Ground Improvement Techniques 15CV654

UNIT-IV

CHEMICAL MODIFICATION

4.1. CEMENT STABILIZATION

Cement is being increasingly used as a stabilizing material for soil, particularly in the
construction of highways and earth dams. The first controlled soil–cement construction in the
United States was carried out near Johnsonville, South Carolina, in 1935.

Cement can be used to stabilize sandy and clayey soils. As in the case of lime, cement
helps decrease the liquid limit and increase the plasticity index and workability of clayey
soils. Cement stabilization is effective for clayey soils when the liquid limit is less than 45 to
50 and the plasticity index is less than about 25. The optimum requirements of cement by
volume for effective stabilization of various types of soil are given in like lime; cement helps
increase the strength of soils, and strength increases with curing time. Presents some typical
values of the unconfined compressive strength of various types of untreated soil and of soil–
cement mixtures made with approximately 10% cement by weight.

Granular soils and clayey soils with low plasticity obviously are most suitable for
cement stabilization. Calcium clays are more easily stabilized by the addition of cement,
whereas sodium and hydrogen clays, which are expansive in nature, respond better to lime
stabilization. For these reasons, proper care should be given in the selection of the stabilizing
material. For field compaction, the proper amount of cement can be mixed with soil either at
the site or at a mixing plant. The soil is compacted to the required unit weight with a
predetermined amount of water. Similar to lime injection, cement slurry made of Portland
cement and water (in a water– cement ratio of 0.5:5) can be used for pressure grouting of
poor soils under foundations of buildings and other structures. Grouting decreases the
hydraulic conductivity of soils and increases their strength and load-bearing capacity. For the
design of low-frequency machine foundations subjected to vibrating forces, stiffening the
foundation soil by grouting and thereby increasing the resonant frequency is sometimes
necessary.

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4.1.1. CRITERIA FOR CEMENT STABILIZATION

The criteria for cement percentage required for stabilization shall be as follows. The
following Methodology shall be used for quality control and soil-cement stabilization.
1. Perform the mechanical and physical property tests of the soils.

2. Select the Cement Content based on the following:

3. Perform the Standard Proctor on soil-cement mixtures for the change in maximum dry unit
weight in accordance with AASTO T 134.

4. Perform the unconfined compression and CBR tests on the pair of specimens molded at
95% of the standard Proctor in case of stabilization. A gain of 100 psi of cement stabilization
is adequate enough for stabilization and % cement shall be adjusted. Although, there is no test
requirement for the optimum cement content when using cement to modify the sub grade. An
amount of cement 4% ± 0.50% by dry weight of the soil should be used for the modification
of the sub grade.

4.1.2. FLY ASH STABILIZATION

Fly ash is a by-product of the pulverized coal combustion process usually associated with
electric power-generating plants. It is a fine-grained dust and is composed primarily of silica,
alumina, and various oxides and alkalis. Fly ash is pozzolanic in nature and can react with
hydrated lime to produce cementations products. For that reason, lime–fly-ash mixtures can
be used to stabilize highway bases and sub bases. Effective mixes can be prepared with 10 to
35% fly ash and 2 to 10% lime. Soil–lime–fly-ash mixes are compacted under controlled
conditions, with proper amounts of moisture to obtain stabilized soil layers. A certain type of
fly ash, referred to as

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―Type C fly ash is obtained from the burning of coal primarily from the western United
States. This type of fly ash contains a fairly large proportion (up to about 25%) of free lime
that, with the addition of water, will react with other fly-ash compounds to form cementations
products. Its use may eliminate the need to add manufactured lime.

4.2. EFFECT OF CEMENT STABILIZATION ON PERMEABILITY

CHARACTERISTICS
The permeability of the cement treated clay reduces with increase in cement content and
curing time. It is also found that the permeability of the treated clay reduced to 1/4th or less
than that of the untreated clay. It was fond that the permeability reduces significantly as the
cement content increases from 10 to 20%.

4.3. EFFECT OF CEMENT STABILIZATION ON STRENTH

CHARACTERISTICS
The effectiveness of cement on the strength development was evaluated using unconfined
compressive strength tests. The unconfined compressive strength increases with increasing
cement amount which is obvious binder mass increases per unit volume soil. However the
strength level different for different soil that‘s wye for any specified cement amount strength
might be different for different soil.

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4.4. LIME STABILIZATION

The types of lime commonly used to stabilize fine-grained soils are hydrated high-calcium
lime calcite quicklime (CaO), monohydrated dolomitic lime and dolomite quicklime. The
quantity of lime used to stabilize most soils usually is in the range from 5 to 10%. When lime
is added to clayey soils, two pozzolanic chemical reactions occur: cation exchange and
flocculation– agglomeration. In the cation exchange and flocculation–agglomeration
reactions, the monovalent captions generally associated with clays are replaced by the
divalent calcium ions. The cat ions can be arranged in a series based on their affinity for
exchange: Any cation can replace the ions to its right. For example, calcium ions can replace
potassium and sodium ions from clay. Flocculation–agglomeration produces a change in the
texture of clay soils. The clay particles tend to clump together to form larger particles,
thereby (a) decreasing the liquid limit, (b) increasing the plastic limit, (c) decreasing the
plasticity index, (d) increasing the shrinkage limit,
(e) increasing the workability, and (f) improving the strength and deformation properties of a
soil. Pozzolanic reaction between soil and lime involves a reaction between lime and the
silica and alumina of the soil to form cementing material. The pozzolanic reaction may
continue for a long time. The first 2 to 3% lime (on the dry-weight basis) substantially
influences the workability and the property (such as plasticity) of the soil. The addition of
lime to clayey soils also affects their compaction characteristics. H 5> H2O S 5> SiO2 C 5
>CaO
Lime Stabilization in the Field Lime stabilization in the field can be done in three ways. They
are
1. The in situ material or the borrowed material can be mixed with the proper amount of lime
at the site and then compacted after the addition of moisture.

2. The soil can be mixed with the proper amount of lime and water at a plant and then hauled
back to the site for compaction.

3. Lime slurry can be pressure injected into the soil to a depth of 4 to 5 m. shows a vehicle
used for pressure injection of lime slurry. The slurry-injection mechanical unit is mounted to
the injection vehicle. A common injection unit is a hydraulic-lift mast with crossbeams that
contain the injection rods.

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4. The rods are pushed into the ground by the action of the lift mast beams. The slurry is
generally mixed in a batching tank about 3 m in diameter and 12 m long and is pumped at
high pressure to the injection rods. Figure shows the lime slurry pressure injection process.
The ratio typically specified for the preparation of lime slurry is 1.13 kg of dry lime to a
gallon of water.

5. Because the addition of hydrated lime to soft clayey soils immediately increases the
plastic limit, thus changing the soil from plastic to solid and making it appear to dry up,

Limited amounts of the lime can be thrown on muddy and troublesome construction sites.
This action improves traffic ability and may save money and time. Quicklime‘s have also
been successfully used in drill holes having diameters of 100 to 150 mm for stabilization of
sub grades and slopes. For this type of work, holes are drilled in a grid pattern and then filled
with quicklime.

4.5. BITUMINOUS SOIL STABILIZATION

Bituminous materials such as asphalts, tars, and pitches are used in various consistencies to
improve the engineering properties of soils. Mixed with cohesive soils, bituminous materials
improve the bearing capacity and soil strength at low moisture content. The purpose of
incorporating bitumen into such soils is to water proof them as a means to maintain low
moisture content. Bituminous materials added to sand act as a cementing agent and produce a
stronger, more coherent mass. The amount of bitumen added varies from 4 to 7 percent for
cohesive materials and 4 to 10 percent for sandy materials. The primary use of bituminous
materials is in road construction where it may be the primary ingredient for the surface course
or be used in the subsurface and base courses for stabilizing soils.

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4.6. CHEMICAL STABILIZATION

1) CALCIUM CHLORIDE
When calcium chloride added to soil it causes colloidal reactions and alters the characteristics
of soil water. As calcium chloride is deliquescent and hygroscopic it reduces the loss of
moisture from the soil. It also chances of reduces of frost heave as the freezing point of water
is lowered. Calcium chloride is very effective as dust palliative. As the soils treated with
calcium chloride do not easily pickup water the method is effective for stabilization of silty
and clayey soils witch lose strength with an increase in water content. Calcium chloride
causes slightly increase in the maximum dry density.

2) SODIUM CHLORIDE

The action of sodium chloride is similar to that of calcium chloride in many respects.
However the tendency for attraction of moisture is somewhat lesser than that of calcium
chloride. When sodium chloride added to the soil crystallization occurs in the pores of the
soil and it forms a dense hard mat with the stabilized surface. The pores in the soil gets filled
up and retard further evaporation of water sodium chloride also checked the tendency for the
formation of shrinkage cracks.

3) LIGNIN
Lignin is available both in the powder form and in the form of sulphite liquid. Lignin in both
the forms has been in use as an additive to the soil for many years. Lignin is water soluble, its

stabilizing effects are not permanent. In an attempt to improve the action of lignin, the
chrome lignin process was developed and studied by smith (1952). An in soluble gel is
formed when sodium bichromate or potassium bichromate is added to the type of soil treated.
Lignin acts as acid if not neutralized. It is also reported that lignin also reduces from heave.

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4.7. CRITERIA FOR CHEMICAL SELECTION

When the chemical stabilization or modification of subgrade soils is considered as the most

economical or feasible alternate, the following criteria should be considered for chemical

selection based on index properties of the soils. (2)

1. Chemical Selection for Stabilization.

a. Lime: If PI > 10 and clay content (2μ) > 10%.

b. Cement: If PI ≤ 10 and < 20% passing No. 200.

Note: Lime shall be quicklime only.

2. Chemical Selection for Modification

a. Lime: PI ≥ 5 and > 35 % Passing No. 200

b. Fly ash and lime fly ash blends: 5 < PI < 20 and > 35 % passing No. 200

c. Cement and/ or Fly ash: PI < 5 and ≤ 35 % Passing No. 200

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