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Abstract: Modern approaches on research projects in the field of lathes’ remanufacturing involve various
simulation stages, like FEA and CAM, in order to obtain results and solutions with different aspects and
data important to consider. These simulations may confirm data obtained through measurement, but also
extrapolate values that can’t be measured directly on the machine-tool technological system. Usually, a
mathematical and simulated models, with a low error percent, are the main key for the remanufacturing
team. The newest trend in manufacturing technologies, the acclaimed Industry 4.0, relies on new design
concepts and methods, data acquisition and exchange between systems, processing, visualization and
automation. Modern simulation methods, system integration between simulated and measured data,
augmented reality, etc., are important parts of the actual factories. More and more machine-tools without
CNC capabilities are remanufactured in this new vision of Industry 4.0. This paper presents some phases
in establishing the turning process parameters in profiling and re-profiling of the trains wheelsets. There
are used specific instruments (a mathematical approach and 3D models for FEA simulation) in order to
determine which system (tool holder – insert – process parameters) are better to be used on the
remanufactured lathe.
Key words: tread profile, wheelset, re-profilation, cutting parameters, FEA analysis.
1. INTRODUCTION
The specialized lathes for processing the fixture devices, cutting tools, measuring and
wheels and wheelsets of the railway vehicles are control devices.
modernized according to the requirements of
international standards and norms [2, 3, 4, 5]. 2. SETTING THE PARAMETERS OF THE
The operation/movement of the railway vehicle CUTTING CONDITIONS
involves the contact between the rail and wheels
surfaces. In time, these surfaces become worn, The profiling and re-profilation of the wheels
leading to changes of the wheels profiles and, are carried out by technological processes of
therefore, to instability in the movement of turning on specialized machine tools [1, 14].
vehicles, an important problem for traffic safety Three types of machine tools are used, namely:
and passengers comfort. conventional, portal and underfloor.
Due to the very high cost for acquisition of a The main turning conditions for rolling
modern new lathe, the companies often opt for surfaces are the following: the difference in
the remanufacturing of an existing machine tool. diameters on the reference circle at the two
Thus, they search and invest in the development wheelset’s wheels ∆D ≤ 0.15 mm, the profile
and implementation of an automated equipment accuracy ≤ 0.15 mm, the roughness of the
suitable for simulation, manufacturing and surface Rz = 10 ... 20 µm, runout of the tread ≤
measuring of wheels running profile, both static 0.15 mm [3, 13].
and dynamic. Usually, the wheels have the diameter in
The remanufactured lathe has new driving, certain dimensional domains, which are
command and measurement systems and the established and used for international transport
costs are soon recovered by increasing the vehicles intended for passengers. Diameter
productivity and profiling/re-profiling accuracy, values may vary from minimum to maximum, as
with the life of the lathe highly increased [6]. follows: 330-390 mm, 390-470 mm, 470-550
Our theoretical and experimental studies of mm, 550-630 mm, 630-680 mm, 680-760 mm,
cutting the alloyed steels are important in actual 760-840 mm, 840-920 mm and 920-1000 mm,
approaches [7, 8]. Such research generates according to standards. These dimensions are
important data on the theory of cutting, imposed for both locomotives and wagons. The
development and use of new cutting tools, wheels’ geometry and dimensions are indicated
rigidity increase of the technological system in European standards in their annexes [4, 5].
components, reducing processing times and of
energy consumption [9]. 2.1 Materials for wheels and turning tools
The knowledge of the phenomena that The steel materials used for wheels and rails
characterize the chip formation and detachment, across Europe have predominantly pearlitic
the quality and condition of the processed structures containing hard cementite lamellae
surface and the wear of the cutting tools is fo r a high wear resistance. A pearlitic
ensured by numerous researches. microstructure, ensures a better resistance than
The machinability of steel alloys differs bainitic or martensitic structures.
depending on composing elements, heat Although the standard UIC 812-3 [2] for
treatments and manufacturing processes (cast, solid wheels lists seven types of steel, which
forged, etc.) [10, 11, 12]. mainly differ in carbon content, heat treatment
The evaluation of roughness determined by state and strength, the actual S R EN 13262
the quality of the surface is the result of how the [ 4 ] contains only four types.
surface is generated [13]. Because Grade R1 for freight wagon wheels
The geometry of the cutting edge is on the decline in favor of the standard R7
(constructive and active), the parameters of the material, and Grades R2/R3 never established
cutting process, the vibrations, the elastic themselves in operational practice, this repre-
failures, the thermal phenomena, chip formation sents the current state of technology in Europe.
etc. are also important. The maximum percentages of the various
The components of the machining system are: specific elements are presented in the two
the machine-tool subsystem, semi finished parts, standards (Table 1).
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wear area, the chips result in segmentation. In One of the common problems in wheels re-
figure 3, b. there is observed a spiral and shaping is the chip formation during the back
continuous long chip obtained during the same turning operation at the rim zone. Most of the
turning process, but in a flattened layer area (fig. inserts have a specialized chip former that has
1, a.), with a larger machining allowance, the been designed [19] to prevent long/continuous
wheel material in the respective area having a chip formation during the turning process.
bigger wear and hardness. In figure 3, c. some The choice of the inserts’ material is based on
segmental chips are exemplified. the condition of deterioration/wear of the wheel
The cutting process is not stable since the surfaces, the insert’s codification being specific
machining addition is uneven in size and to each tool producing company.
hardness. These increase the tool wear, Thus, these grades [17, 18] are classified
vibrations accompanied by specific noise. All depending on the tread’s state of wear: for
this results from the analysis of the shape and wheels with a low wear, it is used the ISO-P:
appearance of chips (intense blue color and GC3015 grade (high cutting speeds for
serrated edges, fig. 3, c. detail). maximum productivity).
Most wheels have some flattening and/or
exfoliation areas, thermal cracks, small breaks,
so it is used the ISO-P: GC4215 grade (it is
almost universal, recommended as the first
choice for all re-profilation processing).
In the case of the wheels with serious
damaged areas, it is recommended to use the
ISO-P: GC4225 or ISO-P: SH grades and
turning at low cutting speeds.
For the analysis of the cutting parameters,
a. two types of turning tools are considered: with
square plates and with round plates. The tools
bodies differ according to the shapes and
dimensions of the inserts, an example being
shown in figure 4 (with the main cutting edge on
the right). It is also considered whether the
processing of the rolling surface (the specific
areas of the profile [3]) is done or not with the
same tool.
b.
• semi finishing re-profilation of the excessively rate [14], is: Group I: Ra = 6.3 µm; Group II: Ra
worn wheels, using a tool holder support fitted = 12.5 µm.
with two tangentially mounted inserts; There is a direct link [12] between the Ra and
• finishing re-profilation of the low worn wheels Rt roughnesses and it can be considered a
using a tool holder support with two rhombic constant ratio kR = Ra / Rt = 0.25.
inserts; Therefore, for the two groups mentioned, the
• roughing re-profilation of wheels with an theoretical roughness Rt has the value: Group I:
increased wear using two turning tools with Rt = 25 µm; Group II: Rt = 50 µm.
square or triangular inserts; Knowing that at turning, the theoretical
• roughing re-profilation of the excessive worn roughness of the machined surface for turning
wheels using a single turning tool with a round tools with peak radius rε is given by the relation:
insert. fn2
Rt = 10 3 ⋅ [µm], (1)
8 ⋅ rε
2.2. Roughness and cutting feed
the optimal feed is determined by the condition:
The surface roughness is determined by the
Rt ≡ R z ≤ Rz adm
shape, state and dimensions of the main cutting
1/ 2
edge of the insert and of the value of the cutting (
f opt ≤ 8 ⋅ 10 −3 ⋅ rε ⋅ Rz adm ) [mm / rot], (2)
feed. This parameter is determined by the
where Rz is the average roughness, in µm.
precision and the prescribed quality of the
The peak radius having different values
processed surface [20].
depending on the shape of the insert and
Also, in the determination of the feed, there
considering the admissible Rz roughness
are taken into account the technical conditions
according to the two processing groups, the
for machining [12, 19] of the wheels profiles.
optimum values for the feed are obtained and
The surface roughness Ra, according to the feed
indicated in Table 2.
Table 2. Optimal feed rates for different insert shapes depending on the machining group and the peak radius rε
Insert’s shape, according to [17, 18]
Analyzing the values in Table 2 according to feed value fmax in the roughing process of the
the peak radius and admissible Rz adm, it is found wheel profile, the value fmax = 2 mm/rev is also
that these values are in accordance with the indicated in the catalogs of cutting tools.
values indicated in the catalogs of the companies Consequently, the recommended range of
producing the cutting tools. variation Df = fmin ... fmax = 0.3 ... 2 mm/rev.
In these conditions, the minimum feed value
is adopted: fmin = 0.3 mm/rev. For the maximum
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2.3. Setting the cutting speed 2.4. Range of cutting speed and feed rates
For the determination of the cutting speed vc, The minimum and maximum values of the
a calculus relation is presented, taking into wheels diameters subjected to re-profiling are
account the following parameters: effective considered to be: Dmin = 630 mm; Dmax = 1300
durability T, cutting depth ap and feed fn [8, 21]. mm, then results the maximum and minimum
The durability is adopted at the value T = 120 spindle speed (nc) of the main shafts that support
min, imposed by the processing of a suitable and drive the wheelset, namely:
number of wheels, considering an average 1000 ⋅ v c max 1000 ⋅ 75
nc max = = ≅ 38 [rev/min]; (4)
productivity of the process. Thus, it is π ⋅ D min π ⋅ 630
considered: 1000 ⋅ v cmin 1000 ⋅ 45
vc = C ⋅ a Ep ⋅ f nE ⋅ T G ⋅ K g [m/min], nc min = = ≅ 11 [rev/min]; (5)
(3) π ⋅ D max π ⋅ 1300
where the constant C and the exponents F, E and Thus, the spindle speed variation range is
G depend on the processing group (Table 1), on determined Dnc = nc min ... nc max = 11 ... 38
the pair of materials cutting tool-wheel; Kg - rev/min. The remanufactured lathe has: Dn = nmin
global correction factor that takes into account ... nmax = 9 ... 35.5 rev/min. The range is achieved
the machinability and rigidity of the machine- by a combined adjustment mechanism that
tool - tool - fixture device - part system. consists of a two-speed asynchronous electric
Thus, for the wheels material, it is considered motor and a four-speed gearbox with the ratio of
the group of alloyed steels with chromium, φ = 1.41.
nickel and molybdenum, with the yield strength The feed speed range Dvf is based on the
Rm = 1000 N/mm2, that is included in the values of the feed parameters (fmin and fmax) and
processing Group 7 (Table 1). of the spindle speed (nc min and nc max) as follows:
The machining is done with a sintered metal
v f min = f min ⋅ nc max = 0,3 ⋅ 38 ≅ 11 [mm/min]; (6)
carbide turning tool with thin-film coatings
(grade GC 4215). This coated carbide grade is v f max = f max ⋅ nc min = 2,0 ⋅ 11 = 22 [mm/min]. (7)
used for finishing to roughing in applications
with continuous cut to light intermittence of 2.5. The cutting forces
steel and steel castings. It presents a gradient The identification of the cutting forces values
substrate optimized in hardness and toughness is useful both for the design and for the
with a wear resistant coating. functioning of the lathe. Thus, for the design of
The GC 4215 grade is able to withstand high the main shaft assembly, data are needed to
temperatures without sacrificing edge line dimension its structural elements (shaft,
security in wet and dry applications. According bearings, clamping and drive mechanisms). It is
to [21] the values are admitted: C = 168; E = necessary to determine the components of total
0.45; F = -0.12; G = - 0.16 for use in relation (3). cutting resistance and moment of cutting.
The following parameters for the machining The components of the total cutting resistance
conditions are considered: ap = 8 mm; fn = 1.2 F [22], called cutting forces and defined
mm/rev and a value of the correction coefficient according to the working plane are obtained by
Kg = 0.75. projecting the force F on the axes of the OXYZ
Through replacements and calculations it is kinematic reference system. These are:
obtained the value of vc ≅ 45 m/min, which is the Fc - the cutting force required for dimensioning
main recommendation of the companies of the main shaft;
producing cutting tools. Ff - the feed force required for dimensioning the
For finishing processing, the considered components of the kinematic chain of
parameters are: ap = 3 mm; fn = 0.5 mm/rev and feed/positioning, with the speed vf,
a correction coefficient Kg = 0.8. By replacing in Fp –the passive force required to dimensioning
relation (3), it is obtained: vc ≅ 75 m/min. the mechanisms from the structure of the
kinematic chain of feed/transversal positioning
(radial).
79
In literature [15] there is a multitude of Thus, the cutting force is determined by the
mathematical relations theoretically or calculation relation [21]:
experimentally determined, which can lead to
results with different values.
Fc = b ⋅ h ⋅ k c ⋅ K γ o ⋅ K v ⋅ K ms ⋅ K uz ⋅ K prd = b ⋅ h1− m ⋅ k c1.1 ⋅ K γ o ⋅ K v ⋅ K ms ⋅ K uz ⋅ K prd [N], (8)
in which: m - a polytropic exponent; Kγo - F f = b ⋅ k f 1.1 ⋅ h1− x [N]; F p = b ⋅ k p1.1 ⋅ h1− y [N]. (10)
correction factor depending on the orthogonal
departure angle γo; Kv - correction factor The values for the polytropic constants and
according to the cutting speed; Kms = 0,95...0,9 - exponents [8, 21] were considered for the
correction factor depending on the material of 30CrNiMo8 wheel material: m = 0.2, kc1.1 =
the cutting tool insert; Kuz = 1,3...1,5 - correction 2600 [N/mm2], 1-x = 0.38, kf1.1 = 355 [N/mm2],
factor according to the wear of the cutting tool 1-y = 0.57, kp1.1 = 255 [N/mm2]. The material has
edge; Kprd - correction factor according to the characteristics close to those of the wheel (ER7).
machining process, h – chip thickness. The chip thickness h is determined by the
Between the specific cutting force and the relations established between the geometrical
specific cutting resistance, the calculation and technological parameters (Fig. 5). Also,
relation is established: using these chip parameters, there are
k determined the cross section area A, the chip rate
k c = c1m.1 [N / mm2]. (9)
h Q and the machining productivity.
A = a p ⋅ f n = b ⋅ h [mm2]. (11)
Figure 5 shows some basic geometric
parameters of the insert (a. round insert and b. The detached chips rate Q is determined
rectangular insert) and technological parameters depending on the machining process. When
of the processing: the feed fn, the cutting depth turning, the calculation relation (12) is used:
ap, the chip thickness h, the insert radius rε, the
Q = a p ⋅ f n ⋅ v c = A ⋅ vc = π ⋅ d m ⋅ a p ⋅ v f [cm3/min]. (12)
approach angle Ƙr.
The corresponding time for a pass is
determined using the calculus relation:
lz
tc = [min] (13)
f n ⋅ nc
with round plate (fig. 6). The components were areas of interest in order to obtain a satisfactory
assembled geometrically by applying specific approximation of the structure's geometry and
constraints of coincidence, contact, parallelism, loading conditions [24].
linear distance, etc. To the components of each assembly have
The dimensions required for the modeling been applied specific materials, according to the
were taken from tools, tool holders and inserts catalogs and standards, the most important
catalogs, but also through direct measurements parameters and a determinant role in the FEM
of other components (radial sledge, clamping simulation being Young's module, yield strength
screws, supports, etc.). and density.
Thus, the component materials are
considered as follows (in N/mm2): Tool holder
4.2×108, Inserts seats 3.8×108, Inserts 5.2×109,
Radial sledge 2.8×108, Clamping screws
2.5×108, Insert's guide rail 2.2×108.
Based on the work parameters previously
determined by the calculations results the cutting
forces occurred during the machining process.
These forces were applied to the cutting edges of
the inserts and load the whole assembly.
In the FEM analysis performed for its
validation, several different situations are
considered, varying the cutting depth and feed
a.
rate, but there are also considered the machining
material, the angle of the insert and the required
cutting power of the machine tool [25].
Thus, the values of the cutting forces are
obtained for roughing, semi finishing and
finishing. The four cases considered are
presented in Table 3.
The application of force is done in each case
on the insert's edge, in a precise, but small area,
experimentally determined.
To perform the specific calculations of the
FEM analysis, it was used a computer with
Windows 8.1 64 bit, 16 Gb RAM and i7
processor, the average time of each of the four
b. iterations being about 5 hours.
Fig. 6. Tool holders: with square and round inserts The relatively high duration of each FEM
simulation was due to the complex conditions
In each case, the meshing of the studied imposed on the components, but also to their
assembly was made by establishing conditions high discretization, resulting in relatively low
specific to the FEM analysis to obtain a finite error rates (between 13.48% and 18.44%). These
structure. values are lower than 20% and are considered
The loads and deformations at a certain acceptable for this assembly.
number of points within the assembly are Upon completion of each calculation/
sufficient to accurately characterize its simulation iteration, the components exhibit a
mechanical behavior. stress distribution and certain displacements.
The finite element method calculates the Figure 7 shows the FEM models of the
displacements and tensions only at these points assembly for the two tool holders. The increased
of the created mesh, and the meshing process rigidity of the radial sledge, as well as the
must provide a sufficient number of points in the
81
components with higher displacements (insert, displacement appears on the insert's cutting edge
seat, tool holder, etc.) are observed. [23].
The displacements values are small and do For example, in the case of roughing with a
not affect the manufacturing precision and cutting force of 17744.64 N, the displacement
measurement. It is noted that the maximum value for the round plate is 0.12 mm.
4. CONCLUSIONS 5. REFERENCES
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Ionuţ Gabriel GHIONEA, Phd. Eng., Lecturer, University Politehnica of Bucharest, Faculty of
Engineering and Management of Technological Systems, Department of Machine Manufacturing
Technology, E-mail: ionut76@hotmail.com, Office Phone: +40722 926 249, Address: Bucharest,
Romania, Spl. Independenţei nr. 313, district 6.
Adrian GHIONEA, Phd. Eng., Dr.H.C., Professor, University Politehnica of Bucharest, Faculty of
Engineering and Management of Technological Systems, Department of Machines and
Manufacturing Systems, E-mail: adrianghionea@yahoo.com, Office Phone: +40744 110 472,
Address: Bucharest, Romania, Spl. Independenţei nr. 313, district 6.
Nicolae PREDINCEA, Phd. Eng., Professor, University Politehnica of Bucharest, Faculty of
Engineering and Management of Technological Systems, Department of Machine Manufacturing
Systems, E-mail: nicolaepredincea@yahoo.com, Address: Bucharest, Romania, Spl.
Independenţei nr. 313, district 6.