Assessment Cover Sheet

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Assessment Title Assignment 1

Programme Title: BILM

TL7200
Course No.:

Course Title: International Organisations for Transport and Communications

Students’ Names: Zainab Abbas

Students’ IDs: 201400141

Tutor: Andrew Bardsley

Tuesday 17th April 2018, 23:30 hrs. Tuesday 17th April 2018, 23:30
Due Date: Date submitted:
hours
By submitting this assessment for marking, either electronically or as hard copy, I/we confirm the
following:
 This assignment is my/our own work
 Any information used has been properly referenced.
 I/we understand that a copy of my work may be used for moderation.
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Do not write below this line. For Polytechnic use only.

Assessor: Date of Marking:

Grade/Mark: 98%

Comments: A well written and enjoyable read. You have answered the questions
as required and obviously taken onboard what I have said in class.
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 Assignment 1 - Group Presentation

Marks available: 100

Course weighting: 30 %
Learning outcomes assessed: 1, 2, 3
Submission deadline: Tuesday 17th April 2018, 23:30 hours

Learning Outcomes

1. Identify and explain the workings of the principal organisations that

facilitate international transport
2. Evaluate the role and importance of international transport
associations and other relevant technical bodies, together with the
rationale for their existence
3. Analyse the effect of these organisations on the international
transport industry as a whole
4. Examine the economic, environmental and political context in which
international transport operates

“Maritime transport is essential to the world’s economy as over 90% of the world’s trade is carried by sea”
(United Nations, 2017), therefore the International Maritime Organisation (IMO) is one of the most
important organisations for international transport and communications globally.

Write a 3000-word essay on the following topics:

1. Evaluate and discuss the role and importance of the IMO and include the rationale for its
existence. (45 Marks) (LO 1,2)
2. Examine and comment on a significant maritime event that has led to the IMO adopting
major changes and the effect of those changes on the international maritime industry as a
whole. (45 Marks) (LO 3)

This assignment must be all your own work but you may use course notes and any handouts as guides to
completing the assignment. Cutting and pasting of information is not acceptable.
External research must be referenced using APA 6 th Edition referencing style (Please refer to APPENDIX 2 of
BILM Course Guide available on Moodle).

Submissions – Use this document as the template for your submission! Please submit the whole
document including cover page, instructions, your report and the rubric via Moodle. All assignments will be
checked for plagiarism and originality using Turnitin. All submissions must be saved using the following
naming convention (failure to do this may result in your assignment not being marked):
 First Name_ID number_ Assignment 2
 E.g. Ahmed_20109090_Assignment 2

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 BILM Assignments – Rules & Guidelines
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violation of this will be dealt with as stipulated in the policy.
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under the word limit will receive a low mark for failing to answer the question fully. If a submission is over the word
limit, the tutor will simply stop marking at that point where it is 10% over (e.g. 3300 words for an assignment with a
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severity of this, a possible outcome is your permanent exclusion from the Polytechnic.

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Table of Contents

...............................................................................1
Introduction.....................................................................................................................................................5
IMO role...........................................................................................................................................................5
Safety measures:..........................................................................................................................................5
Security measures:.......................................................................................................................................6
Environmental measures:.............................................................................................................................6
IMO importance:..............................................................................................................................................7
Key conventions...........................................................................................................................................7
SOLAS:..........................................................................................................................................................8
MARPOL:......................................................................................................................................................8
STCW:...........................................................................................................................................................9
FAL:...............................................................................................................................................................9
The rationale for IMO existence:....................................................................................................................10
Evaluation:.....................................................................................................................................................11
Erica oil spill:..................................................................................................................................................12
Investigation:..............................................................................................................................................12
Incident evaluation:....................................................................................................................................13
IMO response:............................................................................................................................................13
Compensation system................................................................................................................................14
Effects on the maritime industry:...............................................................................................................15
References......................................................................................................................................................15

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Introduction
This assignment is written with the purpose of evaluating and discussing the role and importance of

the IMO and will contain the rationale for its existence. Additionally, a major maritime incident, which led

to the IMO adopting significant changes will be examined and the effect of these changes on the maritime

industry will also be incorporated.

IMO role
IMO, which is a specialized agency of the United Nations is responsible for the global standard-

setting for international shipping including ships design, construction, equipment, manning, operation and

disposal to ensure the safety, security and environmental performance of the maritime sector (IMO, 2018).

These elements are maintained through adopting and amending international conventions, in addition to

setting guidelines and recommendations to contracting governments (United Nations, 2008, p. 1).

Accordingly, IMO provides coordination for a maritime sustainable development through processing

consultation and coordination among governments and other international bodies, in order to ensure

standardized shipping practices among the globe (United Nations, 2015).

Safety measures:

IMO most significant priority is the safety of human life at sea. In one way, this is ensured through

verifying systems adequacy in relation to technical and operational matters affecting shipping and human

safety (United Nations, 2013, p. 1). Ships classification is one element within the safety regime, as it

attempts to establish technical standards and requirements for the design and construction of marine

facilities, in particular ships. While, carrying out surveys regularly ensures compliance with these standards.

Accordingly, upon registration, ship’s hull condition is classified A, E, I, O or U, in declining orders to

construction strength and adjudged soundness, whereas equipment is classified 1,2 or 3, which are good,

middling or bad. For instance, a vessel that fully meet the standards may be designated A1, meaning

highest class (IACS, 2015, p. 4). Correspondingly, a ship out of class can fail in obtaining insurance and cargo

interests. This led to the development of self-regulatory systems that can compromise on safety matters

(BILM, 2018b).

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Security measures:

Another priority for the IMO is to detect and deter acts threatening security in the maritime sector

and the International Ship and Port Facility Security code is one instrument falling under this regime. The

ISPS code provides a mandatory-framework for managing risk of a potential unlawful act, through

mandating contracting governments to designate security personnel on each ship and port facility with the

duties of assessing and implementing security plans and exchanging information globally to any potential

security threats such as terrorist attacks (IMO, 2018). Since ISPS code introduction, there have been no

major security incidents in ports and on international ships, which implies the efficiency of this code (BILM,

2018a).

Environmental measures:

As sea transport is predicted to continue growing in line with global trade, IMO is focused on

promoting sustainable shipping practices by eliminating shipping impacts on the environment. Accordingly,

mandatory measures to reduce international shipping GHG emissions were adopted in 2011, which

represented the first compulsory CO2 regime for an international industry sector (United Nations, 2013, p.

2). Consequently, in 2012, global shipping only produced about 2.2% of the world’s total GHG emission, in

comparison to 2.8% in 2007, which resulted in a reduction by over 10% (ICS, 2014a, p. 3). This decrease

represents the effectiveness of the environmental measures adopted

Moreover, the Energy Efficiency Design Index entered into force in 2013, with the aim of requiring a

minimum energy efficiency level per capacity mile. The regulation covers new ships and a management

plan is also required for all ships in operations (United Nations, 2013, p. 2). The IMO EEDI will lead to an

approximate CO2 emission reductions between 25%-30% by 2030 (ICS, 2014a, p. 4).

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IMO importance:

The Convention on the Law of the Sea states that all nations have the right of innocent passage.

Consequently, shipping has been regarded as a universal activity in transport and trade. Thus, the vessel

ownership, crew and cargo interests belong to numerous relevant stakeholders from a myriad of nations

(BILM, 2018a). If each nation developed its own maritime legislation, varied and conflicting laws will result

in chaos and market distortion, in addition to poor levels of safety and environmental protection.

Accordingly, shipping global character implies the IMO importance in relation to implementing an

international approach to managing the maritime industry and supporting its operations (ICS, 2014, p. 3).

According to Lim (2017), annually, more than 50,000 ships carry more than 10 billion tons of vital

and desired cargoes. Therefore, the increase in the shipping sector activities introduce major concerns

regarding safety and environmental impact. Consequently, the significant importance of IMO lies in its

facilitation and respond to safety, security, efficiency and environmental matters in relation to the maritime

transport that without trade would be interrupted and lives would be put at risk (IMO, 2018).

Key conventions

To ensure that, IMO has adopted three key conventions, which are the International Convention for

the Safety of Life At Sea “SOLAS”, the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships

“MARPOL”, and the International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watch-keeping for

Seafarers “STCW” (IMO, 2018). These will be demonstrated as follows:

SOLAS:

This convention is one of the most important conventions. It was adopted in 1974, with the aim of

specifying minimum standards for the construction, equipment and operation of ships, with consideration

to safety matters. SOLAS general obligations are divided into 14 Chapters. For instance, chapter 1 includes

regulations with regard to the various types of ships review by contracting governments and the documents

issued to indicate ships compliance to the convention requirements. Moreover, chapter II-2 concerns ships

machinery and electrical installations requirements essential for the safety of the ship. Additionally, chapter

3 comprises life-saving arrangements including requirements for rescue boats and life jackets consistent

with the ship type. For safety of navigation, chapter V identifies that contracting governments should

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provide certain navigation safety services including maintenance services to all ships on all voyages (IMO,

2018). These measures can work against safety issues emerging at sea.

MARPOL:

The potential for oil to pollute the marine environment was recognized pre-IMO, through the

adoption of OLIPOL international convention for the prevention of sea pollution by oil in 1954 (IMO, 2018).

However, oil tankers incidents such as Torrey Canyon raised questions regarding the efficiency of measures

in place to prevent oil pollution from ships. At the same time, a massive development in the maritime

transport of oil and the size of tankers was experienced. Thus, the increasing amount of chemicals carried

by sea introduced a major concern for the environment and exposed the inadequacy of the 1945 OILPOL

Convention (IMO, 2018).

Consequently, the environmental impact of shipping was recognized by IMO through adopting

MARPOL convention, which came into force in 1983, with the objective of covering pollution prevention of

the marine environment by ships from accidental or operational causes. It includes six annexes. For

example, Annex 1 covers the prevention of pollution by oil and states that it is mandatory for ships to have

double-hulls to prevent oil spills. Furthermore, Annex 4 comprises sea pollution control requirements with

regard to sewage discharge and declares that except when a ship has an approved sewage treatment plant,

the sewage discharge is prohibited. In addition, Annex 5 specifies the distance of land and the manner, in

which garbage may be disposed and bans the disposal of any form of plastic into the sea (IMO, 2018). As a

result, MARPOL is associated with a 60% drop in oil pollution from ships (BILM, 2018)

STCW:

Previously, seafarers training standards, certification and watch-keeping of officers were developed

by individual governments, without referring to other countries practices. Consequently, shipping

procedures varied widely and thus, standardized practices that eliminates variations became necessary to

promote safe shipping practices. As a result, the 1978 STCW convention was adopted to establish basic

training, certification and watch-keeping requirements for seafarers applied globally, with the intention of

promoting safety of life and property at sea and protecting the marine environment. The convention

recommends minimum standards for seafarers that countries are obliged to meet or exceed. These are

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related to the training and certification requirements of shipmaster and deck department, engine

department, radio personnel, training requirements for personal on specific ship types, watch-keeping etc.

(IMO, 2018).

FAL:

As shipping grew in the twentieth century, so did the paperwork involved. Shipping international

nature includes countries independent customs procedures development, which presented varied required

paperwork, regarding ships carrying cross-borders. However, paperwork varied from port to port. Other

burdens such as local language and Visa requirements have added inconvenience to shippers and

unnecessary delays in global maritime traffic. Consequently, the importance of standardizing the

declarations required by public authorities has been recognized by the IMO to prevent chaos and

inefficiency in the global maritime industry. Consequently, in 1967, the Convention on Facilitation of

International Maritime Traffic “FAL” has come into force, with the objective of aiding cooperation between

governments, securing a practical degree in procedures formalities and most importantly, facilitating global

trade through the prevention of delays in maritime traffic. Accordingly FAL sets-out standardized

documentation known as FAL forms to reporting requirements on the arrival, stay and departure of ships

engaged in international voyages. These include IMO General Declaration, Cargo Declaration etc. (IMO,

2018) (IMO,2005).

The rationale for IMO existence:

In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the industrial revolution and the growth in

international commerce was followed by increase in the size and number of ships that can voyage

internationally. This led to the adoption of international treaties regarding shipping including safety, which

covered the subjects of collisions prevention, signaling etc. However, the need for international adoption of

common standards and effective enforcement related to the maritime industry called for a more formal

international structure. Consequently, IMO was founded in 1958 and by that time several important

conventions had already been introduced such as the SOLAS 1948 and the OILPOL 1954. In essence, the

period in which IMO existed was followed with tremendous change in global shipping and ensuring that

existing elements kept pace with these changes and adopting new conventions when the need arose (IMO,
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2018).

IMO efficient mechanism to elaborate and develop international treaties is implemented through

the acceptance procedure adopted for amendments, which ensures that the conventions are constantly

updated based on the industry requirements (United Nations, 2008, p. 1). For instance, to keep the STCW

convention up-to-date with the maritime developments, several amendments were adopted in 2010. These

include new training in modern technology requirements, such as information technology, new training and

certification requirements for electro-technical officers and introduction of modern training methodology

including distance learning and web-based learning (IMO, 2018).

Evaluation:

IMO is responsible for the global regulation of all aspects related to international shipping, which

applies to the ship itself. However, the contracting governments assume the responsibility for

implementation and enforcement. Once an IMO instrument has entered into force, ratifying countries can

apply it to ships of their flag and to other ships entering their ports and internal waters. This important

principle prevents any favorable treatment (IMO, 2011).

In general, IMO efforts towards improving the safety, security and eliminating shipping impact on

the environment have appeared to be successful, as in 2009, a marine policy study suggested that

ratification of key IMO conventions led to a decline in relevant accidents rate. Correspondingly, other

studies published between 2004 and 2009 show that many vessels continue sailing with grave irregularities

even after inspections. This is mainly because IMO implementation is a national member state

responsibility and despite that IMO maintains a high output of decisions related to maritime safety, security

and environmental concerns, little regard for the implementation capacity is observed (Olav F. Knudsena,

2017). For instance, piracy off Somalia, represents a major security challenge for the IMO. Although, piracy

measures set out, a review of incidents reported to the IMO suggested that not all member states had

acted pursuant to it (United Nations, 2013, p. 13). Thus, conventions are perhaps not negative.

Nevertheless, overall regime effectiveness might be reduced if these are not introduced with elaborate care

to their implementation.

Despite SOLAS standards to ensure safety, it should be emphasized that it is applicant to ships

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involved in international voyages only, as standards applying to domestic shipping is for each nation to

determine. Consequently, minumum rules applied by these nations can cause many passenger ferry

accidents. Regardless, these fall outside the IMO ambit (BILM, 2018). Consequently, this can be regarded as

a weakness in terms of fullfiling safety measures at sea.

Erica oil spill:

On December 12, 1999, Erika, the 24 year old Maltese-registered oil tanker ran aground and broke

into two off the coast of France and all member crew were rescued by the French marine rescue services.

The tanker spilled 20,000 tons of the 31,000 of heavy oil it was carrying to Italy. The spill had environmental

consequences, as 400km of the France coast was polluted killing approximately 63,000 sea birds and other

marine animals. In addition to economic consequences impacting negatively on fishing and tourism (IOPC,

2001, p. 1&2).

Investigation:

The Permanent Commission of enquiry into accidents at sea found that, while on passage from

Dunkirk to Leghorn Italy, the Erika experienced a structural failure in the extreme weather conditions of the

Bay of Biscay. Erika first began to list heavily, but after the list was corrected it split in two and both sections

of the vessel sank in about 120 meters of water. The ship was a single-hull design without segregated

ballast tanks. However, in accordance with the 1992 MARPOL amendments, the ship was converted to

segregated ballast tanks. The commission noted that the problem affecting Erika was caused by her

conversion, without being fully coated, thus corrosion of the starboard ballast tanks had developed apace,

which weakened its structure (CPEM, 2005).

At the time of sinking, the Erika was fully approved by her classification society RINA, although later

it was discovered that the ship had suffered series structural deficiencies, which represented the failure of

the safety net involving inspections by the flag state, port state and the classification society (Liang, 2000,

p.51).

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Incident evaluation:

Although MARPOL is seen as the most important international regulations for the prevention of

marine pollution by ships, the problem is that the convention is not always implemented. This is due to

countries not having enough experience and resources to conform to the maximum standards of the

convention. However, the effectiveness of international conventions is dependent upon the degree to

which they are complied with and this depends on the enforcement level. Accordingly, different flag states

have different standards enforced in relation to conventions. Other flag states do not demand compliance

with the international standards and therefore ships inspection is problematic. This case applies to the Erika

incident, as it is registered in Maltase, which conform to the minimal ship safety standards. Moreover,

classifications societies are responsible for the regulating of the technical and operational standard of ship

that after a ship can obtain its insurance. However, classification societies take payments for their services

and contend for customers. Thus, this may lead to a situation where full approval by classification society is

designated to a ship even if it is in a bad condition, which happened with Erika (Luoma, 2009, p. 11).

IMO response:

The investigations following the Erika incident concluded that age, corrosion, insufficient

maintenance and inadequate surveys contributed to the ship structural failure. This pointed to a need for

additional international measures to eradicate sub-standard oil tankers causing the catastrophic impact on

the marine environment, in the case of accidents (IMO, 2018).

Consequently, the Erika disaster prompted the IMO to introduce significant amendments to

MARPOL as a response to such incidents, as the Condition Assessment Scheme resolution was adopted,

with the aim of providing an international standard to meet the requirements of MARPOL. Accordingly, CAS

survey was introduced as an extended version of the Enhanced Survey Program for bulk carriers and oil

tankers and include the requirement for transparent verification of the reported structural condition of the

ship and verification that the survey procedures have been appropriately carried out and assessed during

the Enhanced Survey Program inspections (PRS, 2013).

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 Moreover, it was recognized by the IMO that single-hull tankers present a greater risk of pollution in

the case of an accident and thus, amendments brought a new global timetable for accelerating the phase-

out of older single-hull tankers and phasing in of double-hull tankers. Accordingly, three categories of

tankers were identified. Category1 includes crude oil tankers of 20,000 tons and above and oil product

carriers of 30,000 tons and above that are not equipped with segregated ballast tanks. Moreover, category2

comprises crude oil tankers of 20,000 tons and above and oil product carriers of 30,000 tons and above

with segregated ballast tanks. Finally, category3 concern crude oil tankers and oil product carriers of 5,000

to 20,000 tons (Stenman, 2005).

To ensure implementation, the provisions states that any port state can deny entry of these single-

hull tankers, as they are only allowed to operate to ports and offshore terminals after their 25th anniversary

if compliant with the double-hull amendments and the requirements of the Condition Assessment Scheme

resolution (MPEC, 2003).

Compensation system

Under the IMO Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage, compensation is available to any individual,

organization or country suffering pollution damage resulted from an oil pollution incident at sea. The Erika

incident has raised three types of claims linked to damage to property and clean-up operations, financial

losses suffered by fishermen and economic losses affecting the tourism sector activities. However, the

compensation system was criticized for only deciding that the maximum limit of compensation provided

should be divided up between the ship interests and the cargo interests, without providing for an increase

in funds, which pointed out the insufficiency in funds paid to claimants (ÖZÇAYIR, 2000).

Consequently, other amendments adopted by IMO in 2000 were under the International

Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage and the International Convention on the

Establishment of an International Fund for Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage. These amendments

concluded a raise to by 50% the compensation limits payable to victims of oil pollution from oil tankers

(IOPC, 2011).

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Effects on the maritime industry:

When new legislation is made, many consequences for the shipping industry is provided. Under the

MARPOL regime, ratifying countries such as Australia will comply with the banning of single-hull tankers

and will deny their access to its port after 2010. This will enforce single-hulled tankers trading in these areas

to convert their ships. However, MARPOL amendments to banning the single-hull tankers following the

Erica disaster might be costly for some of the actors in the shipping industry, as it requires new tonnage to

be built and old tonnage to be scrapped. Moreover, tanker owners will be introduced to an increase in

maintenance costs upon the conversion, as double-hull tankers are made-up of double steel, which will

need further care to avoid corrosion of ballast tanks due to salt water (Stenman, 2005).

On the other hand, the positive impact on preventing oil spills has been demonstrated throughout

the period of 2002 to 2010, with significant decrease in oil spills from 4 to 2.2 per year, which is

approximately the half of that in the period between 1992 and 2001. These reflect the improvement in the

shipping industry and the efforts of IMO to respond to oil disasters. Implementing double-hull has been

regarded as one of the reasons for the prevention of oil spills, as it have been found that double-hull

provides protection against collision and groundings, which are likely to occur where vessels travel at slow

speed such as restricted waterways (Musk, 2012, p. 2&17).

Conclusion
In conclusion, since maritime transport is regarded as a universal activity, IMO has a vital role in

standardizing practices and ensuring the safety, security and environmental performance of this industry.

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References
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BILM. (2018b). TL7200 International Organisations for Transport and Communications, Module 4 Marine
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IACS. (2015). Classification societies– what, why and how? ICAS, 16. Retrieved from iacs.org.uk:
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file:///C:/Users/User/Downloads/92FUND_EXC.11_2%20(1).pdf

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https://commons.wmu.se/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?
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Lim, K. (2017). The Role of the International Maritime Organization in Preventing the Pollution of the
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Luoma, E. (2009). Oil Spills and Safety Legislation. Retrieved from http://www.merikotka.fi/safgof/Oil
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MPEC. (2003). AMENDMENTS TO THE ANNEX OF THE PROTOCOL OF 1978 RELATING TO THE
INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION FOR THE PREVENTION OF POLLUTION FROM SHIPS, 1973 . Retrieved
from http://www.imo.org/en/KnowledgeCentre/IndexofIMOResolutions/Marine-Environment-
Protection-Committee-(MEPC)/Documents/MEPC.111(50).pdf

Musk, S. (2012). Trends in Oil Spills from Tankers and ITOPF Non-tanker Attended Incidents. Retrieved from
http://www.itopf.com/fileadmin/data/Documents/Papers/amop12.pdf

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18 | P a g e
 TL7200 International Organisations for Transport and Communications
POINT
Evaluate and discuss
the role and
importance of the IMO
and include the
rationale for its
existence
45 Marks
LO 1 & 2 Assessed
POINT
Examine and
comment on a
significant maritime
event that has led to
the IMO adopting
major changes and
the effect of those
changes on the
international
maritime industry as
a whole
45 Marks
LO 3 Assessed
POINT
The essay is to be
presented in a clear and
logical manner,
referencing is correct and
evidence is provided of
quality research,
including journal articles,
books, periodical articles
and reports. The
assignment adheres to
the BILM Assignments –
Rules and Guidelines
10 Marks
19 | P a g e
Marking Rubric for Assignment 1
Met criteria to an Met criteria to a very Met criteria to a Did not meet
excellent standard good standard satisfactory standard Criteria
A B C F
45 - 38.5
38 - 31.5 31 - 27 26.5 - 0
Student has been able Student has been able
to extensively evaluate to evaluate and discuss Student has provided a Student has not been
and discuss the role the role and basic evaluation and able to adequately
and importance of the importance of the IMO discuss of the role and evaluate and discuss
IMO and has provided and has provided a importance of the IMO the role and
a sound rationale for rationale for its and has provided a importance of the IMO
its existence existence basic rationale for its and has provided a
44/45 existence poor rationale for its
existence
45 - 38.5
38 - 31.5 31 - 27 26.5 - 0
Student has Student has Student has Student has
demonstrated a high demonstrated a good demonstrated a basic demonstrated a poor
level of understanding level of understanding level of understanding and lacking level of
of how a significant of how a significant of how a significant understanding of how
maritime event can maritime event can maritime event can a significant maritime
influence and lead to
influence and lead to influence and lead to event can influence
the IMO adopting
the IMO adopting the IMO adopting and lead to the IMO
changes and the
changes and the changes and the adopting changes and
impact this may have
on the maritime impact this may have impact this may have the impact this may
industry as a whole. on the maritime on the maritime have on the maritime
45/45 industry as a whole industry as a whole industry as a whole
10 – 9 8.5 – 7 6.5 - 6 5.5 - 0
The essay is presented The essay is presented The essay is presented The essay is presented
to a very high standard to a high standard and to a basic but to a poor standard and
and there is a very high there is a good level of adequate standard and there is very little
level of research research evident with there is a basic level of evidence of research
evident with references to support research evident with provided with
references to support it references to support references
it it
9/10
TOTAL MARK: 98