Im. J. Pres. Ves.

& Piping 63 (1995) 25-34

Elsevier Science Limited
Printed in Northern Ireland
ELSEVIER 030&X-0161(94)00030-1 0308%0161/95/$09SO

Optimal prestressing of bolted flanges

L,, Varga & J. Baraitosy
institute of Machine Design, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Budapest, Budapest, Hungary

(Received 2 April 1994;accepted23 April 1994)

It is pointed out that on application of internal pressure,the elementsof a

flange joint will be deformed as elastic bodies,while the gasket force and the
effective gasket seating width will be reduced becauseof the torsion of the
flanges.This ‘loosening’effect should be taken into account in the calculation
of the bolt forces neededfor sealing.The method of calculation suggestedin
this paper aimsat estimatingthe optimal prestressingresultingin the minimum
operating load and the sametime saving the gasket. Using this method, the
overstressingand understressingof flange connections can be eliminated so
that one can calculate the optimal value of bolt forces providing the optimal
prestressing.

1 INTRODUCTION these additional steps, it is considered that

A wide variety of technical text books help one
to design flange joints which consist of two
flanges, a gasket and connecting bolts. Among
these publications various methods can be found,
from the ‘locomotive method’ to the latest
numerical ones (FEM, BEM). Among them the
most important are the works of Ta:ylor and
Waters, Rossheim, Wesstrom, Williams’-” and
Schwaigerer: whose theories are the basis for the
present national standards (ASME Code, BS
5500, DIN V. 2505 etc.).
According to the present prescriptions, the
design of flange connections proceeds by the
selection of standard flanges, gasket and bolts
followed by stress calculations on the elements. It
is unusual for the designer to investigate the
loosing effect of the torsion of flanges; moreover,
nobody deals with the determination of the
stiffness in torsion required. It is regrettable that
the design method which regards the elements as
‘rigid bodies’ does not seem to be able to
guarantee the perfect operation of the joint. It
could happen that the gasket is crushed during
prestressing or that it starts to leak when the
operating pressure begins to act, though with
luck this leakage could be eliminated by
retightening the bolts. Perfect operation can then
only be achieved by taking additional steps as
part of everyday design practice. To determine
25
investigations be extended for the complete
flange connection as an elastic system, taking into
consideration the effect of torsion of the flanges
as well as the stiffening effect of the connected
shells. Applying the ‘elastic system’ theory when
designing the system of forces at a flange
connection, even during operation, it can
precisely be described and optimal prestressing
can be calculated. Such optimal prestressing
produces the minimum operating load and
consequently preserves the gasket in good
condition for a long time. It is a pity that this
type of test requires more than usual attention at
the design stage. However, in cases where bolt
forces cannot be corrected later and leakages are
dangerous for the environment, the additional
work at the design stage is not only a
requirement but also a necessity.
2 MODEL OF A FLANGE CONNECTION
A sketch of the general construction of a flange
connection including the main dimensions and
forces can be seen in Fig. 1. The companion
flanges and the connected shells with their gasket
and bolts form an elastic system. The movements
which come into being under external loads can
be investigated after determining the spring
stiffnesses or constants of the elements. To
26 L. Varga, J. Barhtosy

and
~22= fizz = 0.5[d, - 0.5(d, + d)]Fz

which can be substituted by an equivalent

moment:
mp = m, + m2 = F,z,. (2)
dl
dSl The arm of the pressure force is

z, = f (F,zl + F2zz). (3)

P

So in the case of the structure given in Fig. 1, the

dG
following equations determine the arms of forces:

z,l = 03(d, - d.,)( $)’

+ 0.5[d, - 0.5(lG + d,),,l - (-$)‘I

Xp zp2 =O-5(&- d,,)(f)2

+ 0.5[d, - O.S(ii, + d,),[l - ($,‘I

zE = 0.5(d, - dE).

Design standards such as ASME and DIN give

Fig. 1. Geometry of the flange joint.
determine these stiffnesses or constants the
flanges, including the connecting shells, will be
substituted by ‘corner-rigid’ frames having OFI,
0, and On torsion spring constants while the
gasket and the bolts will be characterized by the
spring constants U, and U, as shown in Fig. 2.
The movements at the middle part of the figure
(in other words the displacements (u) and
angular displacements (6) of the flanges) can be
seen at prestressing (0) and during operation (p).
The forces operating are as follows.
From internal pressure:
Fl = 0.25d2xp and 5 = 0*25(d’, - d’)np.
It is simpler to use the pressure force instead:
FP = 6 + 4 = 0+25d$p.
The moments of the forces are
m, = Flzl = O-5(d, - d,)F,
basically two limits for the sealing force to
achieve the required closing effect. One limit
determines the required minimum value of
sealing force during operation, the other
prescribes the load prestressing to obtain the
sealing effect by deformation of the gasket.
Taking into consideration the usual equations for
the forces, the conditions which obtain the
sealing effect can be written as follows
FGp 2 FGm = d,nb,pf, = d,xb,,mp (4)
Go 1 Go = &~hx&o (5)
where b, and b, assign the acting width of the
gasket at prestressing and at operation, RGO is the
stress characteristics on the gasket material
causing plastic deformation of it, and finally
fc = 2m is a safety or sealing factor.
(1) Knowing the pressure forces and the sealing
forces, the required value of bolt forces needed
to keep the system tight can be calculated from
the equilibrium. Thus, it will be of the magnitude
 Optimal prestressing of bolted jlanges 27

dB
t- -dG

Fig. 2. The elastic system model of the flange joint, representing the displacements of model elements.

of FB,,= FGOafter prestressing, and will be formed consequently, from the equilibrium of forces:
according to the relationship FBP = FBO + F, - AF,
in the operating state. The sealing force FBo r gPF, + FGm (7)
reduction (A&) will be caused by the angular
displacement of flanges and the easiest way to FBP z F, + FGm. (8)
determine it is given by
So the bolt force to keep the system tight,
AF, = sPF, following from eqns (5) and (7) can be written in
(6)
the form of eqn (9) below:
where g,, = AF,/F, is the so-called ‘loosening
coefficient’ of the flange joint representing the dcd,oR,o 5 &o
sealing force reduction caused by a unit pressure = F,, 2 0+25LQ,d”,np + d,nb,pf,. (9)
force. As the operational sealing force can be
written as The loosening coefficient and the acting seating
F& = Go - BP& width, as variables of eqn (9), are constructional
28 L. Varga, J. Barhtosy

features, or structural characteristics, which spring constant, using the symbols given in Fig. 3,
depend on the material, dimensions and shape of and taking into consideration the equal angular
components forming the flanged joint and can be displacements for the flange (F) and for the ring
determined as the following section shows. (R), can be written:

that is:
3 STRUCTURAL CHARACTERISTICS
mF
The calculation of structural characteristics at a In eqn (lo), the meanings of symbols used are:
flange joint according to the model seen in Fig. 2 mF is the torque of the external and internal
can be carried out. The calculation starts with the forces acting on the flange and mR is the torque
determination of the spring constants of the of the external and internal forces acting on the
elements. ring. These moments can be determined using
To determine the torsional spring constants the Fig. 3; substituting them into eqn (10) after
flange should be divided into two elastic parts, simplifying we obtain the following.
the ring and the shell, with varying wall At prestressing:
thickness. The stiffening effect of the shell can be
h’s, + xwQso
replaced by an additional system of forces
ensuring the same deformations, in accordance
0, = 0, 1 - (9pF, + FG,)zGdsn .
i 1 (11)
with Fig. 3 that shows the entire system of forces During operation:
occurring in the prestressed state (0) and the
operating state (p), including the difference @Fp=(3,[1-;;~;Q;dsii]. (12)
between them (p - 0). The actual values in the PP Gm G

system of additional forces are changing follow- For the transitional state:
ing the stiffening effects originating from the
shell; in other words, the torsional spring OF = o R
1 _ t”sp - j@d + 4Qsp - Qso)ds n .
L I
constant of the flange changes as well. F,kP - gpzc>

Determination of the state-dependent torsional (13)

Fig. 3. Model of loads on flange.

 Optimal prestressing of bolted flanges 29

Of the new variables appearing in relationships
(ll), (12) and (13), 0, can be simply calculated
according to the following formula:
if the moment of inertia (IR) of the ring and the
position of the centre of gravity (IV) are known.
It is more complicated to determine the system of
additional forces which can only be calculated by
fitting the ring and the shell, according to, for
instance, Gill5 or Nagy.6
To determine the spring constants U, and U,,
let us take YE,as the number of connecting bolts
and let us regard both the bolts and the gasket as
rod-elements which makes it possible to calculate
spring constants in a simple way:
Depending on the position of the connecting
point for flanges (2) and (3), the further arms of
forces should consequently be changed.
Both the backspringing of the gasket and the
elongation of the bolts can be expressed as a
function of force-change and spring constant as
follows:
AZL~= U,AF, w>
AILS= AuBl + AuB, = &(I$ - AF,). (19b)
Finally, substituting both eqns (Ha-c) and
(19a-b) into eqn (17), after simplifying and
solving it on the loosening coefficient one obtains

For the case of two different flanges (zE = 0;

ZGl = ZG2 = zc),

h,
u, = dGr.b,EG
’ p (0, + O~)Z&+ u, + UG’
Knowing the spring constant of the components,
the structural characteristics sP, b,, and b, can
be determined as follows:
The loosening coefficient at least depends on
the ‘movement’ of the gasket; more precisely it
depends on the elastic angular re-deformation in
the transitional state. The redeformation of the
gasket during operation, according to Fig. 2, is:
Au, = Auc, + Auc2 = AuB, + AuB3
+ zclAiYl + zG2A& + zEA6,. (17)
The changes in angular displacement can be
expressed with the result of the multiplication of
torque changes with spring constants:
Ati, = O,(F,z,l - A&zm)
(184
Afi, = O,(F,z,z - AFczG2) (W
A6, = O,(F, - AF,)zE. (W
Among the arms of forces an important
consideration is the arm zG2= 0*5(d, - d,). It is
easy to understand on the basis of Figs 1 and 2
that if
_-
%X ZC2
~ = 1; then d, = d,, and zGZ= EMG ,
@FEZE
> 1; then d, = d,, and zG2= E,,G ,
-~
< 1; then d, = d,, and zG2= &G .
~ = (%lZpl+ %Zp2)ZG+ UB
(21)
For two identical flanges (0, = 0, = 0; zPi=
z/I2 = z&J,
9, = 2O,ZGZ, + u,
20,& + u, + u, .
(22)
Since gP appears as a variable in eqn (13)
expressing the torsional spring constant, the
loosening coefficient can only be determined by a
method of trial and error. If, as a first step one
assumes that 0,2 0, the required result can be
obtained relatively quickly.
Finally, the characteristics bco and b, can be
calculated, taking into consideration the defor-
mation of the gasket. As the gasket is deformed
by the flanges Fig. 4 can be constructed, where
the compression and angular deformations of the
gasket can be seen in the prestressed and
operating states. Referring to the figure and its
geometry, it is easy to determine the acting
seating widths of the gasket.
In the prestressed state (zbOaO= 0~.5U,F,,):
for b, 5 2zb,,, b,, = bG,
and for b, > 2zb0, b,, = 05(b, + 2zb0).
As 6, = OmFGozG we obtain:
2,,,=3 (23)
G
30 L. Varga, J. Barhtosy

ZbOl

t0

r
Fig. 4. Displacements of the gasket.

In the operating state (zbpfip = 0*5U&,): above mentioned detrimental effects, the load on
for b, I 2zbP, b, = bG, the bolts should further be limited so as to meet
the conditions FBO= F,, and FBP = FP + FGm.
and for b, > 2zbP, b, = 0*5(b, + 2zb,).
Taking into consideration these limits from
As tip = 0,(&z, + FGmzG)we obtain: condition (23) it can be obtained that
TT
(24) F,, = FBO = FGO= 9$,F, + FGm. (264

Knowing the structural characteristics, the
conditions of the optimal prestressing can be
determined as described in the following section.
4 OPTIMAL PRESTRESSING
According to facts previously stated, at prestress-
ing of bolted flanges, the load on bolts should
satisfy the condition given in eqn (25):
F,, I FB,, = FG,, r 9& + Fc,.
The load on the bolts can meet the above
requirement so as to fulfill either the FBOz F,, or
the FBP z F, + FGm conditions. In both cases the
forces are too high, because the load F,, > F,,
can crush the gasket or can even cause it to
crumble to dust, while the load FBP > FP + FGm
generates bigger than necessary stresses leading
to high deformations both at the ring and at the
connected shell, and so reducing the load
carrying capacity of the structure. To avoid the
Equation (26a), after substituting eqns (l), (4)
and (5), can be written as follows:
d,nb,,R,, = 0-259Pd%p + dGnbCppfC. (26b)
Equation (26) expresses more precise require-
ments for the bolt forces and is the objective
function of the optimization. Generally, the
meeting of these requirements is possible only
through optimal prestressing of bolted flanges as
will now be described.
(25) The cases of standard flanges where 9$, > 1 can
usually be calculated, so the forces investigated
are changing, as Fig. 5 shows, and they depend
on the pressure needed to seal. It can be seen
that optimal prestressing can only be achieved
with optimal pressure characteristics on the
flange joint. The optimal pressure is:
(27)
PO = 0-259&d, + b, f. ’
the particular solution of eqn (26b). The pressure
 Bptimal
Fig. 5. Forces acting on flange vs internal
required to give a seal, as a previous datum fo1
designing, ~§na~~y differs from the optimal
pressure. Consequently, the flange joint rep-
resented by Fig. 5 is either overstressed (p >pO)
or understressed (p <pO). The aim of optimisa-
tion is to avoid these states so that the optimal
prestressing is the given pressure.
The danger of overstressing should generally
be taken into consideration when the gasket is
made from harder material. This is because the
high yield strength may result in forces of
Fig. 6. How to avoid overstressing by modifying
prestressing of bolted flanges 31
pressure.
I&, = FBO> gPFP+ FG, that would result in forces
of FBp > Fp + FGm and FGp > FGm being higher than
necessary. The solution in these cases is the
suitable reduction of F,,, = FBo forces. To achieve
this, it is suggested that one change the gasket,
for instance, one could use a thinner gasket
resulting in a smaller prestressing force. The
optimal proportions of the gasket given by eqn
(26b) after substituting fc = 2~2, b,,, = b, and
b, = @5b, are:
As the variables on the right-hand side are not
totally independent ones, a more precise solution
can be obtained only by trial and error. Knowing
the proportions required at the gasket, the
optimal prestressing, (F,,,), = (E;,,,),, can be
calculated and it can be realised. The essence of
the method is shown in Fig. 6, where gP and FG,,
are taken as constants for the sake of simplicity.
The danger of understressing nsuaily arises
with soft gasket materials. Owing to the low yield
stress of the material the F,,, = F,,, < 9& t FGm
forces can be obtained producing smaller than
required forces, FBP< F, + I&,, and FGp < FG,,,.
The optimal prestressing in these cases can be
realised as shown in Fig. 7, and in such cases the
prestressing at mounting should be retightened
the gasket. later. As is seen at mounting, the prestressing
32 L. Varga, J. Bardtosy

(kN1

:,-- ___- --------------

\ ---
\ --\_
\ -\
\ -\._
--.-
'1 -.
'1
\
\
'.

1MPa)

Fig. 7. How to avoid understressing by retightening of the flange joint.

should be carried out with force FBO= F,, to (or up to this pressure) to produce the optimal
preserve the gasket and at the same time it is the prestressing by forces:
optimal value for prestressing at the pressure p0 Ar;, = AI;, = D&, + F,, - F,,. (29)
characteristic on the flange joint. It is suggested
that retightening is carried out at this pressure
5 NUMERICAL EXAMINATIONS AND
RESULTS
p-------d,=1270mm To illustrate the design application of how to
I r- d,=1232.5mm achieve optimal prestressing follow the numerical
problem below. The problem, represented in Fig.
8, showing one flange geometry and the basic

r p=O.8MPa
data for designing the optimal prestressing at this
flange joint.
Calculations considering these data can be
started with the forces
Fp = 95445 kN,
FGm = 96.8 kN,
and F,,, = 968 kN,
the arms of forces
b,=715mm jed;1192mm z, = 36-475 mm and zG = 18.75 mm,
and the spring constants:

Fig. 8. Mechanical and geometric

bkLd,=1196mm

characteristics of the
U, = 58-91 X 10e9mm N-l,
17, = 82.64 X 10e9 mm N-l,
flange investigated. 0, = 37-92 X lo-l1 mm-l.
 Optimal prestressing of bolted flanges 33

The torsional spring constants of the fla:nge in the 8, we obtain the variables A, = 0.251 and
case of a ring flange (tF = t) could be determined A, = 0.448.
relatively easily. The system of forces substituting The loosening coefficient can be calculated by
the stiffening effect of the shell can be (calculated trial and error. At the first step we use
as follows 0, = OR = 3.79 x lo-lo which results in SQ=
1.415 as an approximate value. The precise
values, as a result of the trial and error
calculation are as follows:
d,nMs,, = 3 rnFP - 0.5 a3 tddgp, 9* = 1.451,
a5 a5 0, = 2.84 x 10-l’,
0, = 3.17 x lo-‘O
and
and 0, = 4.22 x 10-l’ mm-‘.
MQ, =2 PsmFp- 0.5 2 tdd,xpp. Knowing numerically the above variable, the
others can also be determined. The results are as
From the equations above it follows that follows:
0, = (1 -A,&, 2zb0= 15.5 mm > b,
o = O.Stdd,xp that is b,, = b, = 12.5 mm,
A& + Om,
- Fp F,z, + FGmzG 2zbp= 0.688 mm < b,
and
o = O.Stdd,np that is b, = 6.59 mm = 0*5b,.
A,@, + QED.
“F F,z, - 9JPFPzc These values prove the starting values were
The new coefficients can be calculated from correct.
The forces following from these calculations
equations
can be obtained as gPFP + FGm = 1482 kN > F,, =
968 kN. Thus in the situation investigated, the
A, = d (a, + .~&a~) and A2 = i (a, A-xd%4, danger of understressing can cause problems. To
furthermore, achieve the optimal prestressing it is not enough
to prestress the structure at the beginning but
0.5t retightening is also necessary. It is suggested to
a, = 1 +xWpS +--
Ads ’ prestress with FBo = F,, = 968 kN. At retighten-
a2 = 1 + 2x,pS, ing, owing to the fact that the characteristic
pressure of the investigated structure is pm =
a3= (I-i-z)(s-z)@s, 0.52 MPa, the optimal prestressing can be
achieved by AF, = AFG = 514 kN.

6 CONCLUSIONS
a, = 1+ 2x&(1 +x&>
In accordance with the method proposed here,
the design procedure begins with the selection of
and the standard flange, gasket and bolts, and
continues with the examination of the entire
a,=2-, ps= 2, flanged joint as an elastic system, then ends with
d s the calculation of stresses for each component.
b&3, As compared with the currently used design
A, = bFhF, & = - dw = d + bF,
12 ’ practice, the examination of the elastic system,
which can be performed on a structural model
X w = 0.5h,.
substituting the flanged joint represents an
Taking into consideration the values given in Fig. unprecedented task.
34 L. Varga, J. Barhtosy

Based on the relationship describing the that they are influenced by the varying behaviour
displacement of the model, the loosening of the gasket material and the elastic-plastic
coefficient and the effective seating width as state of the flange. In the worst case, the results
characteristics of the operating structure can be from the calculations, as estimated values are
estimated in advance. When the structura% acceptable.
characteristics are known, the bolt forces
producing the smallest operational load and
forces needed to deform the gasket can be EFEWENCES
calculated. Taking into consideration these
values, the dangers of both overstressing and 1. Waters, E. & Taylor, I., The strength of pipe flanges.
understressing can be avoided so the final Mech. Engng, 49 (1927) 531-42.
optimal prestressing of the joint can be realised. 2. Waters, E., Wesstrom,D., Wossheim,D. & Williams, F.,
Among the results of this investigation, it is Formulasfor stressesin bolted flange connections.Trans.
ASME, 59 (1937)FSP-59-4.
worth mentioning the loads on components of a 3. Waters, E., & Williams, F., Stressconditions in flanged
flange joint, the forces and moments on the ring joints for low-pressureservice. Trans. ASME, 74 (1952)
and on the shell. Knowing these, the stress 135-56.
4. Schwaigerer,S., Festigkeitsberechnung van Bauelementen
analysis of each component can easily be carried des Dampjkessel, Behiilter und Rohrleitungbaues.
out. Springer, Berlin, 1961.
The applicability of the proposed design 5. Gill, S., The Stress Analysis of Pressure Vessels and
Pressure Vessel Components. Pergamon Press, New
method has been verified by the numerical York, 1970.
examinations that have been performed. Regard- 6. Nagy, A., Stressstate investigation of integral-type flange
ing the precision of the results, it can be stated joint. Diss., T. U. Budapest, 1991.