Applied Energy 97 (2012) 365–373

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Applied Energy
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A quantitative methodology to evaluate thermal bridges in buildings

Francesco Asdrubali ⇑, Giorgio Baldinelli, Francesco Bianchi
CIRIAF, University of Perugia, Via G. Duranti, 67, 06125 Perugia, Italy

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The use of multi-layer walls with high thermal resistance values is widely used to reduce heat losses in
Received 6 July 2011 buildings during wintertime. Nevertheless, it is extremely important to treat also weaker components of
Received in revised form 13 December 2011 the envelope such as doors, windows and all the various thermal bridges, otherwise the efforts in increas-
Accepted 14 December 2011
ing walls thermal resistance can be vanished.
Available online 5 January 2012
If the improvement of the thermal performance of windows and doors has reached a significant devel-
opment and a high level of standardization, the same is not true for the corrections related to thermal
Keywords:
bridges, which therefore require a specific analysis in the design phase.
Buildings
Insulation
Thermal bridges, of whatever nature, are therefore a crucial point in the energy analysis of the building
Thermal bridges envelope. The analysis on existing constructions can be performed on site with thermographic techniques
Infrared thermography that describe in first approximation the qualitative energy performance of the building and put in evi-
Numerical analysis dence the main heat losses.
The paper proposes a methodology to perform a quantitative analysis of some types of thermal bridges,
through simple thermographic surveys and subsequent analytical processing. From the simple measure-
ment of the air temperature and the analysis of the thermogram, the thermal bridge effect can be esti-
mated as a percentage increase of the homogenous wall thermal transmittance. This term is obtained
without further information on the structure of both the thermal bridge and the stratigraphy of the wall.
The analytical methodology – which was validated with experimental and numerical analyses – is
described and the results of surveys on different types of thermal bridges are reported. This method rep-
resents a quick and effective tool to define the actual heat loss of high-insulation buildings and to eval-
uate the benefits in treating thermal bridges.
Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction consists of evaluating the thermal bridge effect, providing a percent-

The study and reduction of buildings heat losses play an impor-
tant role on an integrated energy-saving policy. The infrared (IR)
thermography imaging technique results useful to conduct in situ
analyses, since it allows a qualitative survey to evaluate the surface
temperatures of the envelope surfaces.
Following the standard procedure, a comparative analysis has
to be conducted with reference thermograms that describe the
main defects. The qualitative approach of this investigation leads
to the assessment of easily recognizable imperfections such as air
infiltration, bad insulation, and mold.
On the other hand, a comparative analysis among different
kinds of thermal bridges becomes difficult when it is performed
through purely qualitative evaluations.
The present work tries to define a quantitative approach based on
the analysis of the thermogram that describes the temperature field
on the internal or external surface of a part of the envelope. The aim
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +39 075 585 3716; fax: +39 075 585 3697.
E-mail address: fasdruba@unipg.it (F. Asdrubali).
age increase of the homogenous wall thermal transmittance.
The IR thermographic analysis is influenced by many factors
affecting the accuracy of the absolute temperature reading. After
a quick analysis on the determination of the parameters involved
in the IR camera temperature output, the analytical description of
the quantitative incidence factor of the thermal bridge is introduced.
The validation of the methodology has been executed with the
realization of a thermal bridge in a controlled environment, so giv-
ing the possibility of comparing the proposed technique to other
experimental data and to a finite volumes analysis. After the pro-
cess validation, the investigation has been extended to other types
of envelope singularities.
2. Literature review
The application of IR thermography in buildings may be
characterized by different levels of deepening: a first step qualitative
analysis is described by Balaras and Argirious [1], with diagnosis ori-
ented not only to buildings energy losses, but also to non-destructive
tests of ventilation, heating, air conditioning and electric systems.

0306-2619/$ - see front matter Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2011.12.054
366 F. Asdrubali et al. / Applied Energy 97 (2012) 365–373

Nomenclature

A area (m2) Subscripts

CFD computational fluid dynamics 1D one-dimensional
D distance (m) 2D two-dimensional
h liminar coefficient (W/m2 K) atm atmospheric
I incidence factor (–) HFM evaluated with heat flow meter
L thermal coupling coefficient (W/K) i internal
l length (m) obj object
N number (–) pixel relative to each pixel
Q thermal flux (W) refl reflected
T temperature (K, °C) s surface
U thermal transmittance (W/m2 K) tb thermal bridge
W energy (J) tot total
e thermal emittance (–) 1 part of thermal bridge
u heat flux density (W/m2) 2 part of thermal bridge
s atmosphere transmittance (–) 3 part of thermal bridge
w linear thermal transmittance (W/m K)

Quantitative IR thermography has to take into account a num-
ber of variables linked to the heat transfer phenomena. Barreira
and de Freitas [2] conducted a sensitivity analysis of the process
to the emissivity, reflection, environmental conditions and surface
color, by means of laboratory measurements and in situ cam-
paigns. Avdelidis and Moropoulou [3] proposed a detailed investi-
gation on the influence of emissivity, while Datcu et al. [4] used
experimental methodologies for the determination of the reflected
temperature. Li et al. [5] suggested that a preparatory study in a
laboratory gives important indications for the elimination of reflec-
tion bias.
Active thermography is suitable for the detection of internal de-
fects, as explained by Grinzato et al. [6]. Albatici and Tonelli [7] de-
fined a methodology for the evaluation of the thermal
transmittance of an opaque component, through the IR thermogra-
phy and the contemporary measurements of the external and
internal air temperatures, comparing the results of three cases
with data obtained from heat flow meters.
As far as the specific application of IR thermography to thermal
bridges, Zalewski et al. [8] studied the effect of a steel junction
inside a prefabricated panel with a preliminary thermographic
analysis, making a further refinement by heat flow meters and
three-dimensional numerical models. Finite element codes in con-
junction with IR cameras were also used by Heinrich and Dahlem
[9] (for the investigation of low consumption buildings) and
Wròbel and Kisilewicz [10] (for testing structural thermal bridges).
Finally, Benko [11] indicated a quantitative analysis factor associ-
ated to the thermal bridges heat dispersion, obtained by means of the
sole study of the thermogram of the external surface of a building.
Most of the authors tried to evaluate the thermal bridges heat
loss embracing a numerical approach: Cappelletti et al. [12] inves-
tigated with these tools the discontinuity deriving from the cou-
pling wall-window; Dèquè et al. [13] focused their attention on
structural thermal bridges effects; Martin et al. [14] added a contri-
bution on thermal bridges behavior in dynamic conditions.
In any case, the CFD analysis constitutes a tool that requires the
knowledge of the composition of the structures investigated, and it
does not represent an immediate instrument to define in situ the
thermal bridge characteristics.
3. Infrared thermography outlines
In Fig. 1 the heat transfer processes of a thermographic analysis
are sketched [15]. The energy balance is synthesized by the follow-
ing equation:
W tot ¼ esW obj þ ð1  eÞsW refl þ ð1  sÞW atm ð1Þ
where Wtot represents the total energy that hits the camera when
the object to be analyzed is focused; the only term of interest for
a quantitative analysis is Wobj, the energy radiated from the object,
that is a function of its temperature.
The other two addenda are related to contributions from differ-
ent sources standing around the measurement field (Wrefl) and the
atmosphere absorption (Watm). Wrefl depends on the temperature of
the objects facing the surface under investigation as well as on the
reflective properties of the surface itself; the correction is defined
by the determination of the reflected temperature, described be-
low. Watm is linked to the air temperature and relative humidity

Fig. 1. Infrared thermography: schematization of the heat transfer processes [15].

 F. Asdrubali et al. / Applied Energy 97 (2012) 365–373
and to the distance between the camera and the surface; these
parameters have to be used in the IR camera setup. Once the last
two terms are identified, the remaining uncertainty arises from
the definition of the emissivity properties of the object under
investigation.
Therefore, IR thermography cameras need a series of parame-
ters to take into account of the physics of heat transfer: object
emissivity, reflected temperature, atmosphere temperature, rela-
tive humidity, distance from the object.
The emissivity could be determined by the parallel measure-
ment of the surface temperature with other instruments or using
tapes with known emissivity, applied on the examined surface.
The environment where the thermographic measurement is con-
ducted should be kept as much as possible at constant tempera-
ture, at the aim of minimizing the terms different from the
object emissivity (in particular, the reflected energy), so reducing
their contribution to the accuracy reduction.
The reflected temperature is obtained lying a rubbed aluminum
foil on the object surface, setting at the same time the camera
emissivity to the unitary value. Because of the aluminum high
reflectivity, the rub and the IR camera setting, the thermogram
generated gives the reflected temperature Trefl linked to the radia-
tive heat sources present in the measurement environment.
Finally, the imaging has to be executed with the camera lens not
perpendicular to the object analyzed, at the aim of avoiding the so-
called ‘‘Narcissus effect’’: the camera sees its lens reflected on the
object [16]. These precaution was taken even if the lens were far
enough from the surface investigated.
All the previous actions are necessary to improve the quantita-
tive thermography, minimizing the sources of errors and uncer-
tainty [17].
4. Description of the methodology adopted for the quantitative
analysis of thermal bridges
Each image obtained by an IR camera gives the temperature of
each pixel hit by the radiation emitted form the object examined,
so defining the entire thermal field of the area covered by the cam-
era optic.
IR thermography applications for the evaluation of heat disper-
sions in buildings perform at their best if a minimum temperature
difference of 10–15 °C between the external and internal environ-
ment is guaranteed [15].
Analyzing, for example, the inner side of envelope components
during the heating season, a decrease of surface temperature is
easily registered (Fig. 2).
The aim of the present work is to introduce a parameter able to
express the thermal bridge effect on the building dispersions, using
only the information captured from the thermogram.
Fig. 2. Example of a structural thermal bridge and window thermal bridge at the coupling of glass and frame.
367
Generally speaking, a thermal bridge is individuated by the lin-
ear thermal transmittance, obtained by a two-dimensional calcula-
tion [18] and defined by the following equation:
X
n
w ¼ L2D  U k lk ð2Þ
k¼1
where L2D is the linear thermal coupling term derived by the two-
dimensional calculation, Uk is the thermal transmittance of the
kth one-dimensional component (width lk, 1 m length) that sepa-
rates the internal side from the external environment.
Thus, the quantitative classification of thermal bridges is iden-
tified by the value of w, that gives the thermal flux transferred
per length and temperature units in steady-state conditions. Be-
sides, the linear thermal transmittance determines the thermal
field visualized by the IR camera: in winter season, with the same
indoor–outdoor temperature difference, thermal bridges with
higher dispersions generate thermograms with lower temperature
values in the internal side. Hence, starting from the acquisition of
the thermal field, it is theoretically possible to go backward to
the quantitative evaluation of the thermal bridge, that is the aim
of the new parameter definition developed in this work.
The definition itself of thermal bridge [19] puts in evidence that
it represents a zone with thermal properties significantly different
from the rest of the envelope; as a consequence, the temperature of
the inner side will be interested by considerable variations in the
area influenced by the thermal bridge, assuming on the contrary
an almost constant value in the part of the structure where the
heat flux can be considered one-dimensional. In this ‘‘undisturbed’’
zone, the temperature is a function of the thickness and thermal
conductivity of the layers that constitute the wall; in stationary
conditions, the heat flowing through the one-dimensional wall
can be written with as follows:
Q 1D ¼ h1D i A1D ðT i  T 1D is Þ ð3Þ
where h1D_i is the internal liminar coefficient (the reciprocal of the
internal surface resistance, which takes into account of both con-
vection and radiation heat transfer), A1D is the area considered
and the temperatures Ti and T1D_is represent respectively the inner
air temperature (that could be considered equal to the temperature
of the inner objects exchanging heat by radiation with the inner
wall) and the wall inner surface temperature.
When in situ measurements are performed, it is difficult to
achieve steady-state conditions, because of the variation of the
external temperature and the presence of potentially disturbing
factors, therefore, the IR images have to be taken with particular
care.
In the case of the introduction of a thermal bridge in the area
A1D, Eq. (3) is not applicable since the temperature is far from being
uniform throughout the entire surface. Analyzing the area with an
IR camera, the thermal field of the wall under investigation is avail-
able, therefore, a temperature value Tpixel_is could be associated to
368 F. Asdrubali et al. / Applied Energy 97 (2012) 365–373
each pixel that is representative of a part Apixel of the wall surface;
the extension of Apixel depends from the instantaneous field of view
of the chosen IR camera. Hence, the evaluation of the heat flux is
possible in each pixel, obtaining a formulation of the whole area
dispersion:
X
N This quantitative factor could be also expressed in terms of an
Q tb ¼ htb i Apixel ðT i  T pixel is Þ
p¼1
with the hypothesis of constant liminar coefficient and being N the
number of pixels that compose the entire area, according to the
relation:
A1D ¼ NApixel
Then, the incidence factor of the thermal bridge Itb is defined as
the ratio between the heat flowing in real conditions and the heat
flowing in absence of the thermal bridge:
PN
Q tb htb i Apixel p¼1 ðT i  T pixel is Þ
Itb ¼ ¼ ð6Þ
Q 1D h1D i A1D ðT i  T 1D is Þ
Simply subtracting 1 to Itb and multiplying the result by the
heat exchanged through the undisturbed wall Q1D, the heat loss
due to the thermal bridge is obtained.
On the basis of Eq. (6), a methodology of imaging is proposed,
aimed at obtaining the data necessary for the evaluation of the
two heat fluxes with the only help of the acquisition of the internal
environment temperature, minimizing at the same time the
sources of errors.
For example, considering a structural thermal bridge constituted
by a wall angle infinitely high, the thermogram will show a mini-
mum in correspondence of the angle, moving then towards an
asymptote that represents the wall behavior in the one-dimensional
zone, where the effect of the thermal bridge is negligible (Fig. 3).
The choice of the area covered by the imaging plays a funda-
mental role, since the distance D (Fig. 3) has to be sufficient to in-
clude the undisturbed zone, whose temperature value is the term
T1D_is of Eq. (6). The advantage of acquiring in the same thermo-
gram both the temperature of the thermal bridge area and the
thermal field of the one-dimensional wall consists of avoiding
the introduction of further errors linked to different instants of
reading or different angles of view. When surfaces with different
orientation are contemporarily observed, in fact, the effect of the
angle between the viewing direction and the normal to the surface
has be taken into account, since the thermal emittance may de-
pend on that angle.
Besides, since the domain is limited and the image is captured
in the same instant for all the surface, the liminar coefficient could
be considered constant throughout the entire area:
h1D i ¼ htb i
Therefore, also recalling Eq. (5), the incidence factor of the
thermal bridge becomes:
Fig. 3. Example of an angular thermal bridge and relative thermogram output.
P P
htb i Apixel Np¼1 ðT i  T pixel is Þ Apixel Np¼1 ðT i  T pixel is Þ
Itb ¼ ¼
h1D i A1D ðT i  T 1D is Þ NApixel ðT i  T 1D is Þ
PN
p¼1 ðT i  T pixel is Þ
¼ ð7Þ
NðT i  T 1D is Þ
ð4Þ increase of the thermal transmittance U1D of the undisturbed zone;
considering the influence of the thermal bridge, and using the
hypothesis of steady-state conditions, the actual value of the wall
thermal transmittance Utb can be written as follows:
U tb ¼ U 1D  Itb ð8Þ
ð5Þ The incidence factor of the thermal bridge is connected to the
linear thermal transmittance w as defined in Eq. (2), when the
thermal transmittance U1D of the undisturbed zone is known:
U 1D ðltb þ l1D Þ þ w
Itb ¼ ð9Þ
U 1D ðltb þ l1D Þ
or
w ¼ ðItb  1ÞU 1D ðltb þ l1D Þ ð10Þ
5. Model validation
In this section the validation process of the methodology de-
scribed in the previous paragraph is reported. The thermal bridge
selected for the purpose is the one generated in a window, by
the coupling between the glass and frame (Fig. 2). The choice
was dictated by the possibility of installing the window inside an
available climatic chamber [20], whose characteristic and dimen-
sions do not permit the testing of a structural thermal bridge.
The sample is mounted between two rooms with a temperature
difference of about 20 °C, in steady-state, monitored and controlled
conditions.
The validation of the proposed methodology has been assessed
with two different approaches:
 an instrumental heat flow analysis, where the heat transfer is
measured point by point through the window area;
 a numerical analysis, implementing a two-dimensional model
of the node of the window considered
5.1. Thermographic analysis
Infrared thermographic measurements were carried out in the
lab to verify the various parameters influencing the phenomenon,
including steady-state conditions. The window was positioned be-
tween a conditioned space, kept at 1 °C, and the laboratory, kept
at constant temperature too. The attention was focused on the
window’s lower thermal bridge, whose section is characterized
by aluminum with polyamide washers to assure the thermal cut.
 F. Asdrubali et al. / Applied Energy 97 (2012) 365–373
The glazing (mm 6/7 + mm 15 + mm 8/9, with an aluminum
spacer) has the inner side of the external layer covered by a low-
emission coating.
The IR camera is manufactured by FLIR, model B360 with a FPA
microbolometer without cooling, a spectral range from 7.5 and
13.0 lm, and a 320  240 pixel resolution.
To quantitatively evaluate the thermal field, it was necessary to
perform calibration measurements and to acquire the various
parameters to be inserted into the instrument to correct the ther-
mogram. The surface thermal emittance was calculated thanks to
surface temperature probes, varying the emissivity in the IR cam-
era, so to obtain the measured temperatures.
The reflected temperature was then evaluated with the meth-
odology described in paragraph 2, using an aluminum foil (Fig. 4).
Thanks to thermohygrometric probes, environmental condi-
tions were evaluated during the measurements. Also the distance
between the sample and the IR camera was registered.
A particular attention was paid to the framing, to respect the va-
lue of the distance D defined in the previous paragraph. From the
standard EN ISO 10077-2 [21], which deals with the numerical cal-
culations for the frames, it emerged that to include in the thermo-
graphic image the glass undisturbed area, a distance D from the
frame edge of at least 200 mm has to be considered. Fig. 5 shows
the thermogram which will be studied, also calculating the incidence
factor of the thermal bridge; the thermal bridge is actually composed
by the junction between the frame and the glass but, since the length
of the opaque part is reduced to few centimeters, the analysis is lim-
ited to the transparent portion of the window. The domain consid-
ered for the validation process is constituted by an imaginary line
(Fig. 5) on the central area of the glass (far away from the lateral ther-
mal bridges). The trend of temperature along the line is shown in the
Fig. 4. Measurement of the reflected temperature.
Fig. 5. Thermogram of the lower part of the window and trend of temperature along the imaginary line.
369
Fig. 5, where the asymptotic behavior is clearly visible towards the
temperature of the undisturbed area (17.7 °C).
Calculating the number of pixels that compose the line and
applying the above procedure for the evaluation of the incidence
factor of the thermal bridge, the value of 1.174 is obtained, with
an uncertainty of 6.4%, considering a confidence level equal to
95%. The error rate was estimated referring to the standard ISO/
IEC Guide 98-3:2008 [22], taking into account of the uncertainty
associated with the temperature read by the camera, provided its
technical data.
5.2. Heat flow analysis
Before the execution of the thermographic analysis, a group of
temperature and heat flow probes have been placed in the area
subjected to investigation. Fig. 6 shows the arrangement, with
the sensors following the imaginary line described above. The heat
flow probes allow the measurement of the heat flux density (W/
m2) in the undisturbed zone and throughout the whole area of
the thermal bridge; the Table 1 reports the values of the heat flow,
with the relative areas of interest. In the undisturbed zone only one
heat flow meter was placed, while the part closest to the frame and
affected by the thermal bridge has been inspected with three heat
flow meters, placed one above the other.
The incidence factor of the thermal bridge is estimated in the
whole surface covered by the measurement line of Fig. 6 using
the following equation:
Q tb u1D A1D þ utb 1 Atb 1 þ utb 2 Atb 2 þ utb 3 Atb 3
Itb HFM ¼ ¼ ð11Þ
Q 1D u1D ðA1D þ Atb 1 þ Atb 2 þ Atb 3 Þ
370 F. Asdrubali et al. / Applied Energy 97 (2012) 365–373
Fig. 6. Heat flow meters to evaluate the thermal bridge in the transparent part of
the window.
Table 1
Heat flow meters results, with the relative areas of interest.
Heat flux density (W/m2)
u1D 32.8 A1D
utb_1 38.5 Atb_1
utb_2 46.1 Atb_2
utb_3 63.4 Atb_3
The incidence factor of the thermal bridge results equal to 1.228
with an uncertainty of 7.4% (confidence level equal to 95%), associ-
ated to the presence of the heat flow probes [22].
5.3. Numerical analysis
The commercial code FLUENT [23] was used for the Computa-
tional Fluid Dynamic analysis. The section of the window was
modeled taking into account the standard EN ISO 10077-2 [21],
to evaluate the thermal properties of the air space and of the
materials.
Boundary conditions are convective and the cool and hot side
temperatures are defined by the laboratory measurements (hot
side temperature: 22.2 °C, cold side temperature 0.7 °C), while
the liminar coefficients are derived from the standard.
As a matter of fact, the window is placed between two spaces
whose environmental conditions are similar to the real ones; the
cold side is characterized by forced convection while the hot one
by natural convection. As far as convection, simulations were
therefore carried out with standard conditions, so that the results
could be easily extended to the real buildings conditions.
The mesh is a triangular one, with a step of about 0.5 mm. Fig. 7
shows the temperature field in the section of the two-dimensional
model, together with the temperature trend along the imaginary
line of Fig. 6.
To evaluate the incidence factor of the thermal bridge, the imaginary
line was divided into small segments of the same length of the mesh.
The hypothesis allowed to compare the simulation output data with
the data taken from the thermogram, assimilating the behavior of a
pixel to the one of a single mesh. The value of the incidence factor of
the thermal bridge obtained from the simulation is equal to 1.169,
with an uncertainty of 4.6% (confidence level equal to 95%), derived
from the indications of the standard EN ISO 10077-2.
5.4. Comparison between the methodologies
Fig. 8 shows the temperature trends of the three different meth-
ods along the imaginary line. In the case of the heat flow analysis,
the sole points where the temperature probes were placed are re-
ported; from a qualitative point of view, the temperature trend in
the thermogram can be compared to the results of some studies
found in literature [24].
The three methods show a good agreement, with a light differ-
ence in the central area of the thermal bridge. In Fig. 9 the results in
terms of the incidence factor of the thermal bridge are sketched, to-
gether with the relative uncertainties; it is evident that, consider-
ing the confidence interval, data overlap, indicating compatible
results and demonstrating the correctness of the method.
6. Application of the methodology to in situ thermal bridges
Two different configurations of a floor with a low beam were
chosen in situ to evaluate the incidence factor of the thermal bridge.
The first configuration presents a correction of the thermal bridge
with insulating panels (both inside and outside) while the second
one is not insulated at all.
In both cases a thermographic image was acquired, including
the undisturbed area and measuring at the same time the air tem-
perature. The wall was not exposed to solar radiation; steady-state
Area (m2)
conditions were assumed, having evaluated the environmental
0.11 conditions during the periods before the measurement. Also in this
0.03
case, an imaginary line was considered starting from the internal
0.03
0.03
edge between the floor and the wall (Figs. 10 and 11).
Analyzing the trends, two completely different thermal fields
can be observed; it is also possible to see the asymptotic part
and evaluate the temperature of the undisturbed area.
The difference between the two configurations is evident if we
compare the two values of the incidence factor of the thermal bridge,
which is equal to 1.606 for the configuration with the insulated
beam and to 2.000 for the configuration with the non-insulated
beam.
A further analysis was carried out for the investigated walls,
evaluating thanks to a heat flux meter the thermal transmittance
(U1D) without the influence of the thermal bridge; the indications
of the standard ISO 9869 [25] were followed, using the average
method, suitable for the unsteady conditions of the in situ analy-
ses. A plate heat flux meter was positioned in the inner side of
the wall, adding a protection from unwanted radiation sources
such as artificial lighting, sun or household appliances; the mea-
surement apparatus is completed by the installation of two tem-
perature probes on the internal and external surface of the wall.
The average method consists of calculating the instantaneous ther-
mal transmittance as a function of the previous heat flux and tem-
perature values; after a proper acquisition time (minimum three
days, seven days for this measurement campaign), the thermal
transmittance tends to an asymptote that represents its actual va-
lue (Fig. 12).
Thanks to the results, it was possible to evaluate the increase in
the thermal transmittance of the wall, in the area of the thermal
bridge, according to Eq. (8) (Table 2).
It is therefore possible to obtain, thanks to the incidence factor of
the thermal bridge, quantitative data concerning the thermal bridge
even without a detailed knowledge of the stratigraphy of the wall.
In the case of the non insulated beam, a further analysis was
carried out, since the stratigraphy was known. A computational
analysis of the thermal bridge was therefore performed, obtaining
 F. Asdrubali et al. / Applied Energy 97 (2012) 365–373 371

Fig. 7. Numerical analysis: thermal field in a generic section of the window and temperature trend along the imaginary line.

Fig. 8. Comparison between the temperature trends obtained from the thermo- Fig. 9. Plot of the incidence factor of the thermal bridge evaluated through the
gram, the temperature probes and the simulations. three different methods, with the relative uncertainties.

a trend of temperatures similar to the real ones and a value of the comparison between the temperature values along the insulated
incidence factor of the thermal bridge equal to 2.111. and the non-insulated beams. It is interesting to note that the
A model in FLUENT was created to simulate also the correction curves result very similar to the real ones, reported in Figs. 10
of the thermal bridge (insulation of the beam); Fig. 13 reports the and 11. The calculated value of the incidence factor of the thermal

Fig. 10. Thermogram of the insulated beam and temperature trend along the imaginary line.
372 F. Asdrubali et al. / Applied Energy 97 (2012) 365–373

Fig. 11. Thermogram of the non-insulated beam and temperature trend along the imaginary line.

Fig. 12. Specific heat flux, internal–external temperatures and thermal transmittance trends for the in situ measurement of the undisturbed wall insulating properties.

Table 2
UNI TS 11300 [26]; an overall heat loss in wintertime of 4684 W
Thermal transmittances of both configurations (undisturbed area and area of the was evaluated, 13.4% of which due to the thermal bridge. The cor-
thermal bridge). rection of the thermal bridge reduces the heat loss to a value of
U1D (W/m2 K) Itb Utb (W/m2 K)
4307 W and the incidence of the thermal bridge to 8.8%.
The analysis allows to evaluate the global effects of the presence
Insulated beam 0.42 1.606 0.67
Non insulated beam 0.39 2.000 0.78
of thermal bridges in the envelope’s heat losses and to therefore in
the energy primary demand of a building during wintertime.

7. Conclusions

The analysis of thermal bridges conducted with the IR thermog-

Fig. 13. Simulated temperature trends: comparison between the insulated and the
non insulated beam.
bridge is equal to 1.262, so there is a reduction in the thermal
bridge heat loss of about 40%.
In global terms, it is also possible to evaluate the benefits of
such a correction in the heat losses of the whole flat. Simulations
of the energy behavior of the flat were carried out according to
raphy can be developed through various approaches, from qualita-
tive investigations to the quantitative techniques of the active
thermography.
In this work a quantitative factor was introduced, at the aim of
evaluating in a simple and effective manner the effect of thermal
bridges on the global dispersions of buildings. It was analytically
defined the incidence factor of the thermal bridge that depends from
the internal air temperature and the internal wall surface temper-
ature, read by the IR camera. Afterwards, results acquired with the
thermographic investigation were compared with data obtained by
heat flow meters, and the findings of a finite volume analysis; this
test was realized in a laboratory setup, where it was possible to
monitor the boundary conditions, keeping the stationary condi-
tions for the thermal bridge generated in a window from the cou-
pling of glass and frame. It emerged that the thermal field obtained
with the three methods is very similar, producing close values of
the incidence factor of the thermal bridge.
Two in situ thermal bridges were then investigated, verifying
the effect of the insulation on a floor beam; it came out that the
incidence factor of the thermal bridge describes correctly the disper-
sion grade of the singularity, quantifying the result of the thermal
bridge correction.
 F. Asdrubali et al. / Applied Energy 97 (2012) 365–373
The factor could be linked the linear thermal transmittance of
the thermal bridge and it could be also used to define an increase
percentage of the undisturbed wall thermal transmittance, so pro-
posing a simple and useful tool to calculate the actual heat disper-
sions of buildings by quick and easy in situ thermographic
measurements, suggesting at the same time possible interventions
for the improvement of insulation. The quantitative thermographic
imaging constitutes also a useful mean to analyze, improve and
validate 3D simulation tools especially designed for the evaluation
of building energy performance [27], since they are capable of eval-
uating the outdoor and indoor walls thermal fields.
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