”
Today, the most common optotypes are standard sets of very dark
letters of the alphabet of graded sizes on very white (bright)
background resulting in high-contrast measured visual acuity.
OS: Abbreviation from the Latin Oculus Sinister, literally “the left eye.”
OU: Abbreviation from the Latin Oculus Uterque, or Oculi Uniter, the two
eyes.
P
PALs: Acronym for Progressive Addition Lenses.
Panoptik: The trade name of a series of fused multifocal lenses formerly

made by Bausch & Lomb.
Pantoscopic angle: The angle formed relative to the frontal plane of the face
by moving the inferior portion of a spectacle lens closer to the face
than the superior portion is located, forming a “ \ (“spectacle frame
relationship to the eye rather than” | ( ”.
Parallax: The appearance of a lateral displacement of a viewed object when
the object is first viewed with one eye and then viewed with the other
eye, without movement of the head.
Paraxial: Refers to light rays closely surrounding the optic axis of any
optical system such as the human eye.
PD: Abbreviation for interpupillary distance.
Perspex: See polymethyl methaerylate; trade name of Imperial Chemical Indus-
tries, Ltd.
Photochromic lens: An ophthalmic spectacle lens that darkens when exposed
to ultraviolet light. This requires the addition of certain specific
materials such as oxazines, pyrans and fulgides in plastic lenses and
silver halide crystals in glass lenses.
Photogray lens: Lens that darkens in sunlight to 75% of its maximum in
the first minute. It has maximum light transmission of 85% and at
the darkest 45 to 50%.
Photo sun lens: Lens that darkens in sunlight more than do photogray lenses
and in which transmission varies from 65 to 20% maximum. It is
primarily used for sunglasses.
Pince-nez: Eyeglasses without temples and supported by tension pads that
clip on the nose.
Plano: Without dioptric power; synonym is Afocal.
Plano lens: Any lens with zero power, i.e. no refractive strength.
Plano concave: Denotes a lens that is flat on one side and concave on the
other.
Plano convex: Denotes a lens that is flat on one side and convex on the
other.
Plexiglas: See polymethyl methacrylate. (Rohm & Haas trade name).
PMMA: A short form for polymethyl methacrylate.
Polarized: A sheet of optical plastic containing crystals of an iodine
compound that are all oriented in one direction. The plastic is sometimes
laminated in glass. Light polarized by this material is used for
stereoscopes, three-dimensional pictures and movies, and a test for strain
in glass, including heat-treated impact-resistant lens. Lenses are made
with the axis of the polarizing material placed so the glare coming off a
flat horizontal surface is not transmitted. One of the major uses of
Spectacles 175
polarized lenses is for sunglasses, especially for protection from reflected

light on water, snow, and highways. Polaroid is a corporate name.
Polycarbonate: One of the plastic materials available for the manufacture
of ophthalmic lenses. This material possesses a relatively high index
of refraction (1.59) allowing for stronger, yet lighter and thinner lenses.
Polymethyl methacrylate: A strong rigid plastic sometimes used for frames.
Also used for hard contact lenses and intraocular lenses. Trade names
are Lucite, Plexiglas, and Perspex.
Prentice’s rule: A formula which provides a means of calculating the amount
of prism present at any given point on a lens based on the dioptric
power of the lens (D) and the distance that the point is from the optical
center of the lens (cm) and dividing by 10. For example, a ten D lens
at one mm from the center measures one D of prism, 10 × 0.1/ =
1/1 = 1.
Presbyopia: Literally “old eye.” Refers to the condition where accommo-
dation is no longer sufficient to provide clear near vision. Often
noticeable after the age of 40 in humans and may be corrected with
bifocal, trifocal or progressive spectacle lenses.
Progressive addition lens (PAL): Also referred to as a Progressive Lens or
no-line bifocal. Sometimes also referred to as a “full range of view
lens.” These are ophthalmic lenses that correct for presbyopia using a
variable focus allowing for intermediate as well as distance and near
vision. They are infinitely variable from no bifocal power at the top
to full bifocal power at the bottom.
Protective lenses: Lenses used in sports and industry to prevent damage to
the eyes.
Ptosis crutch spectacles: A spectacle frame in which a small spring wire has
attached nasally to lift a drooping upper eyelid.
R
Reflex pupillometer: A device for measuring the distance between the visual
axis of the eye.
Refraction: Deviation in the course of rays of light in passing from one
transparent medium into another of different density.
Refractometry: The sum of steps performed in arriving at a decision as to
what lens or lenses (if any) will most benefit the patient.
Retroscopic angle: Opposite of pantoscopic angle. The angle formed relative
to the frontal plane of the face by moving the inferior portion of a
spectacle lens farther from the face than the superior portion is located,
forming a “ / (“ spectacle frame relationship to the eye rather than”
| (”.
Riding bow: A spectacle bow or temple that extends to the lobe of the ear
and is shaped to the crotch behind the ear.
Rimless frames: Frames with no fronts or eyewires, thus eliminating the
frame scotoma.
Ring scotoma: A ring of blind area in a high-plus lens created by the prismatic
effect from the thick center to the thin edge.
RLX coating: Trade name of 3M coating for plastic lenses that reduce
scratching.
Round top bifocal: A bifocal that has a round top segment for the addition.
S
Safety glasses: Spectacles with high impact lenses and specially certified
frames that meet specific standards for industrial, hobbies and
recreational activities.
Sagittal depth: The height or depth of a segment of a circle on an arc,
being the perpendicular distance from the center of the cord formed
by the arc to the center of the arc. In the case of a planoconvex
spectacle lens, the sagittal depth of the curved surface is the same as
the center thickness of the lens.
Scotoma: An isolated area of absent vision surrounded by an area of normal
vision within the visual field. Sometimes referred to as a “blind spot.”
Every human eye has at least one scotoma which is located where the
retinal nerve and blood vessels exit the eye. Scotomas in other parts
of the visual field may signify disease.
Scotoma, frame: See frame scotoma.
Scratch resistant coating: A thin film of silicone dioxide and titanium dioxide
that is applied to both sides of a plastic spectacle lens thus affording
resistance to minor scratches and wear. This coating can wear off over
a long period of time.
Segment: Any parts or portions into which an object is divided. In optical
dispensing this term refers to that specific area on a traditional bifocal
or trifocal spectacle lens used for viewing distances less than infinity.
Snellen’s chart: A chart of letters used to test for visual acuity under high
contrast (black on white) conditions. Each letter is constructed so that
it can be enclosed in a square five times the thickness of its limbs.
This results in the limb subtending a visual angle of one minute of
arc at a specified distance and thus the entire letter subtends a visual
angle of 5 minutes at this distance.
Snell’s law: The ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum (or other medium
of reference) to the speed of light in a given medium calculated as
the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction,
Spectacles 177
i.e. n1 sine i = n2 sine r, where n1 is the refractive index of the medium

from which the light is coming, n2 is the medium from into which
light is going, i is the angle of incidence and r is the angle of refraction.
Also referred to as the Law of Refraction.
Soule: To cut off a portion of an optical lens, usually the lower nasal
quadrant to give clearance for the side of the nose.
Spectacles: A mechanical device that is placed in front of the eyes to correct
refractive error. They consist of two ophthalmic lenses placed into a
holding device called a frame. The frame is held in place by having its
front center sit on the bridge of the nose and its two rims fit over the
tops of the ears. Commonly referred to as eyeglasses or just glasses.
Spectacle dermatitis: Contact dermatitis due to sensitivity to the metal or
plastic materials in a spectacle frame.
Spherical equivalent: The arithmetically spherical dioptric power of a
cylindrical or spherocylindrical lens. It is the spherical power of the
lens plus half the power of the cylinder. For example, +2.00 +1.00 ×
90 lens has the spherical equivalent of +2.50.
Spherical lens: A lens where all refractive surfaces are spherical, resulting in
the lens possessing a single dioptric value in all meridians (all light
rays refracted equally). To be differentiated from a cylinder lens.
Standard notation: The method of denoting cylinder axis or prism base-apex
axis in which from the patient’s side the horizontal axis 0 to 180 degrees
is the origin for angles measured clockwise beginning from the left side.
Stenopeic: Having a small slit or opening.
Stereopsis: Synonym for stereoscopic vision.
Stereoscopic vision: The ability to view images in three-dimensions that results
from the use of binocular vision, i.e. depth perception.
Surfacing: A term referring to the production of an optical lens surface of
a required curvature through machine grinding followed by a polishing
to bring about a smooth, clear refracting surface.
Strap: The lens holding part of a rimless mounting consisting of two plates
between which a lens is secured by a screw or cement and two arms
that are fitted to the periphery of the lens.
T
Telescopic lenses: A compound lens system for persons with advanced stages
of sight impairment; two lenses, properly ground, and mounted in a
spectacle frame with a short distance between them to form a
magnifying lens system.
Temple: One of a pair of frame sides extending backwards from the end-
pieces of a spectacle frame that holds the optical corrective lenses.
Together, the pair of temples rest against the head and ears and, along
with the frame nose-piece, hold the spectacles in place.
Toric: Pertaining to the surface resulting from a circle rotating about an
off-center straightline in its own plane. A nonspherical spectacle lens
that has power meridians of least and greatest curvature at 90° relative
to each other. Used to correct astigmatism.
Transposition: The process of changing a spectacle prescription from a plus
to a minus cylinder or vice versa without changing its refractive value.
A +2.00 +1.00 × 90 lens is equivalent to a +3.00 – 1.00 × 180 lens.
The rule is to add the cylinder to the sphere, change the sign of the
cylinder, and rotate the axis by 90 degrees.
Trial frame: A spectacle frame into which lenses are placed during the
refraction procedure.
Trigeminal shield: A type of side shield affixed to spectacle frames and used
to prevent exposure of the eye after a seventh or fifth nerve paralysis
or both.
Trifocal: A lens that provides three distinct foci, one at distance, one at
near, and one at intermediate.
V
Varilux, Multilux: Trade names for a type of invisible multifocal lens in
which the power progresses from the distance area to the reading area
through a channel, giving continuous focus at all distances from far
to near.
Vergence power: The ability of an optical system to change the vergence of
a pencil of rays, usually designated quantitatively by the reciprocal of
the focal length of the system. A synonym is focal power.
Vertex distance: Distance from the posterior surface of the lens to the
anterior surface of the eye (for measuring purposes, the closed lid).
Important in aphakic prescriptions and high myopia.
Vertex meter: See Lensometer.
Vertex power: The vergence power expressed with reference to either the
posterior surface of an optical system at the optical axis, i.e. back vertex
power, or anterior surface, i.e. front vertex power. The total power of
a lens expressed in dioptric units.
Vertometer: See Lensometer.
VCA: Acronym for Vision Council of America, a Trade Organization
of Ophthalmic Frame and Lens Manufacturers.
Spectacles 179
X
X-axis: The imaginary line connecting the centers of rotation of the eyes.
Also the line connecting the geometric centers of a pair of spectacle
lenses. Sometimes referred to as the “180 line.”
Y
Y-axis: An imaginary line perpendicular to the x-axis and fixation axis
through the center of rotation. A line perpendicular to the x-axis of
the spectacle lens and optical axis. Sometimes referred to as the “90°
meridian.”
Z
Zylonite: A cellulose nitrate thermoplastic material formerly used in the
manufacture of spectacle frames.
C H A P T E R 11
CONTACT LENSES
CONTACT
Contact lens refers to a transparent lens device placed in the space between
the eyelid and the cornea and on the surface of the cornea and sclera. A
contact lens may be placed either for optical purposes (improvement of
visual acuity via dioptric change), for therapeutic purposes (treatment of
eye disorders) or for cosmetic purposes (change eye color).
Types of lenses
Scleral contact lenses are contact lenses that cover not only the cornea but
also the conjunctiva overlying the sclera (Fig. 11-1A). Corneal contact lenses
are those lenses confined to the cornea (Fig. 11-1B). Semiscleral lenses are
those that bridge the limbus and lie partially on the conjunctival tissues
overlying the sclera adjacent to the limbus (Fig. 11-1C).
Fig. 11-1. (A) Scleral contact lens. The contact lens fits over the cornea and sclera.
11-1.
(B) Corneal contact lens. (C) Semiscleral lens that bridges the limbus and lies partially
on the conjunctival tissue (With permission from Stein HA, Stein RM, Freeman MI.
Contact Lenses 181
Lenses may be hard or soft, depending on the nature of the material

composition. Hard lenses are sometimes referred to as “rigid lenses”.
Extended-wear or prolonged-wear lenses are lenses that may be worn for 24 hours
or more. Gas-permeable lenses are lenses that permit the passage of oxygen
and carbon dioxide through the material. Cosmetic lens is the term for a colored
lens used to cover an unsightly blind eye; this term is sometimes applied to
lenses that are used to replace spectacles for nonpathological conditions,
to enhance cosmetic appearance. “Tinted lenses” are colored lenses that
change or enhance iris color. A bandage lens is used over the cornea to protect
the cornea from external influences and permit healing of underlying
pathology. Soft lenses may be also classified as to whether they are hydrophobic
(water repelling) or hydrophilic (water absorbing).
Design of lenses
The base curve of a lens is the curvature of the central portion of the
back surface of a lens and is measured in millimeters of radius of an arc.
This is the central posterior curve (CPC). Most lenses are either bicurve, having
one base curve and one secondary curve, or multicurve, having one base
curve and two or more secondary curves. These latter lenses have an outer
peripheral posterior curve (PPC) and one or more intermediate posterior curves
(IPC). At each junction of these curves, there is a junctional zone. The
smoothness of this junction can be obtained by blending the zone to remove
the sharp junctional line between zones.
Not every lens has a full spherical back surface. Some lenses have an
aspherical or nonspherical back surface that is not of uniform radius but
shaped like a parabola. The radius of curvature of these aspheric lenses
must be measured at the apex or center of the lens; this measurement is
called the posterior apical radius (PAR).
Every contact lens has a diameter or chord diameter, which represents
the width or measurement from one edge of the lens to the opposite
edge. Each of the curves referred to previously, the CPC, the PPC, and
the IPC, also has its own curve width.
The central thickness of a lens is the separation between the anterior
and posterior surfaces at the geometric center of the lens.
The sagittal depth or height of a lens is the distance between a flat surface
and the back surface of the central portion of the lens (Fig. 11-2). The
greater the sagittal height, the greater the vaulting of the lens and thus the
steeper the lens. This is often referred to as the sagittal vault.
A ballasted lens is one that has a cross-sectional shape with a heavier
base so that it orients inferiorly when the lens is worn. It is usually prism
Fig. 11-2. Sagittal height. When the radius is kept constant and the diameter
11-2.
increased, the sagittal height of the lens is increased and the lens becomes steeper
Fig. 1 1-3. Prism ballast to provide weight and stop

11-3.
rotation of a lens (With permission from Stein HA, Stein
RM, Freeman MI. The Ophthalmic Assistant. A Text for
Allied and Associated Ophthalmic Personnel, 8th edition.
St. Louis/Philadelphia: Elsevier-Mosby, 2006)
ballasted because ‘of the employment of a prism wedge to weight the lens
(Fig. 11-3). A truncated lens is one that is cut off to form a horizontal
base. The amputation of the lens is usually at the inferior pole of the
lens, although superior and inferior truncations have been used. Truncation
is sometimes used to add stability to a toric lens by lying along the lower
eyelid.
The optical zone (OZ) of a lens is the central zone that contains the
refractive power of the lens. The back vertex power of a lens refers to the
effective power of a lens measured from the back surface. The wetting
angle of a lens is the angle that the edge of a bead of water makes with
the surface of the plastic. The smaller ‘the angle, the greater the wetting
ability (Fig. 11-4).
Toric lenses or toroidal lenses, derived from Latin torus meaning “swelling”:
are lenses with different radii of curvature in each meridian. These lenses
are used to correct for astigmatism. A front surface toric lens has an anterior
surface with two different radii but a posterior surface that is spherical. A
back surface toric lens has a posterior surface that has two different radii
and an anterior spherical surface. In a bitoric lens both the anterior and
posterior surfaces have different radii.
Higher power plus lenses are often designed with a lenticular bowl or
central area that has the appearance of an upside-down bowl-like lens
sitting on the underlying lens (Fig. 11-5).
Contact Lenses 183
Fig. 11-4. Wetting angles. The smaller the angle of contact (), the greater the
11-4.
spreading of a liquid over a solid. A hard lens is hydrophobic and has a 60-degree
angle of contact with water. (A) Low-wetting angle. (B) Wetting angle of methyl
methacrylate hard lens. (C) Large wetting angle with droplet of mercury (With
Fig. 11-5. Single-cut and lenticular-cut lenses (With permission from Stein HA,
11-5.
Hard or rigid lenses

Hard lenses may have a standard, or thin, thickness. They may be composed
of a material made of polymethyl methacrylate, sometimes referred to as
PMMA, a hard transparent plastic with a long history of acceptance. Due
to their lack of oxygen permeability, PMMA hard lenses have fallen out
of favor with most fitters. They may also be composed of cellulose acetate
butyrate (CAB), a combination of silicone and PMMA often called “silicone
acrylate”, or of a hard resin silicone. “Fluorocarbon” is a newer material
that can be used either in its pure form or in combination with other
polymers such as silicone and PMMA to provide more oxygen
permeability to the lens. These latter groups of materials transmit sufficient
oxygen to label these lenses as gas-permeable lenses or rigid gas-permeable
lenses (RGPs). These are the preferred type of rigid lenses used today.
Rigid lenses may be modified by fenestration, which is the drilling of
one or more holes through the plastic. The lens may be polished, or the
edges refinished by the Con-Lish, rag-wheel method, or use of a felt disk polisher.
Soft lenses
Soft lenses are composed either of hydrogel material, a watery gel-like material
that contains more than 10% water, or with a polymer with silicone.
Traditional soft lenses are divided into those that contain HEMA and those
that are non-HEMA lenses. HEMA stands for hydroxyethyl methacrylate,
the basic component that is often copolymerized with other materials.
Soft lenses may be manufactured via cast molding, lathing (lenses are
lathe cut by machine to grind lens design, size, and power and an automated,
computer-driven lathe can put exact measurements into the contact lens)
or by the spin cast process, (using liquid material revolving in a given mold at
a controlled speed and temperature to produce the resultant curvature,
design, and power). Lenses utilizing silicone polymers are molded by placing
liquid in a metal or glass mold of known design. Silicone lenses are more
flexible than hard lenses, but typically less flexible than HEMA based soft
lenses.
Oxygen flow and contact lenses

The oxygen transmission through a given material as a laboratory
measurement is often referred to as the “DK” value, where D is the diffusion
coefficient of oxygen movement in a lens material and K is the solubility
coefficient of oxygen in the material. DK or oxygen permeability is a
characteristic of a given material obtained in a given condition at a given
temperature in the laboratory only. Oxygen flux is the amount of oxygen
that will pass through a given area of the material in a given amount of
time driven by a given partial pressure difference of oxygen across material.
The oxygen flux is the relationship of the DK of the material and the lens
thickness so that the thinner the lens the more the oxygen flux there is.
The term oxygen transmissibility is used to indicate the oxygen permeability
(DK) divided by the thickness of the lens (L) so that DK/L = oxygen
Contact Lenses 185
transmissibility. A more meaningful importance is the total oxygen passing

through a lens. This measurement is called the equivalent oxygen percentage
(EOP).
Contact lens fitting

Contact lens fitting is both art and science. When a lens or base curve is
said to be made steeper, it means that the posterior radius of curvature is
decreased, or shortened. When a lens or base curve is said to be made
flatter, it means the opposite, that the posterior radius of curvature is
increased, or lengthened. A steeper lens fits on the eye tighter and a flatter
lens fits looser on the eye.
Decentration of a lens indicates that the lens is sliding off center and
may give rise to poor vision or arcuate staining or both. Arcuate staining is
arclike staining in the periphery of the cornea. Vertical striae are small
vertical lines in the cornea caused by folds in Descemet’s membrane and
are an early sign of corneal hypoxia (rarely seen today with the advent of
silicone hydrogel lenses).
Limbal compression occurs with soft lenses that are too tight and cause
pressure at the periphery of the cornea (Fig. 11-6). Fluorescein is a dye
used to analyze hard lens problems because it mixes with the tear film
and glows in the presence of ultraviolet light or cobalt blue light
(Figs 11-7A and B).
Fig. 11-6. The tight lens causes compression at the limbus (With permission from
11-6.
Mosby, 2006)
Fig. 11-7. (A) Fluorescein pattern of a flat lens. There is absence of dye centrally
11-7.
with a dark area of touch. (B) Fluorescein pattern of a steep lens. There is absence
of dye at the periphery because of marginal touch (With permission from Stein
Mosby, 2006)
Fig. 11-8. (A) Taking a K reading. (B)

11-8.
The principle of the keratometer. The
visual axis is aligned along the optical
axis of the instrument so that the central
front surface of the cornea, acting as a
mirror, reflects the mires of the
keratometer (With permission from
Stein HA, Stein RM, Freeman MI. The
Ophthalmic Assistant. A Text for Allied
and Associated Ophthalmic Personnel,
8th edition. St. Louis/Philadelphia:
Elsevier-Mosby, 2006)
Instrumentation
An ophthalmometer is an instrument designed to measure the radius of cur-
vature of the cornea, using the mirror effect of the cornea’s front surface
(Figs 11-8A and B). This instrument is most commonly referred to as a
keratometer, the name originated by Bausch & Lomb from kerato meaning
Contact Lenses 187
Fig. 11-9. Keratometer mires. (A) Alignment of the mires for axis. (B) Apposition
11-9.
of the plus-sign mire to measure one meridian of corneal curvature (With permission
Mosby, 2006)
“horn” (cornea) and meter, “to measure”. The instrument measures a small
portion of the corneal cap, the central zone of the cornea, and the
measurement is often called the K reading.
The size of the corneal cap measured varies with the instrument used
but is usually about 3.36 mm chord length. The mires of the ophthalmo-
meter are the targets that are reflected back from the cornea (Figs 11-9A
and B).
Topography refers to the measurement of the curvature of the cornea.
The topogometer is a keratometer attachment with a movable light designed
to localize the apical zone or corneal cap of the cornea to be measured
by the keratometer. The limiting margin of the apical zone is determined
by the points on the corneal surface where the radius of curvature of the
cornea begins to flatten. The average diameter of the apical zone is about
6.0 mm. The photokeratoscope is an instrument that photographs the front
surface of the eye and provides a permanent record of a large corneal
area. Topography is today often done via computerized instrumentation
which provide an image of the overall corneal curvature where different
colors represent different curvatures.
The radiuscope, a term coined by American Optical Company and often
referred to as a microspherometer, is an instrument that measures the
radius of curvature of a hard contact lens. A profile analyzer is an instrument
used to assess the junctional zone blending of a hard lens (Figs 11-10A
and B).
A shadowgraph is an instrument that projects and magnifies a contact
lens. It is used to examine defects in a lens and determine measurements.
Fig. 11-10. (A) Poorly finished transition zone as determined by the profile
11-10.
analyzer. (B) Perfect transition zone with ski contour at its periphery (With permission
Mosby, 2006)
Fig. 11-1
11-11. Wet cell used to measure power of a soft lens in the hydrated state.
1-11.
The soft lens is floated in normal saline solution and measured in a regular
lensometer (With permission from Stein HA, Stein RM, Freeman MI. The Ophthalmic
A wet cell or hydrometric chamber is used to retain a soft lens for evaluation
and measurements of power and edge configuration (Fig. 11-11). Templates
are small elevated plastic domes of known radius of curvature for
evaluating base curves of soft lenses in a number of existing soft lens
analyzers.
A
Abnormal staining patterns: The normal cornea does not stain. However,
with a contact lens, there may be some abnormalities occurring that
give typical staining patterns (Fig. 11-12).
Alternating vision: A bifocal contact lens design where rays of light enter
the pupil through either the distance power section of a bifocal contact
Contact Lenses 189
Fig. 11-12. Abnormal staining patterns (With permission from Stein HA, Stein RM,
11-12.
lens or the near power section of a bifocal contact lens, thus requiring
the contact lens to translate (move appropriately) to assure the desired
optical section is in front of the pupil and in the line of sight. To be
differentiated from simultaneous vision.
Annular bifocal lens: A lens with distance portion ground into the center
of the lens and near power ground into the periphery or vice versa.
Anoxia: A diminished supply of oxygen.
Anterior optical zone: The radius of curvature of the anterior surface of
the lens which in turn determines the refractive power of the lens;
may also be referred to as the power curve or the lenticular bowl;
defined by its radius of curvature and diameter, both of which are
measured in millimeters. (See optical zone and posterior optical zone.)
Aphakic lenses: Lenses designed for postcataract fitting.
Apical bearing: The condition in which a contact lens is fit such that the
back surface of the lens is touching the central cornea.
Apical zone of cornea: Area of the central portion of the cornea with a
constant radius of curvature. Sometimes called the corneal cap.
Artificial tears: Wetting agents for the cornea to supplement the loss of
tear formation (multiple preparations with and without preservatives).
Aspheric lens: A continuous lens with an elliptical shape that has a flatter
peripheral curvature.
B
Bacteriocide: A chemical that disinfects and kills pathogenic organisms.
Base curve (BC), or central posterior curve (CPC): The primary curve of the
back surface of any contact lens; refers to the radius of curvature of
the central posterior surface of the lens; may be expressed in diopters
of surface power or millimeters (mm) of radius of curvature, e.g.
45.00 D = 7.50 mm (See secondary and peripheral curves).
Bandage contact lens: A soft lens placed on the cornea for the purpose of
treating a pathological condition. Typically, a bandage lens has no
power. Also referred to as therapeutic contact lens.
Benzalkonium chloride: A preservative sometimes used in contact lens
solutions because of its germicidal qualities.
Biomicroscopy: Microscopic examination of the cornea, anterior chamber,
posterior chamber and crystalline lens with a slit-lamp microscope.
The magnification is approximately 10 to 50 times.
Bitoric lens: A contact lens designed to correct for astigmatism that has a
toric front surface and a toric back surface.
Bullous keratopathy: Total swelling of the cornea with painful blister
formation at the epithelial level; treated frequently with therapeutic
soft lens.
Burton lamp: An ultraviolet light used to excite the fluorescein dye that is
used to analyze the fit of a hard contact lens.
BUT: See tear film break-up time.
C
Cast mold: A manufacturing method for contact lenses that utilizes a two
part cast mold and liquid polymer. To be differentiated from other
manufacturing methods such as spin casting or lathe cutting.
Cellulose acetate butyrate (CAB): The first material used to produce oxygen
permeable rigid contact lenses, originally developed in 1938 by Eastman
Kodak Corporation. The molecules in this polymer are not cross-linked
and it is no longer used today because of inherent problems with
flexure and warpage.
Contact Lenses 191
Fig. 11-13. Circumcorneal injection as noted by the considerable vascularity at

11-13.
the limbus (With permission from Stein HA, Stein RM, Freeman MI. The Ophthalmic
Central thickness (also center thickness): The total measurement, in millimeters,

from the front to the back of a lens measured at its geometric center.
It varies greatly depending on lens power.
Chlorhexidine: A chemical used for disinfection.
Chlorobutanol: An antimicrobial agent used in soaking solutions.
Circumcorneal injection: Redness around the limbus of the eyes surrounding
the cornea (Fig. 11-13).
CLAPIKS: Acronym for contact lens assisted pharmacological induced
keratosteepening.
Conjunctivitis, giant papillary: See giant papillary hypertrophy (GPH).
Contact lens blank: A sheet or rod of plastic, which can be methyl-
methacrylate or hydroxyethyl methacrylate, used to make either hard
or soft lenses.
Contact lens modulus: Refers to the modulus of elasticity of a lens. The term
“modulus” refers to a coefficient expressing the magnitude of a
physical property by a numerical value. The modulus of elasticity refers
to the ratio between stress per unit area acting to deform a body and
the amount of deformation that results from it. The higher the contact
lens modulus, the more it resists deformation.
Contact lens wetting angle: The angle between the liquid and lens surface.
Continuous wear: Wearing of contact lenses for up to 30 consecutive nights
without removal from the eye.
Fig. 11-14. Corneal cap, representing the theoretic spherical central zone of the
11-14.
cornea (With permission from Stein HA, Stein RM, Freeman MI. The Ophthalmic
Contour lens: A tricurve lens designed to conform to the curvature of the

cornea that flattens as it extends in the periphery.
Conventional replacement: There is no specific, (i.e. predetermined or
prescribed), replacement schedule. That is, the contact lens is replaced
when it wears out, becomes damaged, the patient’s power requirements
change, etc. The patient upon leaving the practitioner’s office does
not know specifically when the contact lens will be replaced. For market
research purposes, a consensus has developed within the industry that
any lens replaced after six months or longer of use be considered a
conventional replacement lens. Conventional replacement lenses are
also referred to as “traditional”, “reusable”, and/or “durable” replace-
ment lenses.
Copolymer: Two or more chemicals that are combined to form a new
chemical compound.
Corneal cap: The spherical central zone of the cornea (Fig. 11-14).
Corneal diameter: The diameter of the cornea, usually taken along the
horizontal meridian.
Corneal edema: Swelling of the cornea caused by hypoxia or insufficient
oxygen (Figs 11-15A and B).
Corneoscleral lens: A contact lens that fully covers both the cornea and sclera.
CRT: Acronym for corneal refractive therapy (a trademarked term).
Contact Lenses 193
Fig. 11-15. The soft lens: (A) Produces a diffuse area of corneal edema that does
11-15.
not alter the radius of curvature of the cornea and does not cause spectacle blur.
(B) The hard lens produces a discrete type of corneal edema, confined to the corneal
cap, which does cause spectacle blur because it produces a radical steepening of
the corneal curvature (With permission from Stein HA, Stein RM, Freeman MI. The
D
Daily wear: Wearing of contact lenses during waking hours only, i.e. no
overnight wear at all.
Dehydration: The drying out of a soft lens.
Deturgescence, corneal: The state of relative dehydration maintained by the
normal intact cornea that enables it to remain transparent.
Diagnostic fitting set: A limited set of trial lenses used to gain a dynamic
overview of the fit of a contact lens.
Discoloration: A change in color of a contact lens.
Disinfection: The use of a chemical procedure that eliminates most
recognized pathogenic microorganisms but not necessarily all microbial
forms (e.g. bacterial endospores) on inanimate objects.
Disposable contact lenses: Refers to how the contact lenses are replaced, by
definition, lenses that are disposed of once removed from the eye,
also referred to as daily disposable lenses. This can be considered the
maximum type of planned replacement regimen possible. A consensus
has developed within the industry that any lens replaced up to 15 days
of use be considered a disposable lens.
Fig. 11-16. Double slab-off soft lens used to correct astigmatism. The lens is made
11-16.
thinner superiorly and interiorly so that the thinner portions tend to rotate and come
to rest under the upper and lower eyelids (With permission from Stein HA, Stein
DK value: A measure of the oxygen permeability through a given material

where D is the diffusion coefficient for oxygen movement in the lens
material and K is the solubility of oxygen in this material.
Double slab-off: A lens that is thinner in the upper and lower sections and
thicker in the center, used to correct astigmatism by stabilizing the
lens from rotation (Fig. 11-16).
Dry spots: Areas of drying as noted by absent areas of fluorescein-stained
tear film on the cornea when the patient stares.
Dyer nomogram system of lens ordering: A simplified system of ordering hard
lenses based on clinical experience, corneal topogometry, and charts
of associated lens parameters.
E
Edema: Swelling due to an accumulation of an excessive amount of watery
fluid in cells, tissues or serous cavities. In vision, often refers to corneal
edema brought on by hypoxia, usually from the wearing of low oxygen
permeable contact lenses.
Edge stand-off: An edge of the contact lens that lifts off the sclera or cornea
(Fig. 11-17).
EDTA: See ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid.
Elasticity: The ability of a lens to stretch and return to the same configura-
tion. Lens memory.
Endophthalmitis: An inflammation of the entire eye including the outer
coats.
Contact Lenses 195
Fig. 11-17. Loose lens with edge stand-off. (A) shows the edge lifting of the scleral
11-17.
rim. (B) It is a schematic side view interpretation of the edge lift-off of a loose lens
Enzyme cleaner: A cleaning agent that acts on a soft lens designed to remove
protein, lipid and mucin deposits as one of the steps in the lens care
regimen.
Epithelial edema: Edema of the superficial layer of the cornea.
Equivalent oxygen percentage (EOP): An in vivo measurement that determines
the amount of oxygen depletion of the cornea that occurs after a
period of contact lens wear; done by measuring the rate of oxygen
uptake from an oxygen-bearing probe (polarographic sensor) pressed
on the cornea immediately following the removal of the contact lens.
The resulting value is expressed as an equivalent oxygen percentage
(EOP).
Esthesiometer (Cochet-Bonnet): A device used to evaluate corneal sensitivity,
consisting essentially of a nylon thread mounted in a handle so that
its length may be varied and calibrated in milligrams of weight neces-
sary to bend a given length of the thread when pressed against the
cornea.
Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid: A chemical used for disinfection.
Eversion of the eyelid: The folding back of the eyelid on itself.
Extended wear: Either rigid or soft lenses that are worn for longer than
24 hours (during waking and sleeping hours) for a specified number
of days and sometimes referred to as prolonged wear.
F
Finished lens: A complete lens with anterior and posterior curves, a specified
diameter, a designated peripheral curve, and edge design.
Fitting set: A complete inventory of lenses of graduated powers and base

curves.
Flare: Flutterings or fringing of lights, caused by a lens with an optical
zone too small, a decentered lens, or an excessively loose lens.
Flat cornea: A cornea with a K value less than 41 D.
Flexible wear: Wearing of the contact lenses as either a daily wear and/or
extended wear modality. The patient has the “flexibility” in choosing
their wear modality based upon circumstance. Flexible wear has come
to mean a contact lens worn mostly on a daily wear basis with
occasional extended wear, e.g. 2–3 consecutive nights.
Fluid lens: Power created by having a very convex or concave tear film; in
most cases the power of the tear film is negligible, because this layer
is too thin (less than 0.02 mm) to have an appreciable effect on the
power of the lens.
Fluorescein: An organic compound that is inert and used to stain the tear
film for contact lens fitting and to assess the integrity of the cornea.
Fluorine polymer: An RGP contact lens material which incorporates the
fluorine molecule to increase oxygen permeability without the side
effects of decreased wetability noted in lenses with silicone acrylate.
Fluorosilicone acrylate: An RGP contact lens material which incorporates
fluorine and silicone acrylate copolymers; represents some of the most
popular gas permeable copolymers available at the present time;
typically excellent oxygen permeability, wetability and durability
characteristics.
Front toric lens: A contact lens designed to correct for astigmatism that has
a toric front surface and a spherical back surface.
G
Galilean telescope: Telescope with a minus ocular lens combined with a plus
objective lens.
Germicide: A chemical used for disinfection, such as chlorhexidine.
Giant papillary conjunctivitis (GPC): An inflammation characterized by papilla
that reach 1.0 mm in size on the conjunctiva of the inner eyelids and
thought to arise from sensitivity to a build up of material on a contact
lens (as part of an immunoglobulin E (IgE)-mediated hypersensitivity
reaction). GPC may be characterized in stages from mild to severe.
Frequent replacement of contact lenses help mediate the condition.
Also referred to as giant papillary hypertrophy (GPH).
GP: An alternate abbreviation for rigid gas permeable (RGP) contact
lenses.
GPH: See giant papillary conjunctivitis.
Contact Lenses 197
H
Haptic: The portion of a scleral lens which rests on (touches) the scleral
conjunctiva. Also called scleral flange. Haptic is sometimes used
generically to refer to any non-optical portion of a lens. The term
also refers to loops on an intraocular lens which hold the lens in place.
Harrison-Stein nomogram: A series of lens specifications for prescribing a
gas permeable contact lens from silicone-PMMA and silicone-PMMA-
fluorine material.
HEMA: Refer to hydrogel lenses.
Horizontal visible iris diameter (HVID): The distance measured in millimeters
(mm) of the iris, which represents a close approximation of the limbal
diameter of the eye.
HVID: Acronym for horizontal visible iris diameter. Refer to visible iris
diameter.
Hybrid lens: A soft contact lens which combines a HEMA soft contact
lens skirt with a RGP optical center.
Hydrogel lenses: Also called hydrophilic lenses and soft lenses. Contact lenses
made from a plastic that absorbs and binds water into its molecular
structure. The first soft (hydrogel) contact lens material introduced in
the United States (Polymacon) was composed of hydroxyethyl
methacrylate (HEMA). This material was developed by Otto Wichterle,
a polymer chemist, who developed a spin casting technique of lens
production in 1961. The next group of hydrogels consisted of
copolymers of HEMA to which other monomers were added, such
as N-vinyl pyrrolidone (NVP) or NVP plus methacrylic acid. Both of
these hydrophilic monomers tend to increase hydrogel lens water
content. Hydrophobic monomers will decrease the hydrogel lens water
content. These monomers include methyl methacrylate, isobutyl
methacrylate and pentyl methacrylate.
Hydrogel lens grouping: Hydrogel lenses can be divided into two broad
categories: HEMA-containing lenses and non-HEMA containing lenses.
Another way of classifying hydrogel lenses is based on the US FDA
groupings. Here soft contact lenses are divided into four groups
according to both their water content and their hydrogel polymer
reactivity. Lenses with more reactive surfaces are termed “ionic” and
those with less reactive surfaces are termed “nonionic”. Group 1 contains
lenses with low water content (<50%) and nonionic polymers;
Group 2 has lenses of high water content (>50%) nonionic polymers;
Group 3 has low water content ionic polymers; and Group 4 has lenses
made from high water content ionic polymers.
Hydrogen peroxide: A bacteriocide used for soft lenses.

Hydrophilic: Any material that has an affinity for water.
Hydrophilic lenses: Refer to hydrogel lenses.
Hydrophobic: Any material that does not have an affinity for water.
Hyperflange: Design using a plus carrier design to decrease the edge thickness;
indicated in high minus power contact lenses. Refer to lenticular flange.
Hyperpermeable contact lens: A contact lens with a high Dk that is US FDA
approved for 30 day continuous wear.
Hypoxia: Reduction in oxygen delivery to a tissue below the level that is
required for normal physiological functioning.
I
Intermediate curve: Any curve on the back surface of a contact lens located
between the central posterior curve (base curve) and the peripheral
posterior curve.
Interpalpebral: Between the eyelids.
K
Keratitis: Inflammation of the cornea from any cause.
Keratoconus: A condition of deformity of the cornea into a cone shape
due to the stretching and resulting thinning of the tissue.
Keratometer: Trade name of an instrument used to measure the anterior
curvatures of the cornea. The generic term is ophthalmometer.
Korb lens: A PMMA lens that is fitted in a manner to position on the
superior portion of the cornea regardless of weight or power and
designed to move vertically over the cornea on blinking as if attached
to the upper eyelid.
L
Lacrimal lens: The tear layer with optical power (may be plus or minus)
formed between the back surface of a contact lens and the front
surface of the cornea.
Lag: The slippage or extent of slippage of a contact lens associated with
gravity, blinking or rotation of the eyes.
Lathe cut lens: A manufacturing method for contact lenses that lathe cuts a
lens from a dry hard button. To be differentiated from other
manufacturing methods such as spin casting or cast molding.
LD + 2: The longest diameter (LD) of the optical zone plus 2 mm (for
the intermediate and peripheral curves) yields the diameter of a lens;
determined by using the topogometer.
Contact Lenses 199
LEH: Acronym for limbal epithelial hypertrophy.

Lens diameter: Refers to overall width of the lens from one edge to the
other, i.e. the chord length; conventionally noted to the nearest tenth
of a millimeter.
Lens edge: The peripheral portion of a lens; represents the junction between
the anterior and posterior surfaces; divided into three components:
anterior zone, posterior zone, and apex.
Lens power: The measured dioptric power utilizing a lensometer or
equivalent instrument; it represents the ability of a lens to bend (refract)
light; the greater the difference between the front and the back surface
curvatures of the lens, the greater its power (refracting ability).
Lenticular flange: Refers to the increase or decrease in anterior edge
thickness; an aid to lens positioning. Refer to myoflange and
hyperflange.
Lenticular lenses: Relatively large lens most suitable for large, flat eyes;
consists of a central optical zone and a surrounding nonoptical flange.
Lid wiper: Defined as that portion of the marginal conjunctiva of the upper
eyelid that wipes over the ocular surface with blinking.
Limbal epithelial hypertrophy (LEH): Epithelial cells “heaping up” at the
limbus, typically extending uniformly for 360° and usually associated
with soft extended wear lenses. Believed caused by extended wear-
associated hypoxia which causes thinning of the central corneal
epithelium. In an effort to re-establish normal epithelial thickness,
upregulation of limbal epithelial stem cells causes increased epithelial
output.
Limbal zone: Junction between the periphery of the cornea with the sclera.
Loose lens: A contact lens with excessive movement; it can be caused by a
lens that is too small in diameter, too thick, or too flat.
M
Magnification: The ratio of image size to object size.
Methylcellulose: A wetting agent.
Microbial keratitis: Keratitis due to a bacterial infection of the cornea.
Microcysts: Small corneal epithelial inclusions, 15–50 μm in diameter caused
by hypoxia. Research indicates that microcysts may be cells undergoing
apoptosis.
Microthin lens: A lens less than 0.10 mm in thickness.
Minus carrier: A lens designed with an edge configuration similar to that
of a minus lens that is thicker at its periphery.
Modified monovision: The method of correcting for presbyopia using a
spherical contact lens in one eye to correct for distance and a bifocal
contact lens in the other eye to correct for both distance and near
vision.
Modulus: Refer to contact lens modulus.
Monovision: Single vision contact lenses used for presbyopic people in which
the power of the lenses is such that one eye is used for distance vision
and the other is used for near vision.
Morgan’s dots: Small discrete subepithelial corneal opacities resulting from
corneal hypoxia; sometimes called epithelial microcystic edema.
Mucin balls: Lipid-encapsulated mucin and proteinaceous spheroid material
associated with contact lens wear and attributed to a shearing
interaction between the contact lens, tear film and ocular surface.
Especially observed in silicone hydrogel lenses and believed related
to the higher lens modulus of elasticity and surface properties of these
lenses.
Myoflange: Design using a minus carrier design on the lens edge. This
additional edge thickness creates greater lid interaction allowing the
upper lid to position the lens on the cornea; especially to aid a low-
riding lens to center better. Refer to lenticular flange.
N
Neovascularization: The development of new abnormal blood vessels in
the eye, particularly referring to vessels growing into the cornea as a
result of hypoxia.
Nomogram: A table of precalculated mathematical values used to arrive at
a hard lens design.
O
Orthokeratology: The technique of flattening the cornea and reshaping of
the cornea to reduce myopia through the use of rigid contact lenses.
Overwearing syndrome: A misnomer for acute corneal hypoxia characterized
by a latent interval after removal of the lens; extreme pain and
congestion of lids, cornea, and conjunctiva are experienced.
Overwearing syndrome is more common with hard lenses.
Oxygen flux: A measure of the amount of oxygen that will pass through a
given area of material in a given unit of time.
On K: The contact lens fitting technique that calls for choosing the base
curve of the contact lens that matches the flattest curve of the cornea.
Optical zone: The area of a lens that is optically effective and contributes
to the lens power; the chord diameter over which the base curve
Contact Lenses 201
extends on the posterior surface of the lens; described in millimeters

(mm), e.g. Optical zone = 7.0 mm.
Oxygen permeability: Refers to the rate at which oxygen moves through a
material. Technically, the oxygen permeability coefficient P of a
material is the product of the oxygen diffusion coefficient D (expressed
in cm2/sec) of the material and the Henry’s law oxygen solubility
coefficient k [expressed in cm3 of oxygen at standard temperature
(OoC) and pressure (760 mm Hg) per cm3 of the material]. Therefore,
the oxygen permeability of contact lens materials, P = Dk, is
commonly expressed in the contact lens field as Dk in cm3 (STP) cm/
cm2 sec mm Hg.
Oxygen transmissibility or Dk/T: Refers to the rate at which oxygen moves
through a specific contact lens of thickness (T). The higher this number
is, the greater the oxygen transmissibility of the lens. (L is sometimes
used in place of T.)
P
Pachometer: An instrument used to measure the thickness of the cornea
and depth of the anterior chamber.
Pachymetry: Measurement of the thickness of the cornea.
Palpebral: Pertaining to the eyelid.
Palpebral angle: Refers to the angle formed at the nasal or temporal junction
of the upper and lower lids.
Palpebral fissure: When the eye is open, the area between the upper eyelid
and the lower eyelid.
Papilla: Any small elevation. (Usually refers to small inflammatory bumps
on the palpebral conjunctiva.)
Peripheral curve: The outermost curvature on the posterior lens surface; its
function is to conform to the flatter periphery of the cornea and to
clear the limbal area as the lens moves with each blink. Specified by a
radius of curvature (in millimeters) and a width (in millimeters);
dependent on the diameter of the lens—the smaller the lens, the
steeper the radius; and the larger the lens, the flatter the radius; always
the flattest radius of curvature in any lens design.
Photokeratoscope: An instrument designed to photograph annular rings of
light reflected off the cornea to aid in making a contact lens that will
contour to the cornea. The data are often fed to a computer for a
readout for a lens design.
Photophobia: Sensitivity to light.
Pinquecula: A small, slightly raised, nonfatty thickening of the bulbar
conjunctiva. Usually yellowish in color, occurring on either side (nasal
or temporal) of the cornea.
Placido’s disk: A disk with concentric rings to determine the regularity of

the cornea when its reflection is revealed on the corneal surface.
Planned replacement: There is a specific time period after which the contact
lens will be replaced. The patient upon leaving the practitioner’s office
knows exactly when to replace their lens. For market research purposes,
a consensus has developed within the industry that any lens replaced
after 15 days to 6 months of use be considered a planned replacement
lens. A common planned replacement regimen today is monthly
replacement. In the literature, one will often find the abbreviation PRP
referring to “Planned Replacement”. Also referred to as “program-
med” or “frequent” replacement lenses.
Plano lens: A lens with zero dioptric power.
Polymegathism: A greater than normal variation in the size of the cells of
the corneal endothelium. Thought to result from chronic corneal
acidosis as a result of long-term hypoxia.
Polymer: A chain of linked molecular units of dimension greater than
5 monomer units.
Polymerization: The union of molecules of a compound to form larger
molecules and a new compound.
Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA): A rigid resin plastic (lightweight,
transparent thermoplastic) used in the manufacture of contact lenses.
Lenses made from PMMA are called hard lenses, to differentiate them
from hydrophilic (soft) lenses or rigid gas permeable (RGP) lenses.
Polyvinyl alcohol: A wetting agent.
Polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP): A polymer often copolymerized with other
plastics in hydrogel lenses.
Power: Refer to lens power
Prism ballast lens: Contact lens with base-down prism added inferiorly to
improve the stability of the lens. Usually 1 to 1.5 D of prism is added.
Prolonged wear: Refer to extended wear.
PRP: Abbreviation for planned replacement program for contact lenses.
Pterygium: A highly vascularized growth of bulbar conjunctiva, triangular
in shape and occupying the intrapalpebral fissure. The apex of the
pterygium grows onto and across the cornea while the base extends
on the conjunctiva toward the canthus.
Ptosis: Drooping of an eyelid (usually upper) below its normal position
PVP: See polyvinylpyrrolidone.
Q
% Q: Refers to corneal oxygen consumption.
Quaternary ammonium chloride: Known commonly as quat, it is a compound
used for disinfecting contact lenses.
Contact Lenses 203
R
Residual astigmatism: The astigmatism present after the corneal astigmatism
has been nullified by a contact lens. It is the astigmatism usually created
by the lens of the eye.
Retroillumination: Light is focused on deeper structures such as the iris,
while the microscope is adjusted to study the cornea; best method of
showing fine corneal edema.
Rigid gas-permeable lenses (RGP or GP): A class of lenses that incorporates a
combination of monomers that consist of different materials
chemically linked together to provide increased oxygen permeability.
Rose bengal: An aqueous dye that stains cells that are damaged or
unprotected by native mucoproteins. Often used to assess the eye after
contact lens wear.
S
Sagittal depth or height: The perpendicular distance between the lens apex
and the plane of the lens edge; related to both the diameter and the
base curve; when the lens diameter is held constant, decreasing the
radius of the base curve increases the sagittal depth of a lens; when
the base curve is kept constant, increasing the diameter of the lens
increases the sagittal depth. Sometimes, referred to as vault
(See Figs 11-2 and 11-18).
Schirmer test: Measures normal tear secretion; the ability of the eye to wet
in 5 minutes 15 mm of a 5 × 35 mm strip of filter paper.
SCL: Acronym for soft contact lens(es).
Scleral flange: Refer to haptic.
Scratched lens: A defect in the lens surface consisting of a groove and ridge.
Secondary curve: Sometimes referred to as the Intermediate curve; that curve
located between the base curve and the peripheral curve on the
posterior lens surface; usually 0.70 to 1.5 mm flatter than the base
curve (CPC); allows the lens to achieve a better alignment along the
Fig. 11-18. When the radius is kept constant and the diameter increased,
11-18.
the sagittal height of the lens is increased and the lens becomes steeper (With
flatter peripheral cornea between the optical zone and the peripheral
curve. (See base curve and peripheral curve.)
Semifinished blank: A contact lens blank in which the posterior curve of
the contact lens has been fabricated.
Semifinished lens: A polished lens with an anterior and a posterior curvature.
Shadowscope: Also known as a shadograph. An instrument that uses
transillumination to cast a shadow of a contact lens onto a screen for
purposes of examining the lens, in particular, examining its edges.
Silicone acrylate: An RGP contact lens material which is a combination of
rigid acrylates with the highly oxygen permeable silicone.
Silicone polymer: A contact lens material that provides the highest oxygen
permeability of any known contact lens material at present. This class
of material in its pure form has been manufactured for contact lenses
in either a rubberized (elastomer) or a rigid (resin) form. Although
this material has very high oxygen transmissibility, it has problems of
lens adherence and non-wetting. New soft lens materials have recently
been developed, that, with special proprietary processes, have allowed
for high Dk soft lenses using silicone to be produced and function
clinically effective.
Simultaneous vision: A bifocal contact lens design where rays of light enter
the pupil through both the distance power section of a bifocal contact
lens and the near power section of a bifocal contact lens
simultaneously, thus not requiring the contact lens to translate (move)
to assure that a desired optical section is in front of the pupil. To be
differentiated from alternating vision.
Soaking solution: A solution designed to keep a lens moist and free from
contamination.
Soft lenses: Hydrogel lenses.
Soper cone lens: A hard lens designed by Joseph Soper with a steep central
posterior curve to accommodate large cones of keratoconus
(Fig. 11-19).
Specific gravity: The ratio of the weight or mass of a given volume of a
substance to that of an equal volume of another substance (water for
liquids and solids, air or hydrogen for gases) used as a standard. For
contact lenses, the ratio of the weight of the contact lens material to
the weight of an equal volume of distilled water at 4°C.
Spectacle blur: Blurred vision that lasts for 15 minutes or longer after a
contact lens is removed and spectacles are used. Can occur with non-
gas permeable rigid lenses wear that produces a discreet type of cornel
edema confined to the corneal cap and produces a steeping of the
central cornel curvature (See Fig. 11-15B).
Contact Lenses 205
Fig. 11-
11- 19
19.. Soper cone lens for keratoconus. There is a
1-19
steep central posterior curve and a much flatter flange
surrounding it (With permission from Stein HA, Stein RM,
Freeman MI. The Ophthalmic Assistant. A Text for Allied
and Associated Ophthalmic Personnel, 8th edition. St.
Specular reflection: A reflection from a mirror surface such as the back of

the cornea.
Spherical contact lens: A contact lens shaped like a section of a perfect sphere
and refracts light equally in all meridians.
Spherical equivalent: The spherical power of the lens plus half the cylindrical
power. It represents the dioptric power of a cylindrical or sphero-
cylindrical lens from the vertex to the plane of the circle of least
confusion (the midpoint of the interval of Sturm).
Spin cast: A manufacturing method for contact lenses that utilizes a spinning
mold and liquid polymer. To be differentiated from other manufactur-
ing methods such as lathe cutting or cast molding.
SPK: See superficial punctate keratitis.
Stable vision: Visual acuity that does not fluctuate.
Sterilization: Any process that destroys all types and forms of micro-
organisms, including spores. The more common types of sterilizers
include the dry heat oven, the forced air dry heat oven (convection
type) the autoclave (steam under high pressure and high temperature)
and the chemiclave (unsaturated chemical vapor type of sterilizer which
relies on heat, pressure and alcohol/formaldehyde-based proprietary
solutions to achieve sterilization at a standard operating temperature
of 131°C).
Stippling: Dotlike staining of the cornea.
Superficial punctate keratitis (SPK): Diffuse stippling of the cornea.
Surfactant: A cleaner that acts on the surface of a contact lens.
Styrene: An acrylic plastic used as a RGP contact lens material; provides a
medium Dk value but with a low density and good inherent rigidity;
used primarily as a specialty lens material because of its brittleness.
Surfactant cleaning: The use of a detergent to remove surface debris from a
contact lens.
Superior limbic keratoconjunctivitis: Inflammatory reaction of the cornea and

conjunctiva in the superior limbic region. Thought to occur in response
to hypoxia, as an allergic reaction or to solutions containing thimerosal
in contact lens wearers. Can also occur as a disease of unknown cause
in a non-contact lens wearer.
T
Taco test: A test to determine that a soft contact lens is not inside out by
grasping the lens near its apex and folding it so the edge will roll in
like a Mexican taco if it is not everted.
Tear film break up time (TBUT or BUT): The time it takes for dry spots to
occur on the cornea without a blink occurring. The normal range is
10 to 30 seconds. A TBUT of less than 10 seconds may indicate a
person who will have dryness symptoms when fit with contact lenses.
Fluorescein installation and observation with the slit-lamp is used to
observe TBUT.
Tear pump: The exchange of tears experienced with a blink.
Tears: A composite of secretions from lacrimal glands, accessory glands
of Kraus and Wolfring, mucin-secreting goblet cells of the conjunctiva,
meibomian-secreting tarsal glands, and oil-secreting glands of Zeis.
Therapeutic contact lens: A soft contact lens, usually without any power, used
for the purpose of treating a pathological condition. Also referred to
as bandage contact lens.
Thermal disinfection: Disinfection of a lens by heat.
Thickness of a lens: The measurement of the center of a lens; a variable
that depends on the posterior vertex power, the central base curve,
the index of refraction of the lens material, and the lens diameter.
Thimerosal (Merthiolate): A mercurial agent used for disinfection.
Thin zone: A contact lens stabilization method (to help prevent a contact
lens, usually a toric lens, from rotating with the blink) where material
is removed from both the upper and lower regions of the lens; results
in the thickest zone of the lens being in the middle; commonly referred
to as double slab-off.
Three and nine o’clock staining: Erosion of the cornea at the three and nine
o’clock position; typically seen in rigid lenses.
Three-point touch: A lens that rests on the sclera and on the center of the
cornea (Fig. 11-20).
Tight lens: A lens that has minimal or no movement.
Tint: Addition of a substance to add or change a color. In contact lenses,
there are three categories of tinted lenses as follows: 1. handling or
visibility tint (to aid in ease of handling with no effect on eye color),
Contact Lenses 207
Fig. 1 1-20. Three-point touch—a normally fitting

11-20.
soft lens will rest lightly at the apex and at the peri-
phery of the cornea (With permission from Stein HA,
Stein RM, Freeman MI. The Ophthalmic Assistant.
A Text for Allied and Associated Ophthalmic
Personnel, 8th edition. St. Louis/Philadelphia:
2. enhancing tint (to enhance the existing natural eye color), 3. opaque
tint (to change eye color).
Topography: Measurement of the curvature of the cornea.
Transitional zone: That area of the cornea between the apical zone and the
limbal zone.
Toric contact lens: Term to describe a contact lens used to correct
astigmatism; a lens with a cylinder component. A back surface toric occurs
when the toroidal curve is on the back surface of the lens and a
spherical curve is on the front surface. A front surface toric occurs when
the toroidal curve is on the front surface of the lens and a spherical
curve is on the back surface. A bitoric occurs when toroidal curves are
on both the front and back surfaces of the lens.
Transposition: The method used to change a sphere and plus cylinder form
to the sphere and minus cylinder form or vice versa. All toric contact
lenses are manufactured in minus cylinder form, so all plus prescrip-
tions must be transposed before ordering lenses. The method consists
simply of algebraically adding the cylinder power to the sphere power,
changing the sign of the cylinder power and adding 90° to the axis
Trantas’ dots: Small peripheral limbal infiltrations caused by delayed
hypersensitivity, as seen in vernal conjunctivitis.
Trial lens set: A collection of contact lenses of various base curves,
diameters and powers used diagnostically to facilitate the determination
of the final contact lens to be dispensed.
Truncation: A contact lens stabilization method (to help prevent a contact
lens, usually a toric lens, from rotating with the blink) where material
is amputated from the inferior, peripheral portion of a contact lens
creating a flat, horizontal edge.
U
Ulceration of the cornea: A large defect in the cornea that may be caused by
hypoxia, trauma, or infection.
V
V-groove gauge: A ruler measure with a groove to measure the diameter of
a hard lens (Fig. 11-21).
Vascularization: Increased blood vessels occurring in a cornea.
VID: See visible iris diameter.
Vertex distance correction: Refers to the adjustment in lens power necessary
when the spectacle prescription exceeds more than plus or minus
4.00 D in either sphere or cylinder or both. This is due to the fact
that the ocular refraction is done at the spectacle plane (typically
12 mm in front of the cornea), while the contact lens rests at the
corneal plane. Plus power needs to be added to correct for the vergence
disparity that results. Vertex distance correction charts are available
for easy reference to determine the amount of vertex distance
correction required.
Viscosity agent: Sticky or gummy substance used for lubrication and
cushioning in certain contact lens solutions.
Visible iris diameter (VID): A term that represents the iris diameter and
aids in selecting the initial lens; often used in place of the corneal
diameter. Also referred to as horizontal visible iris diameter.
Fig. 11-21. V-groove diameter gauge. The lens is inserted at the widest opening
11-21.
and allowed to slide to its position of rest, where the diameter reading is obtained
Contact Lenses 209
Visual acuity: A measure of the sharpness of visual perception. The most

common method of quantifying this perception is through utilization
of a Snellen chart. Contact lenses provide visual acuity equivalent to
spectacles, and in some cases, superior to spectacles.
W
Warpage: A permanent bending of a hard lens. May also refer to a
semipermanent altering of the corneal curvature.
Water content: Expression of the percentage of water to the total mass of
the lens.
Wave optics: Refers to the study of the generation, measurement and wave
nature of light. New contact lens measurements utilize wave optics.
Weeping: Excessive lacrimation.
Wettability: Refers to how well a contact lens material is able to be perfused
and surrounded by the tear film. It is assumed that the more wettable
a contact lens is the more comfortable it is on the eye. Fluid in contact
with any surface tends to form a “bead” and the angle formed by the
surface and a tangent drawn to the surface at the point of contact to
this bead of material forms a characteristic angle. The more wettable
a material, the lower this angle is, i.e. a 0o measured angle is 100%
wettable, and a 90o measured angle is 0% wettable; believed to be
dependent on the surface tension of the tears and the molecular
adhesion between the tears and the material (See Fig. 11-4).
Wet storage: The use of soaking solution to store hard contact lenses.
Wetting solution: Solutions that increase the spreading or wettability of
liquids on the plastic contact lens by converting the surface of a lens
from a hydrophobic to a hydrophilic surface.
Wink: The momentary closure of the eyelids, in particular, one eye.
X
X chrom lens: A red contact lens designed to aid the individual with partial
color blindness.
Xerophthalmia: A state of dryness of the eyes; conjunctivitis with atrophy
and absent fluid discharge that produces a dry, lusterless condition of
the eyeball.
Xerosis: Drying of the tissues, usually the conjunctiva, seen most clearly
when stained with rose bengal stain.
SECTION 3: DISORDERS OF THE EYE
C H A P T E R 12
DISORDERS OF THE CORNEA AND

CONJUNCTIV
CONJUNCTIVA A
Until the ninth century, visual perception was thought to take place on
the surface of the cornea at the pupillary area. The atomists, early
philosopher-scientists of Greece, believed the cornea to be the place of
contact between images of the outside world and “the fire within” the
soul. One proof of this was the observation that whatever could be seen
reflected on the surface of a person’s pupil was what that person saw.
The Islamic scientists of the ninth and tenth centuries believed that visual
perception took place at some location within the optic globe, but without
knowing the principles of refraction, they could offer no substantiated
theory. Not until Johannes Kepler formulated his laws of optics were the
functions of the lens and cornea understood.
Kerato, derived from Greek keratos meaning “horn,” is the prefix
pertaining to the cornea. Because of the firm hard structure of this layer
of the eye, which was resistant to surgery and the placing of sutures into
its structure for many years, it was felt to resemble a thin slice of animal
horn.
Keratitis
Keratitis (itis meaning “inflammation”) is an inflammation of the cornea
(Fig. 12-1). When the conjunctiva is also inflamed, it is called keratocon-
junctivitis. In keratoconjunctivitis sicca, the cornea and conjunctiva react because
of dryness (Latin sicca meaning “dryness”). In this condition, filamentary
keratitis may be present in which small filaments of mucus combined
with tags of epithelium hang from the corneal surface. The break-up time
of tears, or BUT, measures the time required for the break up of the
fluorescein-stained precorneal tear film. The Schirmer test (Fig. 12-2)
described by Otto Schirmer in 1903 is a measure of the amount of tears
wetting a filter paper strip in 5 minutes. Both of these tests aid in
diagnosing keratoconjunctivitis sicca (KCS) or a dry eye syndrome from any
Disorders of the Cornea and Conjunctiva 211
Fig. 12-1. Inflammatory target sites of the eye (With permission from Stein HA,
Fig. 12-2. Schirmer test (With permission from Stein HA, Stein RM, Freeman MI.
cause whatsoever, a condition in which there is insufficient tear production.

It occurs with arthritis, a variety of skin conditions, and aging.
One of the most common problems attacking the cornea is the herpes
simplex virus type I (Fig. 12-3), Herpes (Greek herpes, “creep”) is a creeping
lesion in the epithelium and may be devastating when it infects the corneal
epithelium. Ganciclovir (Zigan), idoxuridine (IDU), trifluridine (Viroptic), and
Vidarabine (Vira A) are used or have been in its topical treatment. The
virus may result in the stromal inflammation, giving rise to disciform keratitis
(disk-shaped edema), interstitial keratitis (diffuse widespread inflammation
of the stromal layers), or metaherpetic keratitis (meta, “after”), in which
inflammation and necrosis (death of a part) persist after the herpes virus
has been destroyed. Herpes simplex has been categorized as primary (first
onset) or recurrent the latter has been categorized punctate, dentritic,
geographic according to the clinical appearance. If the virus infiltrates
the stroma it is referred to as stromal herpes simplex keratitis, a blinding
complication.
212 Disorders of the Eye
Fig. 12-3. Dendritic figure typical of herpes simplex keratitis (With permission
from Basak SK MD DNB FRCS, Disha Eye Hospitals and Research Centre, Barrackpore,
Kolkata, West Bengal, India)
Microbial or ulcerative keratitis is an inflammation of the cornea

produced by replicating microorganisms. They are usually exogenous
(coming from without) and may be bacterial or fungal, the latter being
divided into filamentary (mold) or yeast types. The inflammation of the
cornea from a fungus is called keratomycosis.
Phlyctenular keratitis is characterized by single or multiple white nodules
of the anterior stroma and epithelium with a leash of parallel vessels and
is thought to be caused by a hypersensitivity reaction.
Infiltrates in the cornea are small discrete clusters of cells located deep
in the epithelium or the superficial stroma and may occur in a variety of
bacterial, viral, or hypersensitivity reactions. Trantas’ dots are clusters seen
in the limbal form of vernal (“springtime”) conjunctivitis. Mooren’s ulcer
(Fig. 12-4) or chronic serpiginous ulcer (crawling or snakelike) is a progressive
Fig. 12-4. Mooren’s ulcer (With permission from Basak SK MD DNB FRCS, Disha
Eye Hospitals and Research Centre, Barrackpore, Kolkata, West Bengal, India)
degenerative inflammatory ulceration of the margin of the cornea of

unknown cause. A dellen is a localized area of dehydration of the cornea
with resultant corneal thinning caused by the inadequate tear flow. It often
occurs adjacent to an elevated structure such as a hard contact lens or
glaucoma filtering bleb.
Corneal dystrophies
Corneal dystrophy (Greek dys, “defective” and trophy, “nourishment”) means
defective nourishment of the cornea and belongs to a group of hereditary
disorders in which the cornea no longer maintains its normality. Corneal
dystrophies may involve any area of the cornea, and an anatomical
classification is frequently used.
Anterior basement membrane dystrophy, often called map-dot-fingerprint dys-
trophy because of its similarity in appearance to these identifiable structures,
is caused by abnormal secretion of optic chancres in the basement
membrane of the epithelial cells. Patients experience painful recurrent
erosions or diminished vision if the basement membrane abnormalities
involve the central cornea.
Meesman’s juvenile epithelial dystrophy (Fig. 12-5A) is an inherited bilateral
progressive disorder in young individuals that results in fine vacuoles or
cysts in the epithelium. Although vision is unaffected, patients may have
recurrent corneal erosions.
In Bowman’s layer, the second layer of the cornea, Reis-Bucklers dystrophy
occurs. This is characterized by fibrous destruction that can involve the
peripheral as well as the central cornea.
A number of stromal corneal dystrophies exist. Most common are granular
(Fig. 12-5B) (sometimes called Groenouw I), macular (sometimes called
Groenouw II), and lattice (Fig. 12-5C) (sometimes called Biber-Haab-
Dimmer). The names in italics represent their clinical description, and
the names in parentheses are those of the physicians who first recognized
them as clinical entities.
Of the endothelial dystrophies, or dystrophies of the endothelium, the
most common is Fuch’s dystrophy, characterized by the presence of
corneal guttata (from Latin gutta, “drop”) because of its droplike
appearance and stromal edema.
Corneal degenerations
Degenerations are deteriorations in previously normal tissue as a result of
a chemical change or infiltration of abnormal matter. They are frequently
associated with aging and do not have any obvious familial tendencies. They
may be found in the periphery such as in Terrien’s marginal degeneration
Fig. 12-5. (A) Meesman’s dystrophy. (B) Granular dystrophy. (C) Lattice dystrophy
(With permission from Basak SK MD DNB FRCS, Disha Eye Hospitals and Research
Centre, Barrackpore, Kolkata, West Bengal, India)
(marginal furrow degeneration), that is a progressive gutter or furrow occurring

at the periphery of the cornea which may lead to significant astigmatism
and occasionally perforation. A pterygium (Fig. 12-6) is a fibrovascular wedge-
shaped invasive growth from the nasal conjunctiva caused by exposure to
sun, wind, and dust and primarily seen in people who live in warm climates
(Fig. 12-7). An amniotic membrane or amniograft is sometimes used in
advanced cases and sometimes to heal corneal ulcers. Band keratopathy
(Fig. 12-8) is a band-shaped area of degeneration of the cornea across
the exposed palpebral fissure occurring in degenerate eyes, hypercalcemia,
and juvenile arthritis (Still’s disease).
Fig. 12-6. Pterygium

Fig. 12-7. Pterygium (With permission from Basak SK MD DNB, Disha Eye
Hospitals and Research Centre, Barrackpore, Kolkata, West Bengal, India)
Fig. 12-8. Band keratopathy (With permission from Basak SK MD DNB FRCS, Disha
Eye Hospitals and Research Centre, Barrackpore, Kolkata, West Bengal, India)
Fig. 12-9. Keratoconus. Cross-section of the cornea (With permission from Stein
Mosby, 2006)
Keratoconus (Fig. 12-9) is a bilateral, degenerative condition of the

cornea, which becomes cone shaped with irregular astigmatism. It is
treated initially with contact lenses. The Soper cone lens is a contact lens
with a central steep base curve and a flatter peripheral curve designed
and popularized by Joseph Soper of Houston for keratoconus
Fig. 12-10A. The Soper cone lens. An increase in the sagittal depth can be made
by increasing the diameter of the lens. The base curves of a, b, c, and d are the
same (With permission from Stein HA, Stein RM, Freeman MI. The Ophthalmic
Fig. 12-10B. Munson’s sign. Indentation and conical curvature of the lower lid
by the keratoconus cone (With permission from Basak SK. Atlas on Clinical
Ophthalmology. New Delhi, Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers, 2006)
(Fig. 12-10A). Thermal keratoplasty (TKP) is a method of applying heat to

the apex of the cone to flatten it. It is sometimes used in the treatment
of keratoconus. Munson’s sign in keratoconus is noted by the indentation
and conical curvature of the lower lid by the cone (Fig. 12-10B). It begins
to appear in teenagers and progresses in severity with time. Fleischer’s rings

are small pigmented rings at the base of the cone seen with slit-lamp
biomicroscope. The keratometer is an instrument used to measure (meter,
“to measure”) the radius of curvatures of the cornea. The topogometer is
used to map out the varying radii of the cornea at different points in
identifying the highest point of the cone of a patient with keratoconus.
A
Abrasion: A defect of the superficial layer of the cornea, the epithelium,
that is usually secondary to trauma (Fig. 12-11).
Acanthamoeba: A parasite capable of causing a severe corneal ulcer with
loss of vision. Infections occur most commonly in contact lens patients
who make homemade saline from distilled water.
Acne rosacea: A skin disorder characterized by recurrent skin eruptions,
vascularization of the skin, and blepharoconjunctivitis.
Acute atopic conjunctivitis: An acute inflammatory reaction occurring a few
minutes after a long-term exposure to an allergen to which the patient
has become sensitized.
Adherent leukoma: Adhesion of the iris to a corneal scar.
Alkali corneal burn: Burn caused by alkali chemicals such as sodium hydrox-
ide (caustic soda), potassium hydroxide (caustic potash), or calcium
hydroxide (slaked lime).
Amiodarone: An antiarrhythmic, cardiac drug used for heart irregularitis.
The drug may cause optic neuritis and color deficiency.
Aneurysm: An outpouching of a blood vessel.
Anterior synechia: An anterior scar usually binding the iris to the angle
structures. If the scarring is adherent to the cornea, it is called an
adherent leukoma.
Apical zone: The area of the central cornea that is regular in shape and
spherical.
Arcus juvenilis: Lipid deposition in periphery of cornea in a younger person.
Arcus senilis: An annular infiltration of the cornea with lipid material. It is
found almost at the corneal periphery separated from the limbus by a
Fig. 12-11. Corneal abrasions: (A) Localized abrasion. (B) Scratches in cornea
12-11.
clear material and appears as a creamy white ring. The condition does
not give rise to symptoms, does not disturb vision, and requires no
treatment.
Atopy: A term for a hypersensitivity reaction in which specific precipitins
are not found in the serum but the formation of specific antibodies
can be shown by the sensitization of a normal subject by the injection
of serum from a hypersensitive subject.
B
Band-shaped keratopathy: A ribbon-shaped opacity that extends from the
limbus, usually in the lateral side, across the exposed part of the cornea.
It occurs in degenerate and shrunken eyes, in children with infantile
polyarthritis, and with trauma. It is a degenerative condition charac-
terized by the development of a lacy band horizontally, largely of
subepithelial calcium deposits (See Fig. 12-8).
Behçet’s disease: Recurrent aphthous lesions in the mouth and genitalia asso-
ciated with uveitis and hypopyon.
Bitot’s spots: Keratinization of the mucous membrane epithelium of the
conjunctiva at the limbus, resulting in a raised spot.
Blepharoconjunctivitis: An inflammation of the margins of the lids and
conjunctiva. Common causes include staphylococcal infection,
seborrhea, and acne rosacea.
Blood staining of the cornea: A passage of red blood cells into the cornea
following anterior chamber hemorrhage with raised intraocular
pressure. The staining of the corneal stroma is associated with an
untreated total hyphema and raised ocular tension.
Bowen’s disease: Intraepithelial epithelioma or squamous cell carcinoma in
situ starting at the conjunctiva at the corneoscleral junction and
spreading into the cornea.
Bullous keratopathy: Blisterlike elevations of the corneal epithelium resulting
from aqueous humor filtering into the stroma and epithelium. It occurs
as a result of decreased endothelial cell function that then allows
aqueous to penetrate the cornea. The swelling of the cornea is from
endothelium to epithelium with the latter being heaped up into bullae.
It is usually the result of long-standing glaucoma coupled with an
endothelial dystrophy or endothelial cell loss caused by intraocular
surgery. The condition is very painful and results in loss of vision
(Figs 12-12A and B).
Fig. 12-12. Bullous keratopathy. (A) Normal cross-section of cornea. (B) Bullous
keratopathy in cross-section (With permission from Stein HA, Stein RM, Freeman
MI. The Ophthalmic Assistant. A Text for Allied and Associated Ophthalmic
C
Calcareous degeneration of the cornea: Calcium deposition in the anterior layers
of the cornea, most commonly seen in band keratopathy.
Cellular inclusion bodies: From smears or scrapings, cellular inclusions found
by iodine and Giemsa staining may be indicative of trachoma or
inclusion conjunctivitis.
Chloroquine keratopathy: Deposition of chloroquine in the corneal epithelium
occurring as irregular light brown streaks or radiating lines in patients
taking this drug (Fig. 12-13).
Chronic atopic conjunctivitis: A conjunctivitis that occurs in sensitive patients
having repeated exposure to a relatively diluted allergen.
Cogan’s syndrome: Nonsyphilitic interstitial keratitis combined with deafness.
Collagen and rheumatoid-related diseases:
Episcleral rheumatic nodules: An isolated sterile nodular inflammation.
Necrotizing nodular scleritis: An inflammation associated with tissue
loss.
Scleromalacia perforans: A severe inflammation resulting in herniation
of uveal tissue through thin sclera.
Fig. 12-13. Chloroquine keratopathy (With permission from Stein HA, Stein RM,
Fig. 12-14. Conjunctivitis (With permission from Stein HA, Stein RM, Freeman
Massive granuloma of the sclera: An inflammation associated with

large granulomatous plaques.
Congenital endothelial dystrophy: A hereditary abnormality of the cornea such
that the endothelial cells are few in number or poorly functioning and
which results in corneal edema.
Conjunctival concretions: Minute yellow spots in the palpebrae conjunctiva
of elderly people appearing after chronic inflammatory conditions.
Conjunctivitis: Refers to inflammation of the conjunctiva (Fig. 12-14).
Contact dermatoconjunctivitis: An allergic reaction of the skin and conjunctiva
caused by repeated contact with a chemical that acts as an allergen
(i.e. eye makeup, atropine, topical anesthetics). It is usually bilateral
and is characterized by tearing and itching.
Corneal dystrophies: Bilateral hereditary degenerations of the cornea
occurring in the first or second decades of life. Types are:
Meesman’s juvenile epithelial dystrophy: Consists of myriads of fine
epithelial dots in the epithelium that rarely causes visual problems.
Granular dystrophy of the cornea: Characterized by the presence of
milk-white spots in the superficial stroma in the axial region of the
cornea.
Lattice dystrophy: Consists of minute dots that form lines in the
anterior portion of the stroma. Lattice dystrophy can cause epithelial
erosions and pain.
Macular dystrophy: A hereditary recessive type of stromal dystrophy
that can cause a profound decrease in vision.
Corneal guttata: A degeneration of the endothelial cell layer of the
cornea. Corneal guttata is seen as a mosaic of cells with a slit-lamp
using specular reflection.
Corneal fistula: A rupture in the full thickness of the cornea so that aqueous
escapes.
Cystinosis: Deposits of cystine crystals in various parts of the body including
the cornea. The appearance of these needlelike crystals in the cornea is
pathognomonic for this condition. A fatal autosomal dominant disease
of childhood characterized by dwarfism, glycosuria, and the accumulation
of cystine crystals in the bone marrow, liver, spleen, and ocular tissues-
the cornea, conjunctiva, epithelium, sclera, and the uveal tract.
Cystoid cicatrix: A scar with edema fluid causing the cornea epithelium to
bulge as cystic bullae form.
Cytology:
Polymorphonuclear reaction: Characteristic of a bacterial infection.
Mononuclear reaction: Refers to lymphocytes in preponderance and
is characteristic of virus infections (e.g. herpes).
Eosinophilic reaction: An eosinophilic cellular response is characteristic
of allergic inflammation.
Basophilic reaction: Runs parallel with eosinophils.
Plasma cells: Usually found in trachoma.
D
Delayed hypersensitivity: Caused by prior contact of the tissue with a protein
and is the result of the development of antibodies within the cells so
that upon exposure to the antigen, an inflammatory reaction causing
cellular necrosis occurs.
Dellen: A reversible localized area of dehydration with corneal thinning
caused by a break in the tear film and often adjacent to a secondary
elevation such as a hard contact lens or occurring after muscle surgery.
Dermoids: Cysts composed of stratified squamous epithelium with hair
follicles, sebaceous glands, and sweat glands in the cavity wall lining-
cavity filled with deratin, hair shafts, and debris (Fig. 12-15).
Descemetocele: Herniation of Descemet’s membrane, the membrane
overlying the endothelium, caused by loss of the overlying corneal
tissue through ulceration or injury.
Fig. 12-15. Congenital dermoid of the limbus (With permission from Basak SK
MD DNB FRCS, Disha Eye Hospitals and Research Centre, Barrackpore, Kolkata, West
Bengal, India)
Disciform keratitis: Characterized by the formation of a disk-shaped opacity

of the corneal stroma. It frequently occurs as a sequela to herpes
simplex keratitis.
E
E. coli: A gram-negative rodlike bacterium and a normal inhabitant of
the bowel. It may contaminate the conjunctiva.
Ectasia: A stretching of the tissues. It is found in buphthalmos or high
myopia. In the latter, the sclera is stretched to cause a posterior
staphyloma.
Endogenous: Disease derived from internal sources. They may be blood-
borne such as metastases, derived from an allergy such as vernal
conjunctivitis, or part of a general disease, i.e. diabetes.
Epidemic keratoconjunctivitis (EKC): An acute inflammatory disease caused
by an adenovirus and producing small, oval, white infiltrates in the
cornea that often resolve with time.
Epithelial bedwing: Corneal edema of the epithelium.
Epithelial slide: A process in which the cells surrounding a recently injured
abraded area of the cornea migrate to cover the defect.
Ethambutanol: Antibiotic drug used for tuberculosis that may cause optic
neuritis and color deficiency.
Exogenous: Disease that is derived from external sources such as thermal,
radiation, mechanical, chemical, or parasites.
Exposure keratitis: Ulceration of the exposed part of the cornea, most
commonly caused by seventh nerve palsy. The lid is no longer able to
close properly or blink, leaving the cornea exposed during the day
and in sleep. It occurs in all conditions where there is inadequate
closure of the lids, i.e., lagophthalmos caused by thyroid disease.
Extropia lens: Displacement of the crystalline lens of the eye.
F
Fabry’s disease: A hereditary disorder caused by alpha-galactosidase
deficiency resulting in a deposition of lipid. The lipid is deposited in
the cornea in a typical whorl-like pattern.
Folds in Descemet’s membrane: Appears as double-contoured bright lines
formed by two parallel linear reflexes and appear in both traumatic
and inflammatory conditions of the cornea.
Follicular conjunctivitis: Refers to an infection of the conjunctiva that
produces follicles, that represent the infiltration of inflammatory cells,
predominantly lymphocytes. This is usually associated with a regional
adenopathy of the preauricular node. These infections are usually

secondary to adenovirus, herpes simplex, or chlamydia.
Folliculosis: Formation of follicles without inflammatory signs occurring
in children. It may be a response to an infection elsewhere besides
the eye.
Fungi: Primitive undifferentiated plants devoid of chlorophyll and thus
incapable of photosynthesis that abound in the soil and in the air.
They live as parasites whenever there is an organic material, either
vegetable or animal.
G
Ghost vessels: Empty blood vessels remaining after corneal invasion by
vessels that were filled with blood.
Gonococcal bacillus: A bean-shaped, nonmotile, gram-negative coccus that
produces venereal types of conjunctivitis in newborns and children.
GPC or giant papillary conjunctivitis: An autoimmune inflammatory condition
observed in mostly soft contact lens wears, though occasionally in rigid
contact lens wearers. It may appear months to years after apparent
successful contact lens wear. It is characterized by large raised papilla
appearing on the tarsal conjunctiva of the upper lid. Symptoms include
ocular redness, mucous, itching, irritation and decreased contact lens
wearing time. It is considered an autoimmune inflammation to the
patient’s protein on the contact lens.
H
Hay fever: The most common type of atopic conjunctivitis affecting
approximately 3 to 5% of the population. Other forms of allergic
sensitivity are usually present affecting the nose, nasal sinuses, and
bronchioles.
Herpes simplex virus: A virus that affects the face, cornea, lips, and genitals.
In the eye, the typical lesion has an arborizing pattern (the dendrite)
that tends to be recurrent and eventually causes corneal scarring.
Herpes zoster ophthalmicus: A virus affecting the skin over the distribution
of the fifth nerve, which may produce corneal ulcers, iritis, and
secondary glaucoma. If the tip of the nose is involved with blisters,
the nasociliary branch is affected and thus the eye can be involved.
The most common nerve involved in the ocular region is the supra-
orbital nerve, which affects the upper lid, forehead, and scalp
(Fig. 12-16).
Heterogeneous donor material: A corneal graft from an individual of a different
species.
Fig. 12-16. Herpes zoster ophthalmicus (With permission from Stein HA, Stein
Homogeneous donor material: A corneal graft from an individual of the same

species.
Hudson-Stähli lines: Pigmented lines of cornea that occur after trauma (alkali
burns) or with many degenerative corneal conditions. It is a brown
pigmented line in the cornea caused by the deposit of intracytoplasmic
iron.
Hurler’s disease (gargoylism): Condition characterized by abnormal
mucopolysaccharides and manifested by dwarfism, depressed nasal
bridge, cloudy cornea, retinal degeneration, enlarged spleen and liver,
and mental retardation.
Hydrops: A swelling of the cornea that results from a break in Descemet’s
membrane and the accumulation of aqueous fluid from the anterior
chamber. This occurs most commonly in keratoconus and in the
newborn with a forceps injury.
Hyperemia: Refers to the dilatation of blood vessels in the conjunctiva.
This can be caused by irritation, allergy, inflammation, or infection.
Hypersensitivity: A state in which the tissues react by an abnormal and
injurious response to foreign substances (allergies).
Hypopyon ulcer: A corneal ulcer accompanied by a collection of inflam-
matory cells in the anterior chamber that produces a solid creamy
deposit that is flat on its superior side.
I
IDU: 5 iodo-2'-deoxyuridine-the first antiviral drug used against herpes
keratitis. It competes with thymidine in the synthesis of DNA.
Immediate type: An inflammatory response that occurs 2 days after exposure
to the same protein.
Inclusion conjunctivitis: A follicular conjunctivitis of venereal origin caused by

the TRIC virus affecting the conjunctiva and occasionally the cornea. It
usually resolves without scarring or visual loss. It has two clinical forms
in newborns and in adults and is derived from venereal contacts.
Interstitial keratitis: Indicates an inflammation of the corneal stroma. It is
common in syphilis.
Iron lines: Iron deposition in the epithelial layers.
Iron-ferry line: Iron deposited at the margin of a filtering bleb.
Iron-Fleischer ring: Iron deposited in keratoconus.
Iron-Hudson-Stähli line: Iron deposited in a horizontal line.
Iron-Stocker line: Deposit of iron at advancing edge of a pterygium.
K
Kayser-Fleischer ring: Copper deposits at the extreme periphery of the cornea
in Descemet’s membrane as seen in hepatolenticular degeneration or
Wilson’s disease. It is pathognomonic of this condition.
Keratic precipitates (KP): Inflammatory deposits on the back surface of the
cornea. Usually seen in iritis as cells from the anterior chamber are
deposited on the corneal endothelium.
Keratitis: An inflammation of the cornea. See specific condition.
Keratectomy: Removal of the anterior portion of the cornea.
Keratoconjunctivitis sicca: A dry eye that may be caused by local disease of
the conjunctiva (xerosis-pemphigoid or vitamin A deficiency) or a
decrease in the secretions of the main and accessory lacrimal glands.
Keratoconus: A bilateral condition occurring in young people characterized
by thinning and ectasia of the cornea. It causes visual loss because of
irregular astigmatism that occurs as the disorder progresses.
Keratoconus fruste: An aborted form of keratoconus often seen in families
with keratoconus and resulting in only minimal central thinning and
slight asymmetric astigmatism.
Keratoglobus: A forward protrusion of the cornea associated with thinning.
Keratomalacia: Softening of the cornea, often occurring in severe vitamin
A deficiency.
Keratopathy: Pathology of the cornea. See specific condition.
Koch-Weeks conjunctivitis: Previously termed pink eye. It has been a serious
cause of blindness of epidemic proportions in North Africa and the
Middle East. It is rare in Western Europe and North America.
Krukenberg’s spindle: Accumulation of pigment on the back of the corneal
endothelium in the shape of a vertical spindle which occurs from
breakdown of iris pigment. It is seen in pigmentary glaucoma, in
trauma, after iritis, and in diabetes (Fig. 12-17).
Fig. 12-17. Krukenberg’s spindles (With permission from Stein HA, Stein RM,
L
Leukoma: A whitish opacity of the cornea.
Lipid keratopathy: A nodular yellow corneal infiltrate that follows an old
corneal injury.
M
Marginal degeneration of the cornea: A noninflammatory bilateral degeneration
of the cornea resulting in the formation of a gutter or furrow in the
periphery of the cornea. (See Terrien’s marginal degeneration)
McCarey-Kaufman medium (M-K medium): A tissue, culture-soaking medium
for storage and preservation of corneal tissue.
Megalocornea: Abnormally large (over 13 mm), stationary cornea usually
caused by congenital glaucoma but which may be congenital or
developmental.
Membranous conjunctivitis: An exudate that permeates the epithelium of the
conjunctiva so that attempts to remove it leave a raw and bleeding
surface (in diphtheria).
Microcornea: A small cornea of 10 mm or less.
Mitosis: Multiplication of surviving epithelial cells by division to cover an
epithelial defect.
Moisture chamber glasses: Spectacles (sometimes referred to as dry eyewear)
that are designed to alleviate symptoms of advanced dry eyes by
allowing the patient to maintain normal tear level and proper pH by
helping to keep moisture around the eyes via reduction in the
evaporation of tears through limiting air flow over the eyes and by
protecting the eyes from irritants such as allergens and dust. The glasses
are also helpful in maximizing the effect of artificial moisturizers.
Mooren’s ulcer: A chronic ulceration of the peripheral cornea that can extend
360 degrees and progress centrally.
Multinucleated giant epithelial cells: The coalescence of cells in infections such
as herpes simplex, zoster, and vaccinia.
N
Nebula: Diffuse cloud like opacity with indistinct borders. It is usually found
after corneal trauma or inflammation.
Neuroparalytic keratopathy: Corneal changes secondary to interference with
the sensory nerve supply of the cornea. It can occur with brain tumors
or after cutting the fifth nerve (for tic douloureux). It occurs after any
neurological lesion that destroys the integrity of the fifth nerve.
Nodular episcleritis: A nonspecific inflammation of the episclera charac-
terized by the appearance of an inflammatory nodule.
Nummular keratitis: Characterized by disk-shaped infiltrates in the superficial
layer of the corneal stroma.
O
Ocular pemphigoid: A chronic disease in which there is replacement of the
submucous tissue by newly formed connective tissue that contracts.
It results in dryness of the conjunctiva and cornea caused by loss of
mucous-secreting glands.
Ophthalmia neonatorum: Conjunctivitis occurring in newborns that can cause
damage to the eyes through infection of the cornea. The causes are
manifold but the most common are venereal and Staphylococcus aureus.
P
Pannus: Any ingrowth of fibrovascular tissue between epithelium and
Bowman’s membrane. It can accompany pterygium, trachoma, or
contact lens wear.
Papillary conjunctivitis: A conjunctivitis characterized by raised inflammatory
nodules with new formation of capillaries growing into the epithelium.
This type of inflammatory response is seen with vernal catarrh or
giant papillary conjunctivitis, an allergic sequela of contact lens use.
Pemphigus: A lethal disease of relatively rare incidence characterized by
the formation of bullae within the skin and mucous membranes. It
can affect the conjunctiva.
Penetrating keratoplasty: A window of a full thickness of swollen or opaque
cornea is removed and replaced by a corresponding piece of
transparent donor cornea (Fig. 12-18).
Pharyngoconjunctival fever: An acute and highly infectious illness characterized
by fever, pharyngitis, and nonpurulent follicular conjunctivitis.
Phlyctenular keratoconjunctivitis: An infection occurring mainly in children as
an allergic response by the corneal and conjunctival epithelium to some
endogenous toxin to which it has become sensitized.
Fig. 12-18. Penetrating keratoplasty (With permission from Stein HA, Stein RM,
Phthisis cornea: A shrunken cornea in a poorly functioning eye with a low

intraocular pressure.
Pinguecula: A yellowish triangular patch formed by a degeneration of
connective tissue, situated in the bulbar conjunctiva on either side of
the cornea. It is thought to be caused by aging and exposure to
ultraviolet, wind, or dust.
Placido’s disk: A device composed of a series of rings that examine the
corneal surface to detect irregularities and asymmetry.
Pleomorphism: A variation in the shape of the endothelial cells can often
be seen in inflammatory or hypoxic conditions.
Pneumococcal bacillus: A diplococcus that is enclosed in a capsule and
produces a conjunctivitis similar to streptococcal infections.
Pneumococcal ulcer: A gray-white ulcer caused by infection by bacillus Pneu-
mococcus, showing a tendency to creep in one direction.
Polymegathism: An increase in size of the endothelial cells as a result of
corneal stress. This occurrence among contact lens wearers is thought
to be related to oxygen deprivation.
Posterior polymorphous dystrophy: A corneal dystrophy composed of irregular
grayish white opacities in Descemet’s membrane.
Pseudomembrane: A collection of cells on the conjunctiva forming a memb-
rane that is easily peeled off leaving the epithelium intact (Streptococcus).
Pseudomonas pyocyanea: A gram-negative slender rod producing two pig-
ments a bluish pyocyanin and a yellow fluorescein. It proliferates in a
fluid medium and can easily cause endophthalmitis once it has gained
access to the interior of the eye.
Pterygium (wing): A triangular invasion of the cornea, usually on the medial
side, by a fibrovascular bundle of connective tissue.
Punctate keratitis: Small discrete superficial opacities and staining areas of
the corneal epithelium, probably viral in origin.
Pyocyanea (bacillus): A bacteria commonly found in the intestinal tract and

frequently in the skin, ear and nose and capable of producing a
devastating infection when it invades broken corneal epithelium. It
thrives on a wet medium.
Pyocyaneal ulcers: Ulcers characterized by their rapid course, the primary
involvement of the cornea, the rapid spread to the anterior chamber,
a large hypopyon, and the pus that is frequently greenish in color.
R
Recurrent corneal erosion: A recurrence of an epithelial breakdown weeks or
months after the initial injury. Usually occurs with organic agents such
as paper or fingernails that abrade the cornea.
Reiter’s disease: Characterized by urethritis, conjunctivitis, and polyarthritis.
Retroillumination: Light is focused on deeper structures, such as the iris,
while microscope is adjusted to study the cornea. Best method of
showing fine corneal edema.
Riley-Day syndrome (familial autonomic dysautonomia): Reduced or absent tears,
corneal anesthesia, and corneal ulceration associated with decreased
sweating. This condition is seen most often in individuals of Eastern
European Jewish ancestry. It is caused by a mutation of a gene on
chromosome 9.
Rosacea (acne): An inflammatory skin disease that can cause recurrent
inflammations of the cornea, conjunctiva, and lids (blepharitis,
recurrent hordeolum). It also produces a thickening and vascularization
of the skin with acne like pustule formation.
Rust ring of the cornea: A ring of siderosis that forms in the corneal epithe-
lium as a result of oxidization of an embedded metallic foreign body.
S
Salmon patch: Intense vascularization at the center of the cornea that occurs
in interstitial keratitis.
Salzmann’s nodular degeneration: Elevated white or yellow corneal area that
is usually superimposed on a region of old corneal injury especially at
the edge of pannus. It is a slowly progressive degeneration occurring
unilaterally in an eye previously affected by keratitis.
Sclera: The white, inert, supportive structure of the eye. It is collagenous
and avascular.
Sclerosing keratitis: Inflammation in which the cornea becomes white and
opaque, resembling the sclera.
Seborrhea (sebum, grease): A condition characterized by greasy skin, scales
on the scalp, forehead, and lids, and the presence of a yeastlike fungus
Pityrosporum ovale.
Sjögren’s syndrome: Refers to a keratoconjunctivitis sicca, arthritis, and dryness

of mucous surfaces in the body.
Staphylococcus bacillus: A spherical gram-positive aerobic organism that causes
frequent infection of the lids, corneas, and conjunctiva. It is a common
cause of ophthalmia neonatorum.
Staphylococcal allergic keratoconjunctivitis: Caused by sensitization to the
exotoxin of this organism. It produces a severe ulcerative and infiltra-
tive keratitis.
Staphyloma (staphylo: Greek—a bunch of grapes): Stretching of a corneal scar
or tissue with the incarceration of uveal tissue.
Stippling: Dotlike staining of the cornea.
Streptococcal bacillus: A gram-positive aerobic organism that causes a pseu-
domembranous form of conjunctivitis.
Striate keratopathy: The appearance of linear striae (lines) caused by damage
of the corneal endothelium with resultant corneal edema and folding
of Descemet’s membrane.
Subconjunctival hemorrhage: A collection of blood under the conjunctiva.
Subepithelial keratitis: Subepithelial infiltrates that classically occur with aden-
ovirus infections.
Superficial punctate keratitis: A small dotlike epithelial keratitis occurring
bilaterally with a chronic remittent course in the absence of conjunc-
tivitis.
Superior limbic keratoconjunctivitis: Injection of the superior bulbar conjunctiva
often associated with a microcorneal pannus. This condition may be
associated with thyroid dysfunction in approximately 40% of cases.
Symblepharon: Healing by fusing together two opposing surfaces, such as
the tarsal and palpebral conjunctiva. They are adhesions between the
conjunctiva.
T
Telangiectasia: A network of abnormal arborizing blood vessels appearing
on the skin or eye.
Terrien’s marginal degeneration: A noninflammatory bilateral degeneration of
the cornea resulting in thinning, vascularization, and lipid leakage that
can lead to significant corneal astigmatism and occasionally a perfora-
tion.
Tight lens syndrome (TLS): A syndrome popularized by L Wilson and co-
workers in which an extended-wear lens becomes firmly adhered to
the corneal epithelium.
Total keratoplasty: Transplantation of the entire cornea.
Trachoma: A follicular conjunctivitis caused by Chlamydia trachomatis that often
results in corneal and conjunctival scarring with severe visual loss. The
leading cause of blindness in the world, it is endemic in many parts of

Africa, the Middle East, and poor third-world countries. Lid scarring
on the tarsal conjunctival side of the upper lids is characteristic of this
disease. This infectious keratoconjunctivitis caused by Chlamydia
trachomatis (a TRIC agent).
Tubercle bacillus: A thin, curved, gram-positive bacillus that is uncommon
today but is capable of causing conjunctivitis, corneal ulcer, and
interstitial keratitis.
V
Vernal conjunctivitis: Sometimes called hay fever conjunctivitis, a recurrent
bilateral inflammation of the conjunctiva (spring catarrh) characterized
by cobble-stoned, flat-topped papillae of the tarsal conjunctiva, a
discharge (with eosinophils), and a keratitis. It is seasonal, affects the
young, with a high percentage of cases in males.
Verrucae (warts): A virus with a long incubation period that causes wartlike
lesions on the skin and on the lids.
Vitamin A deficiency: Can cause corneal xerosis, keratomalacia, and night
blindness. Vitamin A deficiency results in a dystrophy of the rods.
Vortex retinopathy: Whorl like pattern on the cornea from toxicity to
ingested drugs.
W
White limbal girdle of Vogt: A harmless, yellowish white opacity forming a
half moon-like arc and running concentrically with the limbus, usually
on the nasal side.
White rings of the cornea: A white ring that is about 0.5 mm in diameter and
consists of white dots thought to be calcium or lipid.
X
Xerophthalmia: Excessive keratinization of mucous membranes including
cornea and conjunctiva. It can occur with dry eyes, pemphigus, or
Stevens-Johnson syndrome. See keratomalacia.
Xerosis: A degenerative condition characterized by dryness of the conjunctiva.
It is not caused by a decrease in lacrimal secretion. For the most part, it is
caused by atrophy of the conjunctival glands and goblet cells.
Xerosis of the cornea: Keratinization of the corneal epithelium caused by
dryness. In the early phase it causes a burning sensation, which can
be treated with artificial tears. In the later stages it can cause corneal
scarring. It is detected in its early phase with rose bengal stain, which
specifically stains devitalized tissue.
C H A P T E R 13
GLAUCOMA
Glaucoma is derived from the Greek word glaukos, meaning bluish gray,
which is how the eye appears in advanced stages. Hippocrates and the
ancients used the term for both cataracts and glaucoma in which a grayish
or greenish appearance replaced the normal black pupil. Later a distinction
was made between opacity of the lens and other conditions that lay behind
the pupil, and the term glaucoma was reserved for the latter situation,
the nature of which was unknown. It was not until 1709 that Brisseau
clearly differentiated between cataract and glaucoma and noted that the
greenish color was a minor feature of the condition and that hardness of
the eyeball was the main feature. Glaucoma is characterized by a sustained
elevation of intraocular pressure. The intraocular pressure (IOP) is the force
per unit area within the eye that depends on the inflow of aqueous in
relationship to the outflow of aqueous through the trabecular meshwork.
Glaucoma is usually caused by impaired outflow.
Types of glaucoma
There are several types of glaucoma: primary angle-closure, open angle
or chronic, secondary, congenital or infantile, angle recession, phacolytic,
and pupillary block. A description of each type is as follows:
1. Primary angle-closure glaucoma in which the angle of the anterior chamber is
narrow and the anterior chamber is shallow resulting in blockage of the
angle at the root of the iris and obstruction of outflow from the eye.
2. Open-angle or chronic glaucoma in which the angle between the iris and
the cornea is open and in which the outflow blockage occurs in the
trabecular meshwork.
3. Secondary glaucoma arising from specific disorders within the eye.
4. Congenital or infantile glaucoma in which the eyes are often referred to as
buphthalmos because the infant eye is not rigid and distends as a result of
elevated pressure and comes to resemble the eye of an ox (buph, “ox”).
5. Soft glaucoma or low tension glaucoma is a condition in which the IOP is
normal but glaucomatous changes continues to occur. Sometimes
called neovascular glaucoma.
Glaucoma 233
Fig. 13-1. Angle-closure glaucoma obstruction at root of iris bombe (With

6. Malignant glaucoma: A secondary glaucoma, often following eye surgery

in which aqueos fluid becomes misdirected into the vitrous cavity
resulting in the iris and lens being displaced forward. This results in
raised intraocular pressure that may be very difficult to control.
Specific secondary types include angle recession glaucoma, which occurs
after trauma, caused by a tear in the ciliary body resulting in a scar in this
body. Phacolytic glaucoma is caused by the toxic effect from liquified cortex
of the cataractous crystalline lens of the eye (from phako, “lens,” indicating
a lens-induced glaucoma). Pupillary-block glaucoma is caused by obstruction
of aqueous through the pupil by the lens or vitreous so that fluid cannot
pass from the posterior chamber behind the iris to the anterior chamber
in front of the iris (Fig. 13-1). Ocular hypertension occurs in patients with
raised intraocular pressure with no demonstrable visual field loss or optic
nerve damage. It is that group of people who have intraocular pressures
that are statistically high, but normal, or have early glaucoma with the
expectation of further rise in pressure and field loss.
Symptoms and signs of glaucoma

Halos are the rainbowlike effect around lights caused by the presence of
free fluid in the cornea that breaks up light into its spectral components
(Fig. 13-2). Pain is a symptom of angle-closure glaucoma resulting from a
sudden and drastic high pressure effect within the eye. Iris bombe occurs
in the pupillary block mechanism when the iris is bound down to the
anterior lens capsule or vitreous face by inflammation. Clinically the iris
is bowed forward by aqueous trying to pass from the posterior to the
anterior chamber.
Fig. 13-2. Halos about lights. This is a prominent symptom in angle-closure

glaucoma (With permission from Stein HA, Stein RM, Freeman MI. The Ophthalmic
Sudden visual loss occurs when the cornea becomes edematous; this
visual loss is reversible. Gradual visual loss may occur with pressure
necrosis, or death, of some of the fine capillaries in the optic nerve; the
result is glaucomatous cupping in which the relatively flat optic disk takes on
the shape of a cup with a small thin rim and deep excavation (Figs 13-3A
and B). Cupping is defined as a three-dimensional depression of the optic
disk surface relative to the retinal surface; pallor is an area of the disk
lacking the pink color of small blood vessels (Fig. 13-4A). The cup/disk
ratio is the ratio of the horizontal diameter of the cup of the optic disk
Fig. 13-3. (A) Increased pressure causes excavation of the optic disk. (B) Cupping
of the optic disk. Note the dip of the vessels as they traverse the temporal margin
of the disk (With permission from Stein HA, Stein RM, Freeman MI. The Ophthalmic
Glaucoma 235
Fig. 13-4. (A) Normal optic disk. (B) Enlargement of cup-disk ratio secondary to
elevated intraocular pressure (With permission from Stein HA, Stein RM, Freeman
to the diameter of the disk (Fig. 13-4B). Under normal circumstances

there is a physiological cup, a normal nonglaucomatous cup, caused by the
presence of a visible depressed lamina cribrosa, a sievelike anatomical
structure from which a true glaucomatous cup must be differentiated.
Constriction of the visual field and sector-shaped defects in the visual field are
common findings—the peripheral vision is gradually lost in an orderly
and usually characteristic manner with sustained pressure.
Tonometry and tonography

To detect glaucoma, a tonometer is used to measure (meter) the pressure of
the eye. In applanation tonometry, such as in the use of the Goldmann
tonometer, the cornea is flattened, and the pressure required to achieve
this flattening is a measure of the intraocular pressure. The word
applanation originates from the Latin planare or ad planare, meaning “to
flatten.” In indentation tonometry, such as occurs with the Schitz tonometer,
the cornea is indented by the footplate of the tonometer (Fig. 13-5).
Tonography (Greek tonos, “that which can be stretched,” and Greek graphos,
“write”) is the science of recording the change in intraocular pressure. It
measures the change in pressure that occurs when a constant weight is
applied to the cornea. The harder the eye, or the greater the pressure, the
less will be the indentation of the cornea by the tonometer. This measure-
ment produces a tonogram, a recording of the eye tensin, which provides
data on the aqueous outflow, or the exit of aqueous, through the trabecular
meshwork, through Schlemm’s canal, and into the episcleral veins. The
measurement is known as the facility of outflow, and this resistance to outflow
can be expressed as a coefficient (c) of facility of outflow.
Fig. 13-5. Principle of the indentation tonometer. (A) Plunger to indent cornea.
(B) Frame resting on cornea (With permission from Stein HA, Stein RM, Freeman
Ocular examination and surgery

surgery
Gonioscopy is derived from the Greek gonio, meaning “corner,” and from the
Greek scopy, “examination,” and refers to examination of the cornea or angle
of the anterior chamber. It is performed with a goniolens (Fig. 13-6). Goniotomy
is a surgical procedure to open the angle and is used in infants for the
treatment of congenital glaucoma. Goniopuncture is a puncture incision of
the angle used in infants.
A filtering procedure is one that permits a fistula to form from the
anterior chamber to the subtenons or subconjunctival space and filters
off the aqueous humor and thus reduces pressure (Fig. 13-7). A filtering
bleb is an elevated bubble of raised conjunctiva filled with aqueous fluid
that flows through the anterior chamber of the eye to the subconjunctival
space. The trabeculum is the normal filtering structure of the eye that lies
in the angle of the anterior chamber and carries fluid to Schlemm’s canal.
Trabeculotomy refers to making a surgical incision in the trabeculum.
Trabeculectomy is the surgical removal of a portion of the trabeculum to
permit filtration of aqueous fluid. Sclerectomy is the removal of a portion
of the sclera to per mit filtration of aqueous out of the eye.
Thermosclerectomy refers to the making of a scleral fistula by a method of
Glaucoma 237
Fig. 13-6. Goniolens. A beam of light is deflected into the opposite angle of the
anterior chamber (With permission from Stein HA, Stein RM, Freeman MI. The
Fig. 13-7. Filtering procedure. Aqueous fluid flows from anterior chamber through
opening in sclera (trabeculectomy site) to subconjunctival space, where a filtering
bleb is formed (With permission from Stein HA, Stein RM, Freeman MI. The
applying heat on either side of a small scleral wound at the site of the
posterior limbus.
An iridectomy is a cutting away (ectomy) of a portion of the iris. It may
be a peripheral iridectomy (Fig. 13-8) in which the peripheral portion of the
iris is removed or a sector iridectomy in which a pie-shaped sector of the iris
is removed. It is referred to as basal iridectomy if the root or base of the
Fig. 13-8. Peripheral iridectomy. A small wedge of iris is removed from its base
iris is removed. In laser iridotomy, frequently performed today, a small

opening is made in the iris. A surgical procedure creating an opening
between the anterior and subconjunctival space can be performed with
or without an implant device (tube shunt) to help aqueous flow out of
the anterior chamber.
A
Adrenergic agents: These agents act as receptors of the sympathetic nervous
system. They are divided into: (1) alpha receptors, which mediate
pupillary dilatation, (2) beta receptors: beta-l , results in cardiac stimula-
tion and beta-2 results in relaxation of bronchial and gastrointestinal
smooth muscle and vasodilation.
Angle-closure glaucoma: The condition of markedly raised intraocular pressure
resulting from blockage of the angle at the root of the iris and
obstruction of outflow from the eye (See Fig. 13-1).
Aniridia: Absence of the iris, which frequently results in glaucoma. It is
usually congenital and is associated with foveal aplasia, cataracts, and
rotary and pendular nystagmus.
Anterior chamber angle: Angle between the iris and the cornea that contains
the trabecula and through which the aqueous flows out of the eye.
Anterior synechiae: Fibrous adhesions of iris to cornea or trabecula in
anterior chamber angle. The resultant scar can cause glaucoma.
Anticholinesterase agents: Inhibit cholinesterase and thereby potentiate the
effects of acetylcholine on the parasympathetic end organs. Anticholin-
esterase agents: physostigmine (Eserine), isoflurophate (Fluorophyl,
DFP), echothiophate iodide (Phospholine Iodide), and demecarium
bromide (Humorsol).
Glaucoma 239
Aqueous humor: A transparent fluid secreted by ciliary processes into the

posterior chamber. It passes through the pupil to the anterior chamber
and then to the trabecular meshwork.
Aqueous inflow: Aqueous produced by active secretion of the epithelium
of the ciliary body flows by passive filtration through the blood vessels
of the iris and ciliary body.
Aqueous outflow: The exit of aqueous through the trabecular meshwork,
through Schlemm’s canal, and then into the episcleral venous system.
Aqueous vein: Connects Schlemm’s canal to the episcleral blood veins.
Automated perimeters: A series of perimeters automated so that they eliminate
technician bias and the need for highly trained personnel. They are very
standardized, accurate, and with many devices include information storage.
Arachnodactyly (Marfan’s syndrome): This congenital condition features the
presence of congenital glaucoma, dislocated lenses, cardiac abnormalities,
musculoskeletal defects, and dissecting aneurysms of the aorta.
Arcuate Bjerrum scotoma: A half ring-like visual field defect arising from
the disk and extending around fixation.
Axenfeld’s anomaly: Posterior corneal arcus resulting from bridging filaments
from the iris stroma to Schwalbe’s line and resulting in glaucoma.
B
Basal iridectomy: Removal of the root or base of the iris.
C
Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors: Agents that decrease the secretion of aqueous
humor by the ciliary process: Acetazolamide (Diamox), brinzolamide
(Azop), dorzolamide HCl (Trusop), methazolamide (Neptazane), and
ethoxazolamide (Cardrase).
Chandler’s syndrome: Includes corneal edema, endothelial dystrophy, stromal
iris atrophy, peripheral anterior synechias, and glaucoma.
Cogan-Reese syndrome: Consists of iris nodules, peripheral anterior synechias,
an abnormal membrane, and glaucoma.
Congenital glaucoma: Glaucoma that is manifest at birth.
Corticosteroid-induced glaucoma: A form of open-angle glaucoma induced by
the topical use of steroids.
Cup/disk ratio: The ratio of the size of the optic disk to the size of the
physiological cup. The larger the size of the cup, the more likely the
diagnosis will be glaucoma.
Cupping of the disks: The appearance of disk with an excavation usually on
the temporal side. It is usually associated with pallor and notching of
the disk margin.
Cyclocryotherapy: A treatment for glaucoma effected by freezing the ciliary

body and thereby diminishing aqueous production.
D
Diurnal variations: The variation in intraocular pressure that occurs over a
24-hour period. The pressure is usually highest in the early morning
hours between 3:30 AM and 5:30 AM.
Drainage angle: The portion of the anterior chamber where the iris and the
corneoscleral tissue meet. The term is frequently used in connection
with glaucoma because the drainage of aqueous takes place in this region.
E
Ectropion uveae: Eversion of iris pigment epithelium around the pupil
margin.
Essential atrophy of the iris: Rare, progressive, unilateral disease of the iris
in which there is a patchy loss of all layers of the iris, leading to a
distorted and eccentric pupil and often a secondary glaucoma.
F
Facility of outflow: Measurement of the volume of aqueous that leaves the
eye each minute per each millimeter of tonometer pressure.
Flat anterior chamber : Potential complication of intraocular surgery
characterized by the iris being in direct contact with the cornea and
by the virtual absence of aqueous in the anterior chamber.
G
Glaucoma field defects: Generalized peripheral contraction.
Glaucomatocyclitic crisis: A condition that is recurrent, affects one eye in young
people between 30 and 50 years of age, and is characterized by
inflammation in the anterior segment.
Goldmann lens: Lens with mirror to visualize the angle structures of the eye.
Goldmann perimeter: A half-sphere perimeter that is used for both glaucoma
and neurological fields.
Gonioprism: Special type of contact lens with prism that permits examination
of the periphery of the anterior chamber or the peripheral retina.
Goniotomy: A surgical procedure to treat infantile glaucoma.
H
Hyperosmotic agents: Systemic agents that cause a drop in ocular pressure.
These include oral glycerin, 50% solution; mannitol, 5-20% given
intravenously; and urea given intravenously.
Glaucoma 241
Fig. 13-9. Obstruction of aqueous outflow causes an elevation of intraocular

tension (With permission from Stein HA, Stein RM, Freeman MI. The Ophthalmic
Hypertension, ocular: Intraocular pressure that is increased above normal

but with no demonstrable visual field loss or optic nerve damage.
I
Intraocular pressure (IOP) (Fig. 13-9): The force per unit area within the eye
depends on the inflow of aqueous in relationship to the outflow of
aqueous and through the trabecular meshwork.
Iridectomy: Cutting away of a portion of the iris.
K
Kinetic perimetry: Charting the visual fields by moving the target from a
non-seeing to a seeing zone.
Koeppe lens: Lens which allows the observer to see directly the angle
structures of the eye.
L
Laser iridectomy: Use of a laser to make an opening in the iris.
Laser iridotomy: A small opening made in the iris using a laser.
Levobunolol hydrochloride (Betogen): A drug that lowers intraocular pressure,
widely used for the treatment for glaucoma.
Low-pressure glaucoma: Evidence of intraocular glaucomatous damage
(cupping of optic disk and visual field defects) with normal or low
intraocular pressure.
M
Megalocornea: Corneal enlargement usually 14 to 16 mm in diameter but
without signs of congenital glaucoma.
Mesodermal dysgenesis: A basket term representing a group of mesodermal
dysplasias of the anterior segment:
Posterior embryotoxin: The unusual prominence of Schwalbe’s line
that stands out like an encircling glass tube inside the limbus.
Posterior polymorphous dystrophy: A bilateral dominantly transmitted
corneal dystrophy consisting of nodular lesions in the Descemet’s
membrane.
Rieger’s syndrome: Refers to features of bilateral hypoplasia of the
iris stroma, posterior-embryotoxin, pupillary abnormalities, and
frequently glaucoma.
Peter’s anomaly: Condition characterized by adherent iris attached in
a ring-like fashion to the cornea.
Microcornea: Consists of small corneas (usually less than 10 mm in
diameter), shallow chambers, and a tendency to acute glaucoma.
Miotics: Agents that cause pupillary constriction and increase the facility
of out-flow of aqueous humor: pilocarpine, 0.25 to 6%; carbachol,
1.5, 3% (Miostat 0.01%); demecarium bromide (Humorsol); and
echothiophate iodide (Phospholine Iodide).
Mydriatic test for angle-closure glaucoma: Test consists of instilling 2 drops of
5% eucotropine or 5% tropicamide (mydriacil) into the conjunctival sac.
An 8 mm Hg rise in pressure by the end of 1 hour is considered positive.
N
Nasal step: Depression of the nasal peripheral portion of the field. A sign
of glaucoma.
Neurofibromatosis: Condition characterized by small skin tumors and café
au-lait spots on the skin, tiny freckles of the iris (Lisch nodules), and
glaucoma. Optic nerve gliomas and skeletal defects are common.
O
Occluded pupil: A pupil that is bound completely by posterior adhesions
(synechiae).
Ocular rigidity: The resistance of the coats of the eye to deformation or to
distention.
Glaucoma 243
P
Pachometry: It is a measurement of the thickness of the cornea and the
depth of the anterior chamber. Corneal thickness can have an affect
on the accuracy of the measurement of the intraocular pressure.
Parasympathomimetic agents: Act in the same way as acetylcholine; pilocarpine
and methacholine chloride (Mecholyl).
Peripheral iridectomy: Removal of the peripheral portion of the iris.
Peter’s anomaly: Adhesions between the iris and the posterior cornea often
with associated corneal scarring and secondary glaucoma.
Pierre Robin syndrome: Consists of hypoplasia of the mandible, glossoptosis,
cleft palate, congenital glaucoma, high myopia, cataract, and retinal
detachment.
Pigmentary glaucoma: Condition in which pigment granules from the iris
flake off and become lodged in the trabecular meshwork and impair
the normal outflow of aqueous. The pigment deposits are visible on
the endothelium of the cornea or in the trabecula of the angle. It is
thought that this condition occurs because of back bowing of the
irides such that they rub on the zonular fibers and cause the shedding
of pigment.
Posner-Schlossman syndrome: Recurrent elevated intraocular pressure
associated with recurring inflammation of the anterior segment of
the eye.
Posterior synechia: An adhesion of the iris to the crystalline lens.
Profile perimetry: See static perimetry.
Provocative test: In glaucoma, a test to artificially provoke an elevation of
intraocular pressure as a diagnostic test for glaucoma rarely used today.
Pseudoexfoliation glaucoma: Condition in which exfoliation of the lens capsule
plugs the trabecular meshwork and causes a rise in IOP.
Pseudoglaucoma: Optic atrophy and cupping that resembles glaucoma but
is caused by vascular damage.
S
Schwalbe’s line: Marks the most anterior extension of the trabecular
meshwork and the termination of Descemet’s membrane of the cornea
(Fig. 13-10).
Scleral spur: The most anterior internal projection of the sclera.
Schlemm’s canal: Lies in the scleral sulcus just anterior to the scleral spur
and receives aqueous humor from the trabecular meshwork.
Sector iridectomy: Removal of a pie-shaped portion of the iris.
Fig. 13-10. Angle structure as viewed through the goniolens (With permission from
Mosby, 2006)
Sensitivity threshold: The object is not visible until the illumination is gradually
increased and the patient can just see the target.
Spherophakia (Marchesani syndrome): This syndrome is characterized by
microspherophakia, skeletal deformities, a short build, and mental
retardation. High myopia, a tendency to lens dislocation, and angle-
closure glaucoma are also present.
Static perimetry: Charting of the visual fields by altering the illumination
of a fixed target.
Sturge-Weber syndrome: This condition is unilateral and results in a cutaneous
hemangioma involving the distribution of the fifth nerve. Also
occurring are unilateral glaucoma, mental deficiency, and convulsions.
Sympathomimetic agents: In general, these agents have an effect similar to
epinephrine or norepinephrine.
T
Timolol (Timoptic): This drug is a nonselective beta-1 and beta-2 adrenergic
blocking agent. It is a widely used local agent for the treatment of
glaucoma.
Trabecular fibers: The fibers that make up the trabeculum or filtering area
for the aqueous humor.
Trabecular meshwork: The area between Schwalbe’s line and the scleral spur
over the perforated layers of connective tissue is sheets of the
trabecular meshwork. Through these openings flow the aqueous humor
to Schlemm’s canal.
Trabeculum: Filtering tissue that lies in the iris-corneal angle through which
the aqueous humor passes on its way to Schlemm’s canal.
Glaucoma 245
W
Water-drinking test: A provocative diagnostic test for glaucoma; the patient
drinks 1 quart of water after fasting, and the intraocular pressure is
measured until it stops rising.
Y
YAG laser : Used in narrow angle glaucoma to make a noninvasive
iridotomy in the iris to permit fluid to flow from behind the iris into
C H A P T E R 14
STRABISMUS
Strabismus (Greek strabismos, “twisted”) refers to eyes that are not straight.
Strabo, the geographer, was a prominent figure in Alexandria during the
Roman times who suffered from a noticeable turn of his eyes. From then
on it was popular to call a person with a turn, “Strabo”.
Strabismus may be paralytic (caused by paralysis of a muscle) or
nonparalytic. Strabismus may be concomitant (sometimes called comitant), in
which the deviation is the same in all directions of gaze, noncomitant, in
which there is a greater deviation in one or more directions because of
an acquired paralysis of a muscle. In the case of noncomitant strabismus,
diplopia or double vision may exist.
Pseudostrabismus is a condition in which there is an apparent strabismus
to the observer but no true strabismus. It may be produced by the presence
of epicanthal folds (epi, “upon,” canthus, “angle”) that cover the inner angle
of the junction of the eyelid. It also may be caused by an abnormal angle
kappa, the angles formed by the pupillary axis and the visual axis (which
usually do not coincide), which may be sufficiently large to produce an
optical illusion of a turn.
Ocular motility refers to the movements of the eye in all directions of
gaze and to its relationship with its fellow eye. Orthoptics (Greek ortbos,
“straight,” and ops, “eye”) is the science that investigates the motor and
sensory adaptations of the eyes and deals with training the individual to
use both eyes together to obtain comfortable binocular vision. Orthophoria
is the absence of any tendency of the eye to deviate.
Movements of the eyes together in the same direction are known as
yoke movements and include dextroversion (right gaze), levoversion (left gaze),
supraversion (upward gaze), and infraversion (downward gaze) (Fig. 14-1).
Torsions are wheel-like movements of an eye along its long axis. If the eye
rotates inward, it is called intorsion. Vergences are dysjunctive movements
of the two eyes in opposite directions. Convergence is the act of moving
the eye in toward the midline. Convergence insufficiency exists when there is
insufficient ability to converge the eyes inward for near vision. Convergence
excess exists when there is excessive motor action in converging the eyes
Strabismus 247
Fig. 14-1. Version movement of the eyes. These are eye movements in which
both eyes rotate in the same direction, that is, to the left or right up or down (With
Fig. 14-2. (A) Convergence. The eyes are turned in toward the midline plane. (B)
Divergence. The eyes are turned out away from the midline plane (With permission
Mosby, 2006)
inward so the eyes overshoot at near. Divergence is the act in which the
eyes move outward from the midline (Fig. 14-2).
Ductions are rotations of one eye when the fellow eye is covered. It
may be adducted (rotated in), abducted (rotated out), supraducted (rotated up),
or infraducted (rotated down).
Heterophoria, sometimes shortened to phoria, is a latent deviation of
the two eyes held in check by the power of fusion. Fusion is the power
exerted by the brain over both eyes to keep the position of the eyes aligned
so that both foveae project the same point in space (Fig. 14-3A). It is
Fig. 14-3. Strabismus. (A) Eyes are straight. (B) Esotropia. (C) Exotropia. (D) Hyper-
tropia of left eye (With permission from Stein HA, Stein RM, Freeman MI. The
measured by an instrument called the amblyoscope. When dissimilar targets

are presented to each eye, such as a test target of a rabbit with a tail and
one without a tail but with flowers in his hand, the individual will fuse
these separate targets and see a tailed rabbit holding flowers. When fusion
is interrupted, the deviation can be measured. Phorias must be differen-
tiated from heterotropia, sometimes shortened to tropia. A phoria is basically
a latent deviation of the eyes held in check by fusion. A tropia is a manifest
deviation that has occurred because of a lack of fusion. Both phorias and
tropias may be designated by the position of deviation of the two eyes
such as esophoria or esotropia (Fig. 14-3B) (turning in), exophoria or exotropia
(Fig. 14-3C) (turning out), hyperphoria or hypertropia (Fig. 14-3D) (turning
up), or hypophoria or hypotropia (turning down). Cyclophoria is the tendency
of the eyes to become misaligned when one eye rotates on its
anteroposterior axis because of an abnormality of the oblique muscle.
A syndrome is an ocular abnormality in which the eyes are more
esotropic in looking up than down and which takes its name from the
shape of an A.
Strabismus 249
V syndrome is an ocular abnormality in which the eyes are more

esotropic looking down than up and which takes its name from the shape
of a V. Both A and V syndromes may apply to esotropia or exotropia
and are then referred to as A-esotropia, A-exotropia, V-esotropia, or
V-exotropia. Monofixation syndrome is a small-angled strabismus often caused
by a small central scotoma in the nondominant eye and not detected by
the cover-uncover test. It is also called a microtropia or monofixational
phoria.
Amblyopia (Greek amblyo, “dull,” and ops, “eye”) means dimness of
vision without any pathological condition in the eye or the brain. The lay
person frequently uses the term lazy rye to indicate this condition. If it
results from the child suppressing the vision of a turned eye to avoid
double vision, it is called suppression amblyopia. Deprivation amblyopia is loss
of vision because of being deprived of the ability to see. Amblyopia also
occurs with anisometropia, in which the refractive difference between the
two eyes is so great that fusion cannot occur, and the most out-of-focus
image is ignored. Eccentric fixation occurs when a peripheral area of the
macula other than the fovea is used for vision and the vision is relatively
poor. The individual is unable to gaze directly ahead at an object of regard.
Pointing to a light with the good eye covered, the person with eccentric
fixation will miss the light with his finger so the vision is said to be
eccentric. Anomalous retinal correspondence (ARC) is said to exist when a
parafoveal point of one eye corresponds with the fovea of the fellow
eye.
Pleoptics is the science dealing with treating eccentric fixation and
amblyopia. It was popularized in Europe, but never became widely used
in North America. There are two main methods. The Cüppers method
(Germany) uses negative afterimages to relocate the principal visual
direction of the fovea. The Bangerter approach (Switzerland) is to dazzle
the peripheral area of the macula to obliterate the eccentric fixation, and
to stimulate the fovea by aiming strong beams of light toward it. Penalization
is a method of treating amblyopia by forcing the individual to use one
eye for distance by medication or optical means. Occlusion therapy is a
method of treating an amblyopic eye by blocking out all visual impulses
to the fellow eye and forcing the use of the amblyopic eye. The success
of this method of therapy is drastically reduced after a child is 6 years of
age or older. In older children, pleoptics may be used.
Ocular torticollis is an abnormal head tilt adopted to overcome an
anomaly caused by a congenital palsy of one or more vertically acting
extraocular muscles. Duane’s syndrome is a congenital ocular disorder of
muscles characterized by limited outward movement of one or both eyes,
Fig. 14-4. Duane’s syndrome. Note inability of left eye to abduct

or look to the left when gaze is directed to the left
limited inward movements plus retraction of the globe, and narrowing

of the palpebral fissure on inward movement of the eye (Fig. 14-4).
A number of well-known laws exist that govern muscle function.
Sherrington’s law is the law of reciprocal innervation and states that when a
muscle is stimulated, its opposing muscle is simultaneously inhibited.
Hering’s law states that when one muscle is stimulated, its fellow or yoke
muscle of the opposite eye is equally stimulated so that gaze in that
direction becomes smooth and even.
The major amblyoscope is an instrument for measuring degree of
strabismus, assessing grades of binocular vision, and treating suppression
amblyopia. The afterimage test is a test relying on the ability to see images
after a bright-light stimulation is exposed to each eye and is used to detect
anomalous retinal correspondence.
Other words related to ocular motility are given in the following
glossary.
A
Abducens nerve: Sixth cranial nerve, which innervates the lateral rectus
muscle.
AC/A ratio: The accommodative convergence to accommodation ratio.
It may be refractive and a normally limited accommodative
convergence or nonrefractive with an abnormal convergence
mechanism. The ratio of the accommodative convergence (AC) to the
accommodation (A) is usually expressed as the quotient of the AC in
prism diopters divided by A in diopters.
Accommodation-convergence ratio: Relationship between accommodation and
convergence of two eyes. Some types of esotropia have a high
accommodation-convergence ratio, often referred to as the AC/C ratio.
Accommodative esotropia: Inward deviation of the eyes characteristically more
marked for near than far vision and increased by ciliary muscle
contraction in accommodation.
Strabismus 251
A-dellen: A corneal ulcer at the margin of the cornea. It occurs after

strabismus surgery usually on the side in which muscle surgery has
been done.
Advancement: The moving forward of an extraocular muscle for surgical
correction of strabismus with the intent of increasing the strength of
the muscle.
A-esotropia: A deviation in which the convergence increases on elevation.
A-exotropia: A deviation in which divergence increases on depression.
Afterimage test: A test of retinal correspondence using afterimage
projections of two flashing lights, one in the vertical direction and
one in the horizontal. With normal retinal correspondence, the
afterimages superimposed should yield the picture of a perfectly
centered cross.
Agonist: The contracting muscle that receives primary innervation. For
example, the right medial rectus muscle is the agonist when the eye
moves inward.
Alternating sursumduction: A condition in which either eye deviates upward
under cover but returns to its original position when the cover is
removed.
Amblyopia: Loss of vision in an eye without any overt pathological changes
in that eye.
Angle of anomaly: The difference between the angle of deviation measured
objectively with prisms and that measured subjectively with the
Lancaster red-green test, Hess screen, and so forth.
Angle of convergence: The angle formed between the primary lines of sight
of each eye during convergence.
Angle of deviation: The angle by which the primary line of sight of the
deviating eye fails to intersect the object of fixation subtended at the
center of rotation of the deviating eye.
Anomalous fixation: The eye uses an area other than the fovea for sighting.
Antagonist: A muscle that acts in opposition to another, namely, the agonist
muscle. For example, the right lateral rectus muscle is the antagonist
of the right medial rectus muscle.
A-tuck: A surgical folding of a muscle to strengthen it.
B
Bielschowsky’s head-tilt test:
1. Head-tilt test used to differentiate between a superior oblique palsy
and a contralateral superior rectus palsy. The patient looks at a target
and tilts the head to the suspected superior oblique palsy. If the eye
elevates, it is an affirmative diagnosis for a superior oblique palsy.
2. A head-tilt test designed to help determine the primary paretic

muscle when there appears to be a limitation of the superior rectus
of one eye and the superior oblique of the other eye. With superior
oblique palsy, the deviation increases with the head tilted to the
same side as the paresis.
Bielschowsky’s phenomenon or sign: A response seen in alternating sursum-
duction in which the elevated, occluded eye depresses when a filter is
placed before the fixing eye.
Bifoveal fixation: The alignment of the visual axis of both eyes so that the
object of regard falls on the fovea under binocular conditions. The
fixated point is simultaneously imaged in the center of each fovea.
Binocular vision:
1. The coordinated use of the two eyes to produce a single mental
impression.
2. Ability to use both eyes simultaneously to focus on the same object
and to fuse the two images into a single image that gives a correct
interpretation of its solidity and its position in space. Grade 1 requires
simultaneous macular perception. Grade 2 requires simultaneous
macular perception plus fusion. Grade 3 requires simultaneous
macular perception plus fusion plus the sensation of depth.
C
Concomitant strabismus: Nonparalytic strabismus in which the degree of
deviation is the same, regardless of the position or movement of the
eyes.
Confusion: The simultaneous perception of two different objects at the
same location in subjective space.
Congenital ocular motor apraxia: Refers to an eye movement disorder in which
conjugate eye movements are impeded through visual or command
stimuli. Ocular rotation is done by a compensatory head thrust to bring
the eye to the position of regard.
Conjugate movements: Parallel movements of the two eyes in the same
direction, that is, looking to the left or right.
Convergence: Act of moving the eye in, toward the midline.
Corresponding points: Points on the retina of each eye that have the same
visual direction so that an object seen by these points is interpreted as
arising from the same point in space.
Corresponding retinal points: Points on the two retinas from which images
are projected to the same place in space.
Cover test: An occluder is placed before an eye to dissociate the eyes.
Strabismus 253
Fig. 14-5. Cover-uncover test. Covered eye is observed as cover is removed. In

strabismus, the eye may make a correctional move once the cover is removed (With
Single cover test: When the occluder is placed over the eye, the opposite
eye, if deviated, will take fixation and move to see the target.
Alternation: If the covered eye takes up fixation once the occluder is
removed, alternation of the deviation has occurred.
Cross cover test:
1. An alternate cover test to exaggerate the deviation by fully disso-
ciating the vision. The cover is moved from eye to eye, and the
movement of the uncovered eye represents the total phoria-
tropia.
2. A test for strabismus or heterophoria by covering one eye. The
other eye, if deviated, must move to pick up fixation.
Cover-uncover test: The eyes fixate on an accommodative target. One eye is
occluded. The movement of the eye is noted as the cover is removed.
If the eye moves temporally from an inward position, an esophoria
would be noted (Fig. 14-5).
Craniofacial dysostosis: Refers to a developmental anomaly of the face and
skull in which there is premature closure of some of the suture lines.
Cross-eyes: Lay term for strabismus.
D
Depressor: A muscle whose action is to turn the eye downward.
Depth perception: Stereopsis caused by the fusion of slightly disparate images.
Deviating eye: The eye that is not straight in strabismus, as distinguished
from the “fixing eye.”
Deviation: Bending or turning in another direction, such as the visual axis

in strabismus.
Primary deviation: Ocular deviation seen in paralysis of an ocular
muscle when the nonparalyzed eye is used for fixation.
Secondary deviation: Ocular deviation seen in paralysis of an ocular
muscle when the paralyzed eye is used for fixation; the second
deviation is usually greater than the primary deviation.
Dextroversion: Conjugate movements of both eyes to the right.
Diplopia:
1. Double vision occurring because the foveas of each eye are not
pointing to the same place in space. It is usually caused by a paretic
extraocular muscle.
2. Seeing the same object in two locations in space because the object
of regard is projected onto the fovea of one eye and a parafoveal
area of the other eye.
3. A condition of seeing double when both maculae are not pointing
to the same object of regard.
Duane’s classification of squint:
Convergence excess: A convergent deviation greater at near than at
distance.
Convergence insufficiency: A divergent deviation greater at near than
at distance.
Divergence excess: A divergent deviation greater at distance than at
near.
Divergence insufficiency: A convergent deviation greater at distance
than at near.
Duane’s syndrome: An apparent loss of abduction with retraction of the
eye with attempted adduction. With adduction, the palpebral fissure
narrows. With abduction, the palpebral fissure widens.
Ductions: Rotation of one eye.
Abduction: Rotation of the eye temporally.
Adduction: Rotation of the eye nasally.
Deorsumduction: Rotation of the eye downward.
Sursumduction: Rotation of the eye upward.
E
Eccentric fixation: A monocular condition in which a parafoveal point is
used for fixation. Usually the vision is very poor, and the projection
of that eye to a target is erroneous.
Strabismus 255
Esophoria: A turning in of the eyes when one eye is covered and fusion
has been disrupted.
Esotropia: A turning in of one eye.
Microtropia: A small deviation inward of one eye.
Accommodative: An esotropia made worse by the act of accommo-
dation.
Euthyscope: A flashing device invented by A Cüppers used to train eyes
with eccentric fixation to learn to project centrally.
Exodeviation: The deviation outward of the line of sight of the nonfixing
eye from the point of fixation of the fixating eye.
Exotropia: A manifest deviation of the eye in an outward direction.
Intermittent: A deviation that is variable and not constant.
Extorsion: The corneal meridians tilt away from each other.
F
Fixation disparity: A condition in which the fixated object is not imaged
on exactly corresponding points, but in which the images still fall within
Panum’s area so that the object is seen singly.
Fixing eye: The nondeviating eye in strabismus.
Following movement: A slow eye movement predicated on the speed of the
target being followed.
Fusion: The amalgamation of similar images from the two eyes to create
a fused binocular product.
Fusion with amplitude: Blending of the similar images from the two foveas
into a single perception (grade 2 binocular vision).
Fusional reserves: The range of convergence, divergence, and vertical
vergence through which binocular single vision can be maintained.
This may be measured in degrees or prism diopters.
Fusion-free: Position of the eyes when binocular vision is suspended by
covering one eye or changing the direction of one eye or by changing
the image of one eye by using, for example, the Maddox rod. A point
of light will become a red linear streak for the eye behind the Maddox
rod while the other eye, not covered by the Maddox rod, will see a
point of light. Therefore, fusion of the two dissimilar images is not
possible.
H
Haploscope: A mirror-type stereoscope. The object-carrying tubes are
turnable on the vertical axis to measure the direction of the z-axis of
the eyes, or, depending on fusion, to train positive or negative fusional

amplitude or both.
Hering’s law: In a fresh oculomotor paresis, the contralateral synergist of
the recently paralyzed extraocular muscle will overact when the paretic
eye is fixing. The deviation is greater with the paretic eye fixing.
Heteronymous: Crossed fields.
Heteronymous diplopia: Crossed double vision. Occurs with exotropia.
Heterophoria: Latent deviation of both eyes, held in check by fusion.
Heterotropia: Deviation caused by lack of fusion.
Homonymous: Uncrossed fields.
Homonymous diplopia: Uncrossed double vision. Occurs with esotropia.
Horopter: The locus of points in space in which the images for a given
position of the eyes fall on corresponding retinal points.
I
Incomitance: A deviation that differs in degree depending upon which eye
is fixating. Usually seen with paretic oculomotor disturbances.
Inferior oblique: An extraocular muscle in which contraction primarily causes
extortion. Its secondary actions include abduction and elevation.
Inferior rectus: An extraocular muscle whose contraction primarily results
in depression. Secondary actions include adduction and extorsion.
Intorsion: A rotation inward of the cornea.
Intrinsic ocular muscles: The muscles situated inside the eyeball, consisting
of the ciliary muscle, the sphincter pupillae, and the dilator pupillae.
L
Latent nystagmus: A jerk nystagmus arising from occlusion of one eye with
the fast component in the direction of the fixing eye (uncovered eye).
Lateral rectus: An extraocular muscle, the contraction of which causes
external rotation.
M
Major amblyoscope: A device for the measurement of strabismus, the
assessment of binocular vision, and the treatment of suppression and
amblyopia. Used primarily with children with strabismus.
Medial rectus: An extraocular muscle, the contraction of which causes
internal rotation.
Microstrabismus (microtropia): A small deviation squint of less than 5 degrees
with harmonious anomalous correspondence and amblyopia of varying
Strabismus 257
degree in the deviating eye. The fixation may be central or slightly

eccentric to the macula, and consequently it may or may not be detected
with the cover test.
Möbius syndrome: A bilateral facial and abducens nerve paralysis.
Myotomy: An incomplete transverse incision of an ocular muscle to weaken
it.
N
Normal retinal correspondence (NRC): A condition that exists when the two
foveae have a common visual direction and all other retinal areas of
the two eyes correspond secondarily.
O
Occlusion: The covering of one eye to force the amblyopic eye to perform.
This type of therapy is most successful with children under 5 years
of age.
Occlusion therapy: A treatment to increase the vision of an amblyopic eye
by patching the normal eye.
Ocular saccade: A rapid eye movement as used in reading.
Oxycephaly: Refers to premature dysostosis of the craniofacial sutures
resulting in a vertical elongation of the head.
P
Panum’s fusional area: An area in which slightly disparate points can be fused.
Parallax: The displacement of objects relative to each other when the eyes
are moved.
Phoria: A deviation that is present only by disrupting fusion with a cover
test. A latent deviation of the eyes.
Pleoptics: A method to train children with eccentric fixation to see directly
ahead. The two major methods are the Bangerter (Switzerland) and
the Cüppers (Germany).
Pleoptophore: A device that dazzles the periphery of the retina to obliterate
eccentric fixation and then stimulates the macula by aiming strong
beams of light toward it.
Primary position: The position of the eyes looking straight ahead and toward
infinity. It is at this position that the normal examination of eye
movement begins.
Proprioception: The ability to convey to the central nervous system an

indication of the posture and movements of the body brought about
by impulses (proprioceptive impulses) arising within the body from
muscles, tendons, and joints and from the labyrinth of the inner ear.
Whether eye muscles have any proprioceptive ability is in dispute. Most
authorities do not believe that this function is present in eye muscles.
Pseudostrabismus: Eyes that appear to be turned in but actually are not.
Pursuit movement: Foveal fixation on moving targets with speeds of 30 to
50 degrees per second. A slow following movement.
R
Recession: A surgical procedure to weaken a muscle by disinserting it and
replacing it behind the original insertion.
Resection: A surgical procedure to strengthen an ocular muscle by removing
a section of it to make it tighter. The muscle is replaced to its original
insertion site.
Retinal correspondence: Corresponding retinal areas in both eyes that perceive
the same point in space simultaneously.
Retinal rivalry:
1. Occurs when two dissimilar images are presented so they cannot
be integrated without confusion. Rivalry develops so that one image
is seen and then the other in sequence.
2. A conflict between the two retinas when two dissimilar images are
superimposed; first one image is suppressed and then the other.
S
Stereoscope: Instrument that permits different pictures to be positioned
before each of the two eyes.
Strabismus: Condition in which the eyes are not straight.
Superimposition: The ability to perceive two similar images, one formed on
each retina, as being superimposed but not mentally fused.
Superior oblique: An extraocular muscle the contraction of which primarily
causes intorsion. Secondary actions include depression and abduction.
Superior rectus: An extraocular muscle; the contraction of which primarily
results in elevation. Secondary actions include adduction and intorsion.
Suppression:
1. The act of suppressing one image that is out of focus or doubled.
2. A condition in which the image of an object formed on the retina
is not perceived but is mentally ignored or neglected either partially
Strabismus 259
or completely. An active cortical inhibition used to suppress

diplopia—a confusing second image—or to suppress an out-of-
focus image. Children with strabismus suppress the image of their
deviating eye to avoid seeing double.
Sursumduction:
1. Rotation of one eye upward.
2. Turning upward of the eyes; a gaze movement.
Synergists (yoke muscles): Two muscles, one in each eye, that move the eyes
in the same direction; for example, right lateral and left medial recti.
Synoptophore: Stereoscope-like instrument used in orthoptic diagnosis and
treatment.
T
Tenotomy: A severing of all or part of a tendon; performed to decrease
the function of a muscle in the surgical correction of strabismus.
Tropia:
1. A deviation that is constant with both eyes looking at a target.
2. A manifest deviation of the eyes.
V
Vergence: Movement of the two eyes in opposite directions.
Convergence: Rotation of the eyes toward one another.
Divergence: Rotation of the eyes from one another.
Versions: A corresponding movement of two eyes.
Deorsumversion: Looking down.
Dextroversion: Looking to the right.
Levoversion: Looking to the left.
Sursumversion: Looking up.
V-esotropia: An esotropia deviation that converges on depression.
V-exotropia: An exotropia in which the divergence increases on elevation.
Visuscope: A device to diagnose eccentric fixation designed by Cüppers
of Germany.
W
Wall-eyes: A lay term indicating one eye that deviates outward (exotropia).
Y
Yoke muscles: Those muscles that work together to produce a given ocular
gaze movement, that is, a left lateral rectus and right medial rectus to
look to the left.
Yoke muscles
Right eye Left eye
• Medial rectus • Lateral rectus
• Superior rectus • Inferior oblique
• Superior oblique • Inferior rectus
C H A P T E R 15
DISORDERS OF THE RETINA

AND VITREOUS
Anatomy
Retina is derived from the Latin word for “net” because the retina, composed
of rods and cones, acts as a net to gather the light rays for transmission to
the brain. The rods and cones are named after their characteristic shape as
either rodlike or conelike. The cones are concentrated in the macula (Latin
macula, “spot”), which was originally considered a blemish or sun spot. It is
sometimes called the macula lutea from Latin lutea meaning “yellow” because
of a visible yellow spot that is seen when the retina is examined grossly in
a pathological specimen. The macula is the area of the retina devoid of
blood vessels. The center of the macula is the fovea centralis, from Latin for
“small pit” or “depression”, because the fovea clinically is a central
depression in the macular area (Fig. 15-1).
Fig. 15-1. The macula is the area devoid of blood vessels in the retina and contains
specialized cone receptors (With permission from Stein HA, Stein RM, Freeman
Vitreous is derived from the Latin word for “glass” because of its
transparent characteristics and its resemblance to the transparency of glass.
It is sometimes referred to as vitreous humor after the Latin humor,
meaning “moist”. There was a time when all the liquids or areas of
moisture in the body were referred to as humors. Supposedly the nature
of these body fluids gave rise to the temperament, disposition, and
personality of an individual and thus were said to affect the individual’s
“humor”. The vitreous was widely held to be a refracting agent acting
along its interface with the crystalline lens until Father Scheiner, using
Johannes Kepler’s geometric theories, proved in 1625 that an inverted
image of the seen object is formed on the retina.
Abnormalities of position
When the retina becomes detached it is not truly a detachment of the
complete retina, but rather the pigment layer of the retina remains attached
to the choroid while the rest of the retina detaches from it. In fact, a
retinal detachment is a splitting of the retina in which the anterior nine
layers detach from the posterior pigment layer. The detachment occurs
when the vitreous wedges itself between the two split layers (Fig. 15-2).
Retinoschisis (Greek schisis “to split”) is a true splitting of the retina more
anteriorly without detachment. If there is a localized blister elevation, the
term macrocyst or giant cyst of the retina is frequently used. Rhegmatogenous
detachment (Greek rhegma, “hole”) is a detachment in which there is a retinal
hole or tear resulting in watery fluid that enters behind the retina.
Fig. 15-2. Retinal detachment (With permission from Stein HA, Stein RM, Freeman
Disorders of the Retina and Vitreous 263
Fig. 15-3. Hypertensive retinopathy advanced with cotton-wool exudates and

macular star (With permission from Basak SK MD DNB FRCS, Disha Eye Hospitals
and Research Centre, Barrackpore, Kolkata, West Bengal, India)
Nonrhegmatogenous detachment is a detachment with no holes or tears; it may

be caused by traction pull on the retina, by fluid leaking under the retina
from the choroid, or by a malignant melanoma.
The detachment may be classified as aphakic detachment if it occurs after
cataract surgery or pseudophakic detachment if it occurs after an artificial
lens implant procedure. Vitreous detachment or separation may occur in which
the vitreous becomes separated from the retina.
Abnormalities of vessels
Arteriovenous crossings occur where an arteriole crosses over a vein. A-V
nicking occurs when the arteriole wall compresses the vein and an
indentation is noted in the vein when examined with the ophthalmoscope.
Narrowing of an arteriole may be generalized along its complete course,
or there may be focal narrowing, called focal constrictions. Localized areas
of constriction of the arterioles occur primarily in young patients with
hypertension (Fig. 15-3). Tortuosity of the vessels is a situation in which
either the arterioles or veins of the retina have an increased waviness.
Copper wire arterioles is the clinical condition in which the arterioles lose
their normal rosy appearance and take on a metallic copper-wire
appearance. It is a sign of arteriosclerosis. In more advanced cases of
arteriosclerosis they may become silver-wire in appearance. Sheathing of
vessels may occur in which white lines appear alongside the vessel walls
and parallel the vessel course. Aneurysms of the retinal arterioles are
microaneurysms (small aneurysms) and are outpouchings of diseased arterial
wall. They have sharp margins as opposed to small hemorrhages, which
have blurred edges. Thrombosis is an occlusion of the vessel by a clot.
Retinopathies
Retinopathy is a general term denoting any pathological occurrence in the
retina. It is usually associated with systemic or general body disorders
such as diabetes, hypertension, anemia, or leukemia.
Central serous retinopathy is a clinical condition in which there is a loss
of vision caused by the sudden accumulation of circumscribed edema in
the macula. It used to be called central angiospastic retinopathy because of
the possible association with spasm of the macular vessels with resulting
hypoxia and escape of fluid through the capillaries. This condition results
in the distortion of central vision.
Retrolental fibroplasia or retinopathy of prematurity is an obliteration of de-
veloping blood vessels in an immature retina initially caused in the
premature newborn by a high concentration of oxygen. The high oxygen
content causes profuse new blood vessel formation, especially in the
periphery of the retina. These fibrovascular tufts may eventually progress
to form a retrolental (behind the lens) membrane and cause a detached
retina as a result of traction and contraction. If the condition is bilateral
it can result in blindness of the child. It is uncommon now that the
pathogenesis is better understood.
Arteriosclerosis found in the retinal arterioles is a thickening of the lining
wall of an artery as may occur in hypertension (Greek sclera, “hard”, and
Latin osis, “full of ”). Exudates (Latin ex, “out”, and sudare, “to sweat”) are
substances that filter through the walls of living cells. They may be hard
or waxy exudates, sometimes called edema residues as seen commonly in
diabetes. Hard exudates (Fig. 15-4), which are caused by lipid infiltrates in
Fig. 15-4. Clusters of small, hard exudates, small blot hemorrhages, turgid retinal
veins, and microaneurysms are commonly seen in the posterior portion of the eyes
of people with diabetes (With permission from Basak SK. Atlas on Clinical
the deeper layers, may be found in the macular area, in which their radiating
deposits form the picture of a macular star. Soft exudates of the cotton-
wool type are commonly seen in hypertension. These descriptive notes
are related to their ophthalmoscopic appearance in the fundus. Cotton-
wool exudates are tiny infarcts (oxygen-deficient areas) in the inner retinal
layers. They appear as whitish gray fluffy areas with feathery edges.
Hemorrhages that occur in retinopathy may be referred to as punctate
(punctum, “a point”) or may be the dot or blot variety depending on their
ophthalmoscopic appearance. Hemorrhages may be preretinal if they are
in front of the retina and deep to the vitreous (Fig. 15-5). Neovascularization
(neo, “new”) is the formation of new vessels that may arise on the retina
or may proliferate into the vitreous.
Fig. 15-5. Preretinal hemorrhage lying in front of retina. Note the location of
intraretinal, subretinal and choroidal hemorrhages (With permission from Stein HA,
Central retinal artery closure produces a cherry-red spot in the macula,

resembling a red cherry because of the surrounding area of retinal edema,
which appears gray. This makes the macula, which receives its nourishment
from the choroid, stand out in relief as a bright, red spot. Circinate
retinopathy (Latin circum, “circle”) is a circle-shaped collection of exudates
in the macular area. Drusen are large hyaline deposits lying on Bruch’s
membrane of the choroid. They are seen with the ophthalmoscope as
yellowish, often pigmented elevations. Vitelliform degeneration of the
macula is derived from Latin vitellus meaning “egg yolk”, after the clinical
appearance in the macular area, which resembles a fried egg. Angioid streaks
(from Greek angi, “vessel”) are pigment striations in the ocular fundus
giving the appearance of a vessel, which are caused by breaks in the elastic
layer of the choroid. Retinitis pigmentosa is a progressive degeneration of
the neuroepithelium, primarily rod degeneration, and migration of the
retinal pigment from whence it derives its name. This condition belongs
to the group called tapetoretinal degenerations, its name derived from Greek
tapetum, “carpet”, and referring in zoology to the choroid of eyes in cats
and other animals from which Theodore Leber, who coined the name,
believed the condition arose. It belongs to a class of abiotrophies, a group
of disorders believed to result from atrophy caused by defective vitality
and premature degeneration, and now considered to be pan of hereditary
degenerations.
Inflammatory changes
Vitritis is an inflammation (itis) of the vitreous. Chorioretinitis is an inflam-
mation of the retina and choroid. Asteroid hyalitis is a condition in which
calcium-lipid opacities in the vitreous give a cluster or star effect of white
floating balls when viewed with the ophthalmoscope (common in diabetic
people). Synchysis scintillans is a degenerative vitreous condition in which
shiny cholesterol crystals float freely within the liquified vitreous cavity.
Other definitions related to retina but exclusive of tumors, which are
covered elsewhere, are listed here alphabetically.
A
Acute multifocal posterior pigment epitheliopathy: A disorder of the fundus usually
occurring in young females and characterized by irregular, flat, sub-
retinal creamy or yellow lesions. It may be caused by localized occlusion
of the choriocapillaris.
Aged-related macular degeneration (AMD): A term to indicate macular disease
that occurs primarily in the elderly. It is the most common cause of
legal blindness in people over the age of 60.
Fig. 15-6. Amsler grid (With permission from Stein HA, Stein RM, Freeman MI.
Amsler grid: A hand-held field test to show defects in central vision caused
by macular disease (Fig. 15-6).
Angiomatosis, retinal: Retinal blood vessel growths. The combination of
retinal vascular tumors (angiomatosis retinae) and vascular tumors of
the medulla and spinal cord is known as von Hippel-Lindau disease.
Angioscotoma: Extension of the normal blind spot because of local blocking
of vision by a large retinal vessel.
Anti-VEGF therapy for macular degeneration: Antibody injected into the eye
that binds vascular endothelial growth factor and blocks new blood
vessel formation.
Atrophic AMD: A dry form of macular degeneration.
B
Bardet-Biedl syndrome: Condition that is characterized by mental retardation,
obesity, hypogenitalism, polydactyly, and pigmentary retinopathy.
Batten-Mayou disease: Juvenile amaurotic idiocy characterized by retinal
pigmentary changes because of abnormal deposition of gangliosides
inside the retina.
Behçet’s syndrome: Recurrent hypopyon, uveitis, and retinal vasculitis
associated with aphthous lesions on the buccal and genital mucosa.
Berlin’s edema (commotio retinae): Grayish or milky swelling of the posterior
pole of the retina, usually following a contusion of the eye.
Best disease: An autosomal dominant central retinal degeneration characte-
rized by an ophthalmoscopic appearance of an egg fried sunny side
up in the macula and later a scrambled-egg appearance when vision
deteriorates.
Bielschowsky-Jansky disease: Condition characterized by retinal pigmentary
changes secondary to the deposition of lipopigments in the retina.
Bourneville’s disease: Syndrome of mental deficiency, tuberous sclerosis, and

adenoma sebaceum.
Branch vein occlusion: Obstruction of a branch of the central retinal vein.
Butterfly dystrophy: Dystrophy of the fovea characterized by pigmentation
localized in the deeper layers of the central retina in the form of a
butterfly.
C
Central retinal artery occlusion: An occlusion of the blood flow of the central
retinal artery which exits onto the optic disk. Characterized by a sudden
loss of vision in one eye without pain.
Chloroquine retinopathy: Retinal pigmentary changes characterized by a “bull’s
eye maculopathy” in patients taking large doses of chloroquine.
Choked disk: Passive swelling of the optic nerve caused by increased
intracranial pressure.
Choroidal hemangioma: A benign vascular tumor of the choroid.
Choroidal neovascular membrane: Abnormal vascular channels found in the
aging macular degeneration syndrome. Clinical signs include subretinal
blood or subretinal lipid exudates.
Choroideremia: A hereditary atrophy of the choroidal coat of the eye
frequently leading to loss of vision.
Circinate retinopathy: A ring of fatty deposits creamy in color surrounding
the macula.
Coat’s disease: A chronic exudative retinopathy occurring between retina
and choroid of unknown cause.
Commotio retinae: See Berlin’s edema.
Conus of optic disk: A condition in which the choroid and retinal pigment
epithelia do not extend to the optic disk, allowing the sclera to be
observed ophthalmoscopically at its margin.
Crescent myopia: A crescent-shaped visible area of sclera surrounding the
optic disk in myopia.
Cysticercosis: An inflammatory cyst in the eye caused by the larvae of the
pork tapeworm.
Cystoid macular edema: See Irvine/Gass syndrome and macular edema.
Cytoid body: Retinal microinfarction synonymous with soft exudate.
Cytomegalic inclusion disease: A viral illness that may cause a retinitis
characterized by retinal pigment epithelial changes, sheathing of vessels,
and retinal hemorrhages. The retina may be involved in newborn
children or in severely debilitated patients.
D
Dalma’s sentinels: Pigment clumps in the infratemporal vitreous that herald
underlying juvenile retinal dialysis.
Detachment, retinal: See retinal detachment.
Diabetic macular degeneration: The leading cause of decreased vision in the
elderly diabetic person.
Diabetic retinopathy: A vascular disorder of diabetics characterized by micro-
aneurysms, hemorrhages, and proliferative retinopathy. It is the leading
cause of blindness in patients under 60 years of age.
Diffuse drusen: Extension of soft drusen, important because eyes with these
diffuse changes are at risk to develop serous detachments of the retinal
pigment epithelium, choroidal neovascularization, and disciform
scarring.
Disciform degeneration of central retina: Secondary type of central retinal
degeneration arising from subretinal neurovascularization.
Disinsertion of retina: Retinal dialysis or separation at the ora serrata in which
the sensory retina is separated from the retinal pigment epithelium.
Disk: The ophthalmoscopic view of the optic nerve head.
Doyne’s honeycomb dystrophy: Disorder characterized by drusen of Bruch’s
membrane that involve predominantly the posterior pole.
Drusen: Hyaline nodules of the lamina vitrea of the choroid, which are
very commonly present but rarely disturb vision.
E
Eales’ disease: Vasculitis of the retinal vessels characterized by recurrent
retinal hemorrhages.
Electroretinography: A method to measure the resting potential between the
electropositive cornea and the electronegative retina of the eye. It is a
mass response of the retina.
Elschnig’s spot: A black isolated spot of pigment with a surrounding yellow
or red halo seen in the choroid in patients with hypertension.
Embolism: Usually a circulating bolus or atheromatous debris that blocks
any blood vessel in the body.
Entopic phenomena: Sensations perceived for mechanical reasons within the
eye; for example, the floaters and flashes caused by retinal detachment,
or by contusion.
Exudative AMD: The form of wet macular degeneration in which exudates
occurs in the macular area that compromise vision.
F
Fabry’s disease: A whorl-like corneal dystrophy and tortuous retinal vessels
caused by an inborn error of metabolism and characterized by skin
eruptions.
Fat emboli: Emboli consisting of fat that lodges in the retinal vessels. This
may follow fractures of the long bones or chest bones.
Folds, retinal fixed: Connective tissue folds in the internal limiting membrane,
which may occur in patients with retinal detachments and diabetic
retinopathy.
Fuchs’ black spot: Area of proliferation of the retinal pigment layer in the
central retina; occurs in degenerative myopia.
G
Gliosis: Astrocytic scar proliferation on or within the retina.
Grönblad-Strandberg syndrome: Presence of angioid streaks in patients with
pseudoxanthoma elasticum.
H
Harada’s disease: Bilateral uveitis, often with extensive detachments usually
occurring in Oriental people.
Hard drusen: Yellowish white ophthalmoscopically visible lesions that are
pinpoint sized and act as window defects on fluorescein angiography.
Histoplasmosis: A common endemic fungus inflammatory condition
resulting in uveitis and characterized by punched-out depigmented
areas in the retinal periphery and lesions in the macula.
Hole, retinal: Break in the continuity of the sensory retina so that there is
a communication between the vitreous cavity and the potential space
between the sensory retina and the retinal pigment epithelium.
Hollenhorst plaques: Small, glistening yellow spots situated at the bifurcation
of retinal arteries, usually caused by emboli from an atheromatous
plaque of the carotid artery.
Hypertensive retinopathy: Vascular disease of the retina associated with general
high blood pressure.
I
Idiocy, amaurotic (Tay-Sachs disease): A hereditary disorder of metabolism
affecting mainly Jewish people of Eastern Europe decent and resulting
in the accumulation of lipidlike material. In the retina the material
accumulates in the ganglion cells, resulting in the classic macular cherry-

red spot.
Implantable miniature telescope (IMT): May someday be of value in restoring
sight to the blind.
Irvine-Gass syndrome: Cystoid macular edema occurring after a cataract
extraction.
J
Jensen’s choroiditis: Chorioretinitis adjacent to the optic disk.
K
Kuhnt-Junius macular degeneration (senile disciform macular degeneration): A specific
type of hemorrhagic macular degeneration affecting the elderly that
results in loss of vision and functional blindness (vision less than 20/
200).
L
Lacquer crack: Breaks in Bruch’s membrane of the choroid usually found
in very myopic people.
Laser: Initials for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.
This is a device for producing an intense coherent beam of light.
Laser-argon: A laser photocoagulating device with light wavelengths
between 4880 and 5145 angstroms, which has a smaller spot than the
standard xenon laser and a greater spectral absorption by hemoglobin.
Laser-ruby: A laser photocoagulating device with light wavelengths of 6943
angstroms.
Lattice degeneration: A form of peripheral retinal degeneration characterized
by atrophic thinned retina and altered retinal pigmentation.
Laurence-Moon-Biedl syndrome: Condition characterized by mental retardation,
hypogenitalism, spastic paraplegia, and retinitis pigmentosa.
M
Macular degeneration: An age-related change in which the specialized cones
of the macular area are subject to atrophy usually by an underlying
arteriosclerotic process (Fig. 15-7).
Macular edema: The abnormal leakage of macromolecules and ions from
retinal capillaries into the retina. The macromolecules are largely
lipoproteins and gain access to the extravascular space with edema
fluid. It causes distortion and loss of vision.
Fig. 15-7. Pathological processes affecting the macular area (With permission from
Mosby, 2006)
Macular hole: A breakdown of the internal limiting membrane of a macular

cyst to yield a hole. It causes marked loss of vision.
Macular star: Deposits in macular area. The star pattern is related to the
physical properties of the foveal neuroretina in which there are large
radially arranged spaces between the inner segments of the retinal
receptors.
Macular translocation: Is a surgical approach for patients with the wet form
of AMD. The retina is detached and rotated in order to move the
macula to a new location in retinal pigment epithelium which is
healthier.
Medullated (myelinated) nerve fibers: Retinal nerve fibers seen ophthalmos-
copically as an opaque white patch with feathery edges.
Microaneurysm: Are small tiny out pouchings of the branch arteries; often
seen in diabetes. It appeara as a small round spot on the retinal surface.
Myopic degeneration: A high degree of myopia that affects the retina and
that may lead to permanent loss of vision caused by cracks in the
macular region.
N
Neovascular: Refers to any newly formed blood vessels.
Neovascularization: Recent formation of new blood vessels in a part of the

eye such as may occur in the retina of diabetics, in the cornea with
contact lens wear and in those with other disorders such as neovascular
glaucoma.
Nonrhegmatogenous retinal detachment: Retinal detachment with no holes or
tears.
O
Ocular toxocariasis: See toxocariasis, ocular.
Oguchi’s disease: Autosomal recessive night blindness found almost
exclusively among the Japanese.
Onchocerciasis: A parasitic infection common in tropical areas. A common
cause of blindness in Africa.
Optic papillae: The visible head of the optic nerve.
Optic pit: A small circular or triangular pit about one-third the diameter
of the optic disk and seen in the disk. It may be associated with macular
edema.
P
Pallor of disk: Paleness of the optic disk suggestive of optic atrophy. Pallor
can result after inflammation of the optic nerve, vascular ischemia, or
loss of tissue from such diseases as multiple sclerosis or Leber’s
hereditary optic atrophy.
Panretinal photocoagulation: Ablation of the periphery of the retina to stop
the progress of the proliferative phase of diabetes.
Papilla of Bergmeister: Glial (connective tissue) remnant of the hyaloid
system in the region of the optic disk.
Papilledema: Passive swelling of the optic nerve usually caused by raised
cerebrospinal fluid pressure.
Papillitis (optic neuritis): Inflammatory swelling of the optic disk.
Pars planitis: A peripheral uveitis characterized by a primary inflammation
of the peripheral retina and vitreous base, which results in a preretinal
and intravitreal fibroglial proliferation.
Persistent hyperplastic vitreous: Abnormality arising from failure of the hyaloid
system to regress. It is visible in the child’s pupil as a white mass. May
be confused with retinoblastoma.
Phakic cystoid macular edema: Condition caused by the involvement of
macular capillaries by an obstructive or inflammatory vascular retinal
disease (diabetes, venous occlusion, uveitis).
Phakoma: A small grayish white tumor in the retina.
Phakomatoses: Group of hereditary diseases characterized by the presence
of spots, tumors, and cysts in various parts of the body; types
recognized as associated with ocular findings are tuberous sclerosis,

Bourneville’s disease, von Hippel-Lindau disease, von Recklinghausen’s
disease, and Louis-Bar syndrome.
Photocoagulation: The treatment of ocular disease that depends on the
absorption of light by pigmented tissues and the conversion of light
energy into heat energy.
Photodynamic therapy: Light therapy of specific wavelength (visible or near-
infrared) used to excite a photosensitizer compound such as vetepofrin
(Visudyne). Used in the treatment of wet macular degeneration.
Proliferative retinopathy: Vascular proliferation of the vessels in the retina
that may lead to a vitreous hemorrhage.
Purtscher’s retinopathy: Edema and hemorrhage of the retina secondary to
severe crushing injury.
R
Retinal artery occlusion: An occlusion of a branch of the central retinal artery
resulting in a profound sector of visual field loss.
Retinal detachment: A space where the retina has pulled away from the under-
lying choroid tissue.
Retinal exudates: Hard exudates, fatty exudates, chronic edema residues used
to denote those retinal deposits with fatty components free within the
retina together with lipid-filled macrophages.
Retinal vein occlusion: Obstruction of the central retinal vein by a thrombosis.
Branch retinal vein occlusion is an obstruction in a branch vein. These
conditions are very prone to occur in diabetes.
Retinitis proliferans: Neovascularization accompanied by a fibrous
component extending into the vitreous. Occurs in diseases such as
diabetes and retinal vein occlusion.
Retinoblastoma: The most common cancer of children’s eyes. It may be
bilateral and can lead to death or blindness. This cancer is primary
and derived from retinal tissue.
Retinopathy, diabetic: Changes in the retina caused by diabetes mellitus.
Usually universal after 30 years of the disease.
Retinopathy of prematurity: Disorder of premature infants under 1500 g
weight exposed to high concentrations of oxygen. This condition can
result in mild peripheral retinopathy to full proliferative retinopathy
leading to blindness. Other associated features include total retinal
detachment, retrolental membrane formation, and severe myopia.
Retinoschisis: True splitting of the retina anteriorly without detachment.
Retrobulbar neuritis: Inflammation of optic nerve occurring without

involvement of optic disk. Most common prelude to multiple sclerosis.
Retrolental fibroplasia: An older term replaced by retinopathy of prematurity.
Rhegmatogenous retinal detachment: Detachment associated with retinal tears.
Rheopheresis for macular degeneration: A specific method of therapeutic
aspheresis (patient blood filtration), using the methodology of double
filtration plasmapheresis in the treatment of dry age-related macular
degeneration.
Roth’s spot: Retinal hemorrhage with a white center as seen in subacute
bacterial endocarditis.
S
Sickle cell retinopathy: Are caused by abnormal hemoglobins, which causes
retinal arteriole occlusions and neovascular budding of vessels in the
retina.
Siegrist’s streaks: Chains of pigmented flecks that lie linearly along the course
of a sclerosed choroidal vessel in patients with hypertension.
Soft drusen: Type of drusen with fuzzy edges and a tendency to become
confluent. They are larger than hard drusen.
Solar burn: An irreversible burn to the macula from unprotected viewing
of the sun usually during an eclipse.
Sorsby’s pseudoinflammatory macular dystrophy: Hereditary condition associated
with acute loss of central vision and an inflammatory-like macular lesion.
Staphyloma: A thinned sclera that bulges backward. Most commonly found
in persons with high myopia and axial myopia.
Stargardt’s disease: A bilateral symmetrical progressive macular dystrophy
occurring in young people that eventually leads to the loss of central
vision.
Subhyaloid hemorrhage: Hemorrhage between the sensory retina and the
vitreous body; a fluid level is often present.
Subretinal neovascular membrane: Vascular membranes deep to the retina that
appear as a grayish pigmentation. Can be treated with lasers.
Sunbursts: Areas of retinal pigment epithelial hyperplasia that are seen in
sickle cell retinopathy.
Sympathetic uveitis: Bilateral diffuse uveitis that occurs from 2 weeks to many
years after a penetrating or perforating eye injury. The uninjured eye
can develop severe uveitis in “sympathy” to the primary injury. It is
an autoimmune disease that involves serious injury to the uveal system.
Syneresis of vitreous: Liquifaction of a portion of the vitreous humor.
Normally it is a gel. Often associated with visible floaters.
T
Taenia solium (pork tapeworm): If the eggs of this tapeworm are ingested,
the larvae develop into a cyst, and the infestation is referred to as
cysticercosis. It can invade the interior of the eye.
Tay-Sachs disease (amaurotic idiocy): A metabolic disorder of gangliosides that
is characterized by a cherry-red spot at the macula. It causes blindness
and mental retardation. See idiocy, amaurotic.
Telangiectasis: Term used to denote retinal vascular disease of unknown
cause in which there are large dilated vascular channels within the retina
associated with edema. Included within this definition are Coats’
disease, Leber’s miliary aneurysms and hereditary telangiectasis.
Toxocariasis, ocular: Infestation by visceral larva migrans, which is a parasite
originating from Toxocara canis, a nematode whose natural host is the
dog. It is capable of producing uveitis.
Toxoplasmosis: A widespread infectious disease from the protozoal organism.
Toxoplasma gondii that produces retinochoroiditis both as a congenital
and as an acquired disorder and has a predisposition to affect the macular
area.
Transillumination: A method to illuminate the presence of a solid tumor by
passing a strong light over an accessible area of the sclera.
V
Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF): A protein produced by cells that
simulates an increase of blood vessels and vascular permeability.
Associate with retinal pathology in diabetic retinopathy and the wet
form of AMD.
Venous stasis retinopathy: A vascular disorder caused by slow blood flow as
a consequence of reduced central retinal artery pressure, i.e. diabetic
retinopathy.
Vitrectomy: Removal of a portion of the vitreous by excision or suction.
It is done most often to remove vitreous during a cataract extraction.
Vitreous detachment: A collapse of the vitreous body occurring in eyes with
aphakia, peripheral uveitis, diabetic retinopathy, branch vein occlusion,
or retinitis pigmentosa. It also is found in myopic people and after
blunt trauma.
Vitreous hemorrhage: A hemorrhage lying in the vitreous cavity (Fig. 15-8).
Vitreous traction: The pull on the retina by the vitreous.
Vogt-Koyanagi syndrome: Bilateral uveitis, associated with absent lashes, bald-
ness, and disturbance in hearing.
von Hippel-Lindau disease: See angiomatosis, retinal.
Fig. 15-8. Retinal tear with vitreous hemorrhage (With permission from Stein HA,
W
Window defects: Findings present with fluorescein angiography tests, i.e. hard
drusen exhibit hyperfluorescence as late fading.
C H A P T E R 16
OCULAR TUMORS
Tumor (Latin tumor, “a swelling”) was a term used by the ancients and
continued until modern times to mean any swelling, the nature and origin
of which were unknown. The word tumor is now restricted to use for
swellings arising from new growths.
The term neoplasm (Greek neos, “new,” and plasma, “form”) are new
forms or new cells that proliferate to form a new tissue or tumor. A tumor
may be either malignant (from Latin malignus, “evil”) or benign (from Latin
benignus, “kindly”). The former is life threatening and thus capable of
causing death, whereas the latter is not, being innocent and nonfatal, and
although it may grow, it is not capable of producing death and tends to
be localized. Carcinomas (Greek Karkinos, “a crab” or “creeping”) are
malignant tumors.
Tumors of the eyelid

On the eyelid skin basal cell carcinoma, sometimes called rodent ulcers, occur
frequently and arise from the basal epithelial cells (Fig. 16-1). They spread
locally but do not metastasize or spread to distant sites. Less commonly,
squamous cell carcinoma, more malignant tumors arising from the squamous
Fig. 16-1. Basal cell carcinoma of eyelid (With permission from Basak SK MD
DNB FRCS, Disha Eye Hospitals and Research Centre, Barrackpore, Kolkata, West
Bengal, India)
Ocular Tumors 279
Fig. 16-2. Squamous cell carcinoma of the eyelid (With permission from Basak
SK. Atlas on Clinical Ophthalmology. New Delhi, Jaypee Brothers Medical
Publishers, 2006)
Fig. 16-3. Xanthelasma (With permission from Basak SK. Atlas on Clinical
cells of the epithelium, have the potential capability of spreading via the
bloodstream to distant sites (Fig. 16-2).
Xanthelasma (Greek xanthas, “yellow,” and elasmos, “a metal plate”), or
xanthoma, are yellowish fatty deposits that arise from blood vessels and
may be associated with high cholesterol levels (Fig. 16-3). A papilloma is a
benign epithelial outgrowth over a fibrovascular cone (Fig. 16-4). It may
be pedunculated (hanging with a stalk) or sessile (broad-based). Hemangiomas
(Greek haima, “blood,” and angioma, “tumor of vessel”) are growths of
blood vessels and may be benign or malignant (Fig. 16-5). Keratoacanthoma
is a benign elevated lesion with a central crater filled with keratin, which
may be confused with a basal cell carcinoma. A verruca is a wart, an elevated
lesion of skin caused by a virus; the word verruca is derived from the
Latin word for a steep place (Fig. 16-6).
Fig. 16-4. Multiple papillomas of eyelids (With permission from Basak SK. Atlas
on Clinical Ophthalmology. New Delhi, Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers, 2006)
Fig. 16-5. Hemangioma of eyelid (With permission from Basak SK MD DNB FRCS,
Disha Eye Hospitals and Research Centre, Barrackpore, Kolkata, West Bengal, India)
Fig. 16-6. Verruca of upper eyelid (With permission from Basak SK MD DNB FRCS,
Disha Eye Hospitals and Research Centre, Barrackpore, Kolkata, West Bengal, India)
Ocular Tumors 281
Fig. 16-7. Malignant melanoma of the choroid (With permission from Basak SK.
Atlas on Clinical Ophthalmology. New Delhi, Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers,
2006)
Tumors of the interior of the eye

Melanomas are tumors that contain melanin or pigment and are malignant
(Fig. 16-7). They may arise in the iris, ciliary body, or choroid. Retinoblastoma
are malignant tumors arising in infants and young children from
undifferentiated retinal cells, sometimes referred to as gliomas of the retina.
They may give rise to leukocoria, or white pupil (Greek leuko, “white,” and
kore, “pupil”). The cells of a retinoblastoma may be undifferentiated or
arranged in rosettes, rings of columnar cells arranged around a central
lumen. The retinoblastoma is the most common malignant ocular tumor
of children.
Tumors of the optic nerve

Gliomas are malignant tumors of nerve cells occurring in the brain, spinal
cord, and retina and also arising from the optic nerve cells. The word is
derived from the Greek word for glue and refers to the supporting or
binding cells of the central nervous system from which they arise.
Meningiomas of the optic nerve are tumors that arise from the meninges (Greek
for membrane or outer lining of the optic nerve) and cause compression
damage to the optic nerve fibers.
Tumors of the lacrimal gland

The lacrimal gland, which secretes tear fluid, may become involved with
tumors such as (1) lymphomas, or tumors composed of lymph cells;
(2) inflammatory pseudotumors, or false tumors, which have the characteri-
Fig. 16-8. Carotid-cavernous fistula (With permission from Basak SK. Atlas on
Clinical Ophthalmology. New Delhi, Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers, 2006)
stics of a tumor but are inflammatory in origin; or (3) epithelial tumors,

derived from epithelial cells. The latter may be mixed tumors composed of
both epithelial cells and connective tissue elements. These may be either
benign or malignant. Some of these epithelial tumors are also referred to
as adenoid cystic carcinoma, named after the characteristic small round cystic
foci containing mucin; if the cells take on a cylinder shape, the tumors
are then referred to as cylindroma.
Tumors and lesions of the orbit

Pseudotumor of the orbit is an inflammatory condition resembling a tumor
of the orbit with all the clinical signs of a true tumor. A mucocele is a walled,
epithelial-lined sac, often arising from the sinuses. A dermoid of the orbit is
a cyst, that is, a lesion containing embryonic remnants of skin derivatives
such as squamous epithelium, hair follicles, and sebaceous and sweat glands
along with accumulated sebum. Neurofibromas are proliferations of
Schwann cells, which frequently progress and lead to disfiguration.
Hemangiomas are common tumors of the orbit arising from blood vessel
cells. They may be benign or malignant.
Rhabdomyosarcoma is a malignant neoplasm related to the striated muscle
and arising from the muscle masses in the orbit. Liposarcoma is a malignant
tumor related to fat or adipose tissue. Carotid-cavernous fistula is a communi-
cation between the carotid artery and the cavernous sinus arising from
trauma, which may be confronted with an orbital tumor (Fig. 16-8). An
orbital aneurysm is a vascular enlargement of an artery in the orbit.
Some definitions of other tumors and some words related to tumors
arising in the eye and adjacent tissues are listed in the following glossary.
Ocular Tumors 283
A
Acquired melanosis: Acquired pigmentation of the basal layers of the
conjunctival epithelium.
Adenocarcinoma: Malignant tumor in which the cells are arranged in a
glandlike fashion.
Astrocytoma: Tumor of the central nervous system formed by astrocytes.
B
Basal cell carcinoma: Tumors arising from basal epithelial cells.
Bowen’s disease: A disorder consisting of single or multiple intraepidermal
squamous cell carcinomas that grow slowly and spread in a superficial,
centrifugal manner about the limbus and that are locally invasive.
Broders’ grading: A grading of epithelial malignancy from 1 to 4, based on
differentiation of cell types.
C
Calcifying epithelioma of Malherbe: Firm subcutaneous nodule covered by
normal skin typically occurring in young adults.
Callender classification: System used to classify ciliary body, iris, and choroidal
malignant melanoma (spindle A, spindle B, epitheloid, mixed, and necrotic).
Capillary hemangioma: Congenital tumor composed of capillaries and usually
bright red, solitary, and smooth. Typically begins within the first years
of life and characteristically regresses spontaneously.
Carcinoma in situ: Intraepidermal squamous cell carcinoma.
Cavernous hemangioma: Tumor of blood vessels in which large vascular
spaces are lined by endothelium.
Congenital ocular melanocytosis (melanosis oculi): Diffuse nevus of conjunctiva.
Congenital oculodermal melanocytosis (nevus of Ota): Deep nevus of skin
associated with a nevus of conjunctiva and diffuse nevus of uvea.
D
Dermoid cyst: Cyst lined by epithelium with skin appendages (hair follicles,
sweat glands, and so on) and filled with keratin. Usually attached to
the periosteum of the orbit.
Dermolipoma: Congenital benign lesion, usually occurring under the bulbar
conjunctiva at the external canthus; this lesion is composed of the
elements of skin plus fat.
Dictyoma: See medulloepithelioma.
E
Epithelioma: Tumors of epithelial origin, namely, squamous cell and basal
cell subtypes.
F
Follicles, conjunctival: Raised nodules of conjunctiva surrounded by blood
vessels, which may be seen in patients with viral conjunctivitis.
Fuchs’ adenoma: Benign nonvascular proliferation of nonpigmented ciliary
epithelium generally located at the pars plana of the ciliary body.
G
Granuloma: Benign nodule, such as a chalazion, that occurs as a result of
a localized inflammation of the sebaceous glands. It can cause iritis
and inflammatory tumors of the orbit.
H
Hemangioma: Tumor arising from endothelial cells and most frequently seen
in the choroid.
Hodgkin’s disease: A disease of the reticuloendothelial system that affects
predominantly the lymphatic elements, the lymph nodes, and the
spleen.
Hyperkeratosis: Thickening of the keratin layer. At times, this may be a
precancerous transformation of tissue.
I
Iris nevus syndrome: An acquired diffuse nevus of the iris that may cause
glaucoma by extending into the drainage angle.
J
Juvenile xanthogranuloma: A disorder characterized by multiple raised orange
skin lesions; the eyeball, meninges, and testes may also be involved.
K
Kaposi’s sarcoma: Tumor consisting of capillary clusters in a stroma of
malignant spindle-shaped cells.
L
Leukemia: A malignant tumor of blood cells that produces widespread
retinal hemorrhages.
Leukocoria: Any pathological condition, such as retrolental fibroplasia, that
produces a white reflex in the pupillary area.
Leukoplakia: Clinical term used to describe whitish plaques of slightly
elevated tissue; may be precancerous.
Ocular Tumors 285
Lymphangioma: Tumor composed of lymph-filled spaces, often involving

the orbit. Some people consider the lymphangioma to be varices.
Lymphoma: Malignant tumor of the reticuloendothelial system.
M
Malignant schwannoma: Malignant tumor of peripheral nerves arising from
Schwann cells.
Medulloepithelioma (dictyoma): Congenital tumor of nonpigmented ciliary
body epithelium. These tumors may be benign or malignant.
Meibomian cyst: Chronic cyst of the Meibomian gland of the eyelid.
Melanocyte: Cell that produces melanin and is found in dermal tissues.
Melanophage: Cell that has the ability to phagocytose or ingest melanin.
Melanosis: Condition characterized by abnormal deposits of melanin or
pigment.
Molluscum contagiosum: Viral infection of the skin around the eyelid that
causes a dome-shaped swelling with an umbilicated center.
N
Neurilemoma: Encapsulated benign tumors of peripheral cranial or
sympathetic nerve sheaths composed of Schwann cells. They may have
a solid appearance (Antoni A) or there may be a mucoid degeneration
(Antoni B).
Neuroblastoma: Malignant tumor of the nervous system, one type of which
is the retinoblastoma, or tumor of the retina.
Neuroepithelioma: Neuroectodermal tumor of the retina in which the cells
arrange themselves in the form of true rosettes.
Neurofibroma: Tumor composed of proliferating Schwann cells of the
peripheral nerves.
Nevus: A benign, pigmented area of variable size and shape that may arise
from the conjunctiva, iris, or choroid.
O
Osteoma: Tumor arising from bone that may occur in the choroid or around
the orbit.
P
Papules: A papillary inflammatory reaction of the conjunctiva consisting of
raised nodules (cobblestones) with a central core of blood vessels. The
papules most frequently affect the superior tarsal conjunctiva. Vernal
(allergic) conjunctivitis is the most classic cause of papillary reaction.
Phakoma: A small, grayish-white tumor in the retina.

Phakomatoses: Group of hereditary diseases characterized by the presence
of spots, tumors, and cysts in various parts of the body; types
recognized as associated with ocular findings are tuberous sclerosis,
von Hippel-Lindau disease, Recklinghausen’s disease, Bourneville’s
disease, and Louis-Bar syndrome.
Pseudoepitheliomatous hyperplasia: Benign proliferation of the epidermis that
simulates an epithelial neoplasm characterized by marked acanthosis
with a moderate inflammatory cell infiltration. It may be seen around
areas of chronic inflammation.
R
Retinal pigment epithelial hypertrophy: Jet-black flat lesion of the retinal pigment
epithelium surrounded by a halo.
S
Sarcoma: Malignant tumor of connective tissue, vascular tissue, fat, or bone.
Sebaceous adenoma: Benign tumor of sebaceous glands.
Sebaceous cyst: Cyst caused by the obstruction of the glands of Zeis, the
Meibomian glands, or a sebaceous gland associated with a hair follicle.
Seborrheic keratosis: Tumor that sits like a button on the surface of the skin.
Senile or solar keratoses: Growths that appear as multiple lesions on the sun-
exposed parts of the body. They may be a precursor to basal cell carcinoma.
Spindle A: Malignant melanoma composed of cells with small spindle-
shaped nuclei with a central dark stripe.
Spindle B: Malignant melanoma composed of cells with spindle-shaped
nuclei and distinct nucleoli.
Squamous cell carcinoma: Tumor arising from squamous epithelial cells.
Syringoma: Benign adenoma of sweat glands that may arise in the caruncle.
T
Trichoepithelioma: Benign tumor of hair follicles.
V
Verruca vulgaris: Viral infection of skin that produces a typical wartlike
lesion.
X
Xanthogranuloma: See juvenile xanthogranuloma.
C H A P T E R 17
SYSTEMIC DISEASES
AND THE EYE
This chapter highlights some of the more common systemic diseases that
have ophthalmic manifestations. The structures that can be affected
include the anterior and posterior segments of the eye as well as the orbital
tissues. The detection of these ocular manifestations may be helpful in
determining the severity of a particular systemic disease such as diabetes,
hypertension, and infectious disorders.
Diabetes mellitus
Diabetes mellitus (Greek diabetes “a syphon” + melitta “honey-sweet urine”)
is a complex metabolic disorder manifested by the excretion of a large
volume of sugared urine. The different forms of the disease have varying
genetic and environmental causes and is one of the leading causes of
blindness in North America. The basic defect appears to be a relative or
absolute lack of insulin. The term insulin comes from the German word
insula meaning “islet” which refers to the islets of Langerhans. The islets
are located in the pancreas and are responsible for the secretion of insulin.
There are two clinical forms of diabetes mellitus: insulin-dependent
diabetes mellitus (IDDM) and non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus
(NIDDM). The major clinical differences between these two types are
listed in Table 17-1.
The diabetic patient may initially present with any of the following
symptoms: Polyuria (Greek poly, “much,” + ouron, “urine”) is the passage
of a large volume of urine in a given period. This is the result of spillage
of sugar from the blood into the urine, which causes more water to be
drawn into urine, increasing the volume of urine. Polydipsia (Greek poly,
“much,” + dipsia, “thirst”) is an increased drinking tendency in an attempt
to keep up with the fluid loss. Polyphagia (Greek poly, “much” + phagia,
“eat”) is an excessive appetite for food. Weight loss, dehydration, fatigue,
and coma may be manifestations of an abnormal sugar level.
Table 17-1. Differences between insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus

(IDDM) and non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM)
IDDM NIDDM
Defect Absolute lack of insulin Peripheral insulin
due to autoinflammatory resistance
destruction of pancreas
Circulating insulin Very low or absent Relative lack of insulin
for high level of blood
sugar
Body habitus Normal to thin Usually obese
Treatment Insulin replacement Diet alone or diet + oral
hypoglycemic agents
+/– insulin
Diabetes can lead to both ocular and systemic complications. The

systemic manifestations include diseases of the kidneys, peripheral nervous
system, and the blood vessels.
Diabetic eye disease can be classified into nonproliferative and proliferative
forms, based on the presence of new blood vessels growing in the retina.
Nonproliferative diabetic retinopathy, where there are no new blood vessels
growing, is characterized by: microaneurysms (Greek mikros, “small” +
aneurysma, “a widening”), which are outpouchings from the walls of the
capillaries. Cotton-wool spots appear as white retinal patches and are caused
by ischemic damage to the nerve fiber layer of the retina. Hard exudates
are derived from the serum and appear as yellow deposits in the deep
layers of the retina. Blot hemorrhages can be found at various levels in the
retina. Vision loss is caused by macular edema.
Proliferative diabetic retinopathy is caused by neovascularization, or new vessel
growth on the disk or retina (Fig. 17-1). These fine vessels can easily
rupture and result in a preretinal hemorrhage, located beneath the internal
limiting membrane of the retina or a vitreous hemorrhage. This causes
fibrosis which can lead to traction retinal detachment. Vision loss can happen
suddenly due to vessel hemorrhage or slowly from retinal detachment or
macular ischemia. Occasionally the neovascularization can affect the iris
and the trabecular meshwork and lead to obstruction of aqueous humor
outflow, which results in a condition called neovascular glaucoma.
Laser photocoagulation is the most commonly used treatment for diabetic
retinopathy. It is used to treat both proliferative retinopathy and the
Systemic Diseases and the Eye 289
Fig. 17-1. Early proliferative diabetic retinopathy (PDR). Neovascularization of

the disk and along the course of major blood vessels. (Reproduced from Basak SK:
Atlas on Clinical Ophthalmology. New Delhi, Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers,
2006, with permission)
macular edema cause by nonproliferative retinopathy. Focal photocoagulation

uses a laser to create light burns on microaneurysms, vascular areas of
hard exudates, and areas of general retinal edema which leads to decreased
macular edema in nonproliferative retinopathy. In proliferative retinopathy,
the technique panretinal photocoagulation is used. This procedure utilizes
between 600 to 1600 laser burns 500 micrometers wide that are scattered
over the retina in a grid-like pattern.
The vast majority of patients with diabetic retinopathy will have no
changes in their vision until the disease has become severe, emphasizing
the importance of early diagnoses and frequent eye exams. The diagnosis
of diabetes is made by various laboratory tests. The presence of glucose
in the urine should always make one strongly suspicious of diabetes.
However, at least one of four laboratory tests are necessary to establish
the diagnosis of diabetes mellitus. An elevated hemoglobin A1C (part of a
red blood cell that is affected by high blood sugar) may be elevated. An
elevated blood sugar if the patient has classic symptoms of diabetes
(polyuria, polydipsia, polyphagia, weight loss) is also diagnostic. A fasting
blood glucose can be obtained after the patient has fasted for 8 hours and is
positive when elevated. An oral glucose tolerance test may be performed. In
this test, the patient ingests a glucose solution, and then multiple blood
samples are drawn over time. The diabetic patient will be unable to lower
the blood sugar sufficiently, and the test will be positive.
The treatment of diabetes involves a number of modalities. Diet is
of utmost importance with regard to regularity of meals and total caloric
intake in IDDM. Oral hypoglycemic agents are pills that are used to regulate
the blood sugar levels in NIDDM. Metformin, often the first choice in
the treatment of NIDDM, causes lower liver glucose production and
increased peripheral glucose utilization. The sulfonylureas, another

commonly used class of drugs, act to stimulate insulin secretion from
the pancreas. As the IDDM patient has little or no insulin due to
autoimmune destruction of the pancreas, proper control of blood sugar
levels is impossible without the use of insulin. The patient is taught the
technique of administering the injection of insulin beneath the skin. The
use of a continuous insulin infusion pump provides improved regulation of
blood glucose and may be necessary in certain patients.
Thyroid disease and the eye

Graves’ disease, an autoimmune disorder that leads to excessive thyroid
hormone and thyroid growth, is characterized by specific ocular features.
The disease was named after Robert Graves (1796-1853), a physician from
Dublin who described the classic features in 1835. However, the earliest
description was by Caler Parry whose work was published posthumously
by his son in 1825.
The ocular signs in Graves’ disease have been classified by the use of
the mnemonic NO SPECS (Table 17-2). The NO SPECS classification
has been widely criticized because it does not reflect the disease process
of Graves’ disease in a precise or meaningful way. It has been retained
for the purpose of reminding the clinician of the orbital changes
associated with Graves’ disease. Class 1 is characterized by lid changes.
Lid retraction (Dalrymple’s sign) gives the patient a characteristic “startled”
appearance (Fig. 17-2). Lid lag (von Graefe’s sign) is demonstrated by having
the patient look from upgaze to downgaze and noting the relative lag of
the lid position to the movement of the globe. Class 2 is characterized by
edema of the conjunctiva and lids, conjunctival injection, and swollen
extraocular muscles. Class 3 is characterized by exophthalmos (ex “out of ”
Table 17-2. Reminder of ocular changes associated with Graves’ disease

Class Features
0 No signs or symptoms
1 Only signs (limited to upper lid retraction, stare, and lid lag).
No symptoms
2 Soft-tissue involvement
3 Proptosis
4 Extraocular muscle movement
5 Corneal involvement
6 Sight loss—decreased vision from optic nerve involvement
Fig. 17-2. Thyroid exophthalmos. A patient with Graves’ disease who demons-
trated characteristic signs of lid retraction and proptosis (Reproduced from
Basak SK: Atlas on Clinical Ophthalmology. New Delhi, Jaypee Brothers Medical
Publishers, 2006, with permission)
+ Greek ophthalmos, “eye”), which is protrusion of the eye, also referred

to as proptosis. In Graves’ disease, fibrous and fatty tissue growth as well
as swelling of the retrobulbar tissues within the confines of a bony orbit
results in the eye being pushed forward. The extent of protrusion of the
eye is measured with the exophthalmometer. Class 4 is reached when there
is a limitation of eye movement because of the inability of the fibrotic
eye muscles to relax. Involvement is most common in decreasing order
of frequency of the inferior rectus, medial rectus, superior rectus, and
lateral rectus. This restriction in eye movement can be differentiated from
a muscle weakness problem by checking the intraocular pressure when
the patient looks straight ahead compared with upgaze. In Graves’ disease,
the tight extraocular muscles press on the globe in upgaze, and the
intraocular pressure increases unlike that seen with a nonrestrictive
problem. Another means is by the technique of forced ductions, in which a
drop of anesthetic is placed onto the eye and then forceps are used to
grasp the globe and move it. In Graves’ disease, the tethered extraocular
muscles prevent the free movement of the globe. Corneal involvement
occurs in class 5. This is related to drying of the ocular surface, which
has been attributed to upper lid retraction, exophthalmos, and a decreased
blink rate. Class 6 is characterized by visual loss caused by optic nerve
compression from the surrounding swollen orbital tissues, ulceration and/
or infection of the cornea, and dislocation of the eye from the socket.
Additional signs are included in Table 17-3, which presents a summary
of the eponyms used in describing the ocular signs in Graves’ disease.
The diagnosis of Graves’ disease is made by clinical features and
laboratory tests. The patient is hyperthyroid and usually shows evidence
of an enlarged thyroid gland (goiter), fine tremor, increased nervousness,
Table 17-3. Eponyms for external eye signs in Graves’ disease

Eponym Definition
Ballet’s sign Partial or complete paralysis of the extrinsic eye muscle
Boston’s sign Jerky movement of upper lid on downward gaze
Dalrymple’s sign Staring appearance (lid retraction in primary gaze)
Enroth’s sign Puffy swelling of lids
Gifford’s sign Difficulty in everting upper lid
Jellinek’s sign Brownish pigmentation of lids
Joffroy’s sign Absence of forehead wrinkling on upward gaze
Kocher’s sign Increased lid retraction with visual fixation
Mobius’ sign Difficulty converging
Rosenbach’s sign Fine tremor of the closed upper lids
Sainton’s sign Delayed forehead wrinkling after upward gaze
Stellwag’s sign Infrequent blinking
Suker’s sign Weakness of fixation on lateral gaze
von Graefe’s sign Upper lid lag on downward gaze
palpitations, weight loss but with increased appetite, increased sweating,

and heat intolerance. Confirmatory laboratory tests include elevated thyroid
hormones (thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3)) in the presence of
low thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH). Final confirmation can be made by a
24 hour thyroid radioiodine uptake scan or presence of the antibody that
causes the disease (TSHR-Ab).
Treatment of Graves’ disease focuses on addressing the effects of
both the ophthalmopathy and hyperthyroidism. Lubrication and ointment
can be used for corneal exposure as well as eye shades and keeping the
head of the bed elevated for sleeping at night. Systemic steroids combined
with external orbital radiation can be used to decrease the inflammation.
If steroids and radiation fail, vision is threatened, or correction of cosmetic
appearance is desired, surgical procedures can be performed to
decompress the orbits so as to allow more room for the swollen tissues.
A transantral decompression is an inferior approach that allows some bulging
of the orbital tissues in the maxillary sinus.
Radioactive iodine can be used to manage the hyperthyroidism by
destroying the thyroid tissue. This treatment is simple and involves no
surgical complications or hospitalization but may cause or worsen Graves’
ophthalmopathy.
A subtotal thyroidectomy, a surgical procedure that removes the majority
of the thyroid gland, a near total thyroidectomy, and antithyroid drugs can
also be used in the management of hyperthyroidism without significant

negative impacts on Graves’ ophthalmopathy.
Hypertension
Hypertension is associated with a large increase in morbidity and mortality
from a multitude of causes. It is defined as a blood pressure greater than
140/90 mm Hg measured at two different visits. It is a very common
disease with an incidence of approximately 30% and represents the
number one reason to visit a doctor or take prescription medicines in the
United States. Hypertension results in an increased risk of premature death
and vascular disease involving the eyes, brain, heart, and kidneys. The
vast majority patients with hypertension have no known cause. This is
referred to as essential hypertension.
The development of hypertension before age 30, severe or resistant
hypertension, or new onset of hypertension in a previously healthy person
suggests a specific cause and is known as secondary hypertension. Oral contra-
ceptives may be associated with an elevation in blood pressure that is
usually reversible after the pills have been discontinued. Sleep apnea (often
obese middle-aged patients who snore loudly while sleeping causing brief
moments of not breathing), and coarctation of the aorta (a narrowing of
the body’s main artery) can also cause secondary hypertension that may resolve
with treatment of the underlying disease. Diseases of the blood vessels
that supply the kidneys (renal vascular disease) can result in activation of
the renin-angiotensin system, which leads to the release of various substances
into the blood that raise blood pressure. Intrinsic diseases of the kidney
may also elevate the blood pressure by a variety of mechanisms.
There are specific diseases of the adrenal gland that result in the secretion
of a number of substances that can lead to hypertension: (1) Primary
hyperaldosteronism results in an elevation in serum aldosterone. (2) Cushing’s
syndrome results in a large output of glucocorticoids. (3) Pheochromocytoma
releases epinephrine and norepinephrine into the bloodstream. All of these
substances act in different ways to raise the blood pressure.
Hypertension affects all the blood vessels in the body but it is only
the ones in the eyes that are readily observable. The retinal findings in
hypertension, known as hypertensive retinopathy, can be expressed according
to a morphological or pathophysiological grading system. According to
the four point morphological grading system, Grade 1 consists of mild
narrowing and sclerosis of the retinal vessels. Grade 2 changes consist
of more marked retinal vessel changes with localized or generalized
arteriolar narrowing and retinal arteriovenous crossing phenomena
Fig. 17-3. Hypertensive retinopathy with narrowed arterioles, scattered hemor-

rhages, cotton-wool spots and macular star (With permission from Basak SK MD
DNB FRCS, Disha Eye Hospitals and Research Centre, Barrackpore, Kolkata, West
Bengal, India)
(nicking). Grade 3 (Fig. 17-3) comprises grade 2 plus retinal hemorrhages

and exudates. The hemorrhages characteristically occur in the superficial
or nerve fiber layer of the retina as dot or flame hemorrhages. Cotton-
wool spots, often termed soft exudates, are not true exudates but represent
focal microinfarcts to the nerve fiber layer of the retina. Hard exudates
represent lipid-rich collections of plasma deposited in the retina. Grade
4 consists of grade 3 findings plus papilledema and is seen only in severe
cases of hypertension. According to the three point pathophysiological
grading system, mild hypertensive retinopathy consists of retinal arteriolar
narrowing and wall thickening, as well as arteriovenous nicking. Moderate
hypertensive retinopathy consists of cotton-wool spots, hard exudates, and
dot or flame hemorrhages. Severe hypertensive retinopathy has the additional
finding of optic disk edema.
Treatment of hypertension depends on the cause. When a cause of
hypertension is found, which is the exception rather than the rule, often
the hypertension will resolve with treatment of the underlying cause.
However, in the much more common case of essential hypertension, where
no simple cause is found, treatment is usually lifelong and is designed to
prevent the complications of cardiovascular disease, renal failure, and stroke.
The aim of the therapy is to control the disease. Life style modifications
(healthy diet, exercise, decreased salt and alcohol intake, and weight loss)
should be initially attempted in all patients. If unsuccessful, therapy with
blood pressure lowering drugs may be necessary.
Though there are a multitude of antihypertensive drugs that use various
mechanisms to lower blood pressure, angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE)
inhibitors, angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs), thiazide diuretics, calcium channel

blockers and beta blockers are some of the most commonly used as initial
therapy. ACE inhibitors (such as captopril, enalapril and lisinopril) and
ARBs (such as losartan) block the renin-angiotensin system at various
stages in the pathway, decreasing some of the hormones or effects of
some of the hormones that control blood pressure. Thiazide diuretics
(such as hydrochlorothiazide and chlorthalidone) act on the kidneys to
change the balance of electrolytes leading to increased urination and
lowering of blood pressure. Calcium channel blockers (such as diltiazem
and verapamil) and beta blockers (such as metoprolol and atenolol) work
on the heart to decrease blood pressure. There are many different factors
that determine which medicine would be best for each patient, and often
trials of several different drugs are necessary to find the best combination
of lowering blood pressure and minimizing side effects.
Infectious disease
Pharyngoconjunctival fever
Infection with specific types of adenoviruses (most commonly subgroup B
types 3 and 7) may cause a condition manifested by a sore throat, fever,
and a red eye. The disease predominates in children and young adults
and outbreaks can occur in the setting of summer camps and swimming
pools. The eye findings are typically those of a conjunctivitis with a watery
discharge and occasional corneal involvement. The disease usually runs a
limited course over several weeks. No specific treatment is indicated, and
no permanent eye damage results. A more severe form of the disease,
epidemic keratoconjunctivitis, can be spread in ophthalmology and optometry
offices by contaminated hands, instruments and eye drops. Though also
self-limited, it can cause bilateral conjunctivitis, painful corneal ulcers and
blurry vision.
Toxoplasmosis (Fig. 17-4)

Toxoplasmosis is a disease caused by the parasite Toxoplasma gondii. Infection
may be either congenital or acquired (e.g. from raw meat or cat feces).
Systemic manifestations are more common in the congenital form and
in immunocompromised patients (e.g. HIV/AIDS, chronic high dose
steroid users) and may include intracranial calcification, cerebral abscesses,
and seizures. Ocular disease such as chorioretinitis (more common in
immunocompromised patients) and vitreoretinitis (more common in
immunocompetent patients) may be manifested by white retinal lesions
and severe inflammation and cells in the vitreous and occasionally in the
Fig. 17-4. Ocular infection by toxoplasmosis can result in a chorioretinal scar

that affects central vision (With permission from Basak SK MD DNB FRCS, Disha Eye
Hospitals and Research Centre, Barrackpore, Kolkata, West Bengal, India)
anterior chamber. Diagnosis is confirmed by the indirect fluorescent antibody

test, which measures serum antibodies that are directed against the
Toxoplasma organism. Treatment is indicated if the inflammatory process
threatens the macula or optic nerve. Pyrimethamine, sulfadiazine and
clindamycin are used to treat the infection with the addition of prednisone
for cases with severe inflammation.
Visceral larva migrans (Toxocariasis) (Fig. 17-5)

(Toxocariasis)
This infection is most commonly caused by the parasite Toxocara canis.
The disease is typically acquired by children age one to five years old who
Fig. 17-5. Toxocara endophthalmitis with fibrous tissue at the posterior pole (With
permission from Basak SK MD DNB FRCS, Disha Eye Hospitals and Research Centre,
Barrackpore, Kolkata, West Bengal, India)
ingest the Toxocara eggs that have been excreted by dogs (especially
puppies) in the soil, often in public playgrounds. Systemic infection usually
goes unnoticed. Though in cases of severe infection, it may be manifested
by fever, cough, malaise, itchy skin rash and enlargement of the liver
(hepatomegaly). Ocular involvement often occurs in the absence of other
systemic symptoms. The eye findings may include whitish mass lesions
(focal granulomas) involving the retina and choroid, inflammation of the
vitreous (chronic endophthalmitis), and occasionally the formation of a
tubular structure beneath the retina, which provide objective evidence of
previous passage of the Toxocara worm. Strabismus and blurry vision may
occur. The disease is self-limited and often does not require treatment.
Corticosteroids by mouth or by injection around the eye can be adminis-
tered in the acute inflammatory phase, though are of unproven efficacy.
Candidiasis
This infection is caused by a yeast like fungus known as Candida albicans.
Infection is more common in immunocompromised patients (critically
ill, HIV/AIDS, treated with high doses of steroids or chemotherapy),
patients with indwelling catheters, or intravenous drug abusers. Systemic
infection may involve any organ.
Ocular involvement can be due to systemic infection or local inocula-
tion (trauma, eye surgery). Ocular manifestations of systemic infections
are characterized by fluffy yellow-white lesions that usually start in the
retina and spread into the vitreous. Keratitic precipitates on the corneal
epithelium and cells and flare in the anterior chamber can be seen in the
case of local inoculation. Diagnosis is made by the typical fundus picture
in the right clinical setting or by direct aspiration of the vitreous. Blood
cultures may or may not be positive. Treatment is with antifungal agents
which can be administered by the intravenous, periocular, or intraocular
routes.
Syphilis
Syphilis is caused by the spirochete Treponema pallidum. The disease was
named after Syphilus, the supposed first sufferer of the disease and the
hero of the poem Syphilis Sive Morbus Gallicus by Girolamo Fracastoro
(1530), an Italian physician, astronomer, and poet. The disease may be
congenital or acquired. The systemic manifestations of congenital syphilis
include saddle-shaped nose, notching of the teeth (Hutchinson’s sign), and
deafness. The most common eye lesion in both congenital and acquired
syphilis is an interstitial keratitis (Fig. 17-6), which results from
Fig. 17-6. Interstitial keratitis – ghost vessels. The ingrowth of vessels in the deep
layers of the cornea are manifestations of the interstitial keratitis of congenital syphilis
(Reproduced from Basak SK: Atlas on Clinical Ophthalmology. New Delhi, Jaypee
Brothers Medical Publishers, 2006, with permission)
inflammation in the deep layers of the cornea. The other typical eye
findings are anterior uveitis and chorioretinitis, which gives a “salt and
pepper” appearance to the fundus. In acquired syphilis, eye manifestations
are typically seen as granulomatous uveitis. The treatment of syphilis
involves large doses of antibiotics (e.g. penicillin). Topical steroids can
be used to control the corneal inflammation.
The laboratory diagnosis of syphilis can be made by the Venereal Disease
Research Laboratory (VDRL) or rapid plasma reagin (RPR), which is usually
positive in acute infections, and confirmed by the fluorescent treponemal
antibody absorption test (FTA/ABS), which will continue to be positive
throughout the patient’s lifetime.
Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)

The first description of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), the virus that
causes AIDS, was in the early 1980s. Since that time, an estimated 59
million people have been infected, 20 million people have already died
due to complications from the disease, and the virus has made major global
impacts. HIV is most commonly transmitted through sexual contact,
though exposure to infected blood and maternal-fetal transmission also
spread the virus. Once acquired, the virus infects the body’s immune cells
and over time causes them to be less able to fight off other infections.
AIDS occurs when the CD4 count (a type of white blood cell) is less than
200/mm3 or in the presence of an AIDS-defining opportunistic infection
(e.g. candidiasis of esophagus/respiratory system, atypical cytomegalovirus
Fig. 17-7. Cytomegalolvirus (CMV) retinitis with yellow-white, fluffy and granular
lesions of the retina with local hemorrhages (Reproduced from Basak SK: Atlas on
Clinical Ophthalmology. New Delhi, Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers, 2006,
with permission)
infection, atypical cryptococcosis or cryptosporidiosis infection,

Pneumocystis jiroveci (PCP) pneumonia, toxoplasmosis, etc.).
There are a multitude of serious eye infections that occur in the
presence of HIV/AIDS, the most common of which is cytomegalovirus
(CMV) retinitis (Fig. 17-7). With waning immunocompetence as HIV/
AIDS progresses (typically CD4 < 100/mm3), latent CMV infections can
be reactivated causing blurry vision, blind spots, and floaters and can lead
to retinal detachment. Ophthalmic exam reveals yellow-white, fluffy or
granular lesions on the retina with or without local hemorrhages. Lesions
typically occur in only one eye, but in severe disease, may occur bilaterally.
Treatment regimes are geared towards treating both the CMV and HIV
infections. The most common treatment for CMV retinitis is oral
valganciclovir, but in severe or sight-threatening infections, intravitreal
and intravenous ganciclovir may be used. Initiating or modifying highly
active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) for the HIV infection is also
important.
Other serious eye diseases in HIV/AIDS include Herpes Zoster
Ophthalmicus (a painful eruption of vesicles around the eye caused by a
virus) and other causes of infectious keratitis, Kaposi’s sarcoma (a painless
tumor that can grow in the eyelid or conjunctiva), HIV retinopathy (retinal
vascular changes that lead to cotton-wool spots), a myriad of ocular
manifestations of classic opportunistic infections (syphilis, tuberculosis,
toxoplasmosis, histoplasmosis, Cryptococcus) as well as drug side effects
from HAART regimes.
C H A P T E R 18
NEURO-OPHTHALMOLOGY
The nervous system is the part of the body that receives and reacts to stimuli
allowing humans to be aware of their environment and themselves. This
system, made up of the brain, the spinal cord, and a complex network of
nerves, coordinates the body’s activities and responds to signals from both
inside and outside the body. Neuro-ophthalmology is the branch of
ophthalmology that deals with the nervous system associated with the
eye, eyelid and eye muscles. Through study of neuro-ophthalmology the
clinician can correlate eye findings with systemic manifestations and
identify the exact areas of the brain that are affected. Careful examination
of the eye is crucial as often patients may show ophthalmological signs
of increased intracranial pressure or optic atrophy indicative of a brain
tumor and yet remain symptomless.
Neuroanatomy
Our knowledge of neuroanatomy began in ancient times during which
the brain was regarded as the seat of intelligence and the master of the
body. The anatomy of the eye-to-brain pathways has been studied since
these early days. Plato and his followers believed that the optic nerve was
a messenger between the eye and the brain, serving as a conduit for a
substance called pneuma. Pneuma was thought to travel from the brain
to the eyes, where it met and communicated with light outside the body.
The anatomists (circum 450 BC) viewed the role of the optic mechanism
differently, believing it received miniature reproductions of the seen object.
The Romans continued the Platonic tradition of regarding the optic nerve
as a transmitter of the energies of the soul, which they believed to reside
in the brain. Galen, the Greek physician who lived in Roman times,
subscribed to this theory and added considerable anatomical data. Abu
Al-Hasab ibn Al-Haytham, also known as Alhasan, proposed in the tenth
century that images flowed from the eye to the brain. The electrical nature
of nerve transmission, as we now understand it, was discovered by Galvani
in 1792 with his famous frog-leg experiment.
Neuro-ophthalmology 301
The brain is the center of the nervous system, coordinating the

messages from all areas of the body. From the brain, 12 cranial nerves (CN)
arise, the only nerves in the body that come directly out of the brainstem,
as opposed to all other nerves in the body which come out through the
spinal cord. The ophthalmic area represents half of the 12 cranial nerves
in which the second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh all have some
role in vision. One of the cranial nerves (CN II) only receives stimuli
and is called a sensory nerve, three of cranial nerves (CN III, IV, VI) only
control muscle movement and are called motor nerves, and two of the cranial
nerves (CN V, VII) have both sensory and motor functions. The second,
or optic, nerve (Greek optikos, “eye”) carries electrical impulses to the occipital
area (Latin oc, “back of,” and caput, “head”), where it is interpreted as images
by the brain. The fifth, or trigeminal, nerve (Latin tres, “three,” and geminus,
“a twin,” thus trigeminus means “triplets”) has three branches, which carry
the sensory fibers of the face and eyelids to the brain and control the
chewing muscles. The third, fourth, and sixth cranial nerves control the
muscles of eye movement. The third, or oculomotor, nerve is the main motor
nerve that moves not only the eye muscles, but also those that constrict
the pupil. The fourth, or trochlear, nerve, derived from the Latin word for
“pulley,” is so named because the nerve courses through a pulley
mechanism in the frontal bone. The name of the sixth, or abducens, nerve
is derived from its action of leading the eye away from the center, or
“abducting” the eye. The seventh, or facial, nerve controls the muscles of
the face and eyelids, as well as sense taste on the majority of the tongue.
The nervous system can be divided into two groups: a voluntary (over which
one has control) and involuntary (“autonomic”) nervous system. For example,
you have control over where you look (voluntary nervous system) but
not over the size of your pupils (autonomic nervous system) when you
look in that direction.
The pupil
The pupil is the center of the iris. The iris dilating and contracting permits
the pupil to transmit light in the proper amount to form a clear image on
the retina. Pupillary constriction is referred to as miosis. A drug that causes
pupillary constriction is a miotic. Pupillary dilation is referred to as mydriasis.
A drug that causes pupillary dilation is a mydriatic. When the pupils of
each eye are of unequal size, anisocoria is said to occur. The lens acts to
provide accommodation for focusing an image at varying distance.
Alterations in pupillary constriction and accommodation occur in a
number of neuro-ophthalmological disorders, and some famous names
have been associated with atypical pupils.
Fig. 18-1. Horner’s syndrome: Miosis, ptosis and absence

of sweating on the same side of the face (With permission
from Stein HA, Stein RM, Freeman MI. The Ophthalmic
Assistant. A Text for Allied and Associated Ophthalmic
Personnel, 8th edition. St. Louis/Philadelphia: Elsevier-
Mosby, 2006)
Adie’s, or tonic, pupil is a type of abnormality in which there is dimini-

shed or absent constriction to light stimulation but pupillary constriction
to accommodation remains mostly intact. Argyll Robertson pupil, named
after Robertson who first described it in 1869, is a type pupillary response
found in neurosyphilis in which direct and consensual light reflexes of
the pupil are absent but there is still a brisk response to accommodation
for near objects. Amaurotic pupillary paralysis occurs in an eye blind from
retinal or optic nerve disease in which the pupillary direct reflex is absent,
but on stimulation of the fellow (opposite) eye, the consensual reflex is
present. Horner’s syndrome, described by Johann Horner, a Swiss ophthalmo-
logist, results in a miosis (constriction of the pupil) associated with slight
ptosis (drooping of the eyelid) and absent sweating on the same side of
the face, all caused by paralysis of the sympathetic nerve (Fig. 18-1). Hippus
is spasmodic dilation and constriction of the pupil independent of
stimulation with light.
The eyelid muscles and intraocular muscles

Ophthalmoplegia is derived from Greek “plegia”, meaning “paralysis”.
Defective ocular movements may be caused by either neurological motility
defects (ocular motor nerve lesions) or by restrictive motility defects
(orbital mass, restrictive myopathy, binding of extraocular muscles or facia
in a blow-out fracture, or retraction of the optic nerve by an optic sheath
meningioma).
Chronic progressive external ophthalmoplegia is a progressive bilateral paralysis
of all the ocular muscles including the elevator muscle of the eyelid.
Ocular muscle palsies, or paralysis, can be supranuclear (distal to the ocular
nuclei in the upper brain stem), internuclear (involving the nucleus in the
brainstem), internal (involving the involuntary muscles that affect the pupil)
or external (involving the muscles that move the eye). In supranuclear
palsies, there are bilateral gaze palsies to one side, but the eyes move in
parallel so the patient does not experience diplopia. This is opposed to
external ocular palsies in which the eyes do not move in parallel and the
patient will complain of double vision. Internuclear palsies may affect
one or both eyes. Stem palsies are caused by lesions affecting the nerve
fibers as they pass through the brain and are usually unilateral with dilated
pupil and loss of accommodation if the third nerve is involved. Because
of involvement of neighboring structures, there are often associated signs
and symptoms so that typical syndromes develop.
Benedikt’s syndrome is a paralysis of the third nerve on one side with
tremor of the face and limbs on the opposite side. Weber’s syndrome is para-
lysis of the third nerve on one side with half paralysis of the face and
limbs of the opposite side. Foville’s syndrome is paralysis of the sixth nerve
on one side with loss of conjugate deviation of the eyes to the same
side, facial paralysis of the same side, and paralysis of the opposite limbs.
The Millard-Gubler syndrome is similar to Foville’s syndrome without the
paralysis of the conjugate gaze.
Aberrant regeneration of a nerve following trauma results in misdirection
of a regenerating nerve so that it grows in the wrong direction. If it
involves the facial nerve, it may result in paradoxical facial sweating during
eating (Frey’s syndrome) or tearing during eating (crocodile tears). If it involves
the third nerve, the pupil may constrict, or the lid may retract when the
eye is adducted.
Disorders that affect the optic nerve

The optic nerve, which extends from the posterior pole of the eye to the
optic chiasm, carries two sets of nerve fibers, the visual fibers and the
pupillomotor fibers. Due to its direct communication with the brain, the optic
nerve reflects disturbances caused by increased pressure from cerebro-
spinal fluid, direct compression of the nerve fibers from growing tumors
and toxic or anoxic injuries that may alter electrical conductivity. One of
the greatest challenges in these and other neurological disorders is that
similar symptoms and signs develop from a wide variety of disorders of
different causes.
Optic neuritis is an inflammation of the optic nerve. It may be a papillitis,
an inflammatory process that involves the head of the optic disk that
can be seen on ophthalmologic inspection, or may be a retrobulbar neuritis,
an inflammation that lies behind the visible part of the optic nerve. Multiple
sclerosis, a chronic relapsing demyelinating disorder of the central nervous
Fig. 18-2. Papilledema. Entire disk margin is indistinct and central cup is
obliterated (With permission from Basak SK MD DNB FRCS, Disha Eye Hospitals and
Research Centre, Barrackpore, Kolkata, West Bengal, India)
system in which nerves loose the ability to effectively transmit electrical

signals, is a frequent cause of this condition. Approximately 30% of
patients will go on to be diagnosed with multiple sclerosis within five
years of their first episode of optic neuritis. Neuromyelitis optica, also known
as Devic’s disease, is a rare demyelinating disease of the central nervous
system that causes bilateral optic neuritis and paraplegia in children.
Papilledema is an elevation of the optic disk caused by increased intracranial
pressure (Fig. 18-2). It is most commonly associated with brain tumors,
intracranial bleeds and cerebral edema. Other causes include increased
production or decreased absorption of cerebral spinal fluid (leading to
hydrocephalus), venous sinus obstruction, and pseudotumor cerebri.
Optic atrophy is seen when the optic nerve is damaged. The optic nerve
appears pale, so it is considered to be atrophic in that there is tissue loss
and/or ischemia to the nerve. Optic atrophy can occur in a variety of condi-
tions such as tumors pressing on or infiltrating the optic nerve, inflam-
matory diseases and certain toxins. A rare inherited form of optic atrophy,
Leber hereditary optic neuropathy, causes severe vision loss in young men.
Disorders that occur along the visual pathways

The visual pathways represent the course of the nervous system from the
origins in the eye to their final end in the occipital area of the brain. Any
interruption in this pathway may result in a disturbance in the visual system
(Fig. 18-3).
Intrasellar tumors are tumors that lie within the sella turcica. Pituitary
tumors arising from the pituitary gland are the most common lesions in
this area.
Fig. 18-3. Visual pathway. One half of the visual field from each eye is projected
to one side of the brain. Thus visual impulses from the right visual field of each
eye will be transmitted to the left occipital lobe. On the right of the figure are
illustrations of typical visual field defects that occur with damage to different areas
of the visual pathway. 1. Lesion of the right optic nerve with loss of right eye’s
visual field. 2. Lesion of optic chiasm with visual field showing a bitemporal
hemianopsia. 3. Lesion of right optic radiation with visual field showing a left
homonymous hemianopsia (With permission and modified from Stein HA, Stein
The optic chiasm, the area of crossing of the fibers of the retina and
their extension through the optic nerves, is affected not only by intrasellar
tumors but also by suprasellar tumors (above the sella), which can cause
compression. Craniopharyngioma (a suprasellar tumor that arises from

remnants of Rathke’s pouch) and meningioma (a tumor arising from the
meninges) are two classic examples. When such tumors begin to press
on the chiasm it gives rise to chiasmal syndromes, which can identify the
location of the tumor through the measurement of visual field defects.
Bitemporal hemianopia is the classic visual field defect that invariably points
to a chiasmal syndrome.
The central nervous system

A number of tumors arise in the central nervous system, some common
and many rare. An acoustic neuroma is a common tumor of the eighth cranial
nerve. A neurofibroma is a tumor of nerve consisting of proliferation of
Schwann cells. Pseudotumor cerebri, also known as idiopathic intracranial
hypertension, is a condition of intracranial hypertension not resulting from
tumor but producing many of the symptoms and signs that are often
associated with brain tumors.
Disorders caused by congenital malformations may result from
premature closing of the suture lines of the skull as occurs in craniostenosis.
Cerebrovascular accident (CVA) is a stroke resulting from occlusion,
vascular insufficiency, or hemorrhage of an intracranial artery. Depending
on the location of the CVA, it may cause hemianopia (Fig. 18-4).
Neuro-ophthalmological investigation
The first recording of the electrical activity of the brain was made by
Hans Berger, who invented the electroencephalograph in 1928. In 1935, at a
meeting of the Physiological Society, Adrian and Matthews proved that
Berger had in fact discovered the rhythms of the brain through an intact
skull.
Fig. 18-4. A tangent visual field chart of a left homonymous hemianopia (With
A number of tests aid in neurological assessments in arriving at a

diagnosis.
The Amsler grid consists of a series of fine symmetric lines for testing
the central 20-degree field at reading distance. It is primarily used to test
macular function.
Angiography refers to radiologic imaging following the injection of dye
into the vascular tree so it can be visualized intracranially and extracranially.
Venography of the orbit is the radiological investigation of the orbital veins
to detect space-occupying lesions in the orbit that may be compressing
the orbital veins.
An electroencephalogram (EEG) is a recording of the electrical activity
of the brain. An electrooculogram (EOG) is a recording of the resting poten-
tial of the eye. An electronystagmogram (ENG) is a recording of eye move-
ments. An electromyogram (EMG) is a recording of the electrical activity of
a muscle and can be used in the evaluation of the extraocular muscles.
Computerized (axial) tomography, commonly known as CT or CAT scan,
provides a detailed two dimensional view through computer processing
of multiple X-rays.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is a radiological imaging technique that
uses the magnetic properties of hydrogen atoms found in water molecules
to produce a detailed image.
Other neuro-ophthalmological terms follow in alphabetical order.
A
Aberrant degeneration of the third nerve: Follows lesions of the third nerve in
which nerve fibers originally connected to one muscle grow into the
sheaths of another (i.e. nerve fibers to inferior rectus grow into the
levator palpebrae superioris so the lid retracts on attempted down gaze).
Acoustic neuroma: A tumor of the eighth cranial nerve manifested by vertical
nystagmus, vertigo, papilledema, difficulty walking and decreased
hearing.
Acromegaly: Pituitary tumor producing excess growth hormone and marked
by an increase in growth of skeletal tissues of the hands, face, head,
and feet. The tumor may result in pressure signs on the optic chiasm.
Adenoma: Tumor of glandular tissue (e.g. the pituitary gland), which
secretes many regulatory hormones such as adrenocorticotropic
hormone (ACTH).
Adie’s (tonic) pupil: Consists of inability of the pupil to respond to light on
near stimuli. The pupil does respond to a fresh 2½% solution of
Mecholyl (methacholine chloride). It is usually unilateral and affects
middle aged women most commonly.
Afferent pupillary defect (APD, Marcus Gunn pupil): Decreased pupillary

response to light in one eye, most commonly caused by severe retinal
disease or a lesion of the optic nerve distal to the chiasm. Tested
through the swinging flashlight test in which a light source is moved
from eye-to-eye and a paradoxical dilation of the affected pupil is seen
when the light is shined on it.
Agraphia: Loss of ability to write.
Amaurosis: Loss of vision not due to an eye lesion.
Amaurosis fugax: Unilateral, transient less of vision caused by transient
ischemic episodes in the retinal vascular tree. Frequently, it is a
symptom of carotid artery disease.
Amaurotic idiocy: Found most commonly in Tay-Sachs disease, characterized
by a progressive neurological degeneration with the characteristic
cherry-red spot at the posterior pole. This disease is a congenital lipid
storage disorder.
Amaurotic pupil: Characterized by the absence of direct light reaction with
preservation of the consensual reaction in a blind eye.
Aneurysm: A weakness from an outpouching of an artery or arteriole. Most
aneurysms affecting the optic nerve arise from either the internal
carotid or anterior cerebral arteries. Microaneurysms of the retinal
arteries are common in diabetic patients.
Anisocoria: Unequal pupil size.
Anton’s syndrome: In cortical blindness, denial or lack of awareness of the
blindness.
Aortic arch syndrome: Bilateral occlusion of the carotid arteries is seen in
Takayasu’s disease.
Aphasia: Inability to speak, while the ability to understand is intact.
Aplasia of the optic nerve: Failure of the optic nerve to form; it is seen as a
rudimentary structure that is small and pale.
Apoplexy of the pituitary: Spontaneous hemorrhage in a pituitary adenoma.
Apraxia: Loss of willed or purposeful movements despite the clinical
demonstration of intact motor pathways.
Arcuate scotoma: Arc-shaped area of blindness in the field of vision; caused
by interruption of a nerve-fiber bundle in the retina; most often seen
in glaucoma.
Area 17: The striate area concerned with the reception of primary visual
stimuli in the occipital lobe.
Areas 18–19: Parastriate areas of the visual cortex surrounding Area 17;
likely involved with additional steps in visual information processing.
Argyll Robertson pupil: Characterized by an absence of the reaction to light
by a miotic pupil with preservation of the reaction to near stimulus.
Arnold-Chiari malformation: Congenital disorder with herniation of the brain-

stem through the foramen magnum of the skull.
Arteriography: Method of outlining the arteries of the brain and other
vessels through the injection of an opaque dye.
Arteriolosclerosis retinopathy: Retinal changes characterized by a broadening
of the arteriole light reflex, tortuosity of the vessels, spotty occurrence
of plaques on the arterial walls, and venous nicking and banking.
Arteritis: Inflammation of an artery, as seen in temporal (Giant cell)
arteritis.
Arteritis, cranial: Chronic granulomatous inflammation of the temporal
artery, which may be associated with involvement of the ocular
circulation and result in blindness.
Ataxia: Lack of coordinated muscle movements resulting in unsteady gait.
Aura: A visual, sensory, or motor sensation that precedes a “classic”
migraine headache.
Axon: The long fibrous part of a nerve that carries the electrical signal
away from the nerve body.
B
Balint’s syndrome: Occurs as a result of bilateral disease of the parieto-
temporal areas and causes loss of visual scanning and inability to
recognize multiple simultaneous objects.
Bell’s palsy: An acute unilateral weakness or paralysis of the facial muscles.
In most cases, the palsy is thought to be caused by a virus which leads
to inflammation of the seventh nerve which controls the facial muscles.
The majority of people will recover function within one month.
Bell’s phenomenon: The observation that as the eyelids are closing the eyeball
goes upward and outward under the upper lid.
Behçet’s disease: A condition marked by relapsing ulcers of the mouth, eye,
and genitalia with chronic uveitis and hypopyon. Optic neuritis is also
a frequent feature of this disease.
Bitemporal hemianopia: Classic bitemporal field defect resulting from
compression of the optic chiasm.
Blind spot: The natural blind area of the retina where the optic nerve enters
the eye.
Bobbing: Disordered ocular movements in comatose patients with lower
pontine lesions; intermittent rapid downward movement of eyes with
slow return to primary position.
Bourneville’s disease: See tuberous sclerosis.
Brainstem: Consists of midbrain, pons, and medulla of the central nervous
system.
Bruit: Audible flow of blood heard with a stethoscope such as occurs in

occlusive disease of the carotid artery and in a carotid-cavernous fistula.
Bruits are heard whenever there is turbulence in blood flow.
C
Cafe-au-lait spot: Localized area of pigmentation on the skin. Multiple spots
are associated with neurofibromatosis type 1.
Caloric testing: A test performed by placing cold or warm water in the
external ear and observing the eye movements to detect neurological
lesions.
Campimeter: An instrument for determining the integrity of the central
field of vision.
Carotid-cavernous fistula: Rupture of a carotid aneurysm into the cavernous
sinus (infrasellar), which causes an increased venous pressure in the
sinus; also occurs with dural shunt. Results in severe pulsating
enophthalmos.
Cavernous sinus: A large venous plexus that contains all the oculomotor
nerves and the ophthalmic and maxillary branch of the trigeminal
nerve, as well as the internal carotid artery.
Cavernous sinus thrombosis: A serious, potentially fatal, illness resulting from
thrombosis of the cavernous sinus.
Cephalgia: Head pain.
Cephalic: Pertaining to the head or to the head end of the body.
Cerebral palsy: A term to describe the condition of a mixed group of patients
with damage to the nervous system in utero, at birth, or in early life.
Cerebrospinal fluid: Fluid surrounding the central nervous system.
Cervical: Related to the neck.
Charcot’s neurologic triad: Nystagmus, intention tremor, and scanning speech,
all of which occur as a late sign in demyelinating disease, particularly
multiple sclerosis. Not to be confused with Charcot’s triad, a triad of
findings in cholangitis (infection of the bile duct).
Chiasm (chiasma): The crossing of the nasal nerve fibers of the retina to
form a single bundle of fibers—the chiasm.
Cluster headache: Severe unilateral head or facial pain that lasts minutes to
hours, often associated with lacrimation, nasal congestion, and facial
flushing; occurs in clusters over days, weeks, or months.
Cogwheel pursuit movements: Replacement of smooth following eye
movements by jerky following eye movements. Seen in Parkinson’s
disease.
Coma: A state of profound unconsciousness.
Comitance (concomitance): Movement of both eyes in constant relationship

for all directions of gaze, usually indicating absence of paralysis of
an extraocular muscle.
Computerized tomography (Computerized axial tomography, CAT Scan, CT Scan):
A radiographic imaging method in which multiple X-rays taken from
different directions in a specific plane are combined, and through the
use of computer graphics software, the data from multiple cross-
sections can be combined into three-dimensional images.
Congruous field defects: Visual field defects that are the same in extent and
intensity in both eyes; characterizes lesions in the occipital cortex.
Convulsions: Involuntary abnormal motor movements resulting from an
insult to the central nervous system.
Corpus callosum: The major pathway connecting the two halves of the brain.
The posterior portion, called the splenium, integrates opposite halves
of the visual field.
Cortical blindness: Blindness due to lesions in the visual cortex of the
occipital lobe.
Craniopharyngioma: Benign tumor of the stalk from embryonic remnants
of Rathke’s pouch that connects the pituitary gland to the brain. This
tumor can press on the chiasm and damage it.
Craniostenosis: Inherited premature closure of the skull suture lines; of
ophthalmological interest because of the frequency with which an
abnormally shallow orbit develops and because bony construction may
cause increased intracranial pressure, papilledema, and cranial nerve
damage.
Craniotomy: Neurosurgical operation involving direct visualization of the
brain. Requires performing a “bone flap” to provide an opening to
the brain tissue in the skull.
D
Demyelinating disease: Disorders producing loss of the myelin sheath of a
nerve. Most commonly seen in multiple sclerosis.
Diabetes insipidus: Disorder characterized by abnormally excessive output
of dilute urine and excessive thirst. It is caused by disorders in the
hypothalamic system or kidney.
Diabetes mellitus: Disorder of carbohydrate metabolism characterized by
an elevated blood glucose (sugar) level. Ocular involvement includes
cataracts, ocular motor palsies, and retinopathy.
Diplopia: Double vision, usually caused by a paresis or paralysis of one of
the extraocular muscles.
Doll’s eyes (vestibulo-ocular) reflex: A method to test the severity of brain

damage in a comatose patient: a patient’s head is turned from side to
side. The reflex is for the eyes to move in the opposite direction as
the head is turned so the eyes remained fixed on an image. In severe
brain injury, this reflex is lost and the eyes go along with the head
movement, as is seen in toy dolls.
Drift: Involuntary, slow, micro-eye movements that occur between flicks
or microsaccades.
Dwarfism: Short stature, such as in pituitary dwarfism; associated with a
number of syndromes.
Dysautonomia: Disorder of the autonomic nervous system that may affect
the autonomic supply to the eye (e.g. Riley-Day syndrome).
Dysequilibrium: Disturbance of balanced locomotion.
Dyslexia: A comprehensive term denoting inability to read that may be
functional or organic.
Dysmetria, ocular: A sign of cerebellar disease, consisting of abnormal ocular
movements in which there is an overshoot of the eyes when an attempt
is made to fixate an object.
E
Eales’ disease: A disease characterized by sheathed and occluded vessels in
the retinal periphery, new vessel formation, and retinal hemorrhage.
Edinger-Westphal nucleus: The autonomic part of the third nerve nucleus
that controls pupillary constriction.
Edrophonium (Tensilon) test: An intravenous test using this pharmaceutical
agent to diagnose the presence of myasthenia gravis, a disorder
characterized by variable ptosis and fluctuating ocular muscle palsies.
Emboli: Debris in the vascular system, commonly from dislodged blood
clots or cholesterol plaques that travel via the blood stream to a distant
site. The prime sources for emboli to the retinal arteriolar system are
from the internal carotid arteries and the heart.
Encephalitis: Inflammation of the brain.
Encephalocele: Protrusion consisting of herniated brain tissue.
Epilepsy: A disorder of recurrent seizures.
F
Fistula: Communication between two blood vessels, such as the carotid-
cavernous fistula.
Flashlight test: Test to detect the presence of an afferent pupillary defect,
such as Marcus Gunn pupil.
Foster Kennedy’s syndrome: Optic atrophy in one eye with papilledema in the
other eye, caused by tumors in the frontal lobe such as an olfactory
groove meningioma.
Frey’s syndrome: Paradoxical gustatory facial sweating as a result of aberrant
regeneration of facial nerve often seen as a complication from parotid
gland surgery.
Frontal nerve: Branch of the ophthalmic division of the trigeminal nerve.
G
Gausserian ganglion: Ganglion of the fifth, or trigeminal, nerve.
Geniculate body: A relay station in the central nervous system for the
transmission of visual impulses from the optic tract to the optic
radiation of the brain.
Giant cell arteritis: See temporal arteritis.
Glioma: A tumor arising from nerve tissue of either the optic nerve or
brain.
Gliosis: Astrocytic scar proliferation on or within the retina.
Gradenigo’s syndrome: Palsy of lateral rectus muscle (sixth nerve) and retro-
orbital pain due to a severe middle ear infection.
Guillain Barré syndrome: An acute inflammatory demyelinating polyneuro-
pathy that causes progressive neuromuscular paralysis. A characteri-
stic finding is an increased level of protein in the cerebrospinal fluid
without an increase in cellular count.
H
Hallucinations: Perception without external stimulus that may occur in every
field of sensation. Formed visual hallucinations are composed of
scenes, and unformed are composed of sparks, lights, etc; formed
hallucinations characterize temporal lobe disturbances, and unformed
visual hallucinations characterize occipital lobe disorders.
Hemiatrophy, facial: Atrophy or wasting of one half of the face.
Hemiplegia: Paralysis of one half of the body that may be associated with
loss of one half of vision.
Hepatolenticular degeneration: See Wilson’s disease.
Heteronymous diplopia: Crossed double vision.
Hollenhorst plaque: A cholesterol emboli fragment that breaks off an
ulcerative atheroma of the internal carotid artery and enters the retinal
circulation. It may be responsible for central or branch retinal artery
occlusion.
Homonymous diplopia: Uncrossed double vision.

Homonymous hemianopia: Loss of conjugate fields (i.e. loss of the right or
left halves of the visual fields).
Horner’s syndrome: Sympathetic nerve paralysis classically seen as ptosis,
miosis, and anhidrosis of the face.
Hurler’s syndrome: A genetically inherited disease that causes abnormal
mucopolysaccharide build up. It is characterized by dwarfism,
depressed nasal bridge, cloudy cornea, retinal degeneration, enlarged
spleen and liver, and mental retardation.
Hydrocephalus: Condition characterized by an enlarged ventricular system
of the brain resulting from an accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid.
The increased amount of fluid intracranially causes atrophy of the
brain and possible enlargement of the skull in children.
Hypertelorism: Excessive width between two organs; in ocular hypertelorism
there is increased distance between the eyes that is often associated
with mental deficiency and exotropia.
Hypophysectomy: Surgical removal of pituitary gland.
Hypopituitarism: Underacting pituitary gland.
I
Incongruous field defects: Visual field defects that are dissimilar in the two
eyes; such defects occur in lesions involving the optic radiation and
the visual pathways anterior to the lateral geniculate body.
Internal carotid artery: The artery that gives rise to the ophthalmic artery.
The internal carotid artery traverses the cavernous sinus and originates
from the aorta.
Internuclear ophthalmoplegia (INO): A combination of eye movement
abnormalities attributed to a lesion of the medial longitudinal fasciculus
(MLF). In the eye on the side of the lesion, adduction is limited. The
other eye shows a jerky nystagmus on gaze to the side opposite the
lesion. Convergence may or may not be decreased. If convergence is
involved, it is thought that the medial rectus subnucleus of the third
nerve is involved. Vertical nystagmus, especially on upgaze, and skew
deviation are frequently associated. Often caused by multiple sclerosis
or stroke.
Iridoplegia: Paralysis of the sphincter pupillae muscle of the iris.
Ischemia: A comprehensive term covering all forms of inadequate blood
and nutrient supply to an organ.
Ischemic optic neuropathy: Damage to the optic nerve by blockage of its blood
supply occurring with or without inflammation of the arteries.
K
Kayser-Fleischer ring: A brown copper ring along the edge of the iris seen
in Wilson’s disease.
Kearns-Sayre syndrome: Chronic progressive external ophthalmoplegia involv-
ing the eye muscles, pigmentary retinal degeneration and cardiac
conduction abnormalities.
Kinetic perimetry: Visual field testing with a moving target whose size and
luminance remain constant.
L
Lamina cribosa: A sieve like portion of the sclera modified to permit passage
of nerve fibers out of the eye.
Latent nystagmus: A jerk type of nystagmus that is elicited by covering one
eye.
Lateral geniculate body: Termination of the optic tract. As a relay station it
transmits visual impulses to the optic radiation destined for the occip-
ital cortex.
Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy: A genetically inherited disease that causes
optic atrophy and blindness in young men.
Lid lag (von Graefe’s sign): Upper eyelid lag on downward gaze seen in thyroid
disease (e.g. Graves’ disease).
M
Marcus Gunn jaw-winking phenomenon: Congenital ptosis associated with jaw
winking. On closing the jaw or chewing, one eyelid winks as a result
of aberrant connection of the levator palpebrae muscle with the
mandibular branch of the third nerve.
Marcus Gunn pupil: See afferent pupillary defect.
Medial longitudinal fasciculus: Tract that coordinates the nuclei of the
extraocular muscles with each other and with other nuclei in the brain
stem.
Meniere’s syndrome: A disease characterized by vertigo, nausea, vomiting,
tinnitus, and progressive deafness.
Meningioma: A benign tumor attached to and involving the dura mater that
slowly expands to cause pressure on the brain. It may result in visual
field damage due to pressure on the optic nerve pathway.
Methyl alcohol intoxication: General toxic disorder that affects the eye by
causing retinal injury.
Microeye movements: Small eye movements used in fixation and in position
maintenance.
Micronystagmus: Very fine movements of the eyes normally present at all

times.
Millard-Gubler syndrome: Paralysis of the sixth and seventh cranial nerves
and contralateral hemiplegia of the extremities.
Miller Fisher syndrome: A variant of Guillain Barré syndrome that causes
oculomotor palsies, areflexia, and ataxia.
Moebius syndrome: A genetically inherited disease of facial weakness and
palsy of the sixth nerve.
Multiple sclerosis: A chronic, relapsing, multifocal demyelinating disease of
the central nervous system often affecting the optic nerve or intrinsic
nerves of the eye.
Myasthenia gravis: A disorder of the neuromuscular junction characterized
by progressive fatigue of the involved muscles with activity, often
resulting in ptosis or double vision.
Mydriasis: Dilation of the pupil.
Mydriatic: A dilating agent of the pupil that does not affect accommodation
such as phenylephrine hydrochloride (Neosynephrine).
Myelinated fibers: Appear as white fluffy nerve fibers emerging from the
disk; their presence is caused by retention of myelination in the retinal
axons.
Myelinated optic nerve fibers: Presence of myelinated fibers in the nerve fiber
layer of the retina.
Myokymia: Involuntary muscle contractions; when it affects superior
oblique muscles it causes intermittent, monocular, torsional eye
movements.
Myotonia congenita: A genetically inherited disease characterized by the failure
of a contracting muscle to relax.
Myotonic dystrophy: A genetically inherited disease that is commonly
manifested by muscle weakness. Eye complications include weakness
in lifting the eyelids, extraocular movements and cataracts.
N
Neuritis: Inflammation of a nerve, as in optic or retrobulbar neuritis.
Neurofibroma: Tumor of a nerve consisting of a proliferation of Schwann
cells.
Neurofibromatosis (von Recklinghausen’s disease): Characterized by skin tumors,
cutaneous pigmentation, multiple tumors arising from the nerve
sheaths, abnormalities of bone, and defective central nervous system;
often associated with ocular abnormality.
Neuromyelitis optica (Devic’s disease): Bilateral optic neuritis with transverse
myelitis caused by autoimmune disease.
Neuroparalytic keratitis: Corneal condition secondary to disruption of the

nervous supply of the cornea and characterized by decreased sensation.
Nystagmus: An oscillating movement of the eyeball. Jerk nystagmus is
categorized according to the fast corrective phase - horizontal, vertical
(which can be downbeat or upbeat), torsional or mixed. Pendular
nystagmus is characterized by rapid eye oscillations approximately equal
in each direction without a fast corrective phase.
O
Occipital lobes: Part of the brain that comprise the posterior portions of
visual radiation fibers and process primary visual stimulus.
Oculocephalic reflex: See doll’s eye reflex.
Oculogyric crisis: Spasmodic deviation of the eyes, usually in an upward direc-
tion that can be caused by certain drugs and CNS diseases.
Oculopharyngeal dystrophy: A genetically inherited disease that typically
presents with ptosis, difficulty talking and swallowing.
Ophthalmodynamometry: A test used to determine the central ophthalmic
artery blood flow. Pressure is applied to the eye, then the pulse and
blanching of the central retinal artery are recorded. This test is primarily
used to detect carotid artery disorders. This test has been replaced by
Doppler ultrasonography to measure carotid blood flow.
Ophthalmoparesis: Partial paralysis of the extraocular muscles.
Ophthalmoplegia: Complete paralysis of the extraocular muscles.
Optic (geniculocalcarine) radiation: A tract of visual fibers that begins at the
lateral geniculate body and traverses the posterior end of the internal
capsule to end at the visual cortex. One portion of the tract represent-
ing fibers of the upper retinal half of the crossed and uncrossed fibers
goes directly to the occipital cortex, whereas the group of fibers
representing the lower retina passes over the temporal horn of the
lateral ventricle before passing to the occipital cortex.
Opsoclonus: Involuntary abnormal eye movement or jerkiness of the eyes
that may occur in any direction.
Optic atrophy: Pallor of the optic nerve that implies loss of function.
Optic foramen: Opening in the lesser wing of the sphenoid through which
passes the optic nerve.
Optic nerve sheath: A continuation of the meninges of the brain composed
of the dura, arachnoid, and pia.
Optic tract: The portion of the visual conduction system that extends from
the chiasm anteriorly to the lateral geniculate bodies posteriorly.
Oscillopsia: The subjective sensation that the environment is oscillating;

related to disorders of the vestibular system; occurs in multiple
sclerosis.
Osteogenesis imperfecta: A hereditary dominant connective tissue disorder
characterized by brittle bones, multiple fractures, blue sclera, and
deafness.
P
Paget’s disease: A disorder of bone metabolism resulting in deformed and
weak bones, sometimes associated with optic atrophy.
Papilledema: A swelling of the optic nerve head due to increased intracranial
pressure.
Papillomacular nerve fiber bundle: Nerve fibers passing from the macula to
the temporal side of the optic nerve head.
Parasellar syndrome: Lesion in the vicinity of the pituitary gland causing
classic signs and symptoms resulting from the interference of nerves
in that region (the third and fourth nerves plus the first branch of the
fifth nerve).
Parasympathetic: The autonomic nerve system that, in the eye, activates
pupillary constriction.
Parasympathomimetic: A chemical agent that mimics the action of the
parasympathetic nerves, resulting in pupillary constriction.
Parietal lobe field defects: Visual field defects that are homonomous and
symmetrical; they begin in the lower quadrants of the visual fields on
the side opposite the lesion.
Parinaud’s syndrome: Caused by diseases that can affect the midbrain
(pineloma, multiple sclerosis, stroke) and is characterized by an upgaze
palsy, pupillary disturbances, and absence of convergence.
Past pointing: Sign seen classically in cerebellar disorders (see dysmetria, ocular)
in which the individual points past the indicated spot.
Pendular nystagmus: Nystagmus in which the oscillations to the right or left
are approximately equal in rate and amplitude.
Phakomatoses (neurocutaneous syndromes): Group of disorders affecting the
skin and nervous system including the eye. The most common
disorders in this group are Bourneville’s disease, neurofibromatosis,
Sturge-Weber syndrome, and von Hippel-Lindau disease.
Pinealoma: Tumor of the pineal gland. It can cause lid retraction and up-
gaze palsies.
Pituitary adenoma: Benign tumor of the pituitary gland; can press on the
optic chiasm and cause visual field defects.
Pneumoencephalography: Air study of intracranial structures usually used to

detect the presence of space-occupying structures.
Pontine gaze center (PGC): An area in the pons near the sixth nerve nucleus
responsible for conjugate eye movements to the same side.
Primary optic atrophy: A simple atrophy (e.g. after treatment with methyl
alcohol, quinine, ergot, and after retrobulbar neuritis). The visible part
of the optic nerve, the disk, appears pale and well defined.
Proptosis: Protrusion of the eyeball.
Psychogenic: Originating in the mind.
Psychosis: A severe disease or disorder of the mind, characterized by
derangement of the personality and loss of contact with reality.
Psychosomatic: Pertaining to the mind-body relationship; having bodily
symptoms of a psychic, emotional, or mental origin.
R
Raeder paratrigeminal syndrome: Hemifacial pain, ptosis, and miosis due to
injury of the trigeminal nerve.
Romberg’s sign: Unsteadiness of balance when the patient is standing with
feet shoulder width apart and the eyes are closed.
S
Saccadic eye movements: Fast eye movements such as used with reading or
elicited with the opticokinetic response.
Scotoma: Term used to describe an area of visual field loss. An arcuate
scotoma may occur in glaucoma. A central scotoma may occur with
macular or optic nerve disease. A scintiallating scotoma is associated
with the impression of glittering, shimmering, or silvery lights, often
preceding or accompanying a “classic” migraine.
Secondary optic atrophy: The condition resulting from long standing optic
nerve head swelling characterized by a gray or white optic nerve disc
with gliosis and a reduced number of disc surface blood vessels (e.g.
after chronic papilledema or papillitis).
Sella turcica: Bony structure upon which the pituitary gland rests. It has a
saddle-like appearance.
Skew deviation: Vertical imbalance of the eyes secondary to brain stem
disorders; may give rise to diplopia.
Static perimetry: Visual field testing with a stationary target whose luminance
changes.
Stellwag’s sign: Infrequent blinking; sign of Graves’ disease.
Sturge Weber syndrome: Disorder characterized by a cavernous hemangioma

of the face (“port wine stain” birthmark). Late glaucoma, mental
retardation, contralateral hemiplegia, seizures, and intracranial calcifi-
cation are also manifestations of this syndrome.
Subdural hematoma: A collection of blood under the dura that may act as a
space-occupying lesion and is predominately caused by head injuries.
Swinging flashlight test: See afferent pupillary defect.
Synapse: The anatomical junction between two nerve fibers.
T
Takayasu’s arteritis: A disease that affects the aorta and its main branches,
predominately occurring in young women, and can lead to deficient
blood flow through the carotid arteries.
Tangent screen: A large, usually black curtin, used for measuring the central
visual field and outlining the blind spot.
Tay-Sachs disease: A genetically inherited disease that causes an inborn error
of metabolism that affects infants who become blind, deaf, weak, and
die within the first few years of life. Eye examination reveals a cherry
red macula.
Temporal (giant cell) arteritis: A systemic disease of the elderly characterized
by highly elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate and a generalized
giant cell arteritis. It is especially likely to occur in the temporal arteries.
In the eye, it can cause blindness.
Temporal lobe field defects: Begin in the upper quadrants and are asymmetrical
and homonomous.
Toxic optic neuropathies: Optic nerve damage caused by toxicity from such
drugs as ethambutol, isoniazid, or methyl alcohol.
Traction test: Test done under anesthesia (local or general) to determine if
the restriction of an eye movement is the result of a paralysis, a
tethering or an entrapment of the muscle. If caused by a paralysis,
the eye moves easily; if the involved muscle is trapped or tethered,
there is a restriction of eye movement.
Transient ischemic attack (TIA): Temporary episode of neurologic
dysfunction caused by ischemia to the brain, spinal cord or retina that
does not result in permanent damage.
Tuberous sclerosis (Bourneville’s disease): A genetic disease in which benign
tumors grow in the brain, kidney, heart, eyes, lungs and skin. The most
common eye manifestations are retinal lesions.
U
Uhtoff ’s syndrome: Occurs when overheating the body or strenuous exercise
worsens the symptoms of multiple sclerosis.
Ultrasonography: An imaging technique using high-frequency, inaudible
ultrasound waves.
V
Venography, orbital: Radiological investigation of the orbital veins to detect
a space-occupying lesion in the orbit that may be compressing or
distorting the orbital veins.
Ventriculography: Radiological investigation of the ventricles of the brain
to detect a space-occupying lesion.
Vestibulo-ocular reflex: See doll’s eyes reflex.
W
Weber’s syndrome: Paralysis of the oculomotor nerve producing ptosis,
strabismus, and loss of light reflex and accommodation on the same
side of the lesion and spastic hemiplegia on the side opposite the lesion.
Predominately caused by stroke.
Wernicke’s encephalopathy: Syndrome resulting from thiamine deficiency and
characterized by ophthalmoplegia, ataxia, and memory deficits; often
caused by chronic alcoholism.
Wilson’s disease: A genetically inherited abnormality of copper metabolism
associated with progressive degeneration of the liver and neuro-
psychiatric changes. Eye manifestations include a brown copper ring
along the edge of the iris (Kayser-Fleischer ring) and cataracts.
SECTION 4: SURGERY OF THE EYE
SURGERY
C H A P T E R 19
CATARACT SURGER
CAT Y
SURGERY
Surgical procedures have a language of their own. Most of our vocabulary

is derived from either Greek or Latin. Word roots such as ec, meaning
“out”, and tomy, meaning “to cut”, form the word ectomy, meaning “to cut
out”. This provides the basis for keratectomy, to cut out the cornea; iridectomy,
to cut out the iris; vitrectomy, to cut out the vitreous; and cyclectomy, to cut
out the ciliary body. When tomy is used alone in terms such as keratomy or
iridotomy, it means to incise or cut into the cornea or iris, respectively.
The word cataract is from the Greek, meaning “something that rushes
down” like a waterfall. It was the belief of the ancient Greeks and Romans
that something like a grate fell down between the lens and the iris to cause
the obstruction. Couching of a cataract, an ancient term still referred to, was a
practice in Alexandria in the third century BC in which the opaque lens of
the eye was depressed back into the vitreous to provide a clear pupil.
The most common form of cataract is cataract senilis, senile cataract,
which affects older people and is considered a normal consequence of
aging. Other types of cataracts are galactose cataracts, diabetic cataracts, drug-
induced cataracts, and other metabolic syndrome cataracts. All of these forms
of cataract are thought to be caused by a blocking or altering of enzymes
involved in the synthesis of nutrients for the subcapsular layer of the lens.
This is a layer of cells found on the equatorial surface of the lens capsule,
one cell thick, and is the site of reproduction or growth of crystalline
lens cells. Other types of cataract that are not enzyme related are irradiation
cataracts (caused by radioactive irradiation) and various forms of traumatic
cataracts that follow injury.
Surgery is the only accepted treatment for cataracts. Ths most common
form of cataracts surgery today is phacoemulsification. This is a technique
that utilizes ultrasound to liquefy the cataract through a small corneal
incision. The procedure consists of a microcorneal incision followed by
an anterior capsulotomy in which a circular tear is constructed of the
anterior capsule. Fluid is irrigated beneath the capsule to separate the cortical
material from the capsule and the nucleus from the epinuclear material.
Cataract Surgery 323
A phacotip is then inserted through the corneal wound and the harder
nuclear material is liquefied. An irrigation-aspiration tip is inserted into
the eye and the relatively soft cortical material is aspirated from the capsule
leaving an intact posterior capsule behind. An intraocular lens implant is
then placed in an injector system and folded so as to go through the small
corneal wound. The intraocular lens then opens up within the eye. The
wound is checked to assure water tightness and the patient is discharged
from the operating room usually without a protective shield or bandage.
With modern day phacoemulsification and small incisions, sutures are not
required. The older techniques of cataract surgery consists of an
extracapsular extraction and intracapsular extraction. Extracapsular
extraction consists of making an opening in the anterior capsule,
expressing the lens nucleus through the capsule, and removing it from
the eye along with any cortical material, but leaving the capsule.
Intracapsular extraction is the removal of the cataractous lens together
with its capsule. These procedures are usually combined in the treatment
of cataracts with the insertion of an artificial lens, or intraocular lens implant,
usually made of polymethylmethacrylate but also available in hydrogel
and silicone material. The artificial lens may have a haptic (from Greek
haptics, “to lay hold of ”), which supports the optical portion of the lens
when implanted. After the surgery the state of pseudophakia (an eye with
an artificial lens) is present. Phacoemulsification is a procedure in which the
lens of the eye is removed by emulsification by high-frequency ultrasound
waves. The term phacogenic is used as an adjective when the lens is
responsible for causing such conditions as glaucoma.
The lens is covered with a capsule. Related surgical procedures include
capsulectomy, in which part of the lens capsule is excised, and capsulotomy,
in which an incision in the lens capsule is made. These are currently
performed by laser. When a lens does not lay in its normal position, it is
said to be luxated (Latin meaning “dislocated”) or dislocated. If it is only
partially displaced, it is said to be subluxated.
Other words related to cataract surgery include:
A
A scan: An ultrasound technique to determine the axial length of the eye
to calculate the intraocular lens power required.
Accommodative implant: An intraocular lens implant that is used in cataract
surgery. The implant is capable of some movement within the eye to
allow distance, intermediate and near vision.
Aftercataract: Opacity of the posterior capsule or opaque lens remnant
occurring after extracapsular lens extraction.
324 Surgery of the Eye
Akinesia: Absence of motor function. An anesthetic injection may be given

before eye surgery to produce this effect on the eye and eyelid muscles.
Anterior capsule: The anterior or front portion of the capsule that contains
the cataract.
Anterior capsulectomy: Removal of the anterior portion of the capsule
containing the lens.
Anterior capsulotomy: An opening into the anterior capsule.
Aphakic cystoid macular edema: Edema of the macular area that occurs in
an individual that has had a cataract removed.
Aspiration: The removal of material from the aqueous or vitreous humor.
Aspiration of lens: A method of cataract removal by breaking up and
suctioning off the lens contents.
Aspiration portal: An opening in the needle or irrigating aspiration device
that usually ranges from 0.2 to 0.3 or 0.5 mm in diameter and is used
for cortex aspiration.
Automated machines: Machines that can mechanically aspirate and irrigate
with controlled inflow and outflow.
B
BSS: Balanced salt solution.
Biometric ruler: An A scan used to determine the axial length of the eye.
Bridle suture: A suture poised beneath the tendon of the superior rectus
muscle to facilitate downward rotation of the globe.
Buried sutures: The turning of sutures in the cornea or corneal scleral
junctions so the knots are not exposed but buried in the tissue.
C
Calibri forceps: A delicate fine-toothed forceps reserved for handling delicate
tissues.
Capsular tension ring: A right that is inserted into the capsular bag to expand
the bag when there is an absence of the zonular fibers in one quadrant.
The zonules normally hold the crystalline lens in place. Specialized
rings can be sutured to the sclera when there is an absence of more
zonules. These rings allow for proper centration of the intraocular
lens in the capsular bag.
Capsulorhexis: A continuous tear of the anterior capsule as occurs in
extracapsular surgery.
Cataract: An opacity of the crystalline lens.
Cataract nigra: Black cataract.
Cataractogenic drugs: Drugs that can induce cataract formation, that is,
steroids.
Cerulean cataracts: A subtype of cataracts that have a waxy appearance when
viewed with slit lamp.
Chopper: A surgical instrument used to chop the nucleus in pieces prior
to phacoemulsification.
Choroidal detachment: A separation of the choroid from the sclera that may
follow cataract surgery.
Choroidal tap: Method used to release the fluid causing a choroidal
detachment.
Closed chamber: The closure of the anterior chamber during cataract surgery
to permit raising of the intraocular pressure to facilitate easier surgery.
Closed eye surgery: Any surgical technique that reduces the incision while
maintaining the normal intraocular pressure.
Congenital cataract: A cataract that is present at birth.
Coronary cataract: Any cataract of the lens cortex. The visible cataract may
be spoke like opacities caused by water clefts in the lens cortex or
feathery lines.
Cortex aspiration: Removal of cortical material from the lens of the eye.
Cortical cleanup: The removal of all existing cortex.
Cortical cataract: A cataract involving the central cortex of the lens.
Couching: An ancient surgical procedure of displacing the lens into the
vitreous cavity of the eye from the optical axis without opening the
eye. It is usually performed by applying manual pressure on the closed
eye.
Cryoextraction: Method of extraction of the lens of the eye using a frozen
probe (cryoprobe) that adheres to the lens.
D
Dehiscence: A gap in a wound resulting from rupture of sutures or from
injury.
Diathermy: A form of cautery to coagulate bleeding blood vessels.
Dipstick: An instrument to measure the anterior chamber of the eye.
Discission: Needling of cataract to permit entrance of aqueous humor and
absorption of the lens.
Dislocated lens: Displacement of the lens caused by ruptured zonules.
E
Endophthalmitis: An inflammation of the entire eye including the outer
coats.
Epithelial downgrowth: A downgrowth of epithelium into the anterior

chamber that may follow faulty wound healing; may be seen after
cataract surgery.
Epithelial ingrowth: See epithelial downgrowth.
Erisophake: From the Greek erysis, “a drawing”. A small cup in which
suction can be applied to grasp a cataract and its capsule and aid in its
removal; an instrument now obsolete.
Exfoliation of lens capsule: Condition in which the anterior lens capsule
degenerates and the sloughed cells appear on the lens surface.
Extracapsular cataract extraction: A cataractous lens is extracted by means
of first removing the anterior lens capsule, then the contents of the
capsule (the lens, cortex, and nucleus) but leaving the posterior capsule
intact (Fig. 19-1).
Extraction: Removal. In cataract surgery, it refers to the surgical removal
of the lens.
F
Flat anterior chamber: A potential complication of intraocular surgery or
penetrating corneal injury; it is characterized by the iris being in direct
contact with the cornea, and also by the virtual absence of aqueous
in the anterior chamber.
Forceps: An instrument for holding tissue or suture.
G
Glare tester: An instrument used to measure the effect on the human eye
of scattered light.
H
Honan balloon: A balloon like bag with controlled pressure to apply to the
eye to reduce the pressure in a globe before surgery.
Hydrodelamination (hydrodelineation): The injection of fluid (BSS) into the
lens nucleus to separate the nucleus into layers.
Hydrodissection: An injection of fluid (BSS) between the nucleus and the
cortex to permit the nucleus to move more easily.
Hypermature cataract: A cataract in which the lens of the eye becomes white,
opaque, soft, and liquid.
Hypopyon: The presence of purulent matter in the anterior chamber of
the eye. It is usually seen as a yellow or whitish mass inferiorly in the
anterior chamber.
Fig. 19-1. Extracapsular cataract surgery. (A) View of opaque lens. Right, Lens in
cross-section; left, direct view of lens. (B) Central portion of anterior capsule removed
(capsulotomy). (C) Nucleus expressed from eye. (D) Cortical material aspirated with
suction instrument. (E) Intraocular lens implanted. (F) Implant within capsular bag.
Sutures in place (With permission from Stein HA, Stein RM, Freeman MI. The
I
Incipient cataract: A cataract in its early stages of development.
Intracameral anesthesia: The injection of an anesthetic into the anterior
chamber to allow enhanced comfort with cataract surgery under topical
anesthesia.
Intracapsular cataract extraction: Removal of a cataractous lens including the
intact capsule.
Intraocular: Within the eye.
Intumescent: Describing a swollen part, such as an intumescent cataract.
IOL master: An instrument that uses a no touch technique to determine
the ideal power of an intraocular lens. The IOL master uses the
technique of partial coherence interferometry to measure the axial
length, i.e. the length of the eye. Axial length and keratometry are
inputted into various IOL formulas to determine the appropriate IOL
power.
Iridocyclitis: Inflammation of the iris and ciliary body.
Iridodonesis: A shimmering or tremor of the iris because of lack of support
by a lens.
Iris retractors: Disposable and reusable hooks that can be inserted into the
anterior chamber and used to retract the pupil. Typically used in eyes
that have poor pupillary dilatation.
Irrigating-aspirating units: An instrument or needle that will aspirate and
irrigate at the same time.
Iris bombe: The iris is bowed forward and occludes the angle structures.
Iris prolapse: The herniation of a portion of the iris through the wound.
Iris suture: A suture placed in the iris.
Irvine-Gass syndrome: Cystoid macular edema with corneal-vitreous
adhesions following cataract extraction.
K
Keratome: Blade used for intraocular surgery. The blades come in various
sizes and designs.
L
Lens dislocation: See dislocated lens.
Lenticonus: Rare abnormality of the lens characterized by a cone-shaped
prominence on the anterior or posterior lens surface.
Lenticular: Pertaining to (or shaped like) a lens.
Limbal relaxing incisions (LRI): Peripheral corneal incisions that are used to
reduce corneal astigmatism. One or two incisions of various lengths at
a depth of approximately 600 microns are placed in the steep meridian.
Leucoria: A white appearance in the pupil due to retinofibroplasia, mature

cataract, advanced retinoblastoma.
Luxation of lens: Complete rupture of the zonular fibers of the lens so
that the lens falls into the anterior chamber or vitreous.
M
Malyugin ring: A special disposable ring device that is inserted through a
small corneal incision and used to expand the pupil. The ring allows
for better visualization of the cataract during surgery.
Mature cataract: A condition in which the lens of the eye is completely
opaque.
McIntyre needle: A coaxial aspirating and irrigating needle for cortex removal
in extracapsular surgery.
Miotic: A drug used to constrict the pupil.
Morgagni’s cataract: Hypermature cataract in which the cortex is liquefied,
permitting the lens nucleus to float within the capsule.
Multifocal implant: An intraocular lens implant which replaces the crystalline
lens and is capable of providing distance, intermediate and near vision.
Unlike an accommodative implant the lens does not change position
in the eye but has a series of different optical zones that allow the
separation of light to enhance vision at different distances.
N
Nuclear cataract: A cataract largely confined to the central portion of the
lens, the nucleus. It is the most common cataract of the elderly.
Nuclear expression: The mechanics of expressing the nucleus of the lens
out of the eye.
Nuclear sclerosis: Hardening of the center of the crystalline lens, which
causes it gradually to change in color from clear to yellow to brown
and eventually leading to loss of vision and cataract formation. It is
the most common senile change of the lens.
Nylon: A synthetic material used for sutures.
O
O’Brien technique: A local anesthetic block of the facial nerve just anterior
to the tragus of the ear to achieve paralysis of the orbicularis muscle.
P
Phacoanaphylaxis: A delayed granulomatous uveitis caused by sensitivity to
lens protein that is liberated by injury to the lens.
Fig. 19-2. Phacoemulsification surgery. (A) View of opaque lens. Right, Lens in
cross-section; left, direct view of lens. (B) Central portion of anterior capsule removed
by continuous-tear technique (capsulorhexis). (C) Phacoemulsification tip used to
emulsify nucleus. (D) Aspiration tip used to remove cortex. (E) Wound enlarged
and a foldable silicone lens inserted. (F) Implant is positioned within capsular bag
and one horizontal suture is used to close wound (With permission from Stein HA,
Phacoemulsification: A technique of emulsifying lens material through the

use of high-frequency sound waves (Fig. 19-2).
Polishing: A technique for scraping residual cortex and cells from the
posterior capsule during extracapsular surgery.
Posterior capsulotomy: An opening by surgery or YAG laser into the posterior
capsule of the lens.
Posterior chamber: Space between the back of the iris and the vitreous fovea
filled with aqueous.
Posterior incision: A scleral incision behind the cornea limbus.
Pseudoexfoliation: The production of amorphous, dandrufflike material in
the eye. It is called pseudoexfoliation because of its superficial resemb-
lance to true exfoliation of the lens capsule.
R
Radiation cataracts: Cataracts that are the result of conveying radiation from
high-speed neutrons from cyclotron exposure or from atomic blasts.
Red reflex: The ability to visualize a red reflex through the microscope or
a muscle light as a result of reflection of light from the red choroidal
vascular plexus underlying the retina.
Retrobulbar: An injection into the muscle cone posterior to the globe to
cause anesthesia of the eyes and akinesia of the extraocular muscles.
S
Second sight: Increase in myopia with improved reading ability, such as
occurs in the early stages of cataract.
Secondary membrane: A membrane that occurs following extracapsular
cataract surgery.
Senile cataract: An opacity of the lens occurring in the elderly.
Sodium hyaluronate: A viscoelastic substance normally found in many parts
of the body but can be made synthetically or extracted from animals
(usually from rooster combs).
Speculum: An instrument for holding the eyelids apart for exposure of the
globe.
Spherophakia: Small round lens found in patients with certain mesodermal
anomalies (Marchesani’s syndrome).
Sphincterotomy: A surgical incision in sphincter muscle of the iris.
Striate keratitis: A form of keratitis in which small or large lines or striae
appear on the cornea.
Subluxation of the lens: Blunt trauma to the eye causing dislocation of the
lens by rupture of 25% or more of the zonular fibers of the lens.
Subscapular: A cataract that affects the periphery and posterior capsule of
the lens. May be related to systemic illness or medication.
Sunflower cataract: A cataract resembling a sunflower; seen in Wilson’s

disease.
Super pinky ball: A soft pink ball placed on the closed eyelid to reduce
intraocular and vitreous pressure before surgery.
Surgical keratometry: An instrument or device for measuring the curvature
of the cornea at the operating table.
Synechia: Adhesion between the iris and other parts of the eye.
T
Topical anesthesia: The use of anesthetic drops to anesthetize the eye for
cataract surgery. Topical anesthesia is usually combined with
intracameral anesthesia, i.e. injection of anesthetic into the anterior
chamber.
Toric implant: An intraocular lens implant that can correct astigmatism.
The lens has both a spherical component and a toric correction. This
type of implant is available in different astigmatism levels. The implant
is positioned in the eye and orientated along a specific meridian to
correct astigmatism.
Toxic anterior segment syndrome (TASS): An early postoperative sterile
inflammatory reaction in the anterior chamber. This is thought to be
an immunological reaction to a foreign chemical or matter. The
condition must be differentiated from an infection and is treated with
topical steroids.
Traumatic cataract: A cataract following any injury to the eye.
Trypan blue: A blue dye injected at time of cataract surgery to identify a
capsulorhexis tear of a mature cataract.
Tumbling: In ophthalmology refers to a technique of intracapsular cataract
removal in which the lens is removed by grasping the lower pole of the
lens and tumbling it so the inferior portion of the lens is delivered first.
V
Vacuuming: Removal of the residual cortex cells of the posterior chamber
by aspiration.
van Lint technique: An infiltrative diffusion of local anesthetic to achieve
akinesia and anesthesia of the eyelids.
Visco surgery: The use of solutions, putties, and gels with high viscosity to
act as tissue support, for protection, for dissection, and for separation
of an intraocular lens from other tissues of the eye.
Vision blue: Sterile solution of trypan blue that stains the anterior capsule
of the lens to allow better visualization.
Vitreous loss: The loss of vitreous from the posterior chamber during
cataract surgery.
X
X-ray cataracts: Cataracts induced from X-rays that have a minimal dosage
of 500 to 800 rads.
Y
YAG laser (Yttrium aluminum garnet laser): A laser mainly used in an office
setting to open the posterior capsule when there is a secondary cataract,
i.e. posterior capsule opacification.
Z
Zonulysis: Dissolving of the zonules suspending the lens with a solution of
alpha-chymotrypsin instilled into the eye to facilitate cataract extraction.
C H A P T E R 20
INTRAOCULAR LENSES
Intraocular lenses are inserted into the eye to replace the human crystalline
lens. Intraocular lenses are of an inert substance, usually Perspex or
polymethyl methacrylate. Newer, softer lenses made of hydrogels and silicone
are now being used. The material required must be inert, meaning that it
creates no biological irritation and must not be biodegradable. Biodegradable
means it will degrade in time as a result of contact with the biological
fluids or tissues that surround it.
Intraocular lenses are composed of an optical portion called the optics
of the lens and the haptics (Fig. 20-1). The optic portion has a dioptric
power that permits the focusing of light onto the retina. The size of the
optics will vary from 5.0 to 7.0 mm in diameter.
Haptics is from Greek, meaning “to lay hold of ”. The haptic refers
to the method of holding the optical portion in place in the human eye.
The haptic consists of loops made of either polymethyl methacrylate or prolene.
The latter material is a suture material that has been found to be inert
and not biodegradable within the human eye. Tantalum and metal loops
have disappeared in the manufacture of intraocular lenses because of the
adverse reaction they have produced on the human retina. Modern loop
designs are usually flexible and permit some adjustment within the structure
of the interior of the eye.
Fig. 20-1. Intraocular lens (With permission from

Stein HA, Stein RM, Freeman MI. The Ophthalmic
Assistant. A Text for Allied and Associated Ophthalmic
Personnel, 8th edition. St. Louis/Philadelphia: Elsevier-
Mosby, 2006)
Intraocular Lenses 335
Fig. 20-2. Most common positions of intraocular lenses. A,

Capsular bag. B, Ciliary sulcus. A, Anterior chamber (With
permission from Stein HA, Stein RM, Freeman MI. The
Ophthalmic Assistant. A Text for Allied and Associated
Ophthalmic Personnel, 8th edition. St. Louis/Philadelphia:
The shape of the optical portion may be convex plano, in which case
the anterior portion of the lens is convex and the back surface is flat. Lenses
may have reverse optics in which the back surface of the lens is convex and
the front surface is flat. They also may be biconvex in which both sides of
the optical portion are convex. Some lenses are made aspheric in which
there is an alteration in power from the center of the lens to the periphery.
Recent designs incorporate an ultraviolet filter into the optical portion
of the lens. This eliminates wavelengths in the ultraviolet spectrum below
400 nm. Recent designs also incorporate a laser ridge. This is a ridge placed
on the back surface of the lens in order to minimize damage to the lens
that may occur when the YAG laser is used to open a posterior capsular
membrane.
Optical portions may have fenestrations in which one or more small
openings are made within the lens periphery to facilitate the technical
movement of the lens within the eye.
Intraocular lenses may be classified according to their position and
their method of fixation. They may be classified as to anterior chamber lenses
(Fig. 20-2C), which include lenses that lie in the anterior chamber of the
eye. These may be angle supported, in which case they are supported in the
angle of the anterior chamber, or they may be iris supported, in which case
they may be attached with or without sutures to the iris. Iridocapsular
lenses are lenses that have been fixated to the iris and the capsule. These
lenses are of historical value only. Lenses may lie in the posterior chamber,
and they may be supported either by capsular support, in which case they
may be called in-the-bag lenses because they are fitted directly into the bag
that contained the former crystalline lens (Fig. 20-2A). They may be sulcus
supported (Fig. 20-2B), in which case they lie in front of the remainder of
the anterior capsule and are supported in the sulcus of the eye. For
secondary lens implants placed in eyes in which there is no remaining
capsule, a posterior chamber intraocular lens implant can be inserted into
the sulcus and sutured either to the iris or sclera for support. Intraocular
lenses may be iris supported, in which case they lie in the posterior chamber
but are entirely supported by the iris. Iris supported lenses are now
obsolete but many patients still have these lenses.
Some of these historic areas of implantation may be obsolete but
patients may present with these older implants.
A patient may focus with an accommodating intraocular lens, a lens
that provides vision for both near, intermediate, and far. Today these lenses
consist of the Crystalens™, and Tetraflex™. Multifocal lenses allow both
distance and near vision but are associated with some decrease in contrast
acuity as well as some glare and halos. These lenses include the Restor™,
Rezoom™, and Tecnis™.
Toric IOL are implant with cylinder to neutralize the cylinder of
someone with astigmatism.
A
Angle-fixated lenses: Lenses that are fixated in the angle of the anterior
chamber.
Angulation: Lens loops are designed so that the optical portion ia angulated
backward for posterior chamber lenses and forward for anterior
chamber lenses to lessen the incidence of iris irritation and entrapment
by the pupil.
Aphakia: Refers to the absence of any lens within the eye.
Aphakic lens: A lens that is inserted in an eye with high myopia or hyperopia
in which the clear crystalline is not removed.
Aspheric IOL: IOL that is used to reduce the optical aberration of spherical
aberration. It enhances night time vision by improving contrast and
sharpness. The are flattened in the periphery.
B
Bifocal IOLs: These IOLs are not truly bifocals but have unique designs
so the individual can see at far and near.
Binkhorst four loop: Historically important lens with four loops for fixation
to iris and capsule.
C
Capsular fixation: An intraocular lens that is placed within the capsular bag
and depends on the capsule for its entire fixation (Fig. 20-3).
Cat’s eye effect: The development of an irregular pupil that simulates the
slit of a Cat’s eye.
Fig. 20-3. Posterior chamber intraocular lens. (A) Capsular bag insertion. (B) Sulcus
insertion (With permission from Stein HA, Stein RM, Freeman MI. The Ophthalmic
Closed loops: Loops in which both ends of the loops are maintained within
the system of the optic.
Creep: The ability of the material to change its shape permanently to
conform to its environmental pressure.
D
Dialing: A method of inserting and rotating an intraocular lens within the
eye.
Dislocation: The movement of a lens, either human or artificial, out of its
correct anatomical position.
Drew’s syndrome: Intermittent touch syndrome; the result of an intraocular
lens intermittently touching the cornea and resulting in endothelial
cell death, ciliary flush, and cystoid macular edema.
Dual lenses: Intraocular lenses designed so they can be used in either the
anterior or posterior chamber.
E
Endophthalmodonesis: The shimmering or tremor of the iris as a result of
lack of support.
F
Flexible IOL: It is one that flexes to provide both distant and near vision.
Flexible loops: Loops that are compressible as opposed to loops that are
rigid and firm.
Footplate: The peripheral portion of an anterior chamber that lies like feet
into the anterior chamber angle.
Four-point fixation: Refers to the touch of primarily anterior chamber lenses
in four places of the anterior chamber angle. There are also some lens
designs in the posterior chamber sulcus which provide four-point
touch.
I
Implant: An artificial insert placed in the eye, socket, or orbit.
Implantation: The insertion of any material or substance within another
substance.
IOL master: It is a more sophisticated technique to measure the power of
the required implant. This method uses the technique of partial
coherence interferometry.
Iris supported lenses: These are seldom used today. They are supported by
the iris such as the claw lens of Dr Jan Worst of Holland and the
medallion in lens.
L
Lathe lenses: Intraocular lenses that are manufactured by shaping on a
machine lathe.
Lens exchange: The changing of one intraocular lens for another within a
human eye.
Lens glide: A thin material placed in the eye to permit the intraocular lens
to glide over it and aid in proper positioning.
Lens-holding forceps: A forceps designed to hold an intraocular lens for
insertion into the eye.
Lens removal: The removal of an intraocular lens.
Loops:
C loop: A loop designed like the letter “E”. This allegedly places less
outward pressure on the more curved loops than does the J loop design.
J loop: A loop design similar to the letter ‘J”.
Modified J loop: Modifications that have been made to the original J
loop.
M
McCannel suture: A suture technique developed by Dr Malcolm McCannel
to correct a dislocation of an intraocular lens.
Medallion lens: A lens shaped like a medallion that has been affixed to the
iris usually by a suture. Now of historical interest.
Memory: The ability of a material to return to its original shape.
Mold-injected lenses: Intraocular lenses that are manufactured by a molding
process.
Monofocal IOL: It is one that has only one focal point and usually at far.
Monovision: It is a situation in which one eye (usually the dominant eye) is
for distance and the fellow eye is set for near.
O
One-piece lens: An intraocular lens that is made of a single material such as
polymethyl methacrylate.
One-plane lens: An intraocular lens that lies in one plane.
Open loops: Loops in which one end is attached to the optical portion and
the other end lies freely.
P
Phakia: Refers to the presence of the normal crystalline lens within the
eye.
Piggy back implants: These implants are when 2 lenses are placed in the
eye, one in the capsular bag and one in the sulcus (in front of the
capsular bag). This may be done as a primary procedure for very high
powered implants when a single lens is not available in a specific power.
It is more commonly performed after cataract surgery or a refractive
lens exchange as a secondary procedure in which a lens is inserted in
the sulcus to enhance the level of uncorrected vision.
Polymethyl methacrylate: A material used for intraocular lenses because it does
not cause tissue reaction.
Polypropylene: A material used either as loops on an intraocular lens or as
suture material.
Posterior dislocation: A lens that is dislocated posteriorly.
Power: The strength of an intraocular lens measured in diopters.
Premier lenses: Refer to IOL that have more advantages then regular lenses
and are more expensive than standard lenses.
Presbyopic implants: These are all of the IOL’s designed for near and far.
They include such lenses as crystal lens, Restor, Technics, Array.
Primary lens implants: Implants that are inserted at the time of cataract
surgery.
Propellering: The turning within the eye of an anterior chamber lens as a
result of the smallness of its size in relation to the diameter of the
anterior chamber.
Pseudophakia: Refers to the existence of an artificial lens within the confines
of the eye.
Pseudophakos: A false or artificial lens, such as an intraocular lens implant.
Pupil block glaucoma: A condition in which the iris bows forward and a
secondary rise in pressure occurs as a result of blockage of the aqueous
flow from the posterior to the anterior chamber because of obstruction
by the intraocular lens at the pupil.
Pupillary capture: The condition in which all or part of the iris positions
itself behind or in front of an intraocular lens in a position in which
it was not intended.
Pupillary entrapment: See pupillary capture.
Pupillary lens: A lens that is held and centered in position by the pupil.
R
Repositioning: The positioning of a displaced intraocular lens into its correct
position.
Resolving power: The quality of the optics of an intraocular lens in resolving
lines on a test target.
Ridge lens: A lens that has a small raised ridge to permit a gap area between
the lens and the posterior capsule. This gap provides safety in
preventing lens injury when performing a YAG capsulotomy.
S
Secondary lens implants: Implants that are inserted as a secondary procedure
after the lens has been removed by previous surgery.
Soft intraocular lenses: Intraocular lenses that can be folded and inserted through
a small incision. These may be made of silicone or hydrogen material.
Sphincter erosion: The development of breakdown of the iris sphincter as a
result of iris and pupillary supported lenses.
Sulcus fixation: A lens inserted in the ciliary sulcus in front of the anterior
capsule.
Sunset syndrome: The sinking or dislocation of an intraocular lens (like a
sunset) as a result of inadequate fixation in the posterior chamber.
T
Two-plane lens: An intraocular lens that is designed to lie in a position at
two levels within the eye.
U
UGH syndrome (uveitis-glaucoma-hyphema syndrome): A syndrome caused by a
defective anterior chamber lens, toxic substances incorporated into
the plastic of the lens or a warped intraocular lens characterized by
uveitis, glaucoma, and hyphema. Rarely it may occur following the
implantation of a posterior chamber lens.
Ultrasound: An instrument used to send sound waves to the eye to measure
the length of the eye required to determine the power of the implant
to be inserted.
UV implants: Sometime called blue blocker IOL’s protect the retina from
developing age-related macular degeneration (ARMD) by filtering
ultraviolet light which can have a harmful effect on the macula.
W
Windshield wiper syndrome: The to and fro movement, similar to a windshield
wiper, of a loose intraocular lens in the posterior chamber of the eye.
C H A P T E R 21
GLAUCOMA SURGERY
SURGERY
Iridotomy arises from tome, to incise or cut, and refers to an incision of the
iris. Iridectomy arises from ec and tome, in which ec means “out” and tome
“to cut”, so an iridectomy is a procedure in which a portion of the iris is
cut out. This may be a peripheral iridectomy in which the outer portion of
the iris is removed or a sector iridectomy in which a pie-shaped sector of
the iris is removed. It is referred to as a basal iridectomy if the base of
the iris is removed.
Other words used in glaucoma include the following:
A
Argon laser trabeculoplasty (ALT): Laser treatment of the trabecular mesh-
work in wide angle glaucoma.
C
Canaloplasty: Lowering of IOP by improving trabeculocanalicular outflow
by circumferentially by catherizing and vasodilating Schlemm’s canal
along it’s enire length with a flexible microcatheter.
Cyclocryotherapy: Destruction of a part of the ciliary body by freezing to
reduce the quantity of aqueous produced.
Cyclodialysis: An operation to reduce the intraocular pressure by forming
a pathway for fluid from the anterior chamber to the space between
the choroid and sclera.
E
Excimer laser trabeculostomy (ELT): A minimally invasive outpatient procedure
performed on the trabecular meshwork with minimal damage but long
lasting increase in outflow from the eye.
F
Filtering procedure: An operation for the release of aqueous into the
subtenon or subconjunctival space by fistulization through the sclera
(Fig. 21-1).
Glaucoma Surgery 343
Fig. 21-1. Filtering procedure. Aqueous fluid flows from anterior chamber through
opening in sclera (trabeculectomy site) to subconjunctival space where a filtering
bleb is formed (With permission from Stein HA, Stein RM, Freeman MI. The
5-fluorouracil (5-FU): A drug that may be used postoperatively to increase

the chance of filtering success in complicated cases.
Flat anterior chamber: Potential complication of intraocular surgery
characterized by the iris being in direct contact with the cornea and
by the virtual absence of aqueous in the anterior chamber.
G
Goniotomy: A surgical procedure to treat infantile glaucoma. It includes
opening the trabecular meshwork.
Iridencleisis: A surgical procedure to correct glaucoma in which an incision
is made at the corneoscleral limbus and the iris is incarcerated in the
wound, creating a filtering wick between the anterior chamber and
subconjunctival space.
Irido-, irid-: Pertaining to the iris.
Iridocyclectomy: Surgical removal of a portion of the iris and ciliary body;
surgery indicated for tumors.
Iridodonesis: Trembling of the iris on eye movement, such as occurs with
loss of lens support as in aphakia, dislocated lens, or pseudophakia.
L
Laser iridotomy: A method of using the laser beam for making an opening
in the iris to permit aqueous to pass from the posterior chamber to
the anterior chamber through the irotomy site (Fig. 21-2).
Laser trabeculoplasty: A method of using the laser beam for shrinking the
trabecular meshwork to permit increased outflow of fluid from the
anterior chamber to decrease intraocular pressure in glaucoma patients.
Fig. 21-2. Laser iridotomy (With permission from Stein HA, Stein RM, Freeman
Lens-induced: Caused by the lens; a reaction such as glaucoma, usually by

lysis, anaphylaxis, or dislocation of the lens.
P
Peripheral iridectomy: Procedure in which a section of iris is excised so that
aqueous can drain from the posterior chamber to the anterior chamber.
Performed routinely in cataract operations and to relieve postoperative
attacks of angle-closure glaucoma; also performed as a primary
procedure to cure most instances of angle-closure glaucoma.
S
Sclerectomy: Antiglaucoma operation that permits aqueous to escape through
a notch cut from the sclera.
Sector iridectomy: The incision of a sector of the iris from its base.
Selective laser trabeculoplasty (SLT): A q switched laser at 532 nanometers
with a 200 micron spot size to selectively target pigment cells in the
trabecular meshwork to permit greater outflow of aqueous.
T
Thermal sclerectomy: A drainage procedure for glaucoma that uses cautery.
Thermosclerectomy: The opening of a cleft in the sclera by applying heat to
the edge of the wound; used for glaucoma.
Trabeculectomy: Surgical removal of a portion of the trabeculum to increase
the outflow from the eye.
Trabeculoplasty: See laser trabeculoplasty.
Trabeculotomy: Surgical incision of the trabeculum.
Trephination: Drainage procedure for glaucoma that uses a trephine to excise
a corneoscleral button.
Y
YAG cyclotherapy: A laser procedure to destroy portions of the ciliary body
so as to decrease aqueous production.
C H A P T E R 22
CORNEAL SURGERY
Word origins in corneas take their root from the Greek kerato, meaning
“hornlike”, because ancient Greeks believed the cornea resembled a thinly
sliced horn of an animal.
When a cornea becomes cone shaped, the condition of keratoconus, or
conical cornea, exists. If an inflammation (itis) affects the cornea, it is called
keratitis. A corneal transplant is referred to as a keratoplasty. A transplant
may be penetrating, in which full-thickness layers of cornea are replaced
with a full-thickness layer from a donor (Fig. 22-1). A transplant may be
lamellar, in which the outer two-thirds of the cornea is replaced. Refractive
keratoplasty, introduced by José-Barraquer in 1949, refers to surgical proce-
dures to modify corneal curvature and alter refractive errors. Keratomileusis,
derived from Greek words meaning cornea and carving, incorporates a
lamellar section of the patient’s own cornea lathed in either a positive or
negative fashion and used to correct either myopic or hyperopic refractive
errors. Keratophakia is a surgical alteration of the anterior radius of
curvature of the cornea in which a positive lenticule is cut from a fresh
donor cornea and is incorporated within the patient’s corneal stroma. This
is presently being used to eliminate aphakic refractive areas. Radial
keratotomy (Fig. 22-2) is a surgical procedure in which multiple spokelike
incisions are made into the cornea to flatten the cornea and eliminate or
reduce the myopic refractive error. Epikeratophakia is a procedure designed
and popularized by Kaufman and his co-workers in which a lenticule of
donor cornea is sutured at the margins to a patient’s cornea that is denuded
of epithelium. Keratoprosthesis is an artificial synthetic cornea that is
implanted into the corneal substance for visual rehabilitation in severely
scarred corneas in almost blind eyes. It is usually of a plastic material.
Corneal implants are materials implanted into the corneal stroma to alter
the refractive power of the eye.
A surgical instrument used to open the anterior chamber by cutting
the cornea is called a keratome, from the Greek tome, meaning “to incise”.
Please see Chapter 27 for terminology on Refractive Surgery.
Fig. 22-1. Penetrating keratoplasty. (A) Preoperative corneal scar. (B) Trephine used
to cut donor cornea. (C) Trephine used to cut patient’s cornea. (D) Cut cornea of
patient is removed. (E) Donor cornea is placed in opening of patient’s cornea.
(F) Donor cornea is sutured into position (With permission from Stein HA, Stein
Corneal Surgery 347
Fig. 22-2. Radial keratotomy (With permission from Stein HA, Stein RM, Freeman
A
Alloplastic donor material: An inert graft, either glass or plastic.
Astigmatic keratotomy: Incisions in the cornea to reduce astigmatism.
Autogenous donor material: A graft from the same individual.
Autograft: Removing and transplanting corneal tissue or any tissue of an
individual back to the same individual.
B
Blade gauge: A gauge to determine the extension of the blade beyond the
guard.
C
Coin gauge: A circular gauge designed to measure the depth of a diamond
knife beyond its guard.
Compression sutures: Sutures used in refractive surgery to steepen a flat
meridian of the cornea to decrease astigmatism.
Corneal rings: These are arcurate rings inserted in the mid or peripheral
cornea to flatten a steep cornea as in keratoconus. Sometimes referred
to as intacts.
Cryolathe: A lathing machine that freezes and grinds into a cornea.
D
Depth gauge: An instrument to determine the depth of a corneal incision.
Diamond knife: A blade using a gem-quality diamond as its cutting edge.
DSEK or DSAEK: It is a procedure called Descemet’s stripping endothelial
keratoplasty or Descemet’s stripping automated endothelial kerato-
plasty. A new procedure for bullous keratoplasty and Fuch’s corneal
dystrophy.
E
Endoguide: It is a thin plastic guide that assists with insertion of an
endothelial donor graft.
Excimer: A laser instrument used to ablate or remove the anterior part of
the cornea; used to reduce refractive errors and remove scar tissue.
F
Fixation instrument: An instrument used to fixate the globe.
G
Glare: An annoying and undesirable sensation induced by light scattering.
Graft:
Corneal: A donor cornea is transplanted into a recipient eye.
Full-thickness: A full-thickness corneal button is used.
Lamellar: A partial-thickness corneal graft.
H
Hanna trephine: A highly sophisticated trephine system used to cut the host
cornea in corneal transplant surgery.
Hessburg-Baron suction trephine: An instrument for corneal transplant surgery
that uses a suction device to adhere to the host cornea and a trephine
to make an incision.
Heterogenous donor material: A graft that is taken from an individual of a
different species.
Heterograft: Transplantation from one species such as monkey to another
species such as humans.
Hex procedure: A surgical procedure for reducing hyperopic refracture
errors.
Hockey stick: An instrument shaped like a hockey stick used to estimate
the depth of a corneal incision, as for radial keratotomy.
Homogeneous donor material: A graft from an individual of the same species.
Homograft: Transplantation from one member of the same species such
as humans to another member of the same species. This is the
common type of corneal transplant.
K
Keratectomy: Removal of the anterior portion of the cornea.
Keratotomy: Any incision into the cornea.
Corneal Surgery 349
L
Laser keratotomy: The use of the laser beam to incise the cornea.
M
Macroperforation: A large full-thickness corneal perforation that requires
suturing to maintain the anterior chamber.
Maladie du greffon: A clouding of the graft as a result of an antigen-antibody
reaction.
McCarey-Kaufman medium (M-K medium): A tissue culture-soaking medium
for storage and preservation of corneal tissue.
Microperforation: Self-sealing perforations of the cornea that may occur in
radial keratotomy and relaxing incisions.
O
Optical centering instrument: An instrument used to mark the visual axis center.
Optical zone markers: Corneal markers of varying sizes used to outline the
optical zone of a cornea.
Overcorrection: In radial keratotomy, the creation of more refractive
correction than required.
P
Photorefractive keratoplasty (PRK): A method of altering the refractive error
by the excimer laser.
Phototherapeutic keratectomy (PTK): A method of removing scar tissue from
the anterior cornea by the excimer laser.
R
Radial keratotomy (RK): A surgical procedure in which radial incisions are
made in the peripheral cornea to flatten the central portion of the
cornea and correct myopic refractive errors.
Redeepening: A procedure in radial keratotomy in which radial incisions in
the cornea already present are further incised to increase this depth
to create more flattening.
Relaxing incision: An incision through partial thickness into the cornea to
reduce astigmatism.
Ruby knife: A blade using a ruby as its cutting edge.
Ruiz procedure: A series of tangential cuts combined with radial cuts in the
cornea designed to reduce astigmatism.
S
Sapphire knife: A blade using a sapphire as its cutting edge.
Superficial lamellar keratoplasty: A transplantation of the cornea, usually no
deeper than the stroma, of diseased tissue; it is replaced by a
transplanted donor cornea similarly excised.
T
T incisions: An incision used to relax the meridian of steeper curvature of
the cornea and reduce astigmatism.
Thermokeratoplasty: Alternation of the radius of curvature of the cornea
by applying heat. Used for keratoconus to flatten by creating a thermal
shrinkage to decrease the radius of curvature of the cornea.
Trephine: An instrument used in corneal transplant surgery to cut both
the donor and host corneas.
U
Undercorrection: In radial keratotomy, the creation of less refractive
correction than required.
W
Wedge resection: Removal of a wedge of corneal tissue, either partial or full
thickness. This technique may be used for the correction of astig-
matism.
C H A P T E R 23
EYELID, LACRIMAL AND

ORBIT
ORBITALAL SURGERY
SURGERY
Blepharo is a Greek word meaning “eyelid”. Such words as blepharoplasty

refer to an alteration of the eyelid. Blepharoptosis refers to a ptosis or
drooping of the eyelids. Repairs to the angle of an eyelid through the
angle or canthi is referred to as canthoplasty. To open the angle, the
procedure called canthotomy is performed.
Canthos is from Greek kanthos, meaning “angle of the eye”. Repairs to
the angle of the eye are called canthoplasty. Opening the angle of the eye
is called canthectomy, meaning to incise the angle.
Dacryo is derived from the Greek dakryon, meaning “tear”. Cyst means
“sac” and itis means “inflammation”, so dacryocystitis refers to any
inflammation of the tear sac. Rhino refers to nose and ostomy is the suffix
for opening, so dacryocystorhinostomy (DCR) is a surgical procedure in which
a communication is made between a tear sac and the nasal cavity to relieve
an obstruction in the nasolacrimal duct. Dacryocysterectomy is an excision
of the lacrimal sac. When the conjunctiva or lining membrane of the eye
is joined to the nasal cavity, the surgical procedure called conjunctivorhinostomy
is performed.
When the eyelid rolls in, entropion is said to exist (from en, “in”, and
tropia, “to turn”). If the eyelid turns out, ectropion exists. Surgical procedures
are referred to as correction of entropion or ectropion and frequently carry the
name of physicians who originated the procedures, such as Kuhnt-
Szymanowski or Wheeler.
A
Acid burn: A chemical burn to ocular tissue caused by acid fluids with a
low pH, such as sulfuric acid.
Alkali burn: A chemical burn to ocular tissue caused by alkalis fluids with
a high pH, such as lime or lye.
Avulsion of lids: A shearing of the lid structures through trauma so that

the lid dangles like a pedicle flap with little loss of lid tissue.
B
Balloon dacryoplasty: It is a procedure that places a catheter with a balloon
inside the nasolacrimal duct in order to expand the duct.
Berke-Krönlein orbitotomy: A lateral approach to the orbit to explore or
remove a lesion behind the eye.
Bick procedure: An excision of redundant eyelid tissue at the lateral canthus.
Blascovics’ operation: An approach through the conjunctiva for the correction
of ptosis by shortening the levator palpebrae muscle.
Blepharochalasis repair: The surgical excision and repair of redundant eyelid
skin.
Blepharoptosis repair: The surgical correction of drooping of the upper
eyelid.
Blow-out fracture of orbit: Fracture of the floor of the orbit into the maxillary
sinus with prolapse of the intraorbital contents into the antrum. Often
associated with enophthalmos, ptosis, inability to turn the eye upward,
and infraorbital nerve hypoesthesia.
Bowman’s probe: A graded series of probes that are inserted to enlarge the
nasolacrimal duct.
C
Caldwell-Luc: An approach to the floor of the orbit through the maxillary
antrum. An approach sometimes used for repair of blow-out fractures
of the orbit.
Canthotomy: Usually implies a lateral canthotomy, which is the cutting of
the outer angle of the eyelid. Performed when widening of the
palpebral fissure is required.
Chalcosis: Retained intraocular copper and its common alloys, bronze and
brass, may cause a sunflower cataract and a Kayser-Fleischer ring in
Descemet’s membrane. This chemical complex is especially common
in Wilson’s disease.
Chemosis: Swelling of conjunctival tissues.
Conjunctivoplasty: Reconstruction of the conjunctival lining of the eye, with
or without grafting.
Conjunctivorhinostomy: Anastomosis of the conjunctiva with the nasal cavity
for improved tear outflow.
Crepitus: Subconjunctival or subcutaneous emphysema (air) usually derived
from fractures of sinuses.
Eyelid, Lacrimal and Orbital Surgery 353
D
Dacryocystectomy: Excision of the tear sac.
Dacryocystorhinostomy (DCR): A communication is made between the naso-
lacrimal sac and the nasal cavity to relieve an obstruction in the
nasolacrimal duct.
DCR: See dacryocystorhinostomy.
Decompression, orbital: Surgical relief of pressure behind the eyeball, as in
endocrine exophthalmos, by the removal of bone from the orbit.
Districhiasis correction: Surgery to correct the aberrant growth of eyelashes.
E
Ecchymosis of the lids: Hemorrhage under the skin of the lids caused by
contusion—common terminology “black eye”.
Electrocoagulation: An electric current used to cauterize small eyelid lesions
by heat.
Electroepilation (electrolysis): A coagulation needle is inserted into a hair follicle
to permanently remove misdirected lashes.
Enucleation: Surgical removal of the entire globe.
Epicanthal correction: Correction of a fold in the inner angle of the eye.
Epilation: The mechanical removal of eyelashes or cilia by the roots, as
performed in the removal of misdirected eyelashes.
Epiphora: Excessive tearing, often caused by blockage of the tear ducts,
but which may arise from excessive tear formation.
Evisceration: The surgical removal of the entire contents of the globe
leaving a scleral shell.
Exenteration: Removal of entire orbit including the globe, eyelid muscles,
eyelid, and orbital contents—usually performed for malignant tumors.
F
Fasanella-Servat procedure: An operation for minor degrees of ptosis to raise
the upper lid by excising a portion from under the eyelid.
Fascia lata frontalis sling for ptosis: Fascia lata obtained from the thigh is used
to elevate a drooping eyelid.
Figure-of-8 suture: A suture repair to close lid defects from surgery or trauma
to attain good wound opposition with a simple single suture thread in
a figure-8 style.
Flap: Flaps are used when a recipient bed is not suitable for a free graft
or when a defect is too large for a free graft; flaps may be local, open,
or single.
Fox’s operation: Excision of a triangle of tarsus and conjunctiva for the

correction of entropion.
Free skin autograft: Surgery in which skin is taken from one area and
transferred and united to another area.
Frost suture: A suture used to keep the eyelids closed to protect the cornea.
G
Graft:
Full-thickness autograft: A graft of skin or mucus and subdermal tissue
that is removed and transplanted.
Split-thickness autograft: A graft of dermis only that is removed and
transplanted.
Gray line incisions: An incision in the lid margin at the gray line to separate
the tarsal conjunctiva from the skin and orbicularis.
H
Hematoma: Hemorrhage into the tissues such as the eyelids.
Hyaluronidase: Speeding factor used in local retrobulbar injections to aid
in the diffusion of the anesthetic.
Hyphema: An injury from a blunt object causing blood to appear within
J
Jones tubes: Pyrex tubes used to restore function of the tear outflow
channels.
K
Kuhnt-Szymanowski procedure: A procedure on the lower lids designed to
correct a relaxed ectropion by excision of the eyelid in two planes.
L
Laceration: A cut or wound of the tissues.
Levator resection for ptosis: An excision of the levator muscle to elevate the
upper lid. The operation may be done through a skin approach (Berke’s
skin approach) or through a conjunctival approach (Iliff ’s conjunctival
approach).
Eyelid, Lacrimal and Orbital Surgery 355
O
One-snip operation: A single-cut surgical procedure to enlarge the punctum.
Orbital decompression: A procedure usually performed for thyroid exophthal-
mos when visual loss occurs because of increased orbital pressure.
The orbit is decompressed by removing part of the bony wall.
Orbital implants: Materials that are designed to be left at the time of surgery
to replace an eye that is removed so as to provide movement of an
artificial shell that is later fashioned 6 weeks after eye surgery.
Orbitotomy: A surgical approach made into the orbit to remove a tumor or
to obtain a specimen of lesion for biopsy.
P
Pedicle flap: Surgery in which a piece of skin, attached at its original base,
is rotated to restore position and size of the eyebrow.
S
Sac: See conjunctival sac, lacrimal sac.
Socket reconstruction: Repair of a shrunken socket that does not suitably
retain an artificial eye.
Stryker saw: A bone saw used in dacryocystorhinostomy to remove bone.
Suture sling: The use of a suture to perform as a sling in the correction of
ptosis or a drooping canthal angle.
T
Tarsorrhaphy: A temporary or permanent surgical union of the upper and
lower lid margins. It may be temporal (lateral), nasal (medial), or
complete.
Three-snip operation: A surgical procedure designed to enlarge the punctum
and canaliculus by three cuts.
Traumatic ptosis: Drooping of the upper lid caused by the cumulative weight
of blood or edema fluid in the lid as a result of direct injury to the
nerve or to the muscle (levator palpebra superioris) that elevates the
lids.
Trichiasis repair: Correction of misdirected upper or lower eyelashes that
scratch the cornea.
U
Ultraviolet burns: Ultraviolet radiation is the most common form of radiant
energy to induce ocular injury. The chief sources are welding arcs,
suntan lamps, and carbon arcs. It causes an acute punctate keratitis.
W
Wheeler halving repair: A method of closure of lid defects from trauma or
by excision of lid mass by splitting the lids and overlapping the edges.
Wheeler procedure: Operation performed for senile entropion.
Wies procedure: Operation performed for severe cicatricial entropion.
Z
Ziegler cautery: Scarring by heat; created along the lid margin by electro-
coagulation to invert or evert the lid.
Z-plasty: An operative procedure used to release and transpose lines of
tension by making a Z-shaped incision and transposing the flaps.
C H A P T E R 24
LASER SURGERY
SURGERY
Laser is an acronym for light amplification through the stimulated emission

of radiation.
Argon and krypton lasers produce powerful light energy when electric
current excites argon or krypton gas in the laser cavity. Argon laser is
especially suited to treating glaucoma; both types are useful in treating
diseases of the retina. The Nd:YAG (neodymium yttrium aluminum
garnet) laser is a solid-state laser producing a more explosive energy
capable of cutting membranes.
Laser energy is delivered through a fiberoptic cable to a slit lamp for
treatment to the eye. The operator adjusts for power (watts, joules), spot
size (micrometers), and duration (seconds). The number of shots or
discharges is counted for each procedure.
In ophthalmic laser treatment the patient is fully ambulatory; the
procedure requires only local or topical anesthetic and no special sterile
technique. Lasers have revolutionized the treatment of diabetic eye disease.
As a result of lasers many cases of glaucoma are treated without surgery.
The “excimer laser” uses ultraviolet radiation to remove (ablate) the front
surface of the cornea. The word excimer is a contraction of “excited” and
“dimmer”. The excimer is a combination of Argon and Halogen in the
presence of a strong electrical discharge. This reaction creates short-lived
molecules (excited dimmers) that emit pulses in the form of ultraviolet
radiation at 193 mm. This excimer laser energy is absorbed by the stroma,
as the energy is pulsed in. Please see Chapter 27 for terminology on Lasers
in Refractive Surgery.
A
Abraham iridotomy lens: A modified contact lens with a magnifying button
for performing laser iridotomy.
Aiming beam: A coincident light beam (may also be a laser) for aiming the
laser on target before firing.
Argon: The gas in the argon laser cavity from which laser energy is
produced when raised to an “excited” state with electrical energy.
B
Burst: A “shot” or discharge of the laser.
C
Capsulotomy: A hole made in the posterior lens capsule when it becomes
opacified and visually obstructive following cataract surgery; performed
with the YAG laser.
Continuous: This type of laser emits its energy continuously with the
operator controlling the duration as opposed to the pulsed laser.
D
Delivery system: The optical set-up that delivers laser energy to the eye. This
consists of a slit lamp connected to the laser by a fiberoptic cable.
E
Excimer laser: Laser using ultraviolet light, in the range of 193 nanometers.
Its major use is in ablating (removing) anterior corneal tissue, thereby
altering the refraction of the eye.
F
Femtosecond laser: A revolutionary type laser first designed to deactivate
nuclear weapons. The device has extremely short wavelengths, just 50-
1000 femtoseconds (a quadrillionth of a second) so it generates no
heat or shock and no damage to tissues being cut. It is so precise it
leaves the surrounding area undamaged.
Foveal avascular zone: The central 500 μm of the fovea and macula, free
from blood vessels, which is essential to fine central vision; a common
reference point in performing macular photocoagulation.
G
Goniophotocoagulation: Laser applied directly to abnormal blood vessels in
the angle covering the trabecular meshwork (drainage system) in
neovascular glaucoma.
H
HeNe beam (helium neon): A low-power red laser beam used in many systems
as an aiming beam.
Laser Surgery 359
I
Infrared: An invisible part of the electromagnetic spectrum (“below red”)
with a long wavelength.
IntralaseTM: The first manufacture of this laser coined the name Intralase
for a femtosecond laser. Used to prepare a custom flap for LASIK or
LASEK correction of refractive errors, for insertion of corneal rings
and for stromal pockets for lamellar donor corneas.
Intrastromal laser: Laser designed to accurately focus within the stromal
layer of the cornea and change the refractive error of the eye.
Iridoplasty: Alteration of the shape of the iris and/or pupil by direct laser
burns to the iris.
Iridotomy (laser iridotomy): A hole made in the iris with the laser for narrow-
angle or angle-closure glaucoma.
K
Krypton: Gas in the krypton laser cavity operates on the same principle as
the argon laser but produces a yellow or red beam for treating macular
disease.
L
LASEK: A combination of LASIK and epikeratoplasty. A femtosecond
laser is used to create a very thin flap, that is layed back and then laser
energy is used to create a refractive change in the underlying stroma.
No blade or microkeratome is used.
Laser cavity (or tube): Lined with reflective mirrors and containing the gas
or solid medium, this cavity is where laser energy is produced through
repeated reflection and activation through the medium.
Laser vision correction: It is correcting visual acuity to emmetropia by laser.
Laser in situ keratomileusis (LASIK): It is used to correct errors. The proce-
dure is performed by using a microtome with a surgical blade to lift a
corneal flap fold it back and reshape the underlying corneal stroma
with an excimer laser. The flap is then restored to the original position.
M
Macular photocoagulation: Treatment of the macular area of the retina for
edema or abnormal blood vessels beneath the retina (argon or krypton
laser).
Membranectomy: Cutting of a visually obstructive membrane (usually
pupillary membrane) with the YAG laser. The term is sometimes used
interchangeably with capsulotomy.
Millijoule: One one-thousandth of the unit of energy, the joule.

Mode locking: A method of producing a series of very short—duration
laser pulses in “trains” as opposed to one longer pulse in the usual
q-switched laser.
N
Nanosecond: One billionth of a second.
Nd:YAG: Neodymium is incorporated in a crystal of yttrium aluminum
garnet as the medium for the Nd:YAG laser.
O
Optical breakdown: When hit with a high-power density discharge from the
YAG laser, tissue breaks down into a “plasma” or gas of atoms and
electrons.
P
Panretinal photocoagulation: Treatment of the entire retina except the central
portion with the argon laser to prevent growth or cause regression of
abnormal blood vessels (neovascularization), as occurs in diabetes or
central retinal vein obstruction.
Photon: A packet or quantum of light energy.
Photorefractive keratectomy (PRK): It is a procedure that corrects vision by
surface removal of cornea by removal of the surface epithelium before
applying laser energy to reshape the cornea.
Picosecond: One trillionth of a second.
Pitting: Marking of an intraocular lens when applying YAG laser to a
membrane close behind the lens.
Plasma: The short-lined atom and electron gas produced from tissue
breakdown with the YAG laser.
Power: A measure of energy/time in watts.
Pulse train: A series of equally spaced, very short pulses from a mode-
locked laser.
Q
Q switching: The sudden change of Q of the laser cavity to produce a pulse.
Quality factor: Based on the ratio of energy stored to energy generated.
Laser Surgery 361
S
Spot size: Laser beam diameter and therefore size of burn ranging from
500 to 1000 μm.
T
Trabeculoplasty: Laser treatment (usually argon) to the trabecular meshwork
through a gonioscope lens to treat open-angle glaucoma.
W
Wavelength: A physical property of light apparent in its color. Violet has a
short wavelength, red a long wavelength. Different tissues absorb
different wave-lengths preferentially, making the various lasers useful
for specific purposes.
Y
YAG: Yttrium aluminum garnet. The crystal in the “solid-state” YAG
laser.
C H A P T E R 25
RETINAL AND VITREOUS SURGERY

SURGERY
A retinal detachment is a complete or partial separation of the retina from

the underlying choroid (Fig. 25-1). When the retina becomes detached it is
not truly a detachment of the complete retina; rather, the pigment layer
of the retina remains attached to the choroid while the rest of the retina
detaches from it. In fact, a retinal detachment is a splitting of the retina
in which the anterior nine layers detach from the posterior pigment layer.
The detachment occurs when the vitreous wedges itself between the two
split layers. Retinoschisis (schisis, “to split”) is a true splitting of the retina
more anteriorly without detachment. If there is a localized blister elevation,
the term macrocyst or giant cyst of the retina is frequently used. Rhegmatogenous
detachment (Greek rhegma, “hole”) is a detachment in which there is a retinal
hole or tear resulting in watery fluid that enters behind the retina.
Nonrhegmatogenous detachment is a detachment with no holes or tears; it may
be caused by traction pull on the retina, by fluid leaking under the retina
from the choroid, or by a malignant melanoma or a metastatic tumor.
The detachment may be classified as aphakic detachment if it occurs after
cataract surgery or pseudophakic detachment if it occurs after an artificial
Fig. 25-1. Rhegmatogenous retinal detachment with associated retinal tear (With
Retinal and Vitreous Surgery 363
lens implant procedure. Vitreous detachment or separation may occur in which

the vitreous becomes separated from the retina.
In recent years newer treatments for exudative macular degeneration,
retinal vein occlusions and diabetes have been using intravitreal injections
to improve visual outcomes. The main drugs that have been utilized for
these conditions are vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) inhibitors
which are used to block the pathway of angiogenesis and they help
suppress blood vessels growth in the eye. Common risks of using the
intravitreal injections with VEGF inhibitors are the potential of
endophthalmitis, subconjunctival hemorrhage, vitreous hemorrhage and
retinal detachment. It should be noted that the VEGF inhibitors may need
to be reinjected in the vitreous cavity every 4-6 weeks in order to maintain
the visual acuity and treatment benefits in patients.
Corticosteroids are also used in intravitreal injections in order to treat
conditions like diabetic macular edema, cystoid macular edema and retinal
vein occlusions. Common risks of using steroid intravitreal injections are
cataract formation, glaucoma, endophthalmitis and retinal detachment.
It should be noted that the steroid intravitreal injections will last in the
eye for 3-4 months and they may need to be re-injected in order to help
sustain the treatment benefits.
The prevention of endophthalmitis with intravitreal injections is
obtained with the usage of an eyelid speculum in order to keep the
eyelashes away from the conjunctiva and site of injection. An iodine-based
antibacterial preparation (e.g. Povidone) is also helpful in preventing
endophthalmitis by applying to the bulbar and forniceal conjunctiva before
the injection is given. The injection is usually given with a 30-gauge needle
that goes through the conjunctiva, sclera and pars plana. The pars plana
is entered 4 mm behind the corneal limbus is phakic eyes and the pars
plana is entered 3 to 3.5 mm behind the corneal limbus in pseudophakic
eyes. This measurement is necessary to prevent accidental spearing of
the lens with the needle during the intravitreal injection.
A
Anterior vitrectomy: Removal of vitreous and membranes from the area of
the pupil (anterior eye).
Aphakic detachment: Retinal detachment occurring after cataract surgery.
B
Buckling: Operating for retinal detachment by resection of a portion of
the sclera and implantation of foreign material to indent the outer
coats of the eye.
C
Cryopexy: Freezing treatment using a cryoprobe. The resulting scarring
forms a firm adhesion of retina to underlying tissues. It is used, for
example, to seal retinal holes.
Cryotherapy: Treatment by cold usually involving the freezing of the tissue
concerned.
D
Diathermy: Coagulation of tissue by heat to destroy tissue or to create a
natural scar such as used in retinal detachment and ciliary body surgery.
E
Encircling band: A band of material such as silicone or fascia lata that
completely encircles the globe and indents the sclera.
Encircling explant or implant: Sponge or silicone material encircling the eye
for 360 degrees to provide indentation of the full circumference.
Explant: A synthetic material made of silicone or sponge that is used in
scleral buckling to indent the sclera.
I
Intraocular gas or air: Gas or air may be injected into the eye after vitrectomy
and scleral buckle to maintain the retina in position. The bubble may
last several days.
K
Kaufman vitrector: A disposable instrument used to cut and remove vitreous
fluid.
M
Magnet: Used to retrieve metallic foreign bodies from within the eye.
Membrane peeling: Removal of abnormal tissue from the surface of the
retina to relieve traction and wrinkling.
N
Nonrhegmatogenous retinal detachment: Detachment with no associated tear
or hole.
Retinal and Vitreous Surgery 365
P
Panretinal photocoagulation (PRP): Complete photocoagulation of the retina
except for the central (macular) area.
Pars plana vitrectomy: A vitreous removal procedure performed through the
pars plana.
Peritomy: Opening of the conjunctiva near the limbus to gain access to
the extraocular muscles and posterior sclera.
Photocoagulation: A high-intensity light beam produces a burn to provide
an adherence between the choroid and the retina.
Posterior vitrectomy: Removal of vitreous from the posterior region of the
eye behind the lens plane.
PRP: See panretinal photocoagulation.
Pseudophakic detachment: Retinal detachment occurring after an artificial lens
implant procedure.
R
Retinoschisis: Anterior splitting of the retina without retinal detachment.
Rhegmatogenous retinal detachment: Detachment associated with retinal tear
or hole.
S
Scleral buckle: The inversion of the sclera designed to appose the sclera
and choroid against the retina.
Scleral flap: A partial thickness “trap door” fashioned in the sclera that
may be used to cover a surgical opening or bury an implant.
Segmental implant or explant: A small section of sponge or silicone creating
a local indentation.
Silicone sponge explant: A synthetic material made of silicone that is used in
scleral buckling to indent the sclera.
Subretinal fluid drainage: Draining of fluid from under the detached retina
by making a small hole through the sclera and choroid. An important
part of scleral buckling surgery.
V
VISC: Vitreous infusion suction and cutter; an instrument used to cut
and remove vitreous.
Vitrectomy: Surgical removal of vitreous (Fig. 25-2).
Fig. 25-2. Vitrectomy performed to remove vitreous that is mixed with blood (With
Vitreous traction: Usually refers to a band of vitreous pulling on the retina

and causing a hole and/or detachment. Removal of traction bands is
one objective of vitrectomy.
C H A P T E R 26
STRABISMUS SURGERY
SURGERY
Strabismus (Greek strabismos, “twisted”) refers to eyes that are not straight.
Strabo, a geographer, was a prominent figure in Alexandria during the
Roman times who suffered from a noticeable turn of his eyes. From then
on it was popular to call a person with a turn “Strabo.”
A tenotomy is a surgical procedure in which the tendon of the muscle
is cut. This was first performed in 1839. In myectomy, a portion of the
muscle is excised or removed, whereas in a myotomy the muscle is cut. A
recession of the muscle is the setting back of the muscle, derived from the
Latin recedere, from re, “back” or “off ”, and sedere, “to go,” so that it is a
setting back of the muscle (Fig. 26-1). Resection is derived from re, “back”,
and secare, “to cut”, meaning a cutting off of a portion of the muscle
(Fig. 26-2). Chapter 14 deals with a strabismus and ocular motility in
greater detail.
Fig. 26-1. Recession operation. (A) Preoperative position of muscles. (B) Muscle
detached from globe. (C) Muscle reattachment to sclera at a point further back from
its original insertion (With permission from Stein HA, Stein RM, Freeman MI. The
Fig. 26-2. Resection operation. (A) Preoperative position of muscles. (B) Muscle
detached from globe and an anterior portion of muscle cut away. (C) Muscle
resutured to sclera at original insertion point or more forward (With permission from
Mosby, 2006)
A
Adjustable sutures: The principle of placing sutures so that they may be
adjusted for perfect alignment when the patient is awake and alert.
Advancement: The moving forward toward the cornea of the insertional
site of a muscle or tendon.
B
Botulinum toxin: An injection to weaken a muscle used in strabismus to
weaken an extraocular muscle.
C
Cinch: Surgery in which a rectus muscle or tendon is split and suture
material inserted to shorten a muscle.
D
Disinsertion: Muscle is severed from its attachment and not reattached.
Strabismus Surgery 369
E
External route: A route through skin usually reserved for inferior oblique
surgery.
H
Hummelsheim operation: Transplantation of muscle slips to restore function
after lateral rectus palsy.
L
Lengthening: A procedure to increase the overall length of a muscle.
M
Myomectomy: Removal of a part of a muscle.
Myotomy: Surgical division of muscle fibers without severing the entire
muscle. May be called marginal in which marginal cuts are made from
one or both sides of the muscle.
O
Overcorrection: Correcting a deviation beyond the expected amount so the
eye turns in the opposite direction.
S
Shortening: A procedure to reduce the overall length of a muscle.
T
Tenotomy: Procedure in which muscle tendon is cut.
Transconjunctival route: Incisional approach through the conjunctiva.
Transplantation: The moving of the temporal or nasal half of active muscles
to replace paralyzed muscle.
Tucking: Folding of an extraocular muscle tendon to shorten it and increase
its action.
C H A P T E R 27
REFRACTIVE SURGERY
SURGERY
Refractive surgery refers to surgery that corrects myopia, hyperopia,

astigmatism, and presbyopia. In myopia the surgery aims to flatten the
center of the cornea. While in hyeropia it tends to steepen the center of
the cornea, so the light will focus posteriorly onto the retina without the
aid of spectacles or contact lenses.
Laser surgery is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation. The most common procedure is LASIK which is
an acronym for Laser in situ keratomileusis. The LASIK procedure requires
either a mechanical microkeratome or femtosecond laser to create a thin
flap of corneal tissue. The flap is lifted, folded, and then the excimer
laser is applied to ablate the stromal bed. When the flap is repositioned
there is a new change in the corneal curvature. If the flap is not positioned
well or if it shifts postoperatively then folds or wrinkles may occur in the
flap. Debris may occur under the flap from the tear film. Epithelial cells
may migrate under the flap and require a flap lift and debridement.
Photorefractive keratectomy (PRK) was the original laser procedure
for refractive use. The procedure initially involves the removal of the
central corneal epithelium by either mechanical means such as the spatula,
brush, or by 15-20% alcohol. The excimer laser is then used to reshape
the cornea.
The word excimer is a contraction of “excited” and “dimmer”. The
excimer is a combination of Argon and Halogen gas in the presence of a
strong electrical discharge. This reaction creates short-lived molecules
(excited dimmers) that emit pulses in the form of ultraviolet radiation at
a wavelength of 193 mm. This excimer laser energy is delivered in pulses
to remove stromal tissue.
Phototherapeutic keratectomy (PTK) is used for therapeutic improve-
ment in sight or comfort. This surface ablation procedure is usually limited
to 150 microns in depth, to remove scars and/or dystrophies and to reduce
irregular corneal astigmatism. In addition a PTK can be used for recurrent
corneal erosions to remove 5-8 microns of tissue at the level of Bowman’s
layer to promote epithelial adherence.
Refractive Surgery 371
Epi-LASIK is a more recent procedure in which a microkeratome lifts

the epithelium leaving the stroma intact. The excimer laser is then used
to reshape the cornea and the epithelium is repositioned or discarded. It
is safer to use on thinner corneas then LASIK.
Radial keratotomy (RK) reshapes the cornea by radial incisions made with
a diamond knife. This weakens the peripheral cornea so that the normal
intraocular pressure pushes the mid peripheral cornea outwards, thus
flattening the central cornea to correct myopia. This procedure has been
generally replaced by LASIK or PRK.
Corneal rings may be inserted in corneas in the mid periphery for such
conditions as keratoconus or ectasia after LASIK. The rings flatten the
anterior portion of the cornea. If the outcome is not satisfactory these
rings can be removed.
Automated lamellar keratoplasty (ALK) the patient’s own anterior cornea is
removed with a microkeratome and reshaped in a flatten state and then
the anterior layer is simply placed on the eye. New modifications of
reshaping the cornea were introduced with the excimer laser and this
procedure has become obsolete.
Epikeratoplasty is from the words epi – on top of and kerato – cornea. It is
most useful in pediatric ophthalmology, aphakia and in keratoconus. If
performed after cataract surgery it is called epi keratophakia. The donor
button is rehydrated at the time of surgery and the surgeon sews it on in
a recipient bed after the epithelium has been removed.
Corneal implants are small, thin implants that can be inserted into the cornea
to change the refractive power of the cornea. They are inserted into the
stroma, overlying the pupil, after a pocket has been made with a
femtosecond laser. They may be made of collagen or polysulfone. These
change the refractive component of the central cornea and are primarily
being used to enhance near vision.
Laser thermal keratoplasty (Thermal Collagen Shrinkage). This was
developed by Fedorov and uses heat in the periphery to shrink the collagen
of the cornea and produce a central steepening. This is sometimes called
Thermal keratoplasty. This has evolved to the procedure of Conductive kerato-
plasty (CK) with controlled measurements of energy to shrink and steepen
the cornea to correct presbyopia and hyperopia. Unfortunately these
procedures tend to lose their effect over time with corneal remodeling.
Conductive keratoplasty uses radio waves to shrink the collagen fibers and
correct hyperopia and presbyopia.
Phakic implants are lenses that can be inserted into the eye to correct
refractive errors (myopia, hyperopia, and astigmatism). Typically they are
used on patients that are not satisfactory candidates for LASIK or PRK.
The Artisan lens is a phakic IOL that is inserted into the anterior chamber
and attaches to the iris with “crab claws”. The lens was developed by
Dr Jan Worst of Holland.
Another style of phakic implant is the implantable contact lens (ICL).
This is a thin phakic lens that can be inserted into the sulcus, in front of
the crystalline lens. There are also anterior chamber phakic lenses that
have haptics that are inserted into the anterior chamber angle.
Clear lensectomy is a procedure similar to a cataract operation but the patient
has a clear lens. After the crystalline lens is removed an IOL implant is
inserted. This is currently a popular refractive procedure for high degrees
of myopia and hyperopia in which the patients are not satisfactory
candidates for laser vision correction.
Refractive lens exchange (RLE) is the modern term for clear lensectomy.
Corneal collagen cross-linking (CXL) is used to stiffen or strengthen corneas.
It is used primarily for both keratoconus and resulting ectasia after the
excimer laser. It involves the use of Riboflavin drops and UV-A light that
results in enhancing the rigidity of the cornea.
A
Aberrometer: A device used to measure lower aberrations (sphere and
cylinder) and higher-order aberrations (coma, spherical aberration, and
trefoil).
Ablation: Removal of tissue. Related to refractive surgery it means removal
of stromal tissue.
Argon laser: A laser with ionized argon gas that emits a blue-green light
with a wavelength of 514 nanometers.
C
Coma: A common higher-order aberration that interferes with quality of
vision. Coma is frequently seen in keratoconus.
D
Decentration: In refractive surgery it means the LASIK flap or center of
an excimer ablation is off center.
Refractive Surgery 373
E
Enhancement: A laser reoperation, PRK or LASIK, to improve visual acuity.
Eye tracking: The ability of the laser to track fine movements of the
patient’s eye in order for the excimer laser to deliver pulses in an ideal
location to prevent a decentered ablation.
F
Fluence: It is the energy applied to a given area. It is expressed in units of
millijoules per square centimeter. It varies from one laser to another
from 160 to 250 mj/cm2.
H
Haze: A clouding of the anterior cornea that may occur after laser surgery.
Higher orders of aberration: Optical aberrations that can interfere with the
quality of vision. Patients can have 20/20 uncorrected vision but
complain of poor quality if the higher-order aberrations are high.
Homium laser: A laser used to shrink collagen fibers in the mid periphery
to steepen the central cornea to correct hyperopia.
Homogenicity: The quality of the energy beam dispersed with minimal cold
and hot spots.
I
Interface: As applies to LASIK refers to space between the flap and the
underlying stroma.
Intralase: A femtosecond laser used primarily to create a flap for the LASIK
procedure. The laser can also be used to create corneal channels for
intracorneal rings as well as to make incisions for corneal transplant
surgery.
K
Kera: Referring to the cornea.
Keratectomy: Removal of a portion of the cornea.
M
Monovision: This permits one eye to focus at near and one eye to focus at
distance. It can be achieved by any of the refractive procedures, as
well as contact lenses.
O
Overcorrection: The term used to describe when an eye has an increased
diopter correction from that which was intended.
P
Photoablation: Removal of tissue by the excimer laser.
R
Regression: A refractive error change back towards the original prescription.
S
Spherical aberration: A higher-order aberration that usually results in poor
quality of vision especially at night time.
Stretching: A flap with wrinkles requires stretching with instruments to
remove folds or wrinkles.
Suction ring: Application of a suction device on the cornea to help fixate
the eye for flap creation (femtosecond laser) or with a mechanical
microkeratome.
Surface ablation: Removal of stromal corneal tissue by the excimer laser.
This is another term for photorefractive keratectomy.
U
Undercorrection: The term used to describe when an eye has a decreased
diopter correction from that which was intended.
W
Wavefront analyzer: An instrument that provides precise wavefront data for
treating higher order aberrations.
Wavefront-guided laser ablation: A customized procedure that can correct
sphere, cylinder, and higher-order aberrations.
Wavefront-optimized laser ablation: An excimer laser treatment that can correct
sphere, cylinder, and reduce the induction of spherical aberration.
Z
Zernicke polynomials: Are used to analyze the ocular wavefront. Most
aberrations used for customized wavefront-guided laser ablations rely
on Zernicke polynomials.
SECTION 5: OPHTHALMIC TESTS,
Ophthalmic DEVICES,
Tests and Devices 375
IMAGING AND MISCELLANEOUS TERMS
C H A P T E R 28
OPHTHALMIC TESTS
AND DEVICES
Ophthalmology is a highly measurable branch of medicine, because the

eye is exposed and visible so that every crevice of the interior can be
reached directly or indirectly with lenses, prisms, or ultrasound devices.
Also the eye functions as an optical instrument so the ordinary laws of
geometric optics can be applied to this biological camera that has a zoom
lens, an automatic shutter, a single vision reflex control, and a focusing
device that yields a clear picture with every look.
The basic vision test is virtually an antique; known as Snellen’s chart, it
is still the most widely used test for measuring vision. The letters have
been designed to subtend a 5-minute angle to the eye at either 20 feet or
6 meters. The visual record is expressed as the fraction 20/20 or 6/6 in
which the numerator reflects the test distance and the denominator
indicates the distance at which a person with normal eyesight can see the
letters. Therefore, the numerator is always the same, either 20 feet or
6 meters, and is referred to as 20 or 6. The bottom lines vary with the
degree of acuity. For example, if a person is able to read the 20/20 line
at 20 feet, the vision is recorded as 20/20. If the best vision recorded is
at 20/50, this means that the person can distinguish only at 20 feet a
letter that a normally sighted individual can see correctly at 50 feet. The
term 20/20 or 6/6 is an artificial record of a certain type of static acuity.
It is measured with the person seated, the eye still, the head motionless,
and the object of regard stationary. In real life this is hardly the situation
when we look at signs and objects while we walk, jog, or drive a car; the
things that we observe with our eyes often are not still, for example, when
workers look at conveyor belts and athletes follow fast-moving squash
balls, tennis balls, or baseballs. The illumination should be standardized,
because the test performed in a lighted room without any controls on
the amount of light present will yield a different result than when
performed in a well-lit room.
376 Ophthalmic Tests, Devices, Imaging and Miscellaneous Terms
The term 20/40 is a little misleading, because it does not mean that a
person with this type of vision has only half the vision of a person with
20/20 vision. The denominator reflects a gradual loss of resolution of
the eye, which indicates poorer functioning of the eye. At 20/50 or 20/
60 an eye may be designated as partially sighted and at 20/200 as legally
blind. These terms relate to function, not to absolute values; a person
with 20/200 vision is definitely not blind, since he may have totally intact
peripheral vision and may be able to read with magnifying devices and
low-vision aids.
Thus, the fundamental test and its record result in a limited test of
vision that ignores illumination, peripheral vision, near vision, moving
vision, or dynamic visual acuity. It has survived because it is simple to do,
reproducible within narrow limits, and generally easy to understand. The
term 20/20 is vaguely comprehended by nearly everyone, meaning keen
vision even to the public.
Other versions of this acuity test are the E game in which testing can
be done with children or illiterate persons by having them merely indicate
the direction of the charted E with their fingers (Fig. 28-1). Picture charts
are used with children to capture their interest and to avoid mistakes in
symbol recognition. Landolt broken-ring test is another test for children or
Fig. 28-1. E chart with rotating Es (With permission from Stein HA, Stein RM,
Ophthalmic Tests and Devices 377
Fig. 28-2. Landolt broken-ring test (With permission from Stein HA, Stein RM,
illiterate individuals in which they note the position of the break in the
ring (Fig. 28-2). Flash picture cards are also used for young children because
the test distance of 5 or 10 feet is more apt to engage a child’s interest
than something at a distance of 20 feet.
Near vision testing is done at 14 to 16 inches. A record is made of the
smallest type that can be easily read. Most near tests use letters or words,
but pictures, numbers, and E’s are also used. The most common method
used in reading vision is the Jaeger system. This system was established by
Eduard von Jaeger in the latter part of the nineteenth century. He
fashioned a reading card and arbitrarily assigned numbers to indicate the
size of the print. J1 was used to show that the person could read the
smallest print, and larger numbers indicated larger print. Other near tests
include the Snellen reading card and the Lebensohn reading chart. These reading
test cards are so versatile that they include recording in the Jaeger system
and the printers’ point system. They also display numbers, symbols, musical
notes, and letter sizes that equate Jaeger terms with the size of print in
the Bible, in newspaper want ads, or in other conventional areas of reading.
The terminology of vision testing must be understood for its
application and its limitations. Regardless of the flow of systems, devices,
and technology, the first test performed in any eye examination is a vision
test for both far and near distance. Without it, the assessment of the
function of the eyes is quite meaningless.
The following are ophthalmic tests and equipment used to evaluate
the eye or ophthalmic appliances.
A
Aesthesiometer: A measuring device using small nylon threads to test the
sensitivity of the cornea.
Amplitude of accommodation: A test used to measure the focusing ability of
the eye from infinity to the closest point that can be seen. The results
vary by age with a l0-year-old boy easily having an accommodation of
14 D, where a 50-year-old man would have an accommodation of 2.50
D. The measurement, which is in diopters, is converted from the near
point of visibility in centimeters.
Amsler grid: A chart with horizontal and vertical lines for testing the central
field of vision for scotomas and detecting macular distortion.
Angiography: A diagnostic test in which a substance is injected so that the
vascular tree can be examined; for example, the radiographic exami-
nation of the retinal circulation can be seen after an injection of
fluorescein into the blood vessels of the arm.
Applanation tonometer: An instrument that measures the intraocular pressure
by the force used to flatten a small area of the cornea. It is the best
instrument to measure intraocular pressure because it produces the
least distortion of the coats of the eye.
Arteriography: Visualization of arteries by injection of radiopaque material
that can be seen by X-ray enhancement.
Astigmatic dial: See dial, astigmatic.
Automatic refractors: An instrument whose purpose is to provide an accurate
assessment of the refractive error of the eye. Automatic refractors
may be subjective (dependent on patient response) or objective
(independent of patient response).
B
Bar reader: An appliance that provides for the placement of an opaque
bar between the printed page and the reader’s eye so as to occlude
different areas of the page for each of the eyes. A one-eyed person
will find the bar an obstruction; a person with binocular vision will
not be hampered by the bar. Used for diagnosis and training of
binocular vision.
Biopter test: A home stereoscopic viewer to measure depth perception.
Bjerrum’s screen: A tangent screen to measure the central 30 degrees of the
field of vision.
Break up time (BUT): A measure of how quickly the tear film disappears
in a small area of the cornea when the eye is kept in a staring position.
Normal range is 10-30 seconds. Less than 10 seconds is abnormal.
C
Caloric testing: A test performed by placing cold or warm water in the
external ear and observing the eye movements. Cold water will induce
a gaze movement to the opposite side in a normal person.
Cheiroscope: A device used for the treatment of suppression.
Colorimeter: A color-matching device used to designate an unknown color
stimulus by matching it with a known color stimulus. A test for color
blindness.
Computerized photokeratoscope: An instrument that projects a series of rings
onto the cornea and analyzes the resultant information with a computer
to produce a color-coded contour map of the cornea.
Consensual light reflex: Constriction of the opposite pupil when a beam of
light is directed into the pupil of an eye.
Contrast sensitivity: A test that measures vision affected by various gradients
and shades of light. This is a more accurate assessment of the eye as
it sees in the real world.
Convergence: The act of bringing the eyes together to their closest point.
The end point is reached when the person either sees double or one
eye drifts outward. The near point of convergence is measured in
centimeters.
Cover test: A test used to detect strabismus; when the fixating eye is
occluded, the eye that is not in proper alignment must make a motion
to pick up the target.
Cross cylinder: A lens used to measure the power and axis of an astigmatic
refractive error. The cross cylinder consists of a plus and a minus
cylinder set at right angles to each other with the handle set midway
between the two cylinders (Fig. 28-3).
Cryophake: A cold probe used to remove a lens or cataract.
Fig. 28-3. Cross cylinder (With permission from Stein HA, Stein RM, Freeman MI.
D
Dacryocystogram: An X-ray photograph of the lacrimal apparatus of the
eye, made visible by radiopaque dyes.
Dial, astigmatic: A chart or pattern used for determining the presence and
the amount of astigmatism.
Direct light reflex: Contraction of the pupil in the presence of a beam of
light with the eye gazing at a distant object. The room illumination
should be dim.
Distometer: A caliper used to measure vertex distance, which is the distance
from the cornea of the patient’s eye to the back surface of the lens
inserted in the trial frame, phoropter, or glass.
Duction test, forced: A test used to establish the presence of restrictive ocular
muscle movements in Brown’s tendon sheath syndrome, dysthyroid
myopathy, orbital blow-out fractures, and double elevator palsy. If
passive movement of the eye is restricted, this indicates a mechanical
limitation to eye movement, as opposed to the presence of a myopathy
or neuropathy.
Dynopter: An instrument used to measure ophthalmic artery pressure. An
ophthalmoscope is not needed, and the pressure is applied to the
cornea, not the sclera.
E
Electromyography: Procedure in which needles are inserted into extraocular
muscles and the electrical activity of the muscles is recorded.
Electronic tonometer : An indentation tonometer with the footplate
transmitted to an electronic amplifier. The amplified signal activates
the meter signal, which yields a pressure measurement similar to the
standard Schietz instrument. This instrument may be used for
tonography measurements.
Electro-oculography: A technique in which an electrostatic field is created by
means of skin electrodes placed around the eye. The electrical potential
difference between the front and the back of the eye is used to detect
disorders of the eye.
Electroretinography: A test of rod-and-cone function based on the electrical
potential that exists between the cornea and retina of the human eye.
Euthyscope: A device used to treat eccentric fixation (Cüppers’ method) by
creating negative afterimages to make the person aware of the proper
foveal projection.
Exophthalmometer: An instrument designed to measure the forward
protrusion of the eye. Types include: (1) the Luedde, a notched ruler
that fits into the bony lateral orbital margin with the protrusion
measured from the side, and (2) the Hertel, a transverse bar with
mirrored carriers on each side inclined at 45 degrees to reflect the
scale reading and the apex of the cornea in profile. Comparative
measurements are made from the front.
F
Farnsworth-Munsell 100-hue test: A color-hue matching test to diagnose types
and degrees of color blindness.
Fluorescein angiography: A procedure in which fluorescein dye is injected so
that retinal choroidal circulation and iris circulation can be examined
and photographed.
Fly test: A depth perception test in which the person is given Polaroid
lenses and is asked to touch the wings of the fly. A person with normal
depth perception will see the wings standing out (Fig. 28-4).
Forced duction test: See duction test, forced.
Fundus contact lens: A hand-held contact lens placed on the anesthetized
cornea to permit the examination of the fundus.
Fig. 28-4. Wirt and fly tests for depth perception (With permission from Stein HA,
G
Goldmann perimeter: A half-shell perimeter that can examine both central
and peripheral fields. Also used for static and kinetic perimetry.
Goniolens: A lens used to examine the angle structures of the eye. There
are two basic types: (1) a lens that uses mirrors or prisms to see the
opposite angle, and (2) a Koeppe lens, which allows the light from
the angle structures to leave the cornea. The operative goniolens is
similar to the other two except that one side is partially removed to
permit access of a goniotomy knife for surgery.
Gonioscope: A device consisting of a hand-held microscope and an
illuminating system used with a goniolens for viewing the angle
structures of the eyes.
H
Halberg trial clip: A device that fits on the patient’s glasses and allows an
overrefraction to take place. Eliminates vertex distance computations.
It is also used to refract young children.
Hertel exophthalmometer: See exophthalmometer.
Hess screen test: A test to determine the presence and the degree of
strabismus.
Hirschberg test: A screening device to detect strabismus. A light shone in a

child’s eye should be visible in the nasal spot off the center of the
pupil of each eye.
Hruby lens: A 55 D lens designed to be used with the slit-lamp to examine
the vitreous and retina.
I
Indentation tonometer: A tonometer that uses a variable weight and plunger
to indent the cornea an amount depending on the intraocular pressure.
It is widely used because it is simple, inexpensive, and portable. It tends
to distort the outer coats of the eye.
IOL Master: A non-contact optical device that is used preoperatively to
determine the ideal power of the intraocular lens implant. The device
measures the axial length of the eye which is the distance from the
corneal vertex to the retinal pigment epithelium of the retina using
partial coherence interferometry. The IOL Master has been shown to
be more accurate than using an A scan technique with ultrasound.
Ishihara’s test: A test for defects in recognizing colors, based on the tracing
of numbers or patterns in a series of multicolored charts or plates.
J
Jaeger’s test: A test for near vision, in which lines of reading matter are
printed in a series of sizes of type. J1 is the smallest type. The number
indicates the print size.
K
Keratometer (ophthalmometer): An instrument that measures the central
3.3 mm of the anterior curvature of the cornea in its two meridians.
The readings are called K readings. The measurement is in diopters,
with the average cornea having a power of 42 to 48 D.
Keratoscope: An instrument that projects a series of rings onto the cornea
to analyze the corneal topography.
Kestenbaum’s rule: Measurement in which the numerator of the patient’s
distant visual acuity is divided into the denominator. The result should
equal the magnification for seeing J5 on a near-vision chart. It is used
as a guide for people with limited vision who need a reading aid.
Krimsky’s prism test: A test in which light is shone into the eyes and its
position in the pupil is noted; a prism is placed over the deviating eye
until the light reflection is centered. The amount of prism required
for this centering is a measure of the deviation.
L
Lensometer: An instrument used to measure the dioptric power and the
optical center of a lens, the presence of prisms, and the direction of
the base of a prism. It can be manual or automatic, with or without a
device for recording.
Light-stress test: A test of macular function. A bright light is shone into
the macula of the eye, and the time for recovery of visual acuity is
noted. A person with macular disease will have a delayed visual recovery
time.
Lloyd stereocampimeter: A device consisting of two charts, one visible to
each eye, which are combined stereoscopically in such a manner that
the central field of one eye can be examined while fixation is
maintained by the other.
Luedde exophthalmometer: See exophthalmometer.
M
Maddox rod: A group of red or colorless parallel glass rods that together
act as a cylinder. The purpose of the Maddox rod is to disassociate
the eyes and prevent them from fusing. It does this by changing a
point of light to a line or streak of light for the eye and viewing the
line target behind the rod (Fig. 28-5). It uses prisms to detect and
measure the presence and amount of phorias.
Maddox wing test: A device used to detect the presence of heterophoria in
near vision and to measure its magnitude (Fig. 28-6).
Fig. 28-5. Hand-held

Maddox rod combined
with occluder Fig. 28-6. Maddox wing test
Major amblyoscope: A device used to measure strabismus and assess binocular

vision; also used to treat suppression and amblyopia.
Mecholyl test: Test for Adie’s tonic-pupil syndrome, in which the pupil is
hypersensitive to Mecholyl. The pupil does not respond to direct light,
but will respond to one drop of fresh Mecholyl.
N
Night-vision goggles: Lenses that can intensify light up to 15,000 times; used
as an aid for people with retinitis pigmentosa who cannot see in the
dark.
Noncontact tonometer: A tonometer that does not touch the eye, usually
utilizing a puff of air directed at the cornea. A big advantage is that
topical anesthesia is not required.
O
Occluder: An opaque or translucent device placed before an eye to obscure
or block vision.
Ophthalmodynamometry: Measurement of the ophthalmic artery pressure by
viewing retinal vessels of the eye. Pressure is applied to the eye while
the observer notes the first pulsation of the central retinal artery
(diastolic) and then with further pressure, the total absence of a
pulsation (systolic reading).
Ophthalmometer: An instrument to measure the corneal curvature by using
the cornea as a front-surface mirror. It is commonly called a kerato-
meter.
Ophthalmoscope, direct (Fig. 28-7A): An instrument used to see the retina
and the optic nerve at × 15 magnification. Additional devices on the
ophthalmoscope include the following:
Red filters: Red filters are used to define melanin pigment because it
absorbs red rays and thereby contrasts strongly with the rest of
the fundi.
Polarized light: The light leaving the ophthalmoscope is polarized so
that irritating reflections from the patient’s cornea are reduced.
Slit illumination: A slit beam of light is helpful in evaluating the level
of various areas of the retina.
Aperture disks: The smaller aperture is useful in looking through a
miotic pupil such as is frequently found in glaucoma patients.
Cobalt blue filters: Cobalt blue filters provide the best method to study
fluorescein angiography of fundus and to look at the stained tear
film in contact lens work.
Fig. 28-7. (A) Direct ophthalmoscopy. (B) Indirect ophthalmoscopy (With

Ophthalmoscope, indirect (Fig. 28-7B):

Binocular indirect ophthalmoscope: Instrument that enables a broad
examination of the retina right to the ora serrata, which is not
possible with a direct ophthalmoscope. A real inverted image is
seen at approximately × 4 to × 5 magnification with stereoscopic
vision.
Monocular indirect ophthalmoscope: An instrument that allows broad
inspection of the fundi but yields an erect image. Depth perception
is not possible with this device because only one eye is used for
inspection. The beam of light can be reduced in aperture so that
visualization through a small pupil is possible.
Optical coherence tomography (OCT): OCT is an optical signal acquisition
method that captures three-dimensional images of the retina and optic
disk. The diagnostic information is of value in detecting macular
problems (e.g. macular hole, epiretinal membrane, macular edema,
macular degeneration, etc.) or glaucoma.
Optokinetic drum: A drum covered with white and black vertical strips; when
rotated at a distance of 1 foot from the patient, the revolving stripes
induce a jerky nystagmus. Used to test neurological function and visual
function in infants (Fig. 28-8).
Optokinetic tape: A strip of small squares or lines that can elicit jerk
nystagmus when pulled in front of a fixating individual (Fig. 28-9).
Fig. 28-8. Optokinetic drum (With permission

from Stein HA, Stein RM, Freeman MI. The
Ophthalmic Assistant. A Text for Allied and
Associated Ophthalmic Personnel, 8th edition. St.
Fig. 28-9. Optokinetic tape (With permission from Stein HA, Stein RM, Freeman
P
Pachometer/Pachymeter: A device used to measure the thickness of the
cornea.
Paredrine test: Sympathomimetic test used in the diagnosis of postganglionic
Horner’s syndrome.
Pentacam: Pentacam is a combined device consisting of a slit illumination
system and a Scheimpflug camera which rotates around the eye.
Imaging information obtained consists of computerized corneal

topography, elevation corneal topography, anterior chamber angle, and
the density of the crystalline lens.
Perimeter: An instrument for measuring the peripheral field of vision.
Phoropter: An entire set of trial lenses mounted on a circular wheel so
that each lens can be brought before the aperture of the viewing system
by merely turning a dial.
Pinhole disk: A black disk with one or multiple openings that allow only
central rays to pass through. Vision that is improved with a pinhole
disk can be aided by spectacle lenses.
Placido’s disk: A flat disk with white and black rings that encircle a central
round aperture; used to detect early keratoconus and to measure the
topography of the cornea. This measurement is often used with a
computer technique in designing contact lenses. The reflections of
the rings on the cornea indicate the regularity of the central corneal
contours, as well as its periphery.
Pneumatic tonometer: Instrument providing an air blast, which works on the
principle of an interval timer, measuring the time it takes from the
generation of a puff of air to the point where the cornea is flat.
Prism: A triangular piece of glass or plastic that changes the pathway of
light and bends it to its base. A prism placed in front of an eye will
cause the object of regard to be shifted to its apex. The following
prisms are available: (1) loose prisms; (2) horizontal and vertical prism
bars; and (3) Risley rotary prisms. Two prisms are mounted in rings,
one in front of the other, and are rotated by a dial. When the bases
of each prism lie behind one another, the power is additive. The Risley
prism offers a rapid and strong increase in prism power.
Prism cover test: A test in which the image of the deviating eye is displaced
by a prism so that the image falls on the macula. At that point, covering
one eye will not cause a refixation movement of the other eye.
Profile analyzer: An instrument to evaluate the blend of the junction zone
of hard contact lenses.
Provocative test: A test to artificially provoke an elevation of intraocular
pressure as a diagnostic test for glaucoma.
Pseudoisochromatic plates: Color plates, such as the Ishihara plates, used to
detect color blindness.
Pupillometer: A device for measuring pupillary distance (PD).
R
Radiuscope: A quality-controlled instrument used to detect contact lens
warpage and to measure the base curve of a contact lens.
Reading rectangle: A low-vision aid in which the rectangular opening shows

only a few lines of type.
Retinoscope: An instrument for determining the refractive error of the eye.
Two types are the spot retinoscope, which produces a circular image in
the pupil, and the streak retinoscope, which produces a straight-line image
in the pupil. The streak retinoscope is often referred to as the Copeland
retinoscope, with respect to its inventor.
S
Schirmer’s test: Filter-paper test to measure tear flow. Wetting at least
10 mm of the filter paper in 5 minutes is regarded as adequate tear
function.
Seidel’s test: A test using fluorescein to detect the presence of a leaking
wound communicating externally from the anterior chamber.
Shadowgraph: An instrument used to examine a contact lens for defects
and to check its diameter, the width of the peripheral curve, and the
blend of the curve.
Slit-lamp: An instrument that provides a narrow slit beam of strong light;
used with a corneal microscope for examination of the front portions
of the eye.
Spot retinoscope: See retinoscope.
Stereocampimeter: See Lloyd stereocampimeter.
Streak retinoscope: See retinoscope.
T
Tangent screen: A field device designed to measure the central 30 degrees
of visual field; is used to detect central field loss, especially in glaucoma.
Tomography: Form of radiological investigation (X-ray films) in which good
definition can be obtained with tissue sections slightly less than 1 mm
in thickness. An example is computerized transverse axial tomography
(CT scan).
Tonography: A test used to determine the outflow of aqueous humor under
the continuous pressure exerted by the weight of a tonometer over a
4- or 5-minute period.
Tonomat: A type of applanation tonometer consisting of a standard weight
with a variable flattened area. At its base is a small, flat, disposable
footplate that is lightly stained with a coating material supplied with
the instrument. The foot-plate is momentarily lowered onto the cornea.
It is removed and then printed onto dampened filter paper, resulting
in a permanent imprint of the cornea.
Tonometer: Instrument for measuring the pressure of the eye.

Topogometer: An instrument designed to measure the size of the optic cap,
the spherical apex of the cornea. The point at which the cornea loses
its spherical shape and becomes flatter is usually regarded as the limit
of the corneal cap. This has a radius of 4 to 6 mm in most eyes.
Transilluminator: A low-heat, high-intensity light source that permits retro-
illumination studies of the retina and vitreous when the media are
cloudy. If a solid mass is in the vitreous cavity, it will not yield a red
glow in the pupillary area when light is presented behind the mass.
U
Ultrasonography: A method that uses high-frequency sound waves to
penetrate tissues opaque to light; can be used to detect solid masses
in the retina or choroid. It also can delineate the axial length of the
globe and anterior chamber for intraocular lens calculations. There
are A scan and B scan ultrasonographic techniques.
V
Visuscope (Cüppers): An instrument designed to determine the presence of
eccentric fixation.
W
Water-drinking test: A glaucoma-provocative test based on drinking
1000 ml of cold tap water after a fasting period of 3 hours. The rapid
ingestion of a large quantity of water increases the aqueous production
in the eye resulting in an abnormally elevated intraocular pressure in a
patient with glaucoma.
Wavefront imaging: A device that projects light into the eye and measures
the light coming out of the eye so as to determine aberrations of the
optical system. The device can determine lower-order aberrations (e.g.
sphere and cyclinder) and higher-order aberrations (e.g. spherical
aberration, coma, and trefoil). The device is used in determining
refractive errors as well as higher-order aberrations for a customized
excimer laser treatment.
Wirt stereo test: A depth perception test. For a child three lines of animals
are shown from which to make a selection. If all three lines are correctly
selected, the child has stereopsis of approximately 100 seconds of arc.
For adults there are nine frames of raised rings, the first being the most
obvious, the last, the most difficult. If all are read correctly, stereopsis
of 40 seconds of arc is present (see Fig. 28-4).
Worth four-dot test: A test to detect amblyopia. The patient wears spectacles
with a green lens and a red lens and looks at a target of one white,
one red, and two green disks. If four disks are seen, there is no
suppression of either eye. If three disks are seen, there is suppression;
if five disks are seen, fusion is absent.
C H A P T E R 29
MISCELLANEOUS TERMS
In previous chapters we listed words according to clinically useful

categories. A number of common words, particularly words relating to
trauma and inflammation, affect many categories and many parts of the
eye, eyelid, and orbit. They are grouped together in this chapter.
A
AAO: Acronym for the American Academy of Ophthalmology.
Ablepharon: The absence of an eyelid.
Abscess: Localized area of inflammation.
Achromate: One who is totally color blind and perceives colors as black,
white, and grays.
Achromia: Absence of color; lack of normal pigmentation.
Actinomycosis: Unicellar filamentous organisms occupying a position
intermediate between bacteria and mold that may cause conjunctivitis,
keratitis, and uveitis, as well as blockage of lacrimal passages.
Adaptation: Adjustment to an environment or a stimulus, especially the
ability of the eye to adjust on exposure to different intensities of light.
Adenovirus: A virus comprising a large group of 52+ different serotypes.
Types 3, 4, 5, 7, 8 and 19 are those most commonly associated with
eye infections. Types 8, 19 and 37 are associated with epidemic
keratoconjunctivitis (EKC), and types 3, 4, 7 and occasionally type 5
with pharyngoconjunctival fever (PCF).
AMA: Acronym for the American Medical Association.
Anoxia: A diminished supply of oxygen to the body tissues.
Antifungal: A medication used in the treatment of fungal infections.
Arlt’s line: Linear scar seen on the tarsal conjunctiva near the lid margin in
patients with trachoma.
ARVO: Acronym for the Association for Research in Vision and
Ophthalmology.
Ascaris lumbricoides: A nematode or worm that may invade the conjunctival
sac.
Miscellaneous Terms 393
ASCRS: Acronym for the American Society of Cataract and Refractive

Surgeons.
Asepsis: Absence of microorganisms.
Aspergillus: A fungus that may cause infection of the conjunctiva, lacrimal
passages, sclera, and corneal ulcer.
Association of Technical Personnel in Ophthalmology (ATPO): The national
professional society for ophthalmic personnel. ATPO represents both
certified and noncertified individuals.
ATPO: Acronym for Association Technical in Ophthalmology.
Avirulent: Lack of infectiousness.
Avulsion: A tearing out of a part, such as avulsion of an eyelid.
B
Bacteriocidal: The ability to kill bacteria.
Bacteriostatic: The ability to slow or limit the growth of bacteria.
Bar reader: An apparatus that allows the placement of an opaque septum,
or bar, between the printed page and a reader’s eyes so as to allow for
occlusion of different areas of the page being viewed for each of the
eyes. It may be used for diagnosis and training of simultaneous
binocular vision.
Bell’s phenomenon: Upward-and-outward deviation of the eyes occurring in
sleep or with forcible closure of the eyelids.
Blennorrhea: A mucoid discharge from various parts of the body, including
the external eye, caused by an inflammatory process.
Blue sclera: Abnormality in which the sclera is thin and has a blue
appearance because the underlying pigmented choroid shows through
the thin sclera.
Brushfield’s spots: Transient whitish areas in the iris at birth. They are
common in children with Down’s syndrome and in many normal
children.
C
Calipers, surgical: A tongue like instrument with a scale at the wide end to
make internal or external measurements.
Canaliculitis: Inflammation of the lacrimal canaliculi, often caused by fungus
infection.
Cellulitis, orbital: Inflammation of the tissues surrounding the eye.
Chlamydia: An organism larger than viruses but smaller than bacteria which
causes inclusion conjunctivitis and trachoma.
Contact Lens Association of Ophthalmologists (CLAO): Established in the
United States in 1964 as a not-for-profit educational association.
CoA-OMP (Commission on Accreditation of Ophthalmic Medical Programs):

Grants accreditation to educational programs in the allied health
profession of ophthalmic medical assisting.
Cobblestone conjunctivitis: A papillary hypertrophy of the tarsal conjunctiva
as seen after contact lens wear or allergic conjunctivitis.
Corectopia: Displacement of pupil from its normal position.
Craniotomy: A surgical exploration of the brain to identify and localize
areas interrupting function.
Cryptophthalmos: Congenital absence of eyelids.
Cyclectomy: An excision of part of the ciliary body.
Cyclitic membrane: Sheet of inflammatory scar tissue in front of or behind
the lens of the eye.
Cyclitis: Inflammation of the ciliary body.
D
Denervation supersensitivity: Sensitivity to neural effector substance that
follows postganglionic interruption of the nerve supply of organs
innervated by the autonomic nervous system.
Deuteranomaly: Mild form of red-green color blindness, with reduced
sensitivity to green.
Deuteranopia: Severe form of red-green color blindness, with greatest loss
of sensitivity for green.
Distichiasis: Lashes growing from openings of meibomian glands.
Down’s syndrome: A chromosomal disorder of chromosome 21 associated
with late maternal age. Characterized by flattened skull, flat nose bridge,
epicanthal folds, short digits and wide spacing of the 1st and 2nd digits
of both hands and feet. Moderate to severe mental retardation. Ocular
characteristics of slanting eyes, cataracts, white spots of the iris and
may exhibit megalocornea and keratoconus. Formally called
mongolism.
E
Ectasia of sclera: A localized bulging of the sclera lined with uveal tissue; a
staphyloma.
Emphysema, orbital: Air in the orbit tissues; generally follows traumatic
rupture of a nasal sinus, particularly the lamina papyracea of the
ethmoid bone.
Endogenous uveitis: Inflammation of the uveal tract arising from causes
within the body in contrast to those introduced from outside the body,
as in injuries (exogenous).
Endophthalmitis: Inflammation of most of the internal tissues of the

eyeball.
Epiblepharon: Congenital redundant skin fold overlying the inner portion
of the lower lid.
Episcleritis: Inflammation in the tissues overlying the sclera.
Erysipelas: Acute infection of the skin and subcutaneous tissues.
Erythema multiforme: Disease characterized by typical skin lesions that are
bright red centrally with a pale peripheral zone surrounded by a red
ring that progresses to a bulla; mucosal lesions, especially of the eyes
and mouth; fever; and severe toxemia.
Exotoxins: Toxins that are released by bacteria and thereby produce a toxic
reaction. For example, in a patient with marginal blepharitis caused
by Staphylococcus aureus, the exotoxins produced by the bacteria may
cause a marginal infiltrate or ulcer.
G
Gonorrheal ophthalmia: A potential blinding infectious eye disease of
newborn infants acquired in the birth canal from gonorrhea.
Granuloma: A benign nodule that occurs as a result of a localized
inflammation surrounded by epithelioid cells.
Granulomatous uveitis: Inflammation of the iris, ciliary body, or choroid but
particularly the posterior part. Characterized by collections of giant
cells and epithelial cells with surrounding lymphocytes.
H
Haze: Any attribute of the environment that interferes with clear vision.
When applied to transparent material, the ratio of diffuse to total
transmittance of a beam of light.
Heliophobia: The fear of exposure to sunlight.
Herbert’s peripheral pits: Small depressed scars near limbus visible with the
slit-lamp in patients with trachoma.
Histoplasmosis: Fungal inflammation that may effect the eye. Characterized
by atrophic choroidal scars and maculopathy.
Hyphema: Blood (usually from hemorrhage) in the anterior chamber of
the eye.
I
Idiopathic: Pertains to a disease of unknown origin or cause.
Illuminant: Refers to any source of light or visible radiant energy.
Illumination: The act or process by which light is made to be incident on a

surface.
Injection: The congestion of ciliary or conjunctival blood vessels causing
redness of the eye.
Iridescent vision: Halos around lights, particularly in corneal edema.
J
Joint Commission on Allied Health Personnel in Ophthalmology (JCAHPO):
Established in 1969 as a not-for-profit organization that offers
certification and continued education opportunities to ophthalmic
allied health personnel in the United States, Canada and around the
world.
Joint Review Committee for Ophthalmic Medical Personnel (JRCOMP): Now known
as CoA-OMP (Commission on Accreditation of Ophthalmic Medical
Programs).
K
Keloid: Hypertrophic scar that may follow ocular area injury or skin surgery.
Most common in Afro-Americans, Hispanics and Asians.
Keratitic precipitates (KP): White deposits found against the endothelium of
the cornea occurring in cyclitis, caused by the circulation of inflamma-
tory debris in the aqueous.
Koeppe nodule: Accumulation of epithelioid cells at the pupillary margin as
occurs in granulomatous uveitis.
L
Lid lag: A lag in following movement of the upper lid as the eye moves
from upward to downward gaze; seen most frequently in thyroid
disease.
Light: Electromagnetic radiant energy in the 380 to 769 nanometer range,
that in humans, gives rise to the sensation of vision upon stimulation
of the retina.
Light adaptation: The ability of the visual system to adjust to increased
illumination. The process is much faster than dark adaptation.
Lobotomy: Removal of a lobe of the brain.
M
Malingering: Pretending disability (such as decreased vision) or illness to
shun work, receive sympathy or acquire compensation.
Marfan’s syndrome: Widespread defects of elastic tissue associated with long

fingers and toes, cardiovascular defects, and dislocated or sublocated
crystalline lens of the eye.
Metamorphopsia: Condition in which objects appear distorted because of
retinal edema or damage.
Micronystagmus: Very fine movements of the eyes normally present at all
times.
Microphthalmos: A developmental defect in which the eyeball is abnormally
small.
Micropsia: A condition in which objects are seen as smaller than they really
are.
Migraine: A vascular headache characterized usually by an aura, one-sided
head pain, and a positive family history.
Mikulicz’s syndrome: Chronic lymphocytic infiltration with enlargement of
lacrimal and salivary glands.
Molluscum contagiosum: A disease caused by a virus that produces a wartlike
lesion on the skin. If a lesion occurs on the eyelid, this may cause a
follicular conjunctivitis or a keratitis.
Mongolism: See Down’s syndrome.
N
Nasociliary: Pertains to the bridge of the nose and eyebrows.
Neovascular: Refers to any newly formed blood vessels as may occur in
the retina of diabetics and those with other disorders.
Neovascularization: Recent formation of new blood vessels in a part, such
as the cornea or retina.
Neurectomy: An incision of a nerve either peripheral or central in origin.
Neuritis: Inflammation of a nerve or nerves.
Newcastle disease virus: Virus that causes a follicular conjunctivitis in people
who work with birds and poultry.
O
Occluder, occluding lens: Any opaque or translucent device placed before an
eye to obscure or block vision, typically utilized during refraction to
obtain the refractive correction in each eye separately.
Ocularist: A person who fits a prosthesis on someone who has lost an eye.
OMP: Acronym for Ophthalmic Medical Personnel.
Ophthalmia: Inflammation of the eye or of the conjunctiva.
Opsin: Protein constituent of the visual pigment rhodopsin.
Orbital cellulitis: See cellulitis, orbital.
Orbital emphysema: See emphysema, orbital.

Osteogenesis imperfecta: A hereditary dominant disorder characterized by
brittle bones, multiple fractures, blue sclera, and deafness.
P
Panophthalmitis: An inflammatory process involving the entire inner eye
plus the outer ocular membranes (i.e. cornea and sclera).
Paracentesis: Surgical drainage of the aqueous humor of the eye from the
anterior chamber.
Parinaud’s oculoglandular syndrome: A group of clinical findings in which there
is a unilateral granulomatous conjunctivitis often associated with an
enlarged preauricular or submandibular lymph node.
Pars planitis: Exudative edema on anterior portion of the retina.
Penetrating injury: A penetration through tissue that disrupts the entire
structure.
Peritomy: The surgical separation of the conjunctiva from the limbus.
Phlyctenule: Localized lymphocytic infiltration of the conjunctiva.
Pituitary ablation: Destruction of pituitary gland.
Poliosis: Condition characterized by the absence of pigment in the hair
resulting in the white eyelashes. Poliosis of the eyelashes occurs in
sympathetic ophthalmia, syphilis, and Vogt-Koyanagi bilateral uveitis.
Probing: A probe is passed through the tear outflow system to create
patency of the congenitally blocked nasolacrimal duct.
Prolapse of iris: Herniation of iris tissue through a penetrating wound.
Purulent: Characterized by production of pus.
Pyocyaneus (Pseudomonas aeruginosa): A bacterium commonly found in the
intestinal tract and frequently in the skin, ear, and nose and capable
of producing a devastating infection when it invades broken corneal
epithelium.
R
Reflex, oculocardiac: A slowing of the rhythm of the heart following
compression of the eyes; if ocular compression produces acceleration
of the heart, the reflex is called inverted.
Refractive media: Any transparent part of the eye that bends parallel rays
of light. These include the cornea, crystalline lens, aqueous and
vitreous. The cornea and crystalline lens provide the main refractive
function of the eye (on average 44 diopters for the cornea and 17
diopters for the crystalline lens, but can vary significantly from
individual to individual) while the aqueous and vitreous, although

transparent, contribute very little refractive power.
Rhodopsin: A carotenoid protein in the outer segment of rod cells of the
retina that upon stimulation by light photons breaks down into
component parts stimulating the photoreceptor and bringing about
light perception.
S
Sarcoidosis: Disease of unknown cause affecting almost all systems of the
body and frequently the eye. It is suggested that it results from the
interaction of multiple genes with environmental exposure or
infections.
Scleritis: Inflammation of the sclera.
Skew deviation: Vertical nonparalytic deviation of the eyes as a result of
cerebellar disease.
Soemmering’s ring: A peripheral ring of lens capsule and cortex remaining
after injury to the lens.
Staphyloma: See ectasia of sclera.
Stevens-Johnson syndrome: A form of erythema multiforme characterized by
inflammation and later by scarring of the conjunctiva and oral mucosa.
Sympathetic ophthalmia: Inflammation of one eye caused by an inflammation
in the other eye, without infection.
T
Thromboendarterectomy: Surgical removal of clot from inner lining of blood
vessel.
Total hyphema (eight ball or black ball hyphema): The anterior chamber becomes
totally filled with dark-colored blood.
Traumatic aniridia: The root of the iris is totally torn from its attachment
to the ciliary body.
Traumatic mydriasis: A result of a hard blow to the eye that produces rupture
of the iris sphincter and causes a permanent dilation of the pupil.
Trichiasis: Inversion of the eyelashes, resulting in irritation and abrasion
of the cornea.
Tuberculosis: An acute or chronic infectious disease caused by the tubercle
bacillus that may affect any organ or tissue in the body.
U
Uveoparotid fever: A manifestation of sarcoidosis with involvement of the
anterior uvea and the lacrimal and parotid gland. Also known as
Heerfordt syndrome.
V
Vaccinia: Viral disease that occasionally produces pustules on the eyelids
of a child who has been vaccinated against smallpox.
Vernal catarrh: Type of allergic conjunctivitis occurring commonly in the
spring. It may cause large inflammatory cobblestone plaques under
the upper eyelid.
Virucidal: The ability to kill viruses.
Virulence: The relative ability of a pathogen to produce disease.
Vogt-Koyanagi bilateral uveitis: Disease associated with absent lashes, baldness,
and disturbance in hearing.
Vossius’ ring: A ring of pigment visible on the front surface of the lens
after trauma to the eye.
W
Weeping: Excessive lacrimation.
Wink: The momentary closure of the eyelids, in particular, one eye.
PART ONE
DICTIONARY
DICTIONARY
Alphabetic Listing of
Ophthalmic Terminology
Terminology
Page numbers followed by f refer to figure
A near point of 173, 152

range of 84
A scan 323 spasm 147
Aao 392 Accommodative 82
Abaxial 163 esotropia 250
Abbe number 163 implant 323
Abducens 69 reflex 82
nerve 69, 250 Accuracy: see Validity
Abduction 69, 79 Acetaldehyde 98
Aberrant 69 Acetazolamide 98
degeneration of third nerve 307 Acetic
Aberration 89, 158, 159f, 163, 374 acid 98
chromatic 158 ethylenediaminetetra 104, 195
higher orders of 373 Acetone 98, 163
spherical 88 Acetylsalicylic acid 98
Aberrometer 372 Achromate 392
Ablation 372, 374, 398 Achromatic 88, 160, 164
Ablepharon 392 lens 160
Abnormal staining patterns 188, 189f Achromia 392
Abnormalities of position 262 Acial dysostosis, crani of 253
Abnormalities, vessels 263 Acid 96, 351
About lights 234f acetic 98
Abraham iridotomy lens 357 acetylsalicylic 98
Abrasions 217, 217f boric 101
Abscess 392 burns 96, 351
Absorption 163 ethylenediaminetetraacetic 104, 195
AC/A ratio 147, 250 hydrochloric 107
Acanthamoeba 217 lysergic 109
Accelerator, graphic 144 picric 112
Access code 135 -resistant penicillins 98
Accident, cerebrovascular 306 sulfuric 115
Accommodation 79, 84, 163 trichloroacetic 116
amplitude of 79, 147, 378 Acids 98
convergence ratio 250 Acne rosacea 217
far point of 168 Acoustic neuroma 307
4 Dictionary
Acquired Aftercataract 323

immunodeficiency syndrome 298 Afterimage 147, 251
melanosis 283 test 251
Acromegaly 307 Aged-related macular degeneration 266
Acrylate, fluorosilicone 196 Agenesis 123
ACTH 98 Agent
Actinomycosis 392 staining 94
Acuity 153, 164, 209 viscosity 208
Acute Agents
atopic conjunctivitis 217 adrenergic 95, 238
multifocal posterior pigment anticholinesterase 238
epitheliopathy 266 bacteriocidal 100, 101
Acyclovir 98 bacteriostatic 100, 101
Adaptation 82, 392, 396 chelating 94
Addition 164 cholinergic blocking 95
lens 175 hyperosmotic 240
or add 147 hypoglycemic 289
progressive 175 parasympatholytic 111
Adduction 79 sympathomimetic 95, 244
Adductor 69 Agonist 251
A-dellen 251 Agraphia 308
Adenocarcinoma 283 Aiming beam 357
Adenoid cystic carcinoma 282 Akinesia 324
Adenoma 284, 286, 307, 318 Alcohol 202
ethyl 104
Adenovirus 392
methyl 109
Adherent leukoma 217
Algaris, Happa 101
Adie’s 307
Alkali 96, 351
or tonic 302
burns 96, 217, 351
pupil 307
corneal burn 217
Adjustable sutures 368
Alkalis 98
Administration
Alkaloids 94
federal drug 105
Alleles 120
of drugs 93
Alloplastic donor material 347
Adnexa oculi 69
Allyl-diglycol-carbonate: see CR-39 166
Adrenalin: see Epinephrine 98, 104
Alternating 188, 251
Adrenergic agents 95, 238
sursumduction 251
Advancement 251, 368 vision 188
Adverse reaction 98 Alternation 253
Aeruginosa, Pseudomonas 93 Aluminum
A-esotropia 251 chloride 98
Aesthesiometer 378 metal 98
A-exotropia 251 AMA 392
Afferent pupillary defect 308 Amaurosis 308
Afocal 164 fugax 308
Alphabetic Listing of Ophthalmic Terminology 5
Amaurotic 308 Angiotensin

idiocy 308 converting enzyme inhibitors 294
idiocy: see Tay-Sachs disease 276 II receptor blockers 295
pupil 308 Angle
pupillary paralysis 302 of anomaly 251
Amblyopia 79, 147, 249, 251 anterior chamber 238
deprivation 249 -closure 238
Amblyoscope 256, 385 glaucoma 238
AMD, exudative 269 critical 89
Ametropia 145 eetting 191
Amiodarone 99, 217 -fixated 336
Ammonia 99 lenses 336
Ammonium glaucoma 232
chloride, quaternary 202 iridocorneal 82
hydroxide 96 of anomaly 251
Amniocentesis 120 of convergence 251
Amphetamine 99 of deviation 251
Amphotericin B 99 of refraction 86
Amplitude of accommodation 79, 147, pantoscopic 174
378 recession 233
Amsler grid 267, 267f, 307, 378 glaucoma 233
Analgesic 99 retroscopic 175
Analysis of variance 130 structures 65, 67f
Analyzer 374 of eye 67f
Anastigmatic 164 supported 335
lens 164 Angles 183f
Anatomy 61, 261 Angstrom unit 88
of eye 62f Angulation 336
Androgens 99 Aniridia 123, 238, 399
Anectine: see Succinylcholine 99 Anisocoria 123, 308
Anesthesia 332 Anisometropia 146, 147
intracameral 328 Anlage 123
Anesthetics Anneal 164
local 99 Annular bifocal 189
topical 99 lens 189
Aneuploidy 120 Anomalous
Aneurysm 217, 308 fixation 251
Leber’s miliary 276 retinal correspondence 249
Angiography 378, 381 Anomaly 251
Angioid streaks 266 angle 251
Angiomatosis 267 Axenfeld’s 239
retinal 267 Anophthalmos 123
Angioscotoma 267 Anova 130
Angiospastic retinopathy 264 Anoxia 189, 392
x
6 Dictionary
Antagonist 251 Apoplexy 308

Anterior pituitary 308
capsule 324 Apparatus 63f, 73
capsulectomy 324 Appendage 69
chamber 69, 80, 238, 240, 326, 343 of eye 69
angle 238 Applanation tonometer 378
optical 189 Approach, Caldwell-Luc 352
zone 189 Apraxia 308
segment 69 ocular motor 252
syndrome 332 Apresoline: see Hydralazine 100
synechiae 217, 238 Aqueous
vitrectomy 363 humor 80, 239
Antibiotic 100 flow of 80f
bacteriocidal 100 inflow 239
broad-spectrum 101 outflow 239
resistance 100 tear layer 80
Antibiotics 99 vein 239
Arachnodactyly 239
Anticholinesterase 238
Aralen: see Chloroquine 100, 102
Anticholinesterase agents 238
Arcuate
Antifreeze: see Ethylene glycol
Bjerrum scotoma 239
Antifungal 392
scotoma 308
Antihistamines 100
Arcus
Antireflection 163
juvenilis 217
coating 163
senilis 217
Antireflective 164
Areas 17–19, 308
coating 164 Argon 271, 357
Anti-VEGF therapy for macular laser 372
degeneration 267 trabeculoplasty 342
Anton’s syndrome 308 Argyll Robertson pupil 302, 308
Aortic arch 308 Arlt’s line 392
syndrome 308 Arnold-Chiari malformation 309
Aperture 147 Arteriography 309, 378
disks 385 Arterioles, copper wire 263
Aphakia 147, 336 Arteriolosclerosis retinopathy 309
Aphakic Arteriosclerosis 264
cystoid 324 Arteriovenous crossings 263
macular edema 324 Arteritis 309, 320
detachment 363 cranial 309
lenses 189, 336 Giant cell 320
Apical 217 Takayasu’s 320
radius 181 Artery
zone 190 carotid 314
of cornea 190 hyaloid 73
Aplasia 123, 308 occlusion 274
of optic nerve 308 retinal 266
Artificial tears 190 Aureus 111, 227

Artisan lens 372 Autogenous donor material 347
ARVO 392 Autograft 347
Ascaris lumbricoides 392 free skin 354
ASCII 135 Automated
Ascrs 393 lamellar keratoplasty 371
Asepsis 393 machines 324
Aspergillus 393 perimeters 239
Aspheric 89, 160f, 164, 190, 336 Automatic refractors 378
lens 89, 160f, 190, 336 Autosomal
Aspiration 325 dominant disease 118
of lens 324 recessive disease 118
portal 324 A-V nicking 263
Aspirin 98 Avirulent 393
Association Avulsion 393
of ophthalmologists 393 of lids 352
of technical personnel in Axenfeld’s anomaly 239
ophthalmology 393 Axial
Asteroid hyalitis 266 hyperopia 145
Asthenopia 147 myopia 145
Astigmatic 164 Axis 91, 164
clock 147, 148f Axon 309
dial: see Dial, astigmatic 378
keratotomy 347
lens 164 B
Astigmatism 146
Bacillus 230
regular 145
Bacillus: see Pyocyanea
residual 146, 203
test for 171 Back 91
with the rule 146f surface toric 182
Astrocytoma 283 vertex power 164
Atabrine: see Quinacrine 100 Backup 135
Ataxia 309 Bacteria 105
Atopic conjunctivitis 217, 219 Bacteriocidal 100, 101, 393
Atopy 218 agents 100, 101
ATPO 393 antibiotic 100
Atropa 100 Bacteriocide 190
Atrophic AMD 267 Bacteriostatic 100, 101, 393
Atrophy 304, 317 agents 100, 101
optic 319 antibiotic 100
Atropine 100 Balanced salt solution 324
Attack, transient ischemic 320 Balancing 148
A-tuck 251 Balint’s syndrome 309
Aura 309 Ball, super pinky 332
8 Dictionary
Ballast Bench 90
lens 202 Benedikt’s syndrome 303
prism 202 Bengal, rose 113, 203
Ballasted lens 181 Benzalkonium
Balloon chloride 101, 190
dacryoplasty 352 as preservation 101
Honan 326 Benzoquinone: see Quinones 101
Balsam, Canada 165 Bergmeister 273
Band keratopathy 214, 215f papilla 69
Bandage 181 Berke-Krönlein orbitotomy 352
contact lens 190 Berlin’s edema 268, 276
lens 181 Best disease 267
Band-shaped keratopathy 218 Betogen: see Levobunolol hydrochloride
Bar reader 378, 393 Bevel edge 165
Barbiturates 100 Bias 130
Bardet-Biedl syndrome 267 Biber-Haab-Dimmer dystrophy 213
Barrel distortion 158 Bicentric 89
Basal lens 160
cell carcinoma 278f Bick procedure 352
iridectomy 239 Biconcave lens 165
of eyelid 278f Biconvex lens 165
tear secretion 80 Bielschowsky’s
head-tilt test 251
Base curve 164, 181
phenomenon or sign 252
or central posterior curve 190
Bielschowsky-Jansky disease 267
Basement membrane dystrophy 213
Bifocal 161f, 165
BASIC 135
annular 189
Basic computer terms 134
Franklin 168
Basophilic reaction 221
fused 161f, 169
Batten-Mayou disease 267
IOLs 336
Bay 63 lens 165
Beam, HeNe 358 Bifocals, cement 161
Bearing 189 Bifoveal fixation 252
Bedwing 222 Bilateral uveitis, Vogt-Koyanagi 276, 400
Bee stings 100 Binary number system 135
Behçet’s Binkhorst four loop 336
disease 218, 309 Binocular
syndrome 267 indirect ophthalmoscope 386
Bell’s PD 165
palsy 309 vision 78, 79f, 252
phenomenon 309, 393 Biochemical genetics 120
Belladonna 100 Bioconcave 89
atropa 100 lens 89
Benadryl: see Diphenhydramine Biometric ruler 324
hydrochloride 100, 104 Biomicroscopy 190
Biopter test 379 Bombé 328

Bishydroxycoumarin 101 Boot 135
Bit 135 Boric acid 101
Bitemporal hemianopia 306, 309 Botulinum toxin 368
Bitoric lens 190 Botulismotoxin 101
Bitot’s spots 218 Bourneville’s disease: see Tuberous
Bjerrum’s screen 379 sclerosis 268, 274, 286, 309
Black ball hyphema 399 Bow, riding 155, 176
Black spot 270 Bowen’s disease 218, 283
Blade gauge 347 Bowman’s
Blascovics’ operation 352 layer 213
Bleaching powder causing eye damage membrane 71
101 probe 352
Blennorrhea 393 Brainstem 309
Blepharo 351 Brake fluid 101
Blepharochalasis repair 352 Branch vein occlusion 268
Blepharoconjunctivitis 218 Break-up time 84, 206, 379
Blepharoplasty 351 Bridle suture 324
Blepharoptosis 351 Broad-spectrum antibiotic 101
repair 352 Broders’ grading 283
Blind 132 Brolene 101
spot 71, 309 Browser 135
Blindness 311 Bromide, demecarium 103
Block 83 Bruch’s membrane 71, 266
glaucoma 83f , 233 Bruit 310
Blockers 165 Brushfield’s spots 119, 393
channel 295 Buckle 365
Blog 135 Buckling 363
Blood staining of cornea 218 Bug 135
Blooming 158 Bulbar 71
Blow-out fracture of orbit 352 Bullous keratopathy 190, 218, 219f
Blue 332 Bundle, nerve fiber 82
blockers 165 Burdock burs 101
blur 165 Buried sutures 324
methylene 109 Burn 135, 275
sclera 393 alkali 217
trypan 332 corneal 217
Bluetooth 135 Burns
Blur 165, 204 acid 96, 351
Bobbing 309 alkali 96, 351
Bodies, cellular inclusion 219 Burs, burdock 101
Body 65, 71, 81 Burst 358
cytoid 268 Burton lamp 190
geniculate 67, 313, 315 BUT: see Tear film, break-up time 190
10 Dictionary
Butazolidin: see Phenylbutazone 101 Capsule 71, 324

Butterfly dystrophy 268 anterior 324
Byte 135 exfoliation of lens 326
Tenon’s 77
C Capsulectomy 324
anterior 324
C 136 Capsulorhexis 324
C 39 plastic 165 Capsulotomy 331, 358
C++ 136 anterior 324
Cable temples 155 Capture, pupillary 340
Cafe-au-lait spots 310 Carbachol 101
Caffeine 101 Carbolic acid: see Phenol
Calcareous degeneration of cornea 219 Carbolite 165
Calcifying epithelioma of Malherbe 283 Carbon 102
Calcium monoxide 102
carbonate chalk 101 tetrachloride 102
channel blockers 295 Carbonate 114
hydroxide causing eye damage 96, 101 Carbonate chalk 101
hydroxide: see Lime Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors 239
hypochlorite 101 Carcinoma
Caldwell-Luc approach 352 adenoid cystic 282
Calibri forceps 324 basal cell 283, 278
Calipers, surgical 393 in situ 283
Callender classification 283 Carcinomas 278
Callosum, corpus 311 Cardrase: see Ethoxzolamide 102, 104
Caloric testing 310, 379 Cards, picture 377
Campimeter 310 Carotid 71
Canada balsam 165 artery 314
Canal -cavernous fistula 282, 282f, 310
Cloquet’s 71 Carrier 120
of Schlemm’s 71, 76, 243, 244 Caruncle 71, 73
Canaliculi 71 Case 136
Canaliculitis 393 Case report 130
Canaloplasty 342 Cast
Candida albicans 110 mold 190
Candidiasis 297 spin 205
Canis, toxocara 296 Cat’s eye effect 336
Cannabis 101 Cataract(s) 78, 324, 325, 329, 332
Canthos 351 coronary 325
Canthotomy 352 extraction, extracapsular 326
Capillaries 71 glasses 165
Capillary hemangioma 283 hypermature 326
Capsular incipient 328
fixation 336 Morgagni’s 329
tension ring 324 nigra 324
senile 331 Centralis 261

sunglasses 172 Centromere 120
surgery 322 Cephalgia 310
Cataractogenic drugs 325 Cephalic 71, 310
Cataracts Cephalothin 102
cerulean 325 Cerebral palsy 310
metabolic syndrome 322 Cerebri, pseudotumor 306
radiation 331 Cerebrospinal fluid 310
X-ray 333 Cerebrovascular accident 306
Catarrh 400 Cerulean cataracts 325
Caterpillars 102 Cervical 310
Cautery, Ziegler 356 Chalcosis 352
Cavernous fistula 282, 282f, 310 Chalk, calcium carbonate 101
Cavernous Chamber 69, 75, 80, 83, 325, 331
hemangioma 283 anterior 69, 80, 238, 240, 326, 343
sinus 310 depth of 80
thrombosis 310 glasses, moisture 226
Cavity 359 Chance 130
Cell carcinoma, squamous 278, 286 Chandler’s syndrome 239
Cell epithelioid 72 Channel blockers 295
Cells 221 Charcot’s neurologic triad 310
mural 74 Chart
Schwann 285, 306 Lebensohn reading 377
multinucleated giant epithelial 226 pedigree 122
Cellular inclusion bodies 219 Snellen’s 176, 375
Cellulitis, orbital 393
Chavasse glass 165
Cellulitis: see Cellulitis, orbital 397
Cheiroscope 379
Celluloid frames 154
Chelating agents 94
Cellulose acetate butyrate 190
Chemically treated 158
Cement bifocals 161
Chemosis 352
Center 156, 173
Cherry-red spot 266
thickness 191
Chi squared test 130
pontine gaze 319
Chiasm (chiasma) 310
Centering instrument 349
Chiasm: see Optic chiasm
Central
Chiasmal syndromes 306
angiospastic retinopathy 264
Chievitz layer 123
nervous system 306
Chip 136
posterior curve 181, 190
processing unit 136 Chlamydia 393
retina, disciform degeneration of 269 Chloramphenicol 102
retinal artery 266 Chlordiazepoxide 102
occlusion 268 Chlorhexidine 191
serous retinopathy 264 Chloride 98, 101, 104, 190, 114
thickness of contact lens 191 Chloride aluminum 98
vision 80 Chlorine 102
12 Dictionary
Chloroacetophenone, eye irritation Circuit, integrated 139

caused by 102 Circumcorneal injection 191
Chlorobutanol 191 Clapiks 191
Chloromycetin: see Chloramphenicol 102 Classification of squint 254
Chloroquine 102 Classification, callender 283
keratopathy 219, 219f Cleaning 205
retinopathy 268 Cleanup 325
Chlorpheniramine 102 Clear lensectomy 372
Chlorpromazine 102 Clinical
Chlor-Trimeton: see Chlorpheniramine genetics 121
102 trial 128f
Choked disk 268 Clock 147, 148f, 171
Cholinergic Cloquet’s canal 71
blocking agents 95 Closed
drugs 95 chamber 325
Chopper 325 eye surgery 325
Chorioretinitis 298 loops 337
Choristoma 123 Clostridium botulinum 101
Choroid, malignant melanoma of 281f Closure glaucoma 238
Choroidal Cloud computing 136
detachment 325 Cloves, oil of 110
hemangioma 268 Cloxacillin 111
neovascular membrane 268 Cluster headache 310
tap 325 Coating 163
vessels 80 antireflection 163
Choroideremia 268 antireflective 164
Choroiditis, Jensen’s 271 RLX 176
Chromatic 158, 165 Coats’ disease 268, 276
aberration 158 Cobalt blue filters 385
dispersion 165 Cobblestone conjunctivitis 394
Chromophores 81 Cocaine 102
Chronic Cochet-Bonnet: see Esthesiometer 195
atopic conjunctivitis 219 Code, machine 140
progressive external Codeine 103
ophthalmoplegia 302 Codominance 121
serpiginous ulcer 212 Coefficient of variation 130
Cicatrix, cystoid 221 Coefficient, correlation 131
Cilia (cilium) 71 Cogan’s syndrome 219
Ciliary Cogan-Reese syndrome 239
body 65, 71, 81 Cogwheel pursuit movements 310
processes 65, 81 Coherence tomography 386
Cilium (cilia) 71 Coin gauge 347
Cinch 368 Collagen
Circinate retinopathy 266, 268 and rheumatoid-related diseases 219
cross-linking 372 glaucoma 239

shrinkage 371 ocular melanocytosis 283
Collarette 71 ocular motor apraxia 252
Coloboma 73, 123 oculodermal melanocytosis 283
Color or infantile glaucoma 232
coating 163 Congruous field defects 311
test 149 Conical cornea 345
Colorimeter 379 Conjugate movements 252
Coma 165, 310, 372 Conjunctival
Comitance 311 concretions 220
Commotio retinae 267 sac 71
Commotio retinae: see Berlin’s edema 268 Conjunctival sac: see Sac
Compatibility 136 Conjunctivitis 191, 220, 220f, 225, 231
Complications of drug therapy 95 atopic 217, 219
Compound cobblestone 394
lens 166 follicular 222
silver 114 Koch-weeks 225
Compression 291 membranous 226
sutures 347 papillary 227
Computer 134 Conjunctivoplasty 352
case 136 Conjunctivorhinostomy 351, 352
mainframe 140 Conoid of Sturm 88
notebook 141 Consanguinity 121
tablet 143 Consensual light reflex 81, 379
tower 136 Constrictions 263
Computerized Contact lens 180, 190, 205, 207, 381
axial tomography 307 association of ophthalmologists 393
see Computerized tomography 311 blank 191
photokeratoscope 379 disposable 193
tomography 311 fitting 185
Computing, cloud 136 fundus 381
Concave 87, 174 hyperpermeable 198
lens 166 modulus 191
Concomitance: see Comitance 311 therapeutic 206
Concomitant strabismus 252 thickness of 191
Concretions 220 water 209
Conductive keratoplasty 371 wetting angle 191
Cones and rods 71 Continuous 358
Confusion 252 insulin infusion pump 290
Congenita, myotonia 316 wear 191
Congenital 121 Contour lens 192
cataract 325 Contrast sensitivity 166, 379
dermoid of limbus 221f Control group 131
endothelial dystrophy 220 Controller 137
14 Dictionary
Conus of optic disk 268 fistula 220

Conventional replacement 192 guttata 220
Convergence 81, 81f, 148, 166, 252, 379 implants 371
angle of 251 lamella 72
excess 148, 254 rings 347, 371
insufficiency 254 stroma 72, 78
near point of 152 surgery 345
ratio 250 Corneoscleral lens 192
Convergent insufficiency 148 Coronary cataract 325
Converting enzyme inhibitors 294 Corpus callosum 311
Convex 87, 166, 174 Corrected lenses 166
lens 166 Correction 208
plano 335 vision 359
Convulsions 311 Correlation coefficient 131
Cookie 136 Correspondence 153, 258
Copolymer 192 Corresponding
Copper wire arterioles 263 points 252
Copy 138 retinal points 252
Coquille 166 Cortex 72
Corectopia 124, 394 aspiration 325
Cornea 63, 71, 78, 190, 196, 220, 231 Cortical
and conjunctiva, disorders of 210 blindness 311
apical zone of 190 cataract 325
blood staining of 218 cleanup 325
calcareous degeneration of 219 Corticosteroid-induced glaucoma 239
conical 345 Corticosteroids 103
degeneration of 226 Corticotropin 103
rings of 231 Cortisone: see Corticosteroids 103
Rust ring of 229 Cotton-wool
ulceration of 208 exudates 265
white rings of 231 spots 288
xerosis of 231 Couching 325
Corneal Coumadin: see Warfarin sodium 103
abrasions 217f Counseling 120
astigmatism 146 Cover test 252, 253, 379, 388
burn 217 Cover-uncover test 253, 253f
alkali 217 CR-39 166
cap 187, 192, 192f Crack, lacquer 271
collagen cross-linking 372 Cranial 309
degenerations 213 nerves 301
diameter 192 Craniofacial dysostosis 253
edema 192 Craniopharyngioma 306, 311
endothelium 71 Craniostenosis 311
epithelium 71 Craniotomy 311, 394
Crash 136 Cyclodialysis 342

Creep 337 Cyclogyl: see Cyclopentolate 103
Crepitus 352 Cyclopentolate 103
Crescent myopia 268 Cyclopia 124
Crisis, glaucomatocyclitic 240 Cycloplegic 148
Criteria 131 Cyclosporine 103
Critical angle 89 Cyclotherapy 344
Crocodile tears 303 Cylinder 148, 166, 379, 380f
Cross lens 166
cover test 253 Cyst 285, 286
cylinder 148, 379, 380f dermoid 283
lens 171 Cysticercosis 268
-eyes 253 Cystinosis 220
Crossings, arteriovenous 263 Cystoid
Cross-linking, collagen 372 aphasia 308
Crown glass 157 cicatrix 221
CRT 192 macular edema 273, 324
Crutch spectacles 175 see Irvine-Gass syndrome 268
Cryoextraction 325 Cytoid body 268
Cryolathe 347 Cytology 221
Cryopexy 364 Cytomegalic inclusion disease 268
Cryophake 379
Cryotherapy 364 D
Cryptophthalmos 72, 124, 394
Crystalline lens 68f, 72 Dacryo 351
Cul-de-sac 72 Dacryocystectomy 353
Cup 74, 125 Dacryocysterectomy 351
Cup/disk ratio 239 Dacryocystogram 380
Cüppers: see Visuscope Dacryocystorhinostomy 351, 353
Cupping of disks 239 Dacryoplasty, balloon 352
Curl temples 155 Daily wear 193
Cursor 136 Dalma’s sentinels 269
Curve 198, 201, 203 Daranide: see Dichlorphenamide 103
central posterior 190 Daraprim: see Pyrimethamine 103
Curves, posterior 181 Dark adaptation 81
Cushing’s syndrome 293 Data 136
Cut in horizontal section 65f entry 136
Cut lens 198 Database 136
Cut lenses 183f Datum line 166
Cutaway section of eye 64f DBC 166
Cyclectomy 394 DBL 167
Cyclitic membrane 394 DCR: see Dacryocystorhinostomy 353
Cyclitis 394 Deblocking 162
Cyclocryotherapy 240, 342 Debugging 137
16 Dictionary
Decenter 167 Dermoids 221

Decentration 167, 372 Dermolipoma 283
Decompression 355 Descemet’s
orbital 353 membrane 114, 242, 352
Defect afferent pupillary 308 stripping 347
Defects endothelial keratoplasty 347
congruous field 311 Descemetocele 221
field 240 Design of lenses 181
parietal lobe field 318 Design
window 277 double-blind 131, 132
Deficiency 231 single-blind 133
Degeneration 213, 271 Desktop 137
aged-related macular 266 Detachment
anti-VEGF therapy 267 aphakic 363
macular 269 nonrhegmatogenous 263, 362
myopic 272 pseudophakic 263, 365
of cornea 226 retinal 275, 365
of third nerve 307 see Retinal detachment 269
Salzmann’s nodular 229 traction retinal 288
tapetoretinal 266 Detamide 103
Terrien’s marginal 213, 230 Deturgescence, corneal 193
Dehiscence 325 Deuteranomaly 394
Dehydration 193 Deuteranopia 81, 394
Delayed hypersensitivity 221 Deviating eye 253
Delivery system 358 Deviation 130, 251
Dellen 221 angle of 251
Demecarium bromide 103 skew 319, 399
Demerol: see Mepridine Devic’s disease 304
hydrochloride 103 Devic’s disease: see Neuromyelitis optica
Demyelinating disease 311 Dextroversion 254
Denervation supersensitivity 394 DFP: see Isoflurophate 103
Densitometer 167 Diabetes
Dependent diabetes mellitus 287 insipidus 311
Depressor 253 mellitus 287, 311
Deprivation amblyopia 249 dependent 287
Depth 176 non-insulin-dependent 287
chamber 80 Diabetic
gauge 347 macular degeneration 269
perception 84, 148, 253 retinopathy 269, 288
Derivatives, phenothiazine 111 Diagnostic
Dermatitis 177 fitting set 193
Dermatoconjunctivitis 220 specificity: see Specificity
Dermoid cyst 283 Diagnostics 137
of limbus 221f Dial, astigmatic 380
Dial: see Astigmatic 378 Bielschowsky-Jansky 267

Dialing 337 Bowen’s 218, 283
Diameter 192, 199 Coats’ 268, 276
gauge 208f Demyelinating 311
effective 167 Devic’s 304
visible iris 208 Eales’ 269, 312
Diamond Fabry’s 117, 270
dye 167 Graves’ 290
knife 347 Harada’s 270
Diamox 98 Hodgkin’s 284
Diamox: see Acetazolamide 103 Hurler’s 224
Diathermy 325, 364 infectious 295
Dichlorphenamide 103 multifactorial 118
Dictyoma: see Medulloepithelioma Oguchi’s 273
Dicumarol: see Bishydroxycoumarin Paget’s 318
101, 103 Recklinghausen’s 286
Diffraction 89, 167 Reiter’s 229
grating 167 renal vascular 293
Diffuse drusen 269 sex linked 118
Digital assistant 142 Stargardt’s 275
Digitalis 103 Tay-Sachs 320
Dilation 149 von Hippel-Lindau 267, 274, 286, 318
Dilator 82 Wilson’s 321, 352
Dimethyl sulfate 104 Diseases, collagen and rheumatoid-
Diopter 167 related 219
Dioxide, sulfur 115 Disinfection 193, 206
Diphenhydramine hydrochloride Disinsertion 269, 368
100, 104 of retina 269
Diplopia 254, 256, 311, 313 Disk 137, 138, 269
Dipstick 325 choked 268
Direct controller 137
light 380 optic 235f
ophthalmoscope 385 pallor of 273
ophthalmoscopy 386f pinhole 152, 388
Disciform Placido’s 202, 228, 388
degeneration of central retina 269 Disks 385
keratitis 222 cupping of 239
Discission 325 Dislocated lens 325
Discoloration 193 Dislocation: see Dislocated lens 328
Disease Disorder, Mendelian 122
and eye 287, 290 Disorders
Batten-Mayou 267 of cornea and conjunctiva 210
Behçet’s 218, 309 eye 120
best 267 Disparity 149, 255
18 Dictionary
Dispersion 131, 165, 167 Drew’s syndrome 337

chromatic 165 Drift 312
Display Drive 137
unit 137 Driver 137
liquid crystal 140 Drug
Disposable interaction 104
contact 193 therapy 94
lenses 193 complications of 95
Distance Drugs 92, 94
interpupillary 156, 171 administration of 93
vertex 91, 178 and toxic substances 92
Distichiasis 394 cholinergic 95
Distometer 149, 167, 380 sulfa 115
Distortion 89, 167 used as systemic glucocorticoids 106
barrel 158 used as topical glucocorticoids 106
pincushion 158 Drum 386, 386f
Districhiasis correction 353 Drusen 270, 275
diffuse 269
Diuretics, thiazide 295
Dry spots 194
Diurnal variations 240
DSEK or DSAEK 347
Divergence 81, 149
DSL/cable modem 137
excess 254
Dual lenses 337
insufficiency 254
Duane’s 249, 250f, 254
Diverging or converging 87
classification of squint 254
DK value 194
syndrome 249, 250f, 254
Docking station 137
Duct
Document format, portable 142 system 63
Do-it-yourself 137 nasolacrimal 74
Doll’s eyes reflex 312 Duction test, forced 380
Dominant 118 Ductions 254
Donor Dwarfism 312
cornea sutured into position 346f Dye, diamond 167
material, heterogeneous 223, 348 Dyer nomogram system of lens
Dot matrix 137 ordering 194
Dots Dynopter 380
Morgan’s 200 Dysautonomia 312
Trantas’ 207 Dysequilibrium 312
Double Dysgenesis 124
slab-off 194 mesodermal 242
-blind design 131, 132 Dyslexia 312
Down growth 326 Dysmetria, ocular 312
Down’s syndrome 394 Dysplasia 124
Doyne’s honeycomb dystrophy 269 Dystrophies
Drainage angle 240 endothelial 213, 220
Drainage, fluid 365 stromal corneal 213
Dystrophy 213, 214f, 220 Effective diameter 167

basement membrane 213 Eight ball hyphema 399
Biber-Haab-Dimmer 213 Elasticity 194
Doyne’s honeycomb 269 Electrocoagulation 353
Granular 214f Electroencephalogram 307
Meesman’s 214f Electroepilation 353
oculopharyngeal 317 Electrolysis: see Electroepilation 353
Reis-Bucklers 213 Electromagnetic spectrum 89, 90f
Electromyogram 307
E Electromyography 381
Electronic tonometer 381
E. coli 222 Electronystagmogram 307
Eales’ disease 269, 312 Electro-oculogram 307
Early proliferative diabetic retinopathy Electro-oculography 381
289f Electroretinography 269, 381
Eastern European Jewish ancestry 229 Element 76
E-book 137 Elevator muscle 72
Eccentric fixation 254 Elschnig’s spot 269
Ecchymosis of lids 353 E-mail 137
Echothiophate iodide 104 address 138
Ectasia 222 Emboli 312
of sclera 394 Embolism 269
Ectoderm 124 Embryogenesis 124
Ectopia 124 Embryology 123
Ectropion uveae 240 Embryotoxin 125, 242
Edema 192, 194, 195, 271, 288 Emergent ray 89
Berlin’s 276 Emmetropia 145
cystoid macular 273, 324 Emmetropic 146f
residues 264 eye 146f
Edge 199 Emphysema, orbital 394
bevel 165 Emphysema: see Emphysema, orbital 398
coating 163 Encephalitis 312
stand-off 194 Encephalocele 125, 312
Edinger-Westphal nucleus 312 Encephalopathy, Wernicke’s 321
Edrophonium 312 Encircling
chloride 104 band 364
test 312 explant 364
EDTA: see Ethylenediaminetetraacetic implant 364
acid 104, 194 End temples 155
Edwards’ syndrome 119 Endogenous 222
Effect uveitis 394
Cat’s eye 336 Endoguide 348
Stiles-Crawford 91 Endophthalmitis 194, 325, 395
tetragenic 116 Endophthalmodonesis 337
20 Dictionary
Endothelial dystrophies 213, 220 Esophoria 255

Endothelial keratoplasty 347 Esotropia 250, 255
Endothelium 71 Essential atrophy of iris 240
Enhancement 373 Esthesiometer 195
Entopic phenomena 269 Ethambutanol 222
Entry 136 Ethanol: see Ethyl alcohol 104
Enucleation 353 Ether 104
Enzyme cleaner 195 Ethernet 138
Eosinophilic reaction 221 Ethoxzolamide 102, 104
Epicanthal correction 353 Ethyl alcohol 104
Epicanthus 72 Ethylene glycol 104
Epidemic keratoconjunctivitis 222 Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid
Epikeratophakia 345 104, 194
Epikeratoplasty 371 Euthyscope 255, 381
Epi-LASIK 371 Eversion of eyelid 72, 195
Epilation 353 Evisceration 353
Examination and surgery 236
Epilepsy 312
Excess 148, 254
Epinephrine 104
Exchange 338
Epiphora 353
lens 372
Episclera 72
Excimer 348, 357
Episcleral
laser 358
rheumatic nodules 219
Exclusion criteria 131
veins 72
Executive 168
Episcleritis 395
Exenteration 353
Epithelial Exfoliation of lens capsule 326
bedwing 222 Exodeviation 255
down growth 326 Exogenous 222
dystrophy, Meesman’s juvenile 213, Exophthalmometer 381
220 Exophthalmos 291f
edema 195 Exotoxins 395
hypertrophy 199 Exotropia 255
slide 222 Explant 364
Epithelioid cell 72 sponge 365
Epithelioma 283 Exposure keratitis 222
Epithelium 71 Expression 329
pigment 75 Expressivity 121
Equator 72 Extended wear 195
Equivalent oxygen percentage 185, 195 lenses 181
Erisophake 326 External
Erosion 340 memory 138
Error 152 ophthalmoplegia, progressive 302
sampling 133 route 369
Erysipelas 395 Extorsion 255
Erythema multiforme 395 Extracapsular cataract extraction 326
Extraction extracapsular cataract 326 Farnsworth-Munsell

Extraocular muscles 72 100-Hue test 381
Extropia lens 222 color test 149
Exudates 264, 265, 288 Fasanella-servat procedure 353
Exudative AMD 269 Fascia lata frontalis sling ptosis 353
Eye Fasciculus, longitudinal 315
anatomy of 62f Fasting blood glucose 289
angle structures of 67f Fat emboli 270
appendage of 69 Federal drug administration 105
cut in horizontal section 65f Femtosecond laser 358
cutaway section of 64f Ferric ferrocyanide: see Prussian blue
deviating 253 Ferry line 225
disorders 120 Fever,
emmetropic 146f Hay 223
fixing 255 pharyngoconjunctival 227, 295
interior of 281 Fibers 77, 244, 303, 316
movements, saccadic 319 nerve 272
posterior pole of 75 optic nerve 316
schematic 91 pupillomotor 303
structures of 67f Fibroplasia, retrolental 275
surgery 325 Field 138
tracking 373 defects 240
tumors of interior of 281 Figure-of-8 suture 353
Eyeball 72 File 138
Eyelid 61, 278f, 279f, 280f, 351 Film 77
basal cell carcinoma of 278f Filter 335
hemangioma of 280f Filtering procedure 237, 342, 343f
muscles 302 Filters 385
tumors of 278 cobalt blue 385
upper 280f Finished lens 195
Eyelids, papillomas of 280f Finite population 131
Eyes 253 Fire extinguisher fluid 105
version movement 247f Firewall 138
First-degree relatives 121
F Fissure 72, 75, 201
Fistula 220, 312
Fabry’s disease 117, 270 cavernous 282, 282f, 310
Face form 168 Fitting 185
Facility of outflow 240 set 193, 196
Factor, quality 360 triangle 168
False-negative result 131 Fixated lenses 336
False-positive result 131 Fixation 251, 336
Familial autonomic dysautonomia 229 bifoveal 252
Far point of accommodation 168 disparity 149, 255
22 Dictionary
instrument 348 photocoagulation 289

sulcus 340 point 88, 89, 168
Fixing eye 255 Focimeter: see Lensometer 168
Flange 199, 203 Focus 88
Flap 353, 365 Folding spectacle 168
pedicle 355 Folds in Descemet’s membrane 222
Flare 196 Folds, retinal fixed 270
Flash Follicles, conjunctival 284
memory 138 Follicular conjunctivitis 222
picture cards 377 Folliculosis 223
Flashlight test 312 Following movement 255
Flat Footcandle 90
anterior chamber 240, 326, 343 Footplate 338
cornea 196 Foramen 317
top 168 Forced duction test: see Duction test,
bifocal 161f forced 381
Fleischer ring 217, 225 Forceps 326
Flexible calibri 324
IOL 338 Forme fruste 121
loops 338 Formula, Kestenbaum 171
wear 196 Fornix 72
Flint glass 89 Fortified 105
Floropryl: see Isoflurophate 105 Foster Kennedy’s syndrome 313
Flow and contact lenses 184 Four-point fixation 338
Flow of aqueous humor 80f Fovea 72
Flowering heads 109 centralis 261
Flubiprofin 105 Foveal avascular zone 358
Fluence 373 Foville’s syndrome 303
Fluid Fox’s operation 354
cerebrospinal 310 Frame
drainage 365 measurements 155f
fire extinguisher 105 scotoma 168
lens 196 xylonite 154
Fluorescein 105, 196 ZYL 154
angiography 381 Frames 154
Fluorescent treponemal antibody Frames, celluloid 154
absorption test 298 Franklin bifocal 168
Fluorine polymer 196 Free skin autograft 354
Fluoroquinolones 105 Frequency 131
Fluorosilicone acrylate 196 Frey’s syndrome 303, 313
Flux 200 Front
Fly test 381 surface toric 182
Focal toric lens 196
constrictions 263 Frontal nerve 313
length 88, 168 Frost suture 354
Fruste 225 Geometric 86, 87

Fuchs’ Geometric center 169
dystrophy 213 Germicide 196
adenoma 284 Ghost
black spot 270 image 169
Fuel for model airplanes 105 vessels 223
Fugax 308 Giant cell arteritis 320
Ful-vue 168 Giant cell arteritis: see Temporal arteritis
Fundus 68f, 73 313
contact lens 381 Giant papilla 191
Fungi 223 Giant papillary: see Giant papilla 191
Fungizone 99 Gigabyte 138
Fungizone: see Amphotericin B 105 Gland, lacrimal 198
Fused bifocal 161f, 169 Glands 73, 74
Fusion 78, 81, 255 Glare 149, 169, 348
with amplitude 255 tester 326
Fusional reserves 149, 255 Glass
Fusion-free 255 Chavasse 165
crown 157
G flint 89
Hallauer 169
Galactose 105 Hidex 157
Galilean telescope 196 Glasses 165, 169
Ganciclovir 211 half eye 169
Gantrisin 115 hemianoptic 169, 170f
Garamycin: see Gentamicin 105 safety 176
Gargoylism: see Hurler’s disease Glaucoma 232, 233, 239, 243, 288, 340
Gas or air 364 angle recession 233
Gas, eye irritation caused by 102 Angle-closure 232, 238
Gauge 208, 347 block 83f, 233
blade 347 closure 238
coin 347 corticosteroid-induced 239
diameter 208f field defects 240
Gausserian ganglion 313 infantile 232
Genetic low tension 232
counseling 120 low-pressure 241
eye disorders 120 pigmentary 243
screening 120 pupillary-block 83f
Geneticist 121 recession 233
Genetics 118, 121 surgery 342
biochemical 120 symptoms and signs of 233
Geniculate body 67, 313, 315 test for angle-closure 242
Geniculocalcarine radiation 317 Glaucomatocyclitic crisis 240
Genotype 118 Glaucomatous cupping 234
Gentamicin 105 Glide 338
24 Dictionary
Glioma 313 Group, control 131

Gliomas 281 Grouping, hydrogel lens 197
Gliosis 270, 313 Guided laser ablation 374
Glucocorticoids 105 Guillain Barré syndrome 313
systemic 106 Guttata 220
topical 106
Glucose
H
fasting blood 289
tolerance 289 Hair 97
Glycerol 106 sprays or lacquers 106
Glycol, ethylene 104 tonics 106
Goggles, night-vision 385 Halberg trial clip 149, 382
Gold and platinum salts 94 Half eye glasses 169
Goldmann 240 Hallauer glass 169
lens 240 Hallucinations 313
perimeter 240, 382 Halos 233
Golf-ball paste 106 about lights 234f
Goniolens 237f, 382 Halving repair 356
Goniophotocoagulation 358 Hanna trephine 348
Gonioprism 240 Haploid 121
Goniopuncture 236 Haploscope 255
Gonioscope 382 Happa algaris 101
Gonioscopy 236 Haptic 197
Goniotomy 236, 240, 343 Harada’s disease 270
Gonococcal Bacillus 223 Hard
Gonorrheal ophthalmia 395 copy 138
GP 196 disk 138
GPH 196 drusen 270
Gradenigo’s syndrome 313 exudates 264, 288
Grading, Broders’ 283 or rigid lenses 183
Graft 348, 354 Hardware 138
Granular dystrophy 214f Hardy-Rand ritter 150
of cornea 220 Harrison-Stein nomogram 197
Granuloma 284, 395 Hashish: see Cannabis 101
Granulomatous uveitis 395 Hay fever 223
Graphic accelerator 144 Haze 373, 395
Graphics 138 Head 74
Grating 167, 169 Headache, cluster 310
Graves’ disease 290 Heads, flowering 109
Gravis myasthenia 316 Head-tilt test 251
Gravity, specific 204 Height 182f, 203
Gray line incisions 354 Heliophobia 395
Grease 229 Helium neon beam 358
Grönblad-Strandberg syndrome 270 Hema 197
Hemangioma 268, 280f, 284 Hirschberg test 383

capillary 283 Histogram 131
cavernous 283 Histoplasmosis 270, 395
of eyelid 280f Hockey
Hemangiomas 279 stick 348
Hematoma 354 -end temples 155
subdural 320 Hodgkin’s disease 284
Hemianopia 314 Hole 272
bitemporal 306, 309 retinal 270
Hemianoptic glasses 169, 170f Hollenhorst plaques 270, 313
Hemiatrophy, facial 313 Homatropine 107
Hemiplegia 313 Homium laser 373
Hemizygous 121 Homogeneous donor material 224, 348
Hemoglobin A1c 289 Homogenicity 373
Hemorrhage 230, 276 Homograft 348
subhyaloid 275 Homonymous 256
Hemp: see Cannabis 101 diplopia 256, 314
HeNe beam 358 hemianopia 314
Henna 106 Honan balloon 326
Hepatolenticular degeneration: Horizontal
see Wilson’s disease 313 section, cut in 65f
Herbert’s peripheral pits 395 visible iris diameter 197
Hereditary 121 Hormone, stimulating 292
Hering’s law 250, 256 Horner’s syndrome 302f, 314
Herpes simplex 223 Horopter 256
simplex virus 223 Hruby lens 383
zoster ophthalmicus 223, 224f, 299 HTML: see Hypertext markup language
Herplex: see Idoxuridine 106, 107 138
Hertel exophthalmometer: HTTP: see Hypertext transfer protocol
see Exophthalmometer 382 138
Hess screen test 382 Hudson-Stähli lines 224, 225
Hessburg-Bsuction trephine 348 Human immunodeficiency virus 298
Heterogeneity 121 Hummelsheim operation 369
Heterogeneous donor material 223, 348 Humorsol: see Demecarium bromide
Heterograft 348 103, 107
Heteronymous 256 Hurler’s 224, 314
diplopia 256, 313 disease 224
Heterophoria 247, 256 syndrome 314
Heterotropia 256 HVID 197
Heterozygote 119 Hyaloid artery 73
Hex procedure 348 Hyaluronate 331
Hexametaphosphate 114 Hyaluronidase 354
Hidex glass 157 Hybrid lens 197
Higher orders of aberration 373 Hydralazine 100, 107
26 Dictionary
Hydrocephalus 314 Hypersensitivity 224

Hydrochloric acid 107 delayed 221
Hydrochloride reaction 95
levobunolol 241 Hypertelorism 314
lidocaine 108 Hypertension 233, 293
phenylephrine 112 idiopathic 395
procaine 113 ocular 241
proparacaine 113 Hypertensive retinopathy 270
Hydrochlorothiazide 107 Hypertonic solution 92
Hydrocortisone: see Corticosteroids 103 Hypertrophy, epithelial 199
Hydrodelamination 326 Hyphema 354, 395, 399
Hydrodelineation: black ball 399
see Hydrodelamination eight ball 399
Hydrodissection 326 Hypochlorite 114
Hydrodiuril: see Hydrochlorothiazide calcium 101
Hydrogel lens grouping 197 Hypoglycemic agents 289
Hydrogels and silicone 334 Hypophysectomy 314
Hydrogen Hypopituitarism 314
peroxide 107, 198 Hypopyon 326
sulfide 107 ulcer 224
Hydrophilic 198 Hypothesis 131
lenses 198 null 132
Hydrophobic 198 Hypotonic 92
Hydrops 224 Hypoxia 198
Hydroquinone: see Quinones 107
Hydroxide 96, 101, 112 I
Hydroxide, ammonium 96 Icon 138
Hydroxyamphetamine hydrobromide Idiocy 308
107 amaurotic 270
Hydroxyzine pamoate 107 Idiocy: see Tay-Sachs disease 276
Hyoscine, scopolamine 114 Idiopathic hypertension 395
Hyoscyamine 107 Idiosyncrasy, drug 95
Hyoscyamus niger 107 Idoxuridine 107, 211, 224
Hyperaldosteronism 293 IDU: see Idoxuridine 211, 224
Hyperemia 224 II receptor blockers 295
Hyperflange 198 Illuminant 395
Hyperkeratosis 284 Illumination 396
Hypermature cataract 326 Image 170
Hypermetropia: see Hyperopia 170 jump 170
Hyperopia 145 Immediate type hypersensitivity 224
Hyperosmotic agents 240 Immunodeficiency syndrome, acquired
Hyperpermeable contact lens 198 298
Hyperphoria 150 Implant 323, 329, 332, 338, 355, 364,
Hyperplasia, pseudoepitheliomatous 286 371
Implantable miniature telescope 271 molded 170

Implantation 338 peribulbar 93
Implants Injury 398
lens 340 Inkjet 139
piggyback 339 Inner canthus 62f
presbyopic 339 Inset 170
In situ keratomileusis 359, 370 Insipidus 311
Inborn error 121 Institutional review board 132
Incidence rate 131 Instrument 348
Incident ray 90 centering 349
Incipient cataract 328 Instrumentation 186
Incision 331 Insufficiency 254
relaxing 328, 349 Insulin 107
Incisions, gray line 354 -dependent diabetes mellitus 287
Inclusion infusion pump 290
conjunctivitis 225 Integrated circuit 139
criteria 131 Interaction 104
Incomitance 256 Interface 139, 373
Incongruous field defects 314 Interferons 107
Indentation tonometer 383 Interior of eye 281
Independent events 132 Interior, tumors of 281
Index 86, 90, 91, 170 Intermediate
of refraction 86, 90, 170 curve 198
Indirect, ophthalmoscope 386 posterior curves 181
Infantile glaucoma 232 zone 171
Infectious disease 295 Internal
Inference 132 carotid artery 314
Inferior memory 139
muscle 73 Internet 134, 139
oblique 73, 256 address 139
muscles 69f service provider 139
rectus 256 Internuclear ophthalmoplegia 314
Infinity 170 Interpalpebral 198
Inflammatory target sites of eye 211f Interpolation 132
Inflow 239 Interpupillary distance 156, 171
Informed consent 132 Interstitial keratitis 225
Infrared 359 Interstitial keratitis – ghost vessels 298f
Infraversion 73 Intorsion 73, 81, 256
Inheritance, polygenic 122 Intoxication 315
Inhibitors Intracameral anesthesia 328
angiotensin converting enzyme 294 Intracapsular cataract extraction 328
carbonic anhydrase 239 IntralaseTM 359
Initialize 139 Intraocular 73, 328
Injection 93, 396 gas or air 364
circumcorneal 191 injection 93
28 Dictionary
lens 334, 334f, 337f Iron 108

lenses 340 -ferry line 225
muscles 302 -Fleischer ring 225
pressure 73, 81, 232, 241 -Hudson-Stähli line 225
Intrascleral nerve loop 73 lines 225
Intrastromal laser 359 -Stocker line 225
Intrinsic ocular muscles 73, 256 Irregular astigmatism 145
Intumescent 328 Irrigating-aspirating units 328
Invisible bifocal 170 Irvine-Gass syndrome 271, 328
Iodide, echothiophate 104 Ischemia 314
Iodine 108 Ischemic optic neuropathy 314
radioactive 292 Ishihara’s test 383
IOL 338 Isoflurophate 108
master 328, 338, 383 Isolated 121
Iontophoresis 93 Isoniazid 108
IOP: see Intraocular pressure Isotonic 92
IOU see Idoxuridine 107 ISP: see Internet service provider
Ipecac 108
Iridectomy 238, 243, 344 J
sector 243, 344
Iridencleisis 343 Jackson cross-cylinder 171
Iridescent vision 396 lens 171
Iridis 77 test for astigmatism 171
Irido-, irid 73, 343 Jaeger’s 383
Iridocorneal angle 82 system 377
Iridocyclectomy 343 test 383
Iridocyclitis 328 -type 171
Iridodonesis 73, 328, 343 Janelli clip 150
Iridoplasty 359 Java 139
Iridoplegia 314 script 139
Iridotomy 238, 241, 342, 343, 344f, 359 Jensen’s choroiditis 271
Iris Jiroveci, pneumocystis 299
bombe 328 Joint Commission on Allied Health
coloboma 73 Personnel in Ophthalmology 396
dilator 82 Joint Review Committee for Ophthalmic
essential atrophy of 240 Medical Personnel 396
nevus 284 Jones tubes 354
syndrome 284 Joseph Soper of Houston for
prolapse 328 keratoconus 215
prolapse of 398 Jump 170
retractors 328 Junctional
sphincter 82 bay 63
supported 338 zone 181
lenses 338 Juvenile xanthogranuloma 284
suture 328 Juvenilis 217
K Keratoplasty 216, 227, 228, 230, 345,

346f
K 117, 140 conductive 371
K reading 187 endothelial 347
Kaposi’s sarcoma 284, 299 lamellar 350, 371
Karyotype 120 thermal 371
Kaufman vitrector 364 Keratoscope 383
Kayser-Fleischer ring 225, 315, 321, 352 Keratoses
Kearns-Sayre syndrome 315 senile 286
Keloid 396 seborrheic 286
Kera 373 Keratotomy 347-349
Keratectomy 225, 348, 373 radial 345, 347f, 349, 371
Keratectomy, photorefractive 349, 360, Kerosene 108
370 Kestenbaum formula 171
Keratic precipitates 225, 396 Kestenbaum’s rule 383
Keratitis 198, 210, 212, 225, 317, 331 Keyboard 140
disciform 222 Keyhole 155
exposure 222 Kinetic perimetry 241, 315
metaherpetic 211 Knife 347
microbial 199 ruby 349
nummular 227 sapphire 350
punctate 205, 228, 230 Koch-Weeks conjunctivitis 225
subepithelial 230 Koeppe 241
Keratoacanthoma 279 lens 241
Keratoconjunctivitis 227 nodule 396
sicca 210, 225 Korb lens 198
epidemic 222 KP: see Keratic precipitates
Keratoconus 119, 198, 215, 215f, 225, Krimsky’s prism test 383
345 Krukenberg’s spindle 225, 226f
fruste 225 Kryptok 171
Joseph Soper of Houston for 215 Krypton 359
Keratoglobus 225 Kuhnt-Junius macular degeneration 271
Keratomalacia 225 Kuhnt-Szymanowski or wheeler 351
Keratome 328, 345 Kuhnt-Szymanowski procedure 354
Keratometer 150, 198, 383 Kynex 115
mires 187f
Keratometry, surgical 332 L
Keratomileusis 345
Keratomycosis 212 Laceration 354
Keratopathy 219, 219f, 225-227, 230 Lacquer crack 271
band 214, 215f Lacquers 97, 106
band-shaped 218 Lacrimal
bullous 190, 218, 219f and orbital surgery, eyelid 351
Keratophakia 345 apparatus 63f, 73
30 Dictionary
caruncle 71, 73 Lattice

gland 73, 281 degeneration 271
lens 198 dystrophy 214f, 220
sac 73 Laurence-Moon-Biedl syndrome 271
Lag 198 Law
Lamella 72 Hering’s 250, 256
Lamellar keratoplasty 350, 371 Sherrington’s 250
Lamina cribrosa 73, 235, 315 Snell’s 86, 91, 176
Lamp, Burton 190 Layer 213
LAN: see Local area network chievitz 123
Landolt broken-ring test 150, 151f, mucous tear 82
377f, 376 tear 80, 82
Language 140 LD + 2 198
Lanolin 108 Lead poisoning 108
Lap 171 Lebensohn reading chart 377
Laptop 140 Leber’s
Largactil: see Chlorpromazine 108 hereditary optic atrophy 273
LASEK 359 hereditary optic neuropathy 304, 315
Laser 90, 245, 271, 333, 358, 372 miliary aneurysms 276
-argon 271 Leh 199
cavity 359 Length 88, 168
homium 373 Lengthening 369
in situ keratomileusis 359, 370 Lens
intrastromal 359 Abraham iridotomy 357
iridectomy 241 achromatic 160
iridotomy 238, 241, 343, 344f addition 175
iridotomy: see Iridotomy anastigmatic 164
keratotomy 349 annular bifocal 189
photocoagulation 288 artisan 372
printer 140 aspheric 89, 160f, 190, 336
-ruby 271 aspiration of 324
surgery 357 astigmatic 164
thermal keratoplasty 371 ballasted 181
trabeculoplasty 343 bandage 181
vision correction 359 contact 190
LASIK: see Laser in situ keratomileusis biconcave 165
Latent nystagmus 256, 315 biconvex 165
Lateral bifocal 165
geniculate body 67, 315 bitoric 190
rectus 256 clock 171
muscle 73 compound 166
Lathe concave 87
cut lens 198 contour 192
lenses 338 convex 87, 166
corneoscleral 192 aphakic 189, 336

cross-cylinder 171 corrected 166
crystalline 68f, 72 design of 181
cylinder 166 disposable contact 193
diameter 199 diverging or converging 87
dislocated 325 dual 337
dislocation: see Dislocated lens 328 hard or rigid 183
edge 199 hydrophilic 198
exchange 338, 372 iris supported 338
finished 195 minus 87
front toric 196 photochromic 158, 174
fundus contact 381 plus 87
glide 338 premier 339
Goldmann 240 prismatic 159
hruby 383 progressive multifocal 162
hybrid 197 prolonged-wear 181
hyperpermeable contact 198 protective 175
implants 340 rigid gas-permeable 184
Jackson cross-cylinder 171 scleral contact 180, 180f
koeppe 241 single-cut 183f
Korb 198 special types of 159
lacrimal 198 supported 338
lathe cut 198 telescopic 153, 177
Medallion 339 types of 180
occluder, occluding 397 Lens-holding forceps 338
ordering, dyer nomogram system of Lens-induced 344
194 Lensometer 150, 171, 384
placode 124 Lenticonus 328
power 199 Lenticular 73, 328
prism ballast 202 astigmatism 146
progressive addition 175 -cut lenses 183f
pupillary 340 flange 199
removal 338 lenses 159, 160f, 199
ridge 340 Lesions of orbit 282
soper cone 204, 215, 216f Letter quality 140
spherical 177 Leucoria 329
subluxation of 331 Leukemia 284
sun 174 Leukocoria 284
therapeutic contact 206 Leukoma 124, 226
thickness of 206 adherent 217
tinting of 163 Leukoplakia 284
X chrom 209 Levator resection for ptosis 354
Lensectomy, clear 372 Levobunolol hydrochloride 241
Lenses Lewisite 108
angle-fixated 336 Librium: see Chlordiazepoxide 102, 108
32 Dictionary
Lid Locator, uniform resource 143

lag 315, 396 Locking 360
wiper 199 Locus 122
Lidocaine hydrochloride 108 Longitudinal
Lids 352 ciliary muscle 74
ecchymosis of 353 fasciculus 315
Light 385, 396 Loops 337, 338
adaptation 82, 396 Loose lens 199
direct 380 with edge stand-off 195f
perception 150 Lorgnette 172
projection 150 Loss 333
reflex 380 Louis-Bar syndrome 274, 286
-stress test 384 Low tension glaucoma 232
transmission 171 Low-pressure glaucoma 241
Limbal LP: see Light perception 150
epithelial hypertrophy 199 LRI: see Limbal relaxing incisions
girdle of Vogt 231 LSD-25: see Lysergic acid 109
relaxing incisions 328 Lucite: see Polymethyl methacrylate 172
zone 199 Luedde exophthalmometer:
Limbic keratoconjunctivitis 206, 230 see Exophthalmometer 384
Limbus 73 Lutea, macula 66, 261
dermoid of 221f Luxation of lens 329
Lime 108 Lymphangioma 285
Lincomycin 109 Lymphoma 285
Line Lysergic acid 109
Arlt’s 392 Lysozyme 79, 82
datum 166
of sight 172
printer 140 M
Schwalbe’s 243
Machine code 140
stocker 225
Machines 324
Lines 225
Hudson-Stähli 224, 225 Macroperforation 349
Link 140 Macula lutea 66, 261
Linkage 122 Macular
Lipid degeneration 269, 271
keratopathy 226 anti-VEGF therapy for 267
tear layer 82 Kuhnt-Junius 271
Liquid crystal display 140 dystrophy 220
Lloyd stereocampimeter 384 edema 271, 288
Lobe field defects 320 aphakic cystoid 324
Lobes, occipital 317 hole 272
Lobotomy 68, 396 photocoagulation 359
Local 99 star 272
area network 140 translocation 272
Maddox Measurements 155f

rod 150, 384 Mecholyl test 385
wing test 384, 384f Medallion lens 339
Madribon 115 Media 398
Magnet 364 Medial
Magnetic resonance imaging 307 longitudinal fasciculus 315
Magnification 150, 172, 199 rectus 256
Mainframe computer 140 Median 127
Major Medium, McCarey-Kaufman 226, 349
amblyoscope 256, 385 Medullated nerve fibers 272
reference point 172 Medulloepithelioma 285
Maladie du greffon 349 Meesman’s dystrophy 214f
Malformation, Arnold-Chiari 309 Meesman’s juvenile epithelial dystrophy
Malherbe, calcifying epithelioma of 283 213, 220
Malignant Megabyte 141
glaucoma 233 Megalocornea 124, 226, 242
melanoma of choroid 281f Meibomian
schwannoma 285 cyst 285
Malingering 396 glands 74
Malyugin ring 329 Melanocytosis
Manganese 109 ocular 283
Mannitol 109 oculodermal 283
Map-dot-fingerprint dystrophy 213 Melanoma of choroid 281f
Marchesani syndrome: see Spherophakia Melanoma, malignant 281f
Marcus Gunn Jaw-winking phenomenon Melanomas 281
315 Melanophage 285
Marcus Gunn pupil: see Afferent Melanosis 283, 285
pupillary defect 308, 315 Melanosis oculi: see Congenital ocular
Marfan’s syndrome 239, 397 melanocytosis 283
Marginal 86 Mellaril 112
degeneration of cornea 226 Mellaril: see Thioridazine 109
tear strip 82 Mellitus 287, 311
Marijuana 101: see Cannabis Membrane 71, 114, 242, 331, 352
Markers 349 Bruch’s 71, 266
Mascara 109 neovascular 268, 275
Masked design 131, 132 peeling 364
Massive granuloma of sclera 220 Membranectomy 359
Mature cataract 329 Membranous conjunctivitis 226
McCannel suture 339 Memory 134, 138, 139, 141, 142, 339
McCarey-Kaufman medium 226, 349 random access 142
Mcintyre needle 329 stick 134, 141
M-delphine: see Detamide 103 Mendelian disorder 122
Measurement of interpupillary distance Meniere’s 315
156f Meniere’s syndrome 315
34 Dictionary
Meninges 74 Migraine 397

Meningioma 315 Migrans, visceral larva 296
Meningiomas of optic nerve 281 Mikulicz’s syndrome 397
Meniscus lens 172 Millard-Gubler syndrome 303, 316
Meniscus, tear 82 Miller Fisher syndrome 316
Menu 141 Millijoule 360
Meperidine hydrochloride 109 Mineralocorticoids 110
Mercury oxide 109 Minicomputer 141
Meridian 88 Minify 150, 172
Merthiolate: see Thimerosal Minimal effective diameter 172
Mescaline 109 Minus 87
Mesenchyme 124 carrier 199
Meshwork 77, 84, 244 Miosis 82
Mesoderm 124 Miotics 110, 242, 329
Mesodermal dysgenesis 242 Mires 187f
Metabolic syndrome cataracts 322 coating 163
Metaherpetic keratitis 211 sunglasses 172
Metal aluminum 98 Mitomycin 110
Metamorphopsia 397 Mitosis 226
Methacrylate, polymethyl 175, 202, Mittendorf ’s dot 74
334, 339 M-K medium; see McCarey-Kaufman
Methicillin 111 medium
Methyl Möbius syndrome 257
alcohol 109 Mode 128
cellulose 199 locking 360
intoxication 315 Model airplanes, fuel for 105
salicylate 109 Modem 141
Methylene blue 109 DSL/cable 137
Microaneurysms 263, 272 Moderate hypertensive retinopathy 294
Microbial keratitis 199 Modified monovision 199
Microcomputer 134, 141 Modulus 191, 200
Microcornea 123, 125, 226, 242 Moebius syndrome 316
Microcysts 199 Moisture chamber glasses 226
Microeye movements 315 Molded 170
Micronystagmus 316, 397 Mold-injected lenses 339
Microperforation 349 Molecular genetics 122
Microphakia 74 Molluscum contagiosum 285, 397
Microphthalmos 119, 123, 125, 397 Mongolism: see Down’s syndrome 397
Micropsia 397 Monitor 141
Microstrabismus 256 Monochromat 82
Microthin lens 199 Monocular 150
Microtropia or monofixational phoria indirect ophthalmoscope 386
249 PD 172
Microtropia: see Microstrabismus Monofixation syndrome 249
Monofocal IOL 339 longitudinal ciliary 74

Monovision 200, 339, 373 palsies 302
Monovision, modified 199 rectus 75
Monoxide 102 Muscles 66, 72, 302
Mooren’s ulcer 212, 212f, 226 Muscles, inferior oblique 69f
Morbidity rate 132 Muscles, inferior rectus and inferior
Morgagni’s cataract 329 oblique 69f
Morgan’s dots 200 Muscles, yoke 260
Morphine 110 Mustard gas 110
Mortality rate 132 Mutation 122
Motherboard 141 Myasthenia gravis 316
Motility 246 Mycostatin: see Nystatin 110
Motor nerves 301 Mydriacyl: see Tropicamide 110
Mouse 141 Mydriasis 82, 316, 399
Movement of eyes 247f Mydriatic 301, 316
Movement, pursuit 258 test for angle-closure glaucoma 242
Movements Myectomy 367
cogwheel pursuit 310 Myelinated
conjugate 252 fibers 316
microeye 315 nerve fibers 272
MRI: see Magnetic resonance imaging optic nerve fibers 316
MSDOS 141 Myodisk 172
Mucin balls 200 Myoflange 200
Mucous tear layer 82 Myokymia 316
Multifactorial disease 118 Myomectomy 369
Multifocal 152 Myopia 145, 152, 172
implant 329 crescent 268
lenses 160, 162, 172 Myopic degeneration 272
posterior pigment epitheliopathy 266 Myotomy 257, 367, 369
progressive 162 Myotonia congenita 316
Multilux: see Varilux 172 Myotonic dystrophy 316
Multinucleated giant epithelial cells 226
papillomas of eyelids 280f N
sclerosis 303, 316
Multiuser 141 n 90, 172
Munson’s sign 216, 216f Nail polish remover 110
Mural cells 74 Nail polishes 110
Murine 101 Nanometer 90
Muscle 73 Nanophthalmos 125
ciliary 74 Nanosecond 360
elevator 72 Nasal step 242
inferior Nasociliary 397
oblique 73 Nasolacrimal duct 74
rectus 73 Nd:YAG 360
36 Dictionary
Near 82 Neuroepithelioma 285

Near point 173, 152 Neuroepithelium 74
of accommodation 173, 152 Neurofibroma 285, 316
of convergence 152 Neurofibromatosis 316, 342
Near reflex 82 Neuroma acoustic 307
Near visual point 173 Neuromyelitis optica 304, 316
Nebula 227 Neuromyelitis optica: see Devic’s disease
Necrotizing nodular scleritis 219 304
Nembutal: see Pentobarbital sodium 110 Neuro-ophthalmological investigation
Neodymium: yttrium aluminum garnet 306
357 Neuro-ophthalmology 300
Neonatorum 227 Neuroparalytic
Neostigmine 110 keratitis 317
Neo-synephrine: see Phenylephrine keratopathy 227
hydrochloride 110 Neutral filter 173
Neovascular 272, 397 Neutralization 173
glaucoma 288 Nevus 285
membrane 268, 275 Nevus syndrome 284
Neovascularization 200, 273, 397 Nevus, iris 284
Neptazane: see Methazolamide 110 Newcastle disease virus 397
Nerve 69, 74, 250, 303 Nickel 110
fiber bundle 82 Nicking, A-V 263
fibers 272 Night myopia 152
frontal 313 Night-vision goggles 385
Nigra 324
loop, intrascleral 73
Nigrum, piper 111
optic 281, 308
Nine o’clock staining 206
sensory 301
Nitrous oxide 110
trochlear 77
Nodal points 173
Nerves
Nodular episcleritis 227
cranial 301
Nodule 396
motor 301
Nodules, rheumatic 219
Nervous system 84, 300, 306
Nomogram 200
Netbook 141
Harrison-Stein 197
Network, local area 140
Noncontact tonometer 385
Neural tube 125
Non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus
Neurectomy 397
287
Neurilemmoma 285 Nonparalytic 246
Neuritis 275, 303, 316, 397 Nonrhegmatogenous detachment 263,
Neuritis: see Papillitis 362
Neuro 74 Nonrhegmatogenous retinal detachment
Neuroanatomy 300 273, 364
Neuroblastoma 285 Normal
Neurocutaneous syndromes: (gaussian) distribution of refractive
see Phakomatoses 129f
distribution 129 motor apraxia 252

fundus 68f muscle palsies 302
optic disk 235f muscles 66
retinal correspondence 257 intrinsic 73, 256
Notation 177 pemphigoid 227
Notebook computer 141 rigidity 242
Novocain: see Procaine hydrochloride saccade 257
110 torticollis 249
NPA: see Near point of accommodation toxocariasis: see Toxocariasis, ocular
152 273
NPC: see Near point of convergence 152 tumors 278
Nuclear Ocularist 397
cataract 329 Oculi, orbicularis 74
expression 329 Oculocardiac 75, 398
sclerosis 329 Oculocardiac reflex 74
Nucleus 74 Oculocephalic reflex: see Doll’s eye
Nucleus, Edinger-Westphal 312 reflex 317
Null hypothesis 132 Oculodermal melanocytosis 283
Number, Abbe 163 Oculoglandular, Parinaud’s 398
Nummular keratitis 227 Oculogyric crisis 317
Nylon 329 Oculomotor 74
Nystagmus 317 nerve 74
Nystagmus, latent 256, 315 Oculopharyngeal dystrophy 317
Nystatin 110 Oculus sinister 173
Oguchi’s disease 273
O Oil of cloves 110
Ointments 94
O’Brien technique 329 OMP 397
Oak 112 ON K 200
Oblique 173, 258 Onchocerciasis 273
Oblique, inferior 73, 256 One piece bifocal 173
Occipital lobes 317 One-piece lens 339
Occluded pupil 242 One-snip operation 355
Occluder 385 Open-angle or chronic glaucoma 232
Occluder, occluding lens 397 Operating system 141
Occlusion 257, 268 Operation 367f, 368f
artery 274 Blascovics’ 352
branch vein 268 Fox’s 354
therapy 249, 257 three-snip 355
vein 274 Ophthaine 113
Ocular 241 Ophthaine: see Proparacaine
examination and surgery 236 hydrochloride 110
hypertension 233 Ophthalmia 397, 399
melanocytosis 283 gonorrheal 395
motility 246 neonatorum 227
38 Dictionary
Ophthalmic primordia 125

drugs and toxic substances 92 radiation 317
ointments 94 tract 67, 74, 317
tests and devices 375 vesicle 125
Ophthalmicus, zoster 223, 224f, 299 Optica, neuromyelitis 304, 316
Ophthalmodynamometry 317, 385 Optical
Ophthalmologists, association of 393 bench 90
Ophthalmometer 186, 385 breakdown 360
Ophthalmometer: see Keratometer 150, center 156, 173
383 centering instrument 349
Ophthalmoparesis 317 coherence tomography 386
Ophthalmoplegia 302, 317 markers 349
Ophthalmoscope zone 189, 200
direct 385 markers 349
indirect 386 Optically empty 82
Ophthalmoscopy 386f Optics 86, 334
Ophthetic 113 geometric 86, 87
Ophthetic: see Proparacaine physical 86
hydrochloride 110 Optimized laser ablation 374
Opium 111 Optokinetic
Opsin 397 drum 386, 386f
Opsoclonus 317 tape 386, 387f
Optic atrophy 319 Optotype 152, 173
Optic atrophy, Leber’s hereditary 273 Oral
Optic glucose tolerance 289
atrophy 304, 317 hypoglycemic agents 289
cup 74, 125 Orbicularis oculi 74
disk 74, 235f Orbit 74, 282
conus of 268 blow-out fracture of 352
foramen 317 lesions of 282
nerve 281, 303, 308 Orbital
aplasia of 308 cellulitis: see Cellulitis, orbital 397
compression 291 decompression 355
fibers 316 emphysema: see Emphysema, orbital
head 74 398
meningiomas of 281 encephalocele 125
sheath 317 implants 355
neuritis 303 surgery, eyelid 351
neuritis: see Papillitis Orbitotomy 355
neuropathies 320 Orbitotomy, Berke-Krönlein 352
neuropathy, Leber’s hereditary 304, Ordered array 132
315 Organogenesis 125
papillae 273 Orthokeratology 200
pits 125, 273 Orthophoria 152
OS 173 Panretinal photocoagulation 273, 289,

Oscillopsia 318 360, 365
Osteogenesis imperfecta 318, 398 Pantoscopic angle 174
Osteoma 285 Panum’s fusional area 152, 257
OU 173 Papilla 75, 201
Outflow 82, 239 Papilla, Bergmeister’s of 69
facility of 240 Papillae 273
Over counter 111 Papillary conjunctivitis 227
Overcorrection 349, 369, 374 Papilledema 273, 304, 318
Overwearing syndrome 200 Papillitis 273
Oxacillin 111 Papilloma 279
Oxide Papillomacular nerve fiber bundle 318
mercury 109 Papillomas of eyelids 280f
nitrous 110 Papules 285
Oxycephaly 257 Paracentesis 398
Oxygen Parallax 90, 174, 257
flow and contact lenses 184 Parallel interface 141
flux 200 Paralysis amaurotic pupillary 302
permeability 201 Paralysis, pupillary 302
transmissibility 184, 201 Paralytic 246
Ozone 111 Parameter 132
Parasellar syndrome 318
P Parasympathetic 83, 318
Parasympatholytic agents 111
Pachometer 201 Parasympathomimetic 318
Pachometer/pachymeter 387 agents 94, 243
Pachometry 201, 243 Paraxial 174
Paddle temples 155 Paredrine test 387
Paget’s disease 318 Paredrine: see Hydroxyamphetamine
PAL: see Progressive addition lens hydrobromide 111
Pallor of disk 273 Parietal lobe field defects 318
Palpebral 201 Parinaud’s oculoglandular 398
angle 201 Parinaud’s syndrome 318
fissure 75, 201 Parkinson’s syndrome 116
portion 63 P-arm 122
PALs 174 Pars
Palsies, muscle 73 plana vitrectomy 365
Palsies, stem 303 planitis 273, 398
Palsy 309 plicata 75
Bell’s 309 Past pointing 318
cerebral 310 Paste, golf-ball 106
Pamoate, hydroxyzine 107 Patch, Salmon 229
Pannus 227 Pathogens 111
Panophthalmitis 398 Pathways 67, 70, 305f
Panoptik 174 Patterns, abnormal staining 188, 189f
40 Dictionary
PD 165, 172, 174 PGC: see Pontine gaze center

PDF: see Portable document format Phacoanaphylaxis 329
Pedicle flap 355 Phacoemulsification 322, 323, 330
Pedigree chart 122 Phakia 339
Pedunculated 279 Phakic 75
Peeling 364 cystoid macular edema 273
Pemphigoid 227 Phakoma 273, 286
Pemphigus 227 Phakomatoses 273, 286, 318
Pendular nystagmus 318 Pharmacology 92
Penetrant 119 Pharyngoconjunctival fever 227, 295
Penetrating Phenbenicillin 98
injury 398 Phenergan 111
keratoplasty 227, 228, 346f Phenergan: see Promethazine 111
Penicillinase 111 Phenobarbital sodium 111
Pentacam 387 Phenol 111
Pentobarbital sodium 111 Phenomena, entopic 269
Pentothal: see Thiopental 111 Phenomenon 309, 393
Pepper 111 Phenomenon Bell’s 309, 393
Percentage, equivalent oxygen 185, 195 Phenomenon or sign 252
Percentiles 133 Phenothiazine derivatives 111
Perception 84, 148, 150, 253 Phenothiazines 111
Perforans, scleromalacia 219 Phenylbutazone 101
Peribulbar injection 93 Phenylbutazone 112
Perimeter 239, 240, 382, 388 Phenylephrine hydrochloride 112
Perimetry, kinetic 241, 315 Pheochromocytoma 293
Periorbita 75 Phisohex 112
Peripheral 83 Phlyctenular
curve 201 keratitis 212
iridectomy 238, 243, 344 keratoconjunctivitis 227
or marginal 86 Phlyctenule 398
posterior curve 181 Phoria 257
vision 83 Phoropter 152, 388
Peripherals 142 Phospholine iodide: see Echothiophate
Peritomy 365, 398 iodide 104, 112
Permanganate 112 Photo
Permeability 201 printer: see Inkjet
Peroxide 107, 198 sun lens 174
Perphenazine 111 Photoablation 374
Persistent hyperplastic vitreous 273 Photochemical visual pigment 75
Personal Photochemistry 83
computer 134 Photochromic lenses 158, 174
digital assistant 142 Photocoagulation 274, 288, 289, 359, 365
Perspex: see Polymethyl methaerylate 174, Photodynamic therapy 274
334 Photogray lens 174
Peter’s anomaly 242, 243 Photokeratoscope 201, 379
Photon 360 Plate, tarsal 77

Photophobia 201 Plates, pseudoisochromatic 388
Photopic vision 83 Pleiotropism 122
Photoreceptors 75, 83 Pleomorphism 228
Photorefractive keratectomy 349, 360, Pleoptics 249, 257
370 Pleoptophore 257
Phthisis cornea 228 Plexiglas: see Polymethyl methacrylate
Picosecond 360 174
Picric acid 112 Plicata 75
Picture cards 377 Plotter 142
Pierre Robin syndrome 243 Plug-in 142
Piggyback implants 339 Plus 87
Pigment epithelial hypertrophy 286 PMMA: see also Polymethyl
Pigment epithelium 75 methacrylate 174
Pigmentary glaucoma 243 Pneumatic tonometer 388
Pilocarpine 112 Pneumococcal Bacillus 228
Pince-nez 174 Pneumococcal ulcer 228
Pincushion distortion 158 Pneumocystis jiroveci 299
Pinealoma 318 Pneumoencephalography 319
Pinguecula 228 Podcast 142
Pinhole disk 152, 388 Point 88, 89, 168
Pinquecula 201 near visual 173
Piper nigrum 111 reference 172
Pitch 112 virtual 88
Pits 125, 273 Points 252
Pitting 360 nodal 173
Pituitary 75 retinal 252
ablation 398 Poison
adenoma 318 ivy 112
apoplexy of 308 oak 112
tumors 304 Polarized 174
Placebo 133 light 385
Placido’s disk 202, 228, 388 Pole of eye 75
Placode 124 Poliosis 398
Plana vitrectomy 365 Polishing 331
Planitis 273, 398 Polycarbonate 175
Planned replacement 202 Polycoria 125
Plano 174, 335 Polygenic inheritance 122
concave 174 Polymegathism 202, 228
convex 174 Polymer 202, 204
lens 174, 202 Polymerization 202
Plaques, Hollenhorst 270, 313 Polymethyl methacrylate 175, 202, 334,
Plasma 360 339
cells 221 Polymorphism 122
Plastics 112 Polymorphonuclear reaction 221
42 Dictionary
Polymorphous dystrophy 228 Prentice’s rule 175

Polynomials, Zernicke 374 Presbyopia 147, 175
Polyphagia 287 Presbyopic implants 339
Polypropylene 339 Pressure 73, 81, 232, 241
Polyvinyl Prevalence rate 133
alcohol 202 Primary
pyrrolidone 202 action 83
Pontine gaze center 319 angle-closure glaucoma 232
Pontocaine: see Tetracaine hyperaldosteronism 293
hydrochloride 112 lens implants 340
Population 133 optic atrophy 319
Pork tapeworm: see Taenia solium position 257
Portable document format 142 Primordia 125
Portal 324 Primordium 123, 125
Portion 63 Printer 140, 142
Position 257, 262 Printer: see Inkjet
Prism 388
Posner-Schlossman syndrome 243
ballast 202
Posterior
lens 202
apical radius 181
cover test 388
capsulotomy 331
Prismatic lenses 159
chamber 75, 83, 331
PRK: see Photorefractive keratectomy
intraocular lens 337f
Proband 122
curves 181
Probe 352
dislocation 339
Probing 398
embryotoxin 125, 242 Procaine hydrochloride 113
incision 331 Procedure
pole 75 bick 352
of eye 75 Fasanella-Servat 353
polymorphous dystrophy 228 Hex 348
synechia 243 Kuhnt-Szymanowski 354
vitrectomy 365 Ruiz 349
Potash: see Potassium hydroxide Wies 356
Potassium Processes 65, 81
hydroxide 112 Processing unit 136
permanganate 112 Profile analyzer 388
Power 178, 199, 202, 339, 360 Profile perimetry: see Static perimetry
resolving 340 243
vertex 164 Programmer 142
Precipitates, keratic 225, 396 Programs 142
Precorneal tear film 75, 83 Progressive
Precorneal tear film, three-layer addition lens 175
structure of 76 external ophthalmoplegia 302
Prematurity, retinopathy of 274 multifocal lenses 162
Premier lenses 339 myopia 152
Projection 150 Psychosis 319

Prolapse 328 Psychosomatic 319
of iris 398 Pterygium 75, 202, 214f, 215f, 228
Prolene 334 PTK: see Phototherapeutic keratectomy
Proliferans, retinitis 274 Ptosis 119, 202, 355
Proliferative crutch spectacles 175
diabetic retinopathy 288 Pulsations 85
retinopathy 274 Pulse train 360
Prolonged-wear 181, 202 Pump, tear 84, 206
lenses 181 Punctate keratitis 205, 228, 230
Promethazine 113 Pupil 301, 307, 308
Propamidine: see Brolene 101 Adie’s 307
Proparacaine hydrochloride 113 amaurotic 308
Propellering 340 Argyll Robertson 302, 308
Propicillin 98 block 83
Proprioception 258 glaucoma 340
Proptosis 319 occluded 242
Prospective study 128f Pupillary 75, 340
Prostigmin: see Neostigmine 113 -block glaucoma 83f, 233
Protanomalous, protanope 83 capture 340
Protanope protanomalous 83 defect afferent 308
Protective lenses 175 entrapment: see Pupillary capture 340
Provider, service 139 lens 340
Provocative test 243, 388 paralysis 302
PRP: see Panretinal photocoagulation reflex 75
202, 365 Pupillometer 175, 388
Prussian blue 113 Pupillomotor fibers 303
Pseudoepitheliomatous hyperplasia 286 Pursuit movement 258
Pseudoexfoliation 331 Purtscher’s retinopathy 274
glaucoma 243 Purulent 398
Pseudoglaucoma 243 PVP: see Polyvinylpyrrolidone 202
Pseudoisochromatic plates 388 Pyocyanea 228, 229
Pseudomembrane 228 Pyocyaneal ulcers 229
Pseudomonas aeruginosa 93 Pyocyaneus 398
Pseudomonas aeruginosa: see Pyocyaneus Pyrimethamine 113
Pseudomonas Pyrrolidone 202
bacteria 105
pyocyanea 228 Q
Pseudophakia 340
Pseudophakic detachment 263, 365 Q switching 360
Pseudophakos 340 Q-arm 122
Pseudostrabismus 246, 258 Quality
Pseudotumor cerebri 306 factor 360
Psychogenic 319 letter 140
44 Dictionary
Quartz: see Silica Recklinghausen’s disease 286

Quaternary ammonium chloride 202 Recombinant DNA 122
Quinacrine 100, 113 Reconstruction 355
Quinine 113 Record 142
Quinones 101, 113 Rectangle, reading 389
Rectus 256, 258
R inferior 73
muscle 75
Radial keratotomy 345, 347f, 349, 371 Recurrent corneal erosion 229
Radiation 317 Red
cataracts 331 filters 385
geniculocalcarine 317 reflex 331
optic 75 Redeepening 349
Radioactive iodine 292 Reference point 172
Radius 91 Reflection 91
apical 181 specular 205
Radiuscope 388 Reflex 75, 82, 331
Raeder paratrigeminal syndrome 319 accommodative 82
RAM: see Random Access Memory consensual light 81, 379
Random access memory 142 direct light 380
Range 84, 133 Doll’s eyes 312
of accommodation 84 near 82
Rate 133 oculocardiac 74, 75, 398
mortality 132 pupillary 75
prevalence 133 pupillometer 175
Ratio tear secretion 84
AC/A 147, 250 Refraction 86, 145, 175
convergence 250 angle of 86
cup/disk 239 index of 86, 90, 170
Rauwolfia serpentina 113 Refractive
Ray, incident 90 error 152
Reaction 95 index 91
adverse 98 keratoplasty 345
eosinophilic 221 lens exchange 372
polymorphonuclear 221 media 398
Read 142 surgery 370
only memory 142 Refractometry 145, 175
Reader, bar 378, 393 Refractors, automatic 378
Reading rectangle 389 Regression 374
Recession 258, 367 Regular astigmatism 145
angle 233 Reis-Bucklers dystrophy 213
glaucoma 233 Reiter’s disease 229
operation 367f Relative risk 133
Recessive 118 Relaxing incision 328, 349
Removal, lens 338 vein occlusion 274

Remover, nail polish 110 vessels 84
Renal vascular disease 293 Retinal: see Retinal detachment 269
Repair 352, 355 Retinitis proliferans 274
blepharochalasis 352 Retinoblastoma 274, 281
halving 356 Retinopathies 264
Replacement Retinopathy of prematurity 274
conventional 192 Retinopathy
planned 202 angiospastic 264
Repositioning 340 arteriolosclerosis 309
Research terms 127 circinate 266, 268
Resection 258 diabetic 274, 288
operation 368f Purtscher’s 274
wedge 350 serous 264
Reserpine 113 sickle cell 275
Reserves, fusional 149, 255 stasis 276
Residual astigmatism 146, 203 Retinoschisis 262, 274, 365
Residues 264 Retinoscope 389
Resistance 100 Retinoscope: see Retinoscope 389
Resistance antibiotic 100 Retinoscopy 153
Resistant penicillins 98 Retractors 328
Resochin: see Chloroquine 102, 113 Retrobulbar 331
Resolving power 340 injection 93
Restasis: see Cyclosporine 103 neuritis 275
Result, false-negative 131\ tissues 291
Result, false-positive 131 Retroillumination 203, 229
Retina 66, 269 Retrolental fibroplasia 264:
disinsertion of 269 see also Retinopathy of prematurity
Retinae, commotio 267 Retrolental fibroplasia 275
Retinal Retroscopic angle 175
and vitreous surgery 362 Retrospective study 128f
angiomatosis 267 RGP or GP: see Rigid gas-permeable
artery 266 lenses
occlusion 274 Rhabdomyosarcoma 282
correspondence 249, 257 Rhegmatogenous
detachment 269, 274, 362, 362f detachment 262
nonrhegmatogenous 273, 364 retinal detachment 275, 365
element 76 Rheopheresis for macular degeneration
exudates 274 275
pigment epithelial hypertrophy 286 Rheumatic nodules 219
points 252 Rhodopsin 76, 399
rivalry 258 Rhus radicans 112
tear with vitreous hemorrhage 277f Rhus toxicodendron 112
46 Dictionary
Ridge lens 340 S

Riding bow 155, 176
Rieger’s syndrome 242 Sac: see Conjunctival sac; Lacrimal sac
Rigid Saccade 257
gas-permeable 184 Saccadic eye movements 319
lenses 183 Saddle 155
Rigidity 242 Safety glasses 176
Riley-Day syndrome 229 Sagittal
Rimless frames 176 depth 176
Ring or height 203
Fleischer 217, 225 height 182f
Kayser-Fleischer 225, 315, 321, 352 Salicylate, methyl 109
Malyugin 329 Salicylic acid: see Acetylsalicylic acid 114
scotoma 176 Salmon patch 229
Soemmering’s 399 Salzmann’s nodular degeneration 229
suction 374 Sampling error 133
tension 324 Sapphire knife 350
Rings 347, 371 Sarcoidosis 399
corneal 347, 371 Sarcoma 286
of cornea 231 Sarcoma, Kaposi’s 284, 299
Fleischer’s 217 Saw, stryker 355
white 231 Scanner 143
Risk, relative 133 Schematic eye 91
Ritter, Hardy-Rand 150 Schirmer test 84, 203
RLX coating 176 Schlemm’s canal 71, 76, 243, 244
Robertson, Argyll 302, 308 Schwalbe’s line 243
Rodent ulcers 278 Schwann cells 285, 306
Rods 84 Schwannoma 285
ROM; see Read only memory Scintillans, synchysis 266
Romberg’s sign 319 SCL 203
Rosacea, acne 229 Sclera 64, 229, 393, 394
Rose bengal 113, 203 Sclera, ectasia 394
Roth’s spot 275 Sclera, massive granuloma of 220
Round top bifocal 176 Scleral
Route, transconjunctival 369 buckle 365
Router 142 contact 180, 180f
Router, wireless 144 lenses 180, 180f
Ruby 271 flange 203
knife 349 flap 365
Ruiz procedure 349 spur 76, 243
Rule, Kestenbaum’s 383 Sclerectomy 344
Rule, Prentice’s 175 Scleritis 399
Ruler, biometric 324 Sclerocornea 125
Rust ring of cornea 229 Scleromalacia perforans 219
Sclerosing keratitis 229 Senile cataract 331

Sclerosis 303, 316, 329 Senile disciform: see Kuhnt-Junius
Sclerosis, tuberous 320 macular degeneration
Scopolamine hyoscine 114 Senile keratoses 286
Scotoma 168, 176, 319 Senilis 217
arcuate 308 Sensitivity 133
frame: see Frame scotoma 176 threshold 244
ring 176 Sensory nerve 301
Scotopic 147 Sentinels, Dalma’s 269
vision 84 Serous retinopathy 264
Scratch resistant coating 176 Serpasil: see Reserpine 114
Scratched lens 203 Serpentina, Rauwolfia 113
Screen test, Hess 382 Serpiginous ulcer 212
Screen, Bjerrum’s 379 Server 142
Screen, tangent 320, 389 Service provider 139
Screening 120, 133 Set, trial lens 207
Script 139 Sex linked disease 118
Sebaceous
Shadowgraph 389
adenoma 286
Shadowscope 204
cyst 286
Sharing, time 143
Seborrhea 229
Sheath 317
Seborrheic keratosis 286
Sherrington’s law 250
Sebum 229
Shield, trigeminal 178
Secobarbital sodium 114
Shortening 369
Seconal: see Secobarbital sodium 114
Shrinkage, collagen 371
Second sight 76, 331
Secondary Sicca, keratoconjunctivitis 210, 225
action 84 Sickle cell retinopathy 275
curve 203 Siegrist’s streaks 275
glaucoma 232 Sight 172
lens implants 340 Sign
membrane 331 Romberg’s 319
optic atrophy 319 Stellwag’s 319
Second-degree relatives 122 Munson’s 216, 216f
Secretion, tear 80, 84 Silica 114
Sector iridectomy 243, 344 Silicone
Segment 69, 176 polymer 204
anterior 69 sponge explant 365
Segmental implant or explant 365 Silver compounds 114
Seidel’s test 389 Simplex virus 211, 223
Selective laser trabeculoplasty 344 Simultaneous vision 204
Selenium sulfide 97, 114 Single cover test 253
Sella turcica 304, 319 Single-blind design 133
Semifinished Single-cut lenses 183f
blank 204 Sinus, cavernous 310
lens 204 Situs inversus 76
48 Dictionary
Sjögren’s syndrome 230 Sorsby’s pseudoinflammatory macular

Skew deviation 319, 399 dystrophy 275
Skull temples 155 Soule 177
Slab-off 91, 160 Spam 143
Slide 222 Spasm 147
Sling 355 Special types of lenses 159
Slit illumination 385 Specific gravity 204
Slit-lamp 389 Specificity 133
Slot 143 Specificity: see Specificity
SLT: see Selective laser trabeculoplasty Spectacle
Smartphone 143 blur 204
Smog 97, 114 dermatitis 177
Snell’s law 86, 91, 176 folding 168
Snellen’s chart 176, 375 manufacture 162
Soaking solution 204 Spectacles 154, 177
Socket 76 Spectacles, crutch 175
reconstruction 355 Spectaculum 154
Sodium Spectrum, electromagnetic 89, 90f
carbonate 114 Specular reflection 205
chloride 114 Speculum 331
hexametaphosphate 114 Speed 99
hyaluronate 331 Spherical 88, 177
hydroxide 96 aberration 89, 158, 159f, 374
hypochlorite 114 contact lens 205
pentobarbital 111 equivalent 153, 177, 205
secobarbital 114 lens 177
warfarin 117 Spherocylinder 153
Soemmering’s ring 399 Spherophakia 76, 125, 244, 331
Soft Sphincter 82
drusen 275 erosion 340
glaucoma 232 iridis 77
intraocular lenses 340 Sphincterotomy 331
lenses 184, 193f, 204 Spin cast 205
Software 143 Spindle A 286
Solar Spindle B 286
burn 275 Spindle, Krukenberg’s 225, 226f
keratoses 286 SPK: see Superficial punctate keratitis
Solid state drive 143 205
Solium, Taenia 276 Sponge explant 365
Solution 92, 209 Spot 71, 309
balanced salt 324 black 270
soaking 204 cafe-au-lait 310
Solvent: see Acetone 98 cherry-red 266
Soper cone lens 204, 215, 216f Elschnig’s 269
for keratoconus 205f retinoscope: see Retinoscope 389
Roth’s 275 Stiles-Crawford effect 91

size 361 Stimulating hormone 292
Spots 288 Stippling 205, 230
Brushfield’s 119, 393 Stocker line 225
Bitot’s 218 Storage 143
dry 194 Stoxil see Idoxuridine 107, 114
Sprays, hair 97 Strabismus 246, 248f, 258
Spreadsheet 143 concomitant 252
Spur 76, 243 surgery 367
Squamous cell carcinoma 278, 286 Strap 177
of eyelid 279f Streak retinoscope: see Retinoscope 389
Squint, classification of 254 Streaks, Siegrist’s 275
Stable vision 205 Streptococcal Bacillus 230
Staining agent 94 Streptomycin 114
Staining, Nine o’clock 206 Stress test 384
Standard Stretching 374
deviation 130 keratitis 331
notation 177 keratopathy 230
Stand-off 194 Stripping 347
Staphylococcal allergic Stroma 72, 78
keratoconjunctivitis 230 Stromal corneal dystrophies 213
Staphylococcus Structures of eye 67f
aureus 111, 227 Structures, angle 67f
Bacillus 230 Strychnine 114
bacteria 105 Stryker saw 355
Staphyloma 230: see also Ectasia of sclera Study, prospective 128f
Staphyloma 275 Sturge Weber syndrome 244, 318, 320
Star 272 Sturm, conoid of 88
Stargardt’s disease 275 Styrene 205
Static perimetry 244, 319 Subconjunctival
Stasis retinopathy 276 hemorrhage 230
Stelazine: see Trifluoperazine 114 injection 93
Stellwag’s sign 319 Subcutaneous 77
Stem palsies 303 Subdural hematoma 320
Stenopeic 177 Subepithelial keratitis 230
Stereocampimeter, Lloyd 384 Subhyaloid hemorrhage 275
Stereocampimeter: see Lloyd Subluxation of lens 331
stereocampimeter 389 Subretinal
Stereopsis 84, 177 fluid drainage 365
Stereoscope 258 neovascular membrane 275
Stereoscopic vision 177 Subscapular 331
Sterility of solution 93 Subtotal thyroidectomy 292
Sterilization 205 Succinylcholine 115
Stevens-Johnson syndrome 399 Succinylcholine 99
50 Dictionary
Suction ring 374 Surgical

Sulcus fixation 340 calipers, 393
Sulfa drugs 115 keratometry 332
Sulfasuxidine 115 Sursumduction 251, 259
Sulfate, dimethyl 104 alternating 251
Sulfide 107 Surveys 133
selenium 97, 114 Suture 328
Sulfonamides 115 frost 354
Sulfur dioxide 115 of lens 77
Sulfuric acid 115 sling 355
Sun lens 174 Sutures
Sunbursts 275 adjustable 368
Sunflower 332 buried 324
cataract 332 compression 347
Sunset syndrome 340 Swinging flashlight test: see Afferent
Super pinky ball 332 pupillary 320
Superficial Symblepharon 230
lamellar keratoplasty 350 Sympathetic
punctate keratitis 205, 230 nervous system 84
Superimposition 258 ophthalmia 399
Superior uveitis 275
limbic keratoconjunctivitis 206, 230 Sympathomimetic agents 95, 244
oblique 258 Symptoms and signs of glaucoma 233
rectus 258 Synapse 77, 320
Supersensitivity, denervation 394 Synchysis scintillans 266
Supported Syndrome
iris 338 acquired immunodeficiency 298
lenses 338 anterior segment 332
Suppression 84 Anton’s 308
amblyopia 249 aortic arch 308
Suprachoroid 77 Balint’s 309
Surface Bardet-Biedl 267
ablation 374 Behçet’s 267
anatomy of the eye 62f Benedikt’s 303
toric 182 Chandler’s 239
Surfacing 177 Cogan’s 219
Surfactants 115, 205 Cogan-Reese 239
cleaning 205 Cushing’s 293
Surgeon’s gloves 97 Down’s 394
Surgery 322, 331f, 342, 345, 357, 367, Drew’s 337
370 Duane’s 249, 250f, 254
cataract 322 Edwards’ 119
eye 325 Foster Kennedy’s 313
vitreous 362 Foville’s 303
Frey’s 303, 313 Synophthalmia 125

Gradenigo’s 313 Synoptophore 259
Grönblad-Strandberg 270 Syphilis 297
Guillain Barré 313 Syringoma 286
Horner’s 302f, 314 System
Hurler’s 314 binary number 135
iris nevus 284 delivery 358
Irvine-Gass 271, 328 duct 63
Kearns-Sayre 315 nervous 84, 300, 306
Laurence-Moon-Biedl 271 operating 141
Louis-Bar 274, 286 Systemic
Marfan’s 239, 397 diseases and eye 287
Meniere’s 315 drugs 94
Mikulicz’s 397 glucocorticoids 106
Millard-Gubler 303, 316
Miller Fisher 316 T
Moebius 316
monofixation 249 T incisions 350
nevus 284 Table salt: see Sodium chloride
overwearing 200 Tablet computer 143
parasellar 318 Taco test 206
Parinaud’s 318 Taenia solium 276
Parinaud’s oculoglandular 398 Takayasu’s arteritis 320
Parkinson’s 116 Talc 97
Pierre Robin 243 Tangent screen 320, 389
Posner-Schlossman 243 Tap 325
raeder paratrigeminal 319 Tape 386, 387f
Rieger’s 242 Tapetoretinal degenerations 266
Riley-Day 229 Tarsal plate 77
Sjögren’s 230 Tarsorrhaphy 355
Stevens-Johnson 399 Tarsus 61
Sturge Weber 244, 318, 320 Tay-Sachs disease 320
sunset 340 Tay-Sachs disease: see Idiocy, amaurotic
tight lens 230 270
UGH 341 Tear film
Vogt-Koyanagi 276 break-up time 84, 190
Weber’s 303, 321 duct system 63
Windshield Wiper 341 film 77
Syndromes, chiasmal 306 break up time 206
Synechia 243, 332 gas, eye irritation caused by 102
Synechiae 217, 238 precorneal 75, 83
Syneresis of vitreous 275 Tear gas: see Chloroacetophenone 115
Synergism 115 Tear layer 80, 82
Synergists 259 Tear meniscus 82
52 Dictionary
Tear meniscus: see Marginal tear strip cover 252, 253, 379, 388
Tear pump 84, 206 cover-uncover 253, 253f
Tear secretion 80, 84 cross cover 253
Tear strip 82 edrophonium 312
Tear with vitreous hemorrhage 277f flashlight 312
Tears 206 fluorescent treponemal antibody
artificial 190 absorption 298
crocodile 303 fly 381
Technical personnel in ophthalmology for angle-closure glaucoma 242
393 for astigmatism 171
Technique, O’Brien 329 head-tilt 251
Technique, Van lint 332 Hirschberg 383
Telangiectasia 230, 276 Ishihara’s 383
Telescope, Galilean 196 Jaeger’s 383
Telescopic lenses 153, 177 Krimsky’s prism 383
TEM: see Triethylenemelamine, 115 Landolt broken-ring 150, 151f, 377f,
Temple 177 376
Mecholyl 385
Temples
paredrine 387
cable 155
provocative 243, 388
curl 155
Schirmer 84, 203
end 155
Seidel’s 389
paddle 155
single cover 253
skull 155
stress 384
Temporal
Taco 206
arteritis 320
tensilon 312
lobe field defects 320 Wirt stereo 153, 390
Tenon’s capsule 77 Edge stand-off 195f
Tenotomy 259, 367, 369 Testing, caloric 310, 379
Tensilon test 312 Tests and devices 375
Tensilon: see Edrophonium chloride 104, Tetracaine hydrochloride 116
115 Tetrachloride 102
Tension ring 324 Tetragenic effect 116
Teratogen 126 Thallium 116
Teratoma 126 Theory, trichromatic color 85
Terminal 143 Therapeutic contact 206
Terms Therapeutic contact lens 206
basic computer 134 Therapy 94, 249, 257
research 127 Therapy, degeneration anti-VEGF 267
Terrien’s marginal degeneration 213, 230 Therapy, photodynamic 274
Test 251, 312 Thermal
afterimage 251 collagen shrinkage 371
biopter 379 disinfection 206
Chi squared 130 keratoplasty 216, 371
color 149 sclerectomy 344
Thermokeratoplasty 350 Tolerance, glucose 289

Thermosclerectomy 344 Tomography 311, 389
Thiazide diuretics 295 coherence 386
Thickness computerized (axial) 307
of contact lens 191 Tonic 302, 307
of lens 206 Tonicity 92
Thimerosal 206 Tonics, hair 106
Thin zone 206 Tonography 389
Thioglycolates 116 Tonomat 389
Thiopental 116 Tonometer 390
Thioridazine 116 electronic 381
Third nerve, aberrant degeneration 307 noncontact 385
Third nerve, degeneration of 307 pneumatic 388
Thorazine 111, 112 Tonometry and tonography 235
Thorazine, largactil: see Chlorpromazine Topical
102 anesthesia 332
Thorazine: see Chlorpromazine 116 drugs 94
Three o’clock staining 206 glucocorticoids 106
Three-layer structure of precorneal tear Topogometer 217, 390
film 76 Topography 207
Three-point touch 206 Toric 178
Three-snip operation 355 contact lens 207
Threshold 244 front 196
Thromboendarterectomy 399 implant 332
Thrombosis 263, 310 lenses 159, 196
Thyroid 116 surface 182
disease and eye 290 Toroidal lenses 182
exophthalmos 291f Torticollis 249
stimulating hormone 292 Total
Thyroidectomy, subtotal 292 hyphema 399
Tight lens 206, 230 keratoplasty 230
syndrome 230 Touchpad 143
Time sharing 143 Tower 136
Time, break up 84, 206, 379 Toxic
Timolol 116, 244 anterior segment syndrome 332
Timoptic 116, 244 optic neuropathies 320
Timoptic: see Timolol 116 reaction 95
Tint 206 substances 96
Tinting of lens 163 Toxocara canis 296
Tissues 291 Toxocariasis, ocular 276
TLS: see Tight lens syndrome Toxocariasis: see Toxocariasis, ocular 273
Toad poisons 116 Toxocariasis: see Visceral larva migrans
Tobramycin 116 Toxoplasma gondii 276
Tobrex: see Tobramycin Toxoplasmosis 276, 295
54 Dictionary
Trabecular Triamcilone: see Corticosteroids 103

fibers 77, 244 Triangle, fitting 168
meshwork 77, 84, 244 Trichiasis 399
Trabeculectomy 344 repair 355
Trabeculoplasty 342, 343, 361 Trichloroacetic acid 116
Trabeculoplasty: see Laser trabeculoplasty Trichoepithelioma 286
344 Trichromat 84
Trabeculotomy 344 Trichromatic color theory 85
Trabeculum 77, 244 Triethylenemelamine 116
Trachoma 230 Trifluoperazine 116
Tracking 373 Triflupromazine 116
Tract 67, 74, 317 Trifocal 153, 178
Traction 276, 366 Trigeminal shield 178
retinal detachment 288 Trilafon: see Perphenazine 116
test 320 Trisomy 18 119
Train, pulse 360 Trochlear nerve 77
Transconjunctival route 369 Tropia 259
Transient ischemic attack 320 Tropicamide 116
Transillumination 276 Truncation 207
Transilluminator 390 Trypan blue 332
Transitional zone 207 Tube, neural 125
Translocation 272 Tubercle bacillus 231
Transmissibility 184, 201 Tuberculosis 399
Transmission 171 Tuberous sclerosis 268, 274, 286, 309
Transplantation 369 Tubes, Jones 354
Transposition 153, 178, 207
Tucking 369
Trantas’ dots 207
Tumbling 332
Traumatic
Tumor 278
aniridia 399
Tumors 278, 304
cataract 332
interior of eye 281
mydriasis 399
lacrimal gland 281
ptosis 355
of eyelid 278
Treated, chemically 158
of interior 281
Trephination 344
optic nerve 281
Trephine 350
orbit 282
Hanna 348
Tunica vasculosa lentis 77, 126
Hessburg-Bsuction 348
Turcica, sella 304, 319
Treponema pallidum 297
Turpentine 117
Triad, Charcot’s neurologic 310
Trial Two-plane lens 341
case and lenses 153 Types of
frame 153, 178 glaucoma 232
lens set 207 lenses 180
U Value, DK 194
van Lint technique 332
UGH syndrome 341 Variance, analysis of 130
Uhtoff ’s syndrome 321 Variation, coefficient of 130
Ulcer 224 Variations, diurnal 240
hypopyon 224 Varilux, multilux 178
Mooren’s 212, 212f, 226 Vascular endothelial growth factor
pneumococcal 228 276, 363
serpiginous 212 VCA 178
Ulceration 208 VEGF: see Vascular endothelial growth
Ulcers, pyocyaneal 229 factor
Ulcers, rodent 278 Vein 239
Ultrasonography 321, 390 aqueous 239
Ultrasound 341 occlusion 274
Ultraviolet Veins 72
burns 355 Venereal disease research laboratory 298
filter 335 Venography, orbital 321
Undercorrection 350, 374 Venous
Uniform resource locator 143 pulsations 85
Unit stasis retinopathy 276
angstrom 88 Ventriculography 321
processing 136 Vergence 85, 259
Units, irrigating-aspirating 328 power 178
Upload 143 Vernal
Upper eyelid 280f catarrh 400
Urea 117 conjunctivitis 231
Urethane 117 Verruca 279
URL: see Uniform resource locator of upper eyelid 280f
USB 143 vulgaris 286
User 143 Verrucae 231
UV implants 341 Version 85
Uvea 64 movement of eyes 247f
Uveae, ectropion 240 Versions 85, 259
Uveitis 275, 394 Vertex
Uveitis, granulomatous 395 back 91
Uveitis-glaucoma-hyphema syndrome: correction 208
see UGH syndrome distance 91, 178
front 91
V
meter: see Lensometer 178
V syndrome 249 power 164, 178
Vaccinia 400 Vertometer: see Lensometer 178
Vacuuming 332 Vesicle 125
Validity 133 V-esotropia 259
Validity: see Accuracy Vesprin 111
56 Dictionary
Vesprin: see Triflupromazine 117 Vitamin

Vessels abnormalities 263 A 117
Vestibulo-ocular reflex: see Doll’s eyes deficiency 231
reflex 312, 321 D 117
V-exotropia 259 K 117
V-groove Vitrectomy 276, 363, 365
diameter gauge 208f anterior 363
gauge 208 plana 365
VID: see Visible iris diameter 208 Vitrector, Kaufman 364
Vidarabine 211 Vitreous 262
Video card 144 detachment 276, 363
Vinegar 98 hemorrhage 276
Vira A: see Vidarabine loss 333
Viroptic: see Trifluridine surgery 362
Virtual point 88 syneresis of 275
Virucidal 400 traction 276, 366
Virulence 400 Vitritis 266
Virus 144 Vogt-Koyanagi bilateral uveitis 276, 400
herpes simplex 223 Vogt-Koyanagi syndrome 276
human immunodeficiency 298 von Graefe’s sign: see Lid lag
Newcastle disease 397 von Hippel-Lindau disease 267, 274,
simplex 211, 223 286, 318
VISC 365 von Recklinghausen’s disease 274
Visceral larva migrans 296 von Recklinghausen’s disease:
Visco surgery 332 see Neurofibromatosis
Viscosity agent 208 Vortex
Visible iris diameter 208 keratopathy 117
Vision retinopathy 231
alternating 188 Vossius’ ring 77, 400
blue 332 Vrugs, cataractogenic 325
correction 359 Vulgaris 286
iridescent 396
peripheral 83 W
photopic 83 Wall-eyes 259
simultaneous 204 Warfarin sodium 103, 117
stable 205 Warpage 209
stereoscopic 177 Warts: see Verrucae
Vistaril: see Hydroxyzine pamoate 117 Washing soda: see Sodium carbonate
Visual Wasp sting 117
acuity 153, 209 Water content 209
axis 91 Wave optics 209
fibers 303 Wavefront
pathways 67, 70, 305f analyzer 374
Visuscope 259, 390 -guided laser ablation 374
imaging 390 Xanthogranuloma, juvenile 284

-optimized laser ablation 374 Xanthogranuloma: see Juvenile
Wavelength 361 xanthogranuloma 286
Wear 191, 196 X-axis 179
extended 195 Xerophthalmia 209, 231
Web browser: see Browser 135 Xerosis 209, 231
Web page 144 of cornea 231
Weber, sturge 244, 318, 320 X-ray cataracts 333
Weber’s syndrome 303, 321 Xylocaine: see Lidocaine hydrochloride
Website 144 117
Wedge resection 350 Xylonite frame 154
Weeping 209, 400
Wernicke’s encephalopathy 321 Y
Wet storage 209
Wettability 209 YAG 361
Wetting cyclotherapy 344
angles 183f, 191 laser 245, 333
solution 209 Y-axis 179
Wheeler Yellow: see Mercury oxide
halving repair 356 Yoke muscles 260
procedure 356 Yoke muscles: see Synergists
White Yttrium aluminum garnet laser:
limbal girdle of Vogt 231 see YAG laser
rings of cornea 231
Z
Wies procedure 356
Wi-Fi (aka wifi) 144 Zephiran: see Benzalkonium chloride 117
Wilson’s disease 321, 352 Zernicke polynomials 374
Window defects 277 Ziegler cautery 356
Windshield wiper 341 Zigan: see Ganciclovir 211
Windshield wiper syndrome 341 Zinn, zonule of 77
Wing test 384, 384f Zone
Wing: see Pterygium anterior optical 189
Wink 209, 400 apical 190, 217
Wintergreen oil: see Methyl salicylate foveal avascular 358
Wiper, windshield 341 optical 189
Wireless router 144 thin 206
Wirt stereo test 153, 390 transitional 207
Word processor 144 Zonule of zinn 77
Worldwide web 144 Zonules 85
Worth four-dot test 153, 391 Zonulysis 333
WWW: see Worldwide web Zoster ophthalmicus 223, 224f, 299
Z-plasty 356
X ZYL frame 154
X chrom lens 209 Zylonite 179
Xanthelasma 279, 279f frame 154
APPENDICES
Appendix A
Abbreviations and
Symbols in Clinical Use

 combine with ic between meals (intercibum)
< less than IR inferior rectus (muscle)
> more than J1, J2, J3, etc. test types for reading vision
° degree KP keratic precipitates
 infiniti L and A light and accommodation
 prism diopter LE left eye
<* more than LH left hyperphoria
>* less than IOP intraocular pressure
LP light perception
A applanation tensions LR lateral rectus (muscle)
ac before meals (antecibum) mg milligram
Acc accommodation mm millimeter
add addition MR Maddox rod
ARC abnormal retinal corres- MR medial rectus (muscle)
pondence N5, N6, etc. test types for near vision
ASC anterior subcapsular cataract ne rep or do not repeat
AT or Appl applanation tension non rep
BD base down NPA near point of accommodation
bid or bd twice daily (bis in die) NPC near point of convergence
Bl base in NRC normal retinal correspon-
BO base out dence
BU base up NV near vision
C or cyl cylinder lens oculent eye ointment
CC with correction OD right eye (oculus dexter)
CF counting fingers OS left eye (oculus sinister)
D diopter OT ocular tension
dd disk diameters OU both eyes (oculus uterque)
E(T) intermittent esotropia pc after meals (post cibum)
E1 esophoria for distance PD or IPD interpupillary distance
E1 esophoria for near PH pinhole
EOM extraocular movements po orally, by mouth (per os)
EOM extraocular muscle Pr presbyop
EOMB extraocular muscle balance prn as necessary, as needed (pro re
ET esotropia nata)
ET1 esotropia for distance PRRE pupils round, regular and
ET1 esotropia for near equal
gtt drop (gutta) PSC posterior subcapsular cataract
HM hand movements q4h every 4 hours (quaque quarta
hs at bedtime (hora somni) hora)
IO inferior oblique (muscle) qh every hour (quaque hora)
Appendices 403
qid four times daily (quarter in die) T tension
qs quantity sufficient tid or td three times daily (ter in die)
RE right eye ung ointment (unguentum)
RH right hyperphoria V vision or visual acuity
Rx prescription (recipe) VAc or VAcc visual acuity with correction
S or sph spheric lens VAs or VAsc visual acuity without correct
SO superior oblique (muscle) W wearing
SC without correction X(T) intermittent exotropia
Sig label (signa) X1 exophoria for distance
SR superior rectus (muscle) X1 exophoria for near
ST Schiotz tension XP exophoria
stat at once XT exotropia
* The Joint Commission recommends writing “less than” or “greater than” for the symbols < and >.
(With permission and modified from Stein HA, Stein RM, Freeman MI: The Ophthalmic Assistant. A Text for
Allied and Associated Ophthalmic Personnel, 8th edition. St. Louis/Philadelphia: Elsevier-Mosby, 2006).
Appendix B
Metric Conversion (US)
When you know Multiply by To find
Length inches (in) 2.54 centimeters (cm)

feet (ft) 30.48 centimeters (cm)
miles (mi) 1.61 kilometers (km)
Area square inches (in2) 6.45 square centimeters (cm 2 )
square miles (mi2) 2.60 square kilometers (km2)
Weight ounces (oz) 28.35 grams (g)
pounds (lb) 0.45 kilograms (kg)
Volume and teaspoons (tsp) 4.93 milliliters (mL)
capacity tablespoons (tbsp) 14.78 milliliters (mL)
fluid ounces (fl oz) 29.57 milliliters (mL)
cups (c) 0.24 liters (L)
pints (pt) 0.47 liters (L)
quarts (qt) 0.95 liters (L)
gallons (gal) 3.79 liters (L)
cubic inches (cu in) 16.3871 cubic centimeters (cc)
Speed and miles per hour (mph) 1.61 kilometers per hour
velocity (km/h)
kilometers per hour (km/h) 0.62 miles per hour (mph)
feet per seconds (fps) 30.48 centimeters per second
(cm/s)
Temperature Fahrenheit temperature (°F) 5/9 Celsius
(after sub- temperature (°C)
tracting 32)
Appendices 405
Mass Volume (US)
1 lb = 0.45 kg 1 q = 0.946 L
1 kg = 2.21lb 1 gal =3.79 L
1/2 oz = 15.55 g 1/2 oz = 14.786 ml
1 oz = 31.103 g 1 oz = 25.573 ml
Length 1 ml = 1 cc = 0.0338 fl oz
1 in = 2.540 cm 10 cl = 1 deciliter (dl) = 6.102 in2
1 ft = 0.3048 m 1 dl = 0.10 L = 0.211 liquid pt
1 mi = 1.61 km 10 dl = 1 L = 1.057 liquid qt
10 millimeters (mm) = 100 L = 1 hectoliter (hl) = 26.425 gal
1 cm = 0.3937 in Temperature
100 cm = 1 m = 39.37 in 0° Celsius = 32° Fahrenheit
1000 m = 1 km = 0.62137 mi 0° Fahrenheit = – 17.78° Celsius
100° Celsius = 212° Fahrenheit
Appendix C
Estimating Visual Loss
LOSS OF CENTRAL VISION IN ONE EYE
Visual acuity for Snellen Meters (D) Jaeger Percent Percent

distance (Snellen) visual efficiency* visual loss
20/20 14/14 0.35 1– 100 0
20/25 14/18 0.44 2– 96 4
20/30 14/21 0.59 — 91 9
20/40 14/28 0.71 3 84 16
20/50 14/35 0.88 6 77 23
20/60 14/42 1.08 — 70 30
20/70 14/49 1.30 7 64 36
20/80 14/56 — 8 59 41
20/100 14/70 1.76 11- 49 51
20/160 14/112 — 14- 29 71
20/200 14/140 3.53 — 20 80
20/400 14/280 7.06 — 3 97
*THEPERCENTAGE OF VISUAL EFFICIENCY OF THE TWO EYES CAN BE

DETERMINED BY THE FOLLOWING FORMULA:
(3 × %Visual efficiency of better eye) +
(%Visual efficiency of poorer eye)
_________________________________________
= % Binocular visual efficiency
4
Appendices 407
ESTIMATED LOSS OF VISUAL FIELD
A visual field test is performed on the perimeter with a 3 mm test object in each of the eight
45-degree meridians. The sum of each of these meridians is added and the percentage of
visual efficiency arrived at by dividing by 485, the total of a normal field. For example:
Normal field Degrees Constricted field Degrees
Temporally 85 Temporally 45
Down and temporally 85 Down and temporally 25
Down 55 Down 30
Nasally 55 Down and nasally 25
Up and nasally 55 Nasally 25
Down and nasally 50 Up and nasally 25
Up 45 Up 25
Up and temporally 55 Up and temporally 35
TOTAL 485 TOTAL 235
235
% Visual efficiency:_______ × 100 = 48%
485
Appendix D
Vertex Conversion Table*
Plus lenses
Effective power at corneal plane of spectacles at designated distance from cornea
(vertex distance/millimeters)
Spectacle 8 mm 9 mm 10 mm 11 mm 12 mm 13 mm 14 mm 15 mm
lens power
4.00 4.12 4.12 4.12 4.12 4.25 4.25 4.25 4.25
4.50 4.62 4.75 4.75 4.75 4.75 4.75 4.75 4.87
5.00 5.25 5.25 5.25 5.25 5.25 5.37 5.37 5.37
5.50 5.75 5.75 5.75 5.87 5.87 5.87 6.00 6.00
6.00 6.25 6.37 6.37 6.37 6.50 6.50 6.50 6.62
6.50 6.87 6.87 7.00 7.00 7.00 7.12 7.12 7.25
7.00 7.37 7.50 7.50 7.62 7.62 7.75 7.75 7.75
7.50 8.00 8.00 8.12 8.12 8.25 8.25 8.37 8.50
8.00 8.50 8.62 8.75 8.75 8.87 8.87 9.00 9.12
8.50 9.12 9.25 9.25 9.37 9.50 9.50 9.62 9.75
9.00 9.75 9.75 9.87 10.00 10.12 10.25 10.37 10.37
9.50 10.25 10.37 10.50 10.62 10.75 10.87 11.00 11.12
10.00 10.87 11.00 11.12 11.25 11.37 11.50 11.62 11.75
10.50 11.50 11.62 11.75 11.87 12.00 12.12 12.25 12.50
11.00 12.00 12.25 12.37 12.50 12.75 12.87 13.00 13.12
11.50 12.62 12.87 13.00 13.12 13.37 13.50 13.75 13.87
12.00 13.25 13.50 13.62 13.87 14.00 14.25 14.50 14.62
12.50 13.87 14.12 14.25 14.50 14.75 15.00 15.25 15.37
13.00 14.50 14.75 15.00 15.25 15.50 15.62 16.00 16.12
13.50 15.12 15.37 15.62 15.87 16.12 16.37 16.62 16.87
14.00 15.75 16.00 16.25 16.50 16.75 17.12 17.50 17.75
14.50 16.50 16.75 17.00 17.25 17.50 17.87 18.25 18.50
15.00 17.00 17.37 17.75 18.00 18.25 18.62 19.00 19.37
15.50 17.75 18.00 18.25 18.75 19.00 19.37 19.75 20.25
16.00 18.25 18.75 19.00 19.37 19.75 20.25 20.50 21.00
16.50 19.00 19.37 19.75 20.25 20.50 21.00 21.50 21.87
17.00 19.75 20.25 20.50 21.00 21.50 22.00 22.25 22.87
17.50 20.50 20.75 21.25 21.75 22.25 22.75 23.25 23.75
18.00 21.00 21.50 22.00 22.50 23.00 23.50 24.00 24.62
18.50 21.75 22.25 22.75 23.25 23.75 24.50 25.00 25.62
19.00 22.50 23.00 23.50 24.00 24.75 25.25 26.00 26.50
*Spectacle lens power worn at various distance to equivalent contact lens power.
Appendix D 409
Minus lenses
Effective power at corneal plane of spectacles at designated distance from cornea
(vertex distance/millimeters)
8 mm 9 mm 10 mm 11 mm 12 mm 13 mm 14 mm 15 mm
3.87 3.87 3.87 3.87 3.87 3.75 3.75 3.75

4.37 4.37 4.25 4.25 4.25 4.25 4.25 4.25
4.75 4.75 4.75 4.75 4.75 4.75 4.62 4.62
5.25 5.25 5.25 5.12 5.12 5.12 5.12 5.12
5.75 5.62 5.62 5.62 5.62 5.50 5.50 5.50
6.12 6.12 6.12 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00 5.87
6.62 6.62 6.50 6.50 6.50 6.37 6.37 6.37
7.12 7.00 7.00 6.87 6.87 6.87 6.75 6.75
7.50 7.50 7.37 7.37 7.25 7.25 7.25 7.25
8.00 7.87 7.87 7.75 7.75 7.62 7.62 7.50
8.37 8.37 8.25 8.25 8.12 8.00 8.00 8.00
8.87 8.75 8.62 8.62 8.50 8.50 8.37 8.37
9.25 9.12 9.12 9.00 8.87 8.87 8.75 8.75
9.62 9.62 9.50 9.37 9.37 9.25 9.12 9.12
10.12 10.00 9.87 9.75 9.75 9.62 9.50 9.50
10.50 10.37 10.37 10.25 10.12 10.00 9.87 9.87
11.00 10.87 10.75 10.62 10.50 10.37 10.25 10.12
11.37 11.25 11.12 11.00 10.87 10.75 10.62 10.50
11.75 11.62 11.50 11.37 11.25 11.12 11.00 10.87
12.25 12.00 11.87 11.75 11.62 11.50 11.37 11.25
12.62 12.50 12.25 12.12 12.00 11.87 11.75 11.50
13.00 12.75 12.62 12.50 12.37 12.25 12.00 11.87
13.37 13.25 13.00 12.87 12.75 12.50 12.37 12.25
13.75 13.62 13.50 13.25 13.00 12.87 12.75 12.62
14.25 14.00 13.75 13.62 13.50 13.25 13.00 12.87
14.50 14.37 14.12 14.00 13.75 13.62 13.50 13.25
15.00 14.75 14.50 14.25 14.12 14.00 13.75 13.50
15.37 15.12 14.87 14.75 14.50 14.25 14.00 13.87
15.75 15.50 15.25 15.00 14.75 14.62 14.37 14.12
16.12 15.87 15.62 15.37 15.12 14.87 14.75 14.50
16.50 16.25 16.00 15.75 15.50 15.25 15.00 14.75
Appendix E
Conversion Table Relating Diopters

of Corneal Refracting Power to
Millimeters of Radius of Curvature*
Diopters Radius (mm) Diopters Radius (mm)
Drum Curvature Drum Curvature

reading Convex Concave reading Convex Concave
52.00 6.49 6.51 48.50 6.96 6.98
51.87 6.50 6.53 48.37 6.97 7.00
51.75 6.52 6.54 48.25 6.99 7.02
51.62 6.54 6.56 48.12 7.01 7.03
51.50 6.55 6.57 48.00 7.03 7.05
51.37 6.57 6.59 47.87 7.05 7.07
51.25 6.58 6.61 47.75 7.07 7.09
51.12 6.60 6.62 47.62 7.08 7.11
51.00 6.62 6.64 47.50 7.10 7.13
50.87 6.63 6.66 47.37 7.12 7.15
50.75 6.65 6.67 47.25 7.14 7.17
50.62 6.66 6.69 47.12 7.16 7.19
50.50 6.68 6.71 47.00 7.18 7.21
50.37 6.70 6.72 46.87 7.20 7.23
50.25 6.73 6.75 46.75 7.22 7.25
50.12 6.73 6.75 46.62 7.24 7.27
50.00 6.75 6.77 46.50 7.26 7.29
49.87 6.76 6.79 46.27 7.28 7.31
49.75 6.80 6.82 46.25 7.30 7.33
49.62 6.80 6.82 46.12 7.32 7.35
49.50 6.82 6.84 46.00 7.34 7.37
49.37 6.83 6.85 45.87 7.36 7.39
49.25 6.85 6.87 45.75 7.38 7.41
49.12 6.87 6.89 45.62 7.40 7.43
49.00 6.89 6.91 45.50 7.42 7.45
48.87 6.90 6.93 45.37 7.44 7.47
48.75 6.92 6.95 45.25 7.46 7.49
48.62 6.94 6.96 45.12 7.48 7.51
*Conversion table relating diopters of corneal refracting power to millimeters of radius of curvature
for an assumed index of refraction of 1.3375. The column under convex curvature should be used
when the keratometer is used to measure the cornea, and the third column is used to measure concave
surfaces such as the CPC of a corneal contact lens in terms of its equivalent corneal refracting power
in diopters.
(With permission from Stein HA, Slatt BJ, Stein RM, Freeman MI: Fitting Guide for Rigid and Soft Contact
Lenses: A Practical Approach, 4th edition. St. Louis: Mosby, 2002).
Appendix E 411
Diopters Radius (mm) Diopters Radius (mm)
Drum Curvature Drum Curvature

reading Convex Concave reading Convex Concave
45.00 7.50 7.53 40.37 8.36 8.39
44.87 7.52 7.55 40.25 8.39 8.42
44.75 7.55 7.57 40.12 8.41 8.44
44.62 7.57 7.58 40.00 8.44 8.47
44.50 7.59 7.60 39.87 8.47 8.50
44.37 7.61 7.62 39.75 8.49 8.52
44.25 7.63 7.65 39.62 8.52 8.55
44.12 7.65 7.67 39.50 8.54 8.58
44.00 7.67 7.70 39.37 8.57 8.61
43.87 7.67 7.72 39.25 8.60 8.63
43.75 7.72 7.74 39.12 8.63 8.66
43.62 7.74 7.77 39.00 8.65 8.69
43.50 7.76 7.79 38.87 8.68 8.72
43.37 7.78 7.81 38.75 8.71 8.75
43.25 7.80 7.84 38.62 8.74 8.78
43.12 7.83 7.86 38.50 8.77 8.80
43.00 7.85 7.88 38.37 8.80 8.84
42.87 7.88 7.90 38.25 8.82 8.86
42.75 7.90 7.92 38.12 8.85 8.89
42.62 7.92 7.95 38.00 8.88 8.92
42.50 7.95 7.97 37.87 8.91 8.95
42.37 7.97 8.00 37.75 8.94 8.98
42.25 8.00 8.02 37.62 8.97 9.01
42.12 8.01 8.05 37.50 9.00 9.04
42.00 8.04 8.07 37.37 9.03 9.07
41.87 8.06 8.10 37.25 9.06 9.10
41.75 8.09 8.12 37.12 9.09 9.13
41.62 8.11 8.15 37.00 9.12 9.16
41.50 8.13 8.17 36.87 9.14 9.19
41.37 8.16 8.19 36.75 9.19 9.23
41.25 8.18 8.22 36.62 9.22 9.26
41.12 8.20 8.24 36.50 9.25 9.29
41.00 8.23 8.27 36.37 9.28 9.32
40.87 8.26 8.29 36.25 9.31 9.35
40.75 8.28 8.32 36.12 9.35 9.38
40.62 8.31 8.34 36.00 9.38 9.42
40.50 8.34 8.37 34.00 9.93 9.97
Appendix F
Compensation for Effect of Vertex

Distances (Used When Plus Lens is
Moved Away from the Eye)
Rx Distance moved (mm)

power (D) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
7.00 6.95 6.90 6.86 6.81 6.76 6.72 6.67 6.63 6.59 6.54
7.25 7.20 7.15 7.10 7.05 7.00 6.95 6.90 6.85 6.81 6.76
7.50 7.44 7.39 7.43 7.28 7.23 7.18 7.13 7.08 7.03 6.98
7.75 7.69 7.63 7.57 7.52 7.46 7.41 7.35 7.30 7.24 7.19
8.00 7.94 7.87 7.81 7.75 7.69 7.63 7.58 7.52 7.46 7.41
8.25 8.18 8.12 8.05 7.99 7.92 7.86 7.80 7.74 7.68 7.62
8.50 8.43 8.36 8.29 8.22 8.15 8.09 8.02 7.96 7.90 7.83
8.75 8.67 8.60 8.53 8.45 8.38 8.31 8.24 8.18 8.11 8.05
9.00 8.92 8.84 8.76 8.69 8.61 8.54 8.47 8.40 8.33 8.26
9.25 9.17 9.08 9.00 8.92 8.84 8.76 8.69 8.61 8.54 8.47
9.50 9.41 9.32 9.24 9.15 9.07 8.99 8.91 8.83 8.75 8.68
9.75 9.66 9.56 9.47 9.38 9.30 9.21 9.13 9.04 8.96 8.88
10.00 9.90 9.80 9.71 9.62 9.52 9.43 9.35 9.26 9.17 9.09
10.25 10.15 10.04 9.94 9.85 9.75 9.66 9.56 9.47 9.38 9.30
10.50 10.39 10.28 10.18 10.08 9.98 9.88 9.78 9.69 9.59 9.50
10.75 10.64 10.52 10.41 10.31 10.20 10.10 10.00 9.90 9.80 9.71
11.00 10.88 10.76 10.65 10.54 10.43 10.32 10.21 10.11 10.01 9.91
11.25 11.12 11.00 10.88 10.77 10.65 10.54 10.43 10.32 10.22 10.11
11.50 11.37 11.24 11.12 10.99 10.87 10.76 10.64 10.53 10.42 10.31
11.75 11.61 11.48 11.35 11.22 11.10 10.98 10.86 10.74 10.63 10.51
12.00 11.86 11.72 11.58 11.45 11.32 11.19 11.07 10.95 10.83 10.71
12.25 12.10 11.96 11.82 11.68 11.54 11.41 11.28 11.16 11.03 10.91
12.50 12.35 12.20 12.05 11.90 11.76 11.63 11.49 11.36 11.24 11.11
12.75 12.59 12.43 12.28 12.13 11.99 11.84 11.71 11.57 11.44 11.31
13.00 12.83 12.67 12.51 12.36 12.21 12.06 11.92 11.78 11.64 11.50
Appendix F 413

power (D) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
13.25 13.08 12.91 12.74 12.58 12.43 12.27 12.13 11.98 11.84 11.70
13.50 13.32 13.15 12.97 12.81 12.65 12.49 12.33 12.18 12.04 11.89
13.75 13.56 13.38 13.21 13.03 12.87 12.70 12.54 12.39 12.24 12.09
14.00 13.81 13.62 13.44 13.26 13.08 12.92 12.75 12.59 12.43 12.28
14.25 14.05 13.86 13.67 13.48 13.30 13.13 12.96 12.79 12.63 12.47
14.50 14.29 14.09 13.90 13.70 13.52 13.34 13.16 12.99 12.83 12.66
14.75 14.54 14.33 14.12 13.93 13.74 13.55 13.37 13.19 13.02 12.85
15.00 14.78 14.56 14.35 14.15 13.95 13.76 13.57 13.39 13.22 13.04
15.25 15.02 14.80 14.58 14.37 14.17 13.97 13.78 13.59 13.41 13.23
15.50 15.26 15.03 14.81 14.60 14.39 14.18 13.98 13.79 13.60 13.42
15.75 15.51 15.27 15.04 14.82 14.60 14.39 14.19 13.99 13.79 13.61
16.00 15.75 15.50 15.27 15.04 14.81 14.60 14.39 14.18 13.99 13.79
16.25 15.99 15.74 15.49 15.25 15.03 14.81 14.59 14.38 14.18 13.98
16.50 16.23 15.97 15.72 15.48 15.24 15.01 14.79 14.57 14.37 14.16
16.75 16.47 16.21 15.95 15.70 15.45 15.22 14.99 14.77 14.56 14.35
17.00 16.72 16.44 16.18 15.92 15.67 15.43 15.19 14.96 14.74 14.53
17.25 16.96 16.67 16.40 16.44 15.88 15.63 15.39 15.16 14.93 14.71
17.50 17.20 16.91 16.63 16.36 16.09 15.84 15.59 15.35 15.12 14.89
17.75 17.44 17.14 16.85 16.57 16.30 16.04 15.79 15.54 15.31 15.07
18.00 17.68 17.37 17.08 16.79 16.51 16.25 15.99 15.73 15.49 15.25
18.25 17.92 17.61 17.30 17.01 16.72 16.45 16.18 15.92 15.68 15.43
18.50 18.16 17.84 17.53 17.23 16.93 16.65 16.38 16.11 15.86 15.61
18.75 18.40 18.07 17.75 17.44 17.14 16.85 16.57 16.30 16.04 15.79
19.00 18.65 18.30 17.98 17.66 17.35 17.06 16.77 16.49 16.23 15.97
19.25 18.89 18.54 18.20 17.87 17.56 17.26 16.96 16.68 16.41 16.14
19.50 19.13 18.77 18.42 18.09 17.77 17.46 17.16 16.87 16.59 16.32
19.75 19.37 19.00 18.65 18.30 17.97 17.66 17.35 17.06 16.77 16.49
20.00 19.61 19.23 18.87 18.52 18.18 17.86 17.54 17.24 16.95 16.67
20.25 19.85 19.46 19.09 18.73 18.39 18.06 17.74 17.43 17.13 16.84
20.50 20.09 19.69 19.31 18.95 18.59 18.25 17.93 17.61 17.31 17.01
20.75 20.33 19.92 19.53 19.16 18.80 18.45 18.12 17.80 17.48 17.18
21.00 20.57 20.15 19.76 19.37 19.00 18.65 18.31 17.98 17.66 17.36
21.25 20.81 20.38 19.98 19.59 19.21 18.85 18.50 18.16 17.84 17.53
21.50 21.05 20.61 20.20 19.80 19.41 19.04 18.69 18.34 18.01 17.70
21.75 21.29 20.84 20.42 20.01 19.62 19.24 18.88 18.53 18.19 17.87
Appendix G
Compensation for Effect of Vertex

Distances (Used When Plus Lens is
Moved Toward the Eye)

power (D) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
7.00 7.05 7.10 7.15 7.20 7.25 7.31 7.36 7.42 7.47 7.53
7.25 7.30 7.36 7.41 7.47 7.52 7.58 7.64 7.70 7.76 7.82
7.50 7.56 7.61 7.67 7.73 7.79 7.85 7.92 7.98 8.04 8.11
7.75 7.81 7.87 7.93 8.00 8.06 8.13 8.19 8.26 8.33 8.40
8.00 8.06 8.13 8.20 8.26 8.33 8.40 8.47 8.55 8.62 8.70
8.25 8.32 8.39 8.46 8.53 8.60 8.68 8.76 8.83 8.91 8.99
8.50 8.57 8.56 8.72 8.80 8.88 8.96 9.04 9.12 9.20 9.29
8.75 8.83 8.91 8.99 9.07 9.15 9.23 9.32 9.41 9.50 9.59
9.00 9.08 9.16 9.25 9.34 9.42 9.51 9.61 9.70 9.79 9.89
9.25 9.34 9.42 9.51 9.61 9.70 9.79 9.89 9.99 10.09 10.19
9.50 9.59 9.68 9.78 9.88 9.97 10.07 10.18 10.28 10.39 10.50
9.75 9.85 9.94 10.04 10.15 10.25 10.36 10.46 10.58 10.69 10.80
10.00 10.10 10.20 10.31 10.42 10.53 10.64 10.75 10.87 10.99 11.11
10.25 10.36 10.46 10.58 10.69 10.80 10.92 11.04 11.17 11.29 11.42
10.50 10.61 10.73 10.84 10.96 11.08 11.21 11.33 11.46 11.60 11.73
10.75 10.87 10.99 11.11 11.23 11.36 11.49 11.62 11.76 11.90 12.04
11.00 11.12 11.25 11.38 11.51 11.64 11.78 11.92 12.06 12.21 12.36
11.25 11.38 11.51 11.64 11.78 11.92 12.06 12.21 12.36 12.52 12.68
11.50 11.63 11.77 11.91 12.05 12.20 12.35 12.51 12.67 12.83 12.99
11.75 11.89 12.03 12.18 12.33 12.48 12.64 12.80 12.97 13.14 13.31
12.00 12.15 12.30 12.45 12.61 12.77 12.93 13.10 13.27 13.45 13.64
12.25 12.40 12.56 12.72 12.88 13.05 13.22 13.40 13.58 13.77 13.96
12.50 12.66 12.82 12.99 13.16 13.33 13.51 13.70 13.89 14.08 14.29
12.75 12.91 13.08 13.26 13.44 13.62 13.81 14.00 14.20 14.40 14.61
13.00 13.17 13.35 13.53 13.71 13.90 14.10 14.30 14.51 14.72 14.94
Appendix G 415

power (D) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
13.25 13.43 13.61 13.80 13.99 14.19 14.39 14.60 14.82 15.04 15.27
13.50 13.68 13.87 14.07 14.27 14.48 14.69 14.91 15.13 15.37 15.61
13.75 13.94 14.14 14.34 14.55 14.77 14.99 15.21 15.45 15.69 15.94
14.00 14.20 14.40 14.61 14.83 15.05 15.28 15.52 15.77 16.02 16.28
14.25 14.46 14.67 14.89 15.11 15.34 15.58 15.83 16.09 16.35 16.62
14.50 14.71 14.93 15.16 15.39 15.63 15.88 16.14 16.41 16.88 16.96
14.75 14.97 15.20 15.43 15.67 15.92 16.18 16.45 16.73 17.01 17.30
15.00 15.23 15.46 15.71 15.96 16.22 16.48 16.76 17.05 17.34 17.65
15.25 15.49 15.73 15.98 16.24 16.51 1.679 17.07 17.37 17.68 18.00
15.50 15.74 16.00 16.26 16.52 16.80 17.09 17.39 17.69 18.01 18.35
15.75 16.00 16.26 16.53 16.81 17.10 17.39 17.70 18.02 18.35 18.70
16.00 16.26 16.53 16.81 17.09 17.39 17.70 18.02 18.35 18.69 19.05
16.25 16.52 16.80 17.08 17.38 17.69 18.01 18.34 18.68 19.03 19.40
16.50 16.78 17.06 17.36 17.67 17.98 18.31 18.65 19.01 19.38 19.76
16.75 17.04 17.33 17.64 17.95 18.28 18.62 18.97 19.34 19.72 20.12
17.00 17.29 17.60 17.91 18.24 18.58 18.93 19.30 19.68 20.07 20.48
17.25 17.55 17.87 18.19 18.53 18.88 19.24 19.62 20.01 20.42 20.85
17.50 17.81 18.13 18.47 18.82 19.18 19.55 19.94 20.35 20.77 21.21
17.75 18.07 18.40 18.75 19.11 19.48 19.86 20.27 20.69 21.12 21.58
18.00 18.33 18.67 19.03 19.40 19.78 20.18 20.59 21.03 21.48 21.95
18.25 18.59 18.94 19.31 19.69 20.08 20.49 20.92 21.37 21.84 22.32
18.50 18.85 19.21 19.59 19.98 20.39 20.81 21.25 27.71 22.20 22.70
18.75 19.11 19.48 19.87 20.27 20.69 21.13 21.58 22.06 22.56 23.08
19.00 19.37 19.75 20.15 20.56 20.99 21.44 21.91 22.41 22.92 23.46
19.25 19.63 20.02 20.43 20.86 21.30 21.76 22.25 22.75 23.28 23.81
19.50 19.89 20.29 20.71 21.15 21.61 22.08 22.58 23.10 23.65 24.22
19.75 20.15 20.56 20.99 21.44 21.91 22.40 22.92 23.46 24.02 24.61
20.00 20.41 20.83 21.28 21.74 22.22 22.73 23.26 23.81 24.39 25.00
20.25 20.67 21.10 21.56 22.03 22.53 23.05 23.59 24.16 24.76
20.50 20.82 21.38 21.84 22.33 22.84 23.38 23.93 24.52
20.75 20.91 21.65 22.13 22.63 23.15 23.70 24.28
21.00 21.45 21.92 22.41 22.93 23.46 24.03
21.25 21.71 22.19 22.70 23.22 23.78
21.50 21.97 22.47 22.98 23.52
21.75 22.23 22.74 23.37
Appendix H
Dioptric Curves for Extended

Range of Keratometer
High power Low power

(with + 1.25 D lens over aperture) (with –1.00 D lens over aperture)
Drum True Drum True Drum True Drum True

reading dioptric reading dioptric reading dioptric reading dioptric
curvature curvature curvature curvature
(D) (D) (D) (D) (D) (D) (D) (D)
52.00 61.00 49.37 58.37 42.00 36.00 39.37 33.37
51.87 60.87 49.25 58.25 41.87 35.87 39.25 33.25
51.75 60.75 49.12 58.12 41.75 35.75 39.12 33.12
51.62 60.62 49.00 58.00 41.62 35.62 39.00 33.00
51.50 60.50 41.50 35.50
51.37 60.37 48.75 57.75 41.37 35.37 38.87 32.87
51.25 60.25 48.62 5762 41.25 35.25 38.75 32.75
51.12 60.12 48.50 57.50 41.12 35.12 38.62 32.62
51.00 60.00 48.37 57.37 41.00 35.00 38.50 32.50
48.25 57.25 38.37 32.37
50.87 59.87 48.12 57.12 40.87 34.87 38.25 32.25
50.75 59.75 48.00 57.00 40.75 34.75 38.12 32.12
50.62 59.62 40.62 34.62 38.00 32.00
50.50 59.50 47.87 56.87 40.50 34.50
50.37 59.37 47.75 56.75 40.37 34.37 37.87 31.87
50.25 59.25 47.62 56.62 40.25 34.25 37.75 3175
50.12 59.12 47.50 56.50 40.12 34.12 37.62 31.62
50.00 59.00 47.37 58.37 40.00 34.00 37.50 31.50
47.25 56.25 37.37 31.37
49.87 58.87 47.12 56.12 39.87 33.87 37.25 31.25
49.75 58.75 47.00 56.00 39.75 33.75 37.12 31.12
49.62 58.62 39.62 33.62 37.00 31.00
49.50 58.50 46.87 55.87 39.50 33.50
Courtesy: Bausch and Lomb, Inc.
Appendix H 417
High power Low power

(with + 1.25 D lens over aperture) (with –1.00 D lens over aperture)
Drum True Drum True Drum True Drum True

reading dioptric reading dioptric reading dioptric reading dioptric
curvature curvature curvature curvature
(D) (D) (D) (D) (D) (D) (D) (D)
46.75 55.75 44.25 53.25 36.87 30.87
44.62 55.62 44.12 53.12 36.75 30.75
46.50 55.50 44.00 53.00 36.62 30.62
46.37 55.37 36.50 30.50
46.25 55.25 43.87 52.87 36.37 30.37
46.12 55.12 43.75 52.75 36.25 30.25
46.00 55.00 43.62 52.62 36.12 30.12
43.50 52.50 36.00 30.00
45.87 54.87 43.37 52.37
45.75 54.75 43.25 52.25
45.62 54.62 43.12 52.12
45.50 54.50 43.00 52.00
45.37 54.37
45.25 54.25
45.12 54.12
45.00 54.00
44.87 53.87
44.75 53.75
44.62 53.62
44.50 53.50
44.37 53.37
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND
SUPPLEMENTARY READINGS
Books, Monograms, DVDs, and CD-ROMs

1. American Academy of Ophthalmology. Basic and Clinical Science Course, 13
Sections. San Francisco: American Academy of Ophthalmology, 2010-2011.
2. American Academy of Ophthalmology. Introducing Ophthalmology: A Primer for
Office Staff, 2nd ed. San Francisco: American Academy of Ophthalmology, 2002.
3. American Academy of Ophthalmology. Preferred Practice Pattern (Series of
Clinical Topics). San Francisco: American Academy of Ophthalmology, 2011
(Revised Annually).
4. American Academy of Ophthalmology. The Eye Exam and Basic Ophthalmic
Instruments (DVD) San Francisco: 1988-2001. Reviewed for currency 2007.
5. Basak SK. Atlas on Clinical Ophthalmology. New Delhi: Jaypee Brothers
Medical Publishers, 2006.
6. Cassin B. Fundamentals for Ophthalmic Technical Personnel. Philadelphia: Elsevier/
Saunders, 1995.
7. Cassin B, Rubin ML (eds): Dictionary of Eye Terminology, 5th ed. Gainesville, FL:
Triad Publishing, 2006.
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Ophthalmic Dictionary

John S Massare BA MS PhD

Harold A Stein MD MSc (Ophth) DOMS (London) FRCS(C)

Raymond M Stein MD FRCS(C)

Foreword BENJAMIN F BOYD

Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers (P) Ltd.

© 2012, Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers

Inquiries for bulk sales may be solicited at: jaypee@jaypeebrothers.com

Ophthalmic Dictionary and Vocabulary Builder for Eye Care Professionals

First Edition: 1982

Fourth Edition: 2012

Robert E Freeman MSEE

Penny Cook Pilliar RO

Robert Pillier PhD

Harold A Stein, MD FRCS(C) and his distinguished co-authors have taken

Benjamin F Boyd MD FACS

added to this rapidly expanding subspecialty. Imaging words such as OCT

PART ONE: DICTIONAR

PART TWO: VOCABULAR

SECTION 1: BASIC SCIENCE

SECTION 2: REFRACTION, SPECTACLES,

SECTION 3: DISORDERS OF THE EYE

SECTION 4: SURGERY OF THE EYE

21. Glaucoma Surgery 342

SECTION 5: OPHTHALMIC TESTS, DEVICES,

Bibliography and Supplementary Readings 419

Fig. 1-1. Surface anatomy of the eye

Tear duct system

Fig. 1-7. Crystalline lens

Retinal element: Any point on the retina.

Sphincter iridis: The constrictor muscle of the iris.

Trichromatic color theory: The theory of color vision production using a

Focus is derived from Latin meaning “hearth” or “fireplace,” because

Aspheric lens: A lens that corrects for peripheral distortion by having a

Footcandle: Unit of illumination. One footcandle is generated by 1 lumen

Some solutions are affected by exposure to air as they oxidize.

Complications of drug therapy

Amiodarone: An oral antiarrhythmic agent that is associated with a whorl

Streptomycin Given intramuscularly. Can cause hypersensitivity

Antibiotic resistance: Some bacteria develop of strains that become resistant

Benzalkonium: A quaternary ammonium wetting agent used as an antiseptic

Codeine: A mild analgesic that is a derivative of morphine. Available by

cushingoid facies, hirsutism, cataracts, and amenorrhea. Local side effects

Drugs used as topical glucocorticoids

are manufactured utilizing DNA technology. The mechanism of inter-

Lincomycin: An antibiotic effective against most gram-positive bacteria,

Mineralocorticoids: Hormones of the adrenal gland concerned with the

Ophthetic: See proparacaine hydrochloride.

chlorpromazine (Thorazine). These drugs also are the mainstay of

Potassium permanganate: Chemical that in dilute solutions is used as an

Succinylcholine (Anectine): A drug used with general anesthesia as a muscle

Tetracaine hydrochloride (Pontocaine): A long-acting surface anesthetic agent

Turpentine: A volatile distillate from pine trees; it can cause a superficial

penetrance is used and refers to the presence or absence of a phenotypic

Genetic counseling imparts knowledge of human disease to the patient and

Corectopia: Deformed pupil.

Microcornea: A small cornea, less than 9 mm in horizontal diameter;

Fig. 7-1. Retrospective study

Fig. 7-2. Prospective study

Fig. 7-3. Clinical trial

Fig. 7-4. The normal (Gaussian) distribution of refractive

Standard deviation is a measure of dispersion obtained by taking the

Control group: Comparison group for evaluating the effect of an