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Amtech Academy
103, Sai Paradise, Plot No 100, Sector 1S, New Panvel
1.
2. Contact Nos. 9321215282/ 9029023210
SYLLABUS
Module 1: Crystallography and X-rays [ 22- 30 marks]
Lattice, basis, crystal axes, unit cells, lattice parameters & crystal systems SC. BCC.
FCC. Diamond, NaCI, zinc blend and HCP crystal structures, Miller indices, planes &
directions, Liquid crystals & phases, LCD displays & specifications.
X-rays - Origin of x-rays and x-ray spectra, x-ray & Bragg law and determination of
crystal structure.
Real crystals - crystal imperfections point defects and dislocations.
Module 2: Physics of Semiconductors [ 15- 20 marks]
Classification of solids, Fermi-Dirac stastics , Concept of Fermi level & its variation
with temperature, impurity and applied voltage
Intrinsic & extrinsic carrier concentrations carrier concentration, Carrier drift, mobility,
resistivity and Hall effect, carrier diffusion, Einsteins relations, current dens & continuity
equations
Energy band diagrams of p-n junction, formation of depletion region. Derivation for
depletion layer width
Module 3: Superconductivity [ 10- 15 marks]
Critical temperature, Critical magnetic field, Type -I and type –II super conductors, high
Tc super conductors.
Meissner effect, Josephson effect.
SQUIDS, Plasma confinement Maglev.
Module 4: Acoustics [ 10- 15 marks]
Acoustics of building, Absorption , Importance of Re verberation Time, Units of
Loudness, Decibel, Phon
Condition for Good Acoustics methods of designs for good Acoustics Determination of
Absorption coefficient ,Noise Pollution.
Module 5: Ultrasonics [ 10- 15 marks]
Principles of production. Piezo-electric & magnetostriction effect.
Piezoelectric & magnetostriction oscillator; ultrasonic materials - quartz & ferroelectric
materials, cavitations effect.
Application based on cavitations effect and Echo sounding, ultrasonic Imaging & medical
diagnosis.
Module 6: Electron Optics [ 10- 15 marks]
Electrostatic & Magnetostatic focusing system
Construction & working of CRT, CRO and its application
SPACE LATTICE
W. Bravai had shown that based on the point symmetry in space, there are only
fourteen different lattice types required to describe all possible arrangements.
Each one of them is called the Bravais lattice.
5. Draw the unit cell for SC, BCC and FCC and calculate the average number of
atoms per unit cell for SC, BCC and FCC?
Ans.
6. Define atomic radius and derive the relation between lattice constant (a) and
atomic radius (r) for SC , BCC and FCC?
Ans.
Atomic Radius:- It is defined as half the distance between nearest neighbours in a crystal of
pure element. It is normally expressed in terms of lattice constant “a”. Atomic radius is denoted
by r.
In this structure atoms In this structure atoms touch In this case atoms touch each other
touch each other along each other along the diagonal along the diagonal of the cube.
the lattice of any face of the cube
2r = a By Pythagoras theorem In ∆ ABC
2 2 2
Therefore, r = a/2 a +a = (4r) By Pythagoras theorem
2 a2= 16 r2 AB2+BC2= AC2
Therefore, r = a / 2√2 a2+a2= AC2
Therefore face diagonal AC= a√2
In ∆ ACD; AC2+CD2= AD2
2a2+ a2 = AD2
Therefore Body diagonal AD= a√3
Hence 4r= a√3
r = (a√3) / 4
7. Define Coordination number and calculate for SCC , BCC and FCC with
explanation?
Ans.
• Coordination number of an atom in a crystal is the number of nearest neighboring
atoms which are simultaneously in contact with that atom.
• It signifies the tightness of packing of atoms in crystal.
8. Define Atomic Packing Factor and calculate the APF for SC, BCC and FCC?
Ans
• Atomic Packing Fraction (APF) is related with finding how efficiently the unit cell
volume is filled by atoms (or ions in ionic solids).
• It is concerned with the stability of the structure.
• It is defined as the ratio of the volume of the atoms in the unit cell to the total volume of
unit cell.
• Derivation
Let ‘n’ represent the number of atoms per unit cell
Let ‘v’ be the volume of single atom = (4/3)π r3
Let ‘V’ the total volume of the unit cell
= n X.v
V
Amtech Academy
Prof. ARP- 902 902 3210
9. Define Packing Efficiency, VOID Space and calculate the same for SCC,BCC
and FCC?
Ans.
PACKING EFFICENCY
• Packing efficiency is the APF expressed as a percentage term.
SC = 0.52x 100 = 52%
BCC = 0.68 x 100 = 68 %
FCC = 0.74 x 100 = 74 %
VOID SPACE
• It refers to the volume of unit cell remaining vacant after it is filled by atoms in different
types.
• VOID SPACE when expressed in percentage it is referred to as VOID SPACE
PERCENTAGE
VOID SPACE % = (100 – PE)%
Mass of each molecule of the solid is M/N where N is the Avgadro’s Number.
Let the unit cell contains n molecules. Then mass of the unit cell would be
m = n X M/N . . . . . . .(2)
Since we are referring to the same mass m, equating steps (1) and (2), we get
ρ a3 = n X M/N
Note: For monoatomic solids i.e. solids having single atom as the basis, take atomic weight
(A) instead of molecular weight.
7. Explain the atomic arrangement in HCP along with its number of atoms, atomic
radius, APF, PE and density?
ATOMIC RADIUS
• The atoms are in contact along the edges of the hexagon.
2r=a
Therefore, r = a /2
COORDINATION NUMBER
• Each atom in the structure is positioned in valleys formed by three adjacent atoms of the
top layer and by three adjacent atoms in the bottom layer; and is surrounded by six
neighbour atoms in the middle layer.
• All these twelve atoms are in contact with the atom under consideration (CN= 12)
DENSITY OF HCP
ρ = 6 M____
N (3√2 a 3 )
8. Explain the atomic arrangement in diamond unit cell and calculate its average
number of atoms per unit cell, coordination number atomic radius, APF, PE ,VS
and VSP?
Ans.
Diamond like structure is also exhibited by Si, Ge, C, ZnS, CdS, etc.
ATOMIC ARRANGEMENT
ATOMIC RADIUS
2r = ( a √3) / 4
Therefore, r = ( a √3) / 8
4 π r3
APF = ___n X_ 3 ____
a3
8 X 4 π r3
= ______3_______
a3
8 X 4 π X ( a √3)3
= ___3__X__83__ = ( π√3) / 16.
3
a
= 0.34
Packing Efficiency = 34 %
CORDINATION NUMBER= 4
9. Explain the atomic arrangement in NaCl unit cell and calculate its average
number of atoms per unit cell, coordination number atomic radius, APF, PE ,VS
and VSP?
Ans.
Examples: Many chlorides and oxides such as LIF, MgO, FeO, BaO exhibit this structure
CO-ORDINATION NUMBER
Every Na ion is surrounded by 6 Cl ions and vice-versa.
Therefore co-ordination number of NaCl is 6
ATOMIC RADIUS
(rNa+ + rCl-) = a/2
rNa+ = 0.98 AU and rCl- = 1.81 AU
Therefore a = 2 (rNa+ + rCl-)
= 2 X (0.98 +1.81)
= 5.58 AU for NaCl
4 π (rNa+3 + rCl-3)
10. Explain the procedure to determine Miller indices of crystal plane which
intercepts all the three axis?
Ans.
• The crystal lattice may be regarded as made up of an aggregate of a set of parallel
equidistant planes passing through the lattice points which are known as lattice planes.
• Miller evolved a method to designate a plane in a crystal by three numbers (h, k, 1)
known as Miller indices.
• This method is now universally employed.
• The Miller indices are the three smallest possible integers which have the same ratios as
the reciprocals of the intercepts of the plane concerned on the three axes.
• The rules for fmding the Miller indices are as follows:
1. First of all determine the intercepts of plane on the three cooordinate axes.
2. Secondly take the reciprocals of these inter-cepts.
3. Find the L.C.M. of denominators
4. Multiplying the LCM with reciprocal shall give the Miller indices of this plane.
EXAMPLE 1:- Find the Miller indices where the plane cuts the intercepts of 2, 3 and 4 units
along the three axes.
• Intercepts are 2, 3 and 4.
• Reciprocals are (1/2, 1/3, ¼)
• LCM= 12
• Therefore Miller Indices are (6,4,3)
EXAMPLE 2:- Find the Miller indices for the plane shown below with intercepts (2a,2b,c)?
• Intercepts are 2,2,1.
• Reciprocals are (1/2, 1/2, 1)
• LCM= 2
• Therefore Miller Indices are (1,1,2)
Amtech Academy
Prof. ARP- 902 902 3210
FIGURE 3
• This is the relation between interplanar spacing d and the edge of the cube a.
PART –II
X- Rays
12. Explain construction and working of Coolidge tube for production of X-rays?
Ans.
• When fast moving electrons (e-) are suddenly stopped then X-rays are produced.
• The modern X-ray tube used for the production of X-rays is known as Coolidge tube, It
consists of highly evacuated hard glass bulb with a cathode (filament) and anti-cathode or
anode
• The cathode i.e. metal filament (F) is surrounded by molybdenum metal cylinder kept at
negative potential to the filament.
• Hence, the electrons emitted from the filament are concentrated into fine beam of
electrons. The target T consists of copper block in which a piece of tungsten or
molybdenum is fitted.
• Some of the high-velocity electrons penetrate the interior of the atoms of the target
material and are attracted by the positive charge of their nuclei.
• As an electron passes close to the positive nucleus, it is deflected from its path as shown
in Figure above.
• The electron experiences de-acceleration during its deflection in the strong field of the
nucleus.
• The energy lost during this de-acceleration is given off in the form of X.rays of
continuously varying wavelength (and hence frequency).
• These X.rays produce continuous spectrum.
15. Derive the formula for minimum wavelength of X-rays produced in continuous
X-ray spectra (Duane Hunt Law)?
Ans.
• The striking electron has its velocity reduced from v to v’ during its passage through the
atom of the target material,
• Then its loss of energy is.( ½ mv2 - ½ mv’2) and this must be equal to the energy of the
X-ray photons emitted.
½ mv2 - ½ mv’2 = h.υ
• The highest or maximum frequency of the emitted X.rays corresponds to the case
when the electron is completely stopped i.e. when v’ = 0.
• In that case
½ mv2 = h.υmax……………………………………. (1)
• If the electron is accelerated through a potential of V volts,
½ mv2 = e. V………………………………. (2)
From (1) and (2)
h.υmax = e.V
• Since υmax= c/ λ min
h. c = e.V
λ min
• Therefore λ min = h. c / e.V
Ans.
• X-rays from a tube are collimated into a narrow beam by two fine slits SI and S2 normally
made of lead.
• The beam is incident at a glancing angle of θ on the face of a crystal plate (of calcite, rock
salt, NaCl or KCI etc.) which is mounted on the turntable T of the spectrometer.
• This turntable is capable of rotation about a vertical axis passing through its centre and its
rotation can be read from the circular scale.
• Most of the incident beam passes straight through the crystal plate but some X-rays au
scattered by the regularly-arranged atoms lying in different crystal planes.
• These scattered X-rays can be looked upon as having been reflected from the crystal
planes particularly those which au rich in atoms.
• The reflected X-ray beam enters an ionization chamber carried by an arm R which is
capable of rotation about the same axis as the turntable.
• The turntable and arm R are so linked together that when the turntable (and hence the
crystal) rotates through an angle θ, the arm R (and hence the ionization chamber) turns
through double the angle, i.e., 2θ.
• In this, way the beam is always reflected into the ionization chamber whatever its incident
or glancing angle at the crystal surface. The ionization current produced by the reflected
X-ray beam can be measured by a sensitive electrometer E (or the reflected beam can be
recorded on a photographic film in which case the spectrometer is known as
spectrograph)
Vacancy is produced due to the removal of an atom from its regular position in the lattice The removed atom
does not vanish. It travels to the surface of the material. For low concentration of vacancies, a relation is
n = N exp (-Ev/ KT)
Interstitial:- An extra atom of the same type is fitted into the void between the regularly
occupied sites is referred to as interstitial defect. Since in general the size of atom is larger than
the void into which it is fitted, so the energy required for the interstitial formation is higher than
that of vacancy formation.
Substitution impurities:- In this a foreign atom is found occupying a regular site in a crystal lattice
Schottky defect: - Missing of an ion pair (i.e. an anion and cation each) from the ionic crystal
lattice is called as Schottky defect. .
Frenkel defect:- For ionic crystal when a negative ion vacancy is associated with an interstitial
negative ion or a positive ion vacancy is associated with an interstitial positive ion then it is
called Frankel defect.
Liquid Crystals
20. What do you mean by liquid crystals?
Ans.
• Liquid crystals possess some degree of orientation order but not as good as solid material.
• To quantify how much order is present in a material an order parameter (S) is defined.
• The order parameter is given as follows,
S= ½ [3cos2 θ– 1] where θ is the angle made by each molecule with the director.
• Order parameters for solids, S = 1
Liquids, S = 0
Liquid crystals, S = 0.3 to 0.9
• Order parameter depends on temperature.
• As the temperature increases order parameter decreases.
Thermotropic Lyotropic
Smectic
• The term ‘nematic’ is derived from the Greek word which means ‘thread like’.
• This phase is characterized by the molecules that have no positional order but tend to
orient in the same direction i.e., along the director.
• Liquid crystals are also formed by disc or plate like structured molecules. These are
called discotic or columnar liquid crystals.
• The simplest discotic phase is called discotic nematic phase due to the fact that there is no
positional order but there is orientational order.
• There is a random motion of molecules but on an average , the axis perpendicular to the
plane of each molecule tend to orient along the director.
IMPORTANT FORMULAE
PROBLEMS
1. A crystal lattice plane (3 2 6) makes an intercept of 1 .5 A on X-axis in a crystal having lattice
constant 1 .5 A, 2 A and 4 A on X, Y and Z axis respectively. Find Y and Z axes intercepts.
(Dec03- 5 M)
2. Calculate density of GaAs using following each
Atomic weight of Ga: 69
Atomic weight of As : 74
Lattice constant for GaAs = 5.6 x 10-8
Number of atoms/unit cell in GaAs = 4. (Dec04- 5M)
3. Silver has FCC structure and its atomic radius is 1.441Ao . Find the spacing of (220) and
(111) planes. (Dec. 04- 5M)
4. Silver has FCC structure and its atomic radius is 1.441Ao . Find the spacing of (220) and
(111) planes. (May 05- 5 M)
5. A crystal lattice plane (3 2 6) makes an intercept of 1.5 A on X-axis in a crystal having lattice
constant 1 .5 A, 2 A and 4 A on X, Y and Z axis respectively. Find Y and Z axes intercepts.
(Dec. 05- 5 M)
6. Sketch the planes (123). (12 3) and [213] [110] (Dec.06-5 M)
7. What is lattice constant ? Find the relation of lattice constant wt’ a weight
and density in a single crystal. Gold belongs to cubic monatomic
structure. Its density is 19320 kg/m3 and the lattice constant a = 4.08 A.
Atomic weight . is 197.Find the type of unit cell. (Dec.06-8 M)
17. What is Frankel defect? How it is developed in a crystal? Estimate the ratio of vacancies
at (i) -119°C (ii) 80°C, where average energy to create vacancy is 1.8 e. V. (May-09-7 M)
16. Draw the following for a Simple Cubic Structure ( Dec.08- 3 M)
17.Silver has FCC structure & its atomic radius is 1.441 A°. Find the spacing of (111) plane
(Dec.08- 3 M)
18. Calculate the number of atoms per unit cell of a metal having the lattice parameter 2.9 A°
and density is 7.87 gm/cm3. Atomic weight of a metal is 55.85. Avagadro’s number is 6.023 x
1023/gm.mole. (Dec.08- 5 M)
19. Find the Miller Indices for a plane with the following set of intercepts (a/2, b, ∞).Draw the
plane for the same. (May08- 3M)
20. Calculate the distance between two atoms of a basis of the diamond structure, if the lattice
constant of structure is 5AU (May08- 3M)
21. Molybdenum has a BCC structure. Its density is 1 and its atomic weight is 95.94. Determine
the radius of molybdenum atom. (May10- 5M)
22. Draw following planes in Cubic Unit Cell (-1 1 -1), (1 0 -1) ,(-1 0 1) (Dec09- 3M)
23. Draw the following planes and directions in cubic cell. (101), (100), [ (May10-3M)
24. Sodium is a BCC Crystal. It’s density is 9 x 102 kg/rn and atomic weight is 23. Calculate
the lattice Constant for Sodium Crystal . (Dec09-5M)
25. Estimate the number of Frankel defects per mm3 in Silver chloride if energy of formation
of Frankel defects is 1 ev at 700°k. The molecular weight of AgCI is 0.143 kg/mol and specific
density is 556. (Dec09-5M)