Introduction to

Topological Order
Its Necessity and Use
By Saad Khalid
Table of Contents
1. States of Matter
2. Phase Transitions
3. Emergence
4. Symmetry
5. Landau Symmetry Breaking
6. Quantum Phases
7. Entanglement
8. Topological Order
9. Use Case: Quantum Computing
Fundamental States of Matter
• Macroscopic view:
• Described classically by
properties such as retention of
volume and shape
Fundamental States of Matter
• Macroscopic view:
• Described classically by
properties such as retention of
volume and shape
• Microscopic view:
• Everything is made of electrons,
protons, and neutrons.
• Relationship and Organization
between particles defines State (or
“Order”)
Phase Transition
Microscopically, particles are constantly changing behavior.
• Forming and breaking local bonds
Phase Transition
Microscopically, particles are constantly changing behavior.
• Forming and breaking local bonds

An Equilibrium State is:

• The statistically favored state.
• The easiest way for a large number of particles to interact.
• How the particles are interacting on average.
Phase Transition
A Phase Transition Occurs when the Equilibrium State changes due to
external constraints.

Possible External Constraints:

• Temperature, Magnetic Field, Pressure, etc.
Phase Transition
A Phase Transition Occurs when the Equilibrium State changes due to
external constraints.

Possible External Constraints:

• Temperature, Magnetic Field, Pressure, etc.

The behavior of the system changes non-smoothly.

• Eg. When heating ice, there is no middle state between solid and liquid.
Emergence
Emergence is fundamental in
Condensed Matter physics.
Emergence
Emergence is fundamental in
Condensed Matter physics.

Emergent properties occur

macroscopically and don’t match
microscopic behavior of the
system.
• Eg: States of Matter, Classical
Mechanics, Life
Emergence
As number of particles → ∞,
patterns tend to form.

Given the properties of individual

particles, we would like to predict
macroscopic trends.
Symmetry
A system is Symmetric over some action if that action leaves the system
invariant.
• A circle is rotationally symmetric
2𝜋
• A pentagon is rotationally symmetric if you rotate by
5
Symmetry Breaking
• Liquids have continuous
translation symmetry
• Solids have discrete translation
symmetry
Symmetry Breaking
• Liquids have continuous
translation symmetry
• Solids have discrete translation
symmetry

The phase transition causes a

Spontaneous Symmetry Break.
• Spontaneous in terms of the
parameter being changed.
Landau Symmetry Breaking
• Lev Landau: 1908 – 1968.

Landau Symmetry Breaking:

• Every phase corresponds to a set of symmetries
• A phase transition involves a spontaneous symmetry break.
Landau Symmetry Breaking
• Lev Landau: 1908 – 1968.

Landau Symmetry Breaking:

• Every phase corresponds to a set of symmetries
• A phase transition involves a spontaneous symmetry break.

Thought to describe all phase transitions.

• Ferromagnetism-paramagnetism, superconductivity, etc.
• If no symmetry is broken, why would particles behave differently?
Quantum Phases
Quantum Phases involve matter at Zero Temperature.
• Superfluids are an example of a quantum phase.
• Are described by Landau Symmetry Breaking
Quantum Phases
High Temperature Superconductor discovered in 1986.
• Tried characterizing the phase as a Chiral Spin Liquid.
• Spin liquids have disordered magnetic spin like liquids are disordered compared to solids.
Quantum Phases
High Temperature Superconductor discovered in 1986.
• Tried characterizing the phase as a Chiral Spin Liquid.
• Spin liquids have disordered magnetic spin like liquids are disordered compared to solids.
• Enter Xiao-Gang Wen
• Proved that there are many different Chiral Spin Liquids with the same symmetries.
• There must be some other underlying, differentiating property
Topological Order
● Primarily studied in 2D Electron Gases.
○ A single layer of electrons
■ Eg., Liquid Helium, Graphene
Topological Order
● Primarily studied in 2D Electron Gases.
○ A single layer of electrons
■ Eg., Liquid Helium, Graphene

● Distinguished by Long Range Entanglement.

Topological Order
• Ferromagnet:
• Fixed position, same spin
Anti-ferromagnet:
• Pairs have fixed position, opposing
spin
Boson Superfluid:
• Bosons can move, same dance
Fermion Superfluid:
• Dance in pairs, each pair does the
same dance
Topological Order

• Topological order corresponds to a Global Dance

• Each particle follows local dancing rules
• If every particles dance influences local particles, global patterns emerge
• These patterns correspond to Long Range Entanglement
Topological order
Instead of characterizing by symmetry, we characterize by the global
dance.
How is it Topological?
• Local dancing rules determine global dances on a particular topology.
• Given some local rules, the global dance is different on different surfaces.
Topological order
Instead of characterizing by symmetry, we characterize by the global dance.

How is it Topological?
• Local dancing rules determine global dances on a particular topology.
• Given some local rules, the global dance is different on different surfaces.

This is an intuitive picture, but how is it experimentally useful?

• Different Topological Order can be characterized by physical properties.
• Eg. Fractional Charge, Fractional Statistics
Conclusion
1. Landau Symmetry Breaking was the Newtonian Mechanics of
Condensed Matter
2. Topological Order is Unexpected and opens a new world of
possibilities
3. Despite being highly theoretical, it is very experimentally impactful.
Citations
• Greenstein, George, and Arthur Zajonc. 1997. The quantum challenge: modern research on the foundations of quantum
mechanics. Sudbury, Mass: Jones and Bartlett.
• Braid Topologies for Quantum Computation: arXiv:quant-ph/0505065
• Zoo of quantum-topological phases of matter, Wen: arXiv:1610.03911
• Topological phases and quasiparticle braiding: Physics Today 65, 7, 38 (2012); https://doi.org/10.1063/PT.3.1641
• I Muševic, R Blinc, and B Zekš (2000) Phase Transitions and Spontaneously Broken Symmetries in Ferroelectric Liquid
Crystals. The Physics of Ferroelectric and Antiferroelectric Liquid Crystals: pp. 39-96.
• Topological order: from long-range entangled quantum matter to an unification of light and electrons:
• arXiv:1210.1281 [cond-mat.str-el]

• An introduction of topological orders, Wen: http://dao.mit.edu/~wen/topartS3.pdf

• Lectures on Landau Theory of Phase Transitions: http://www1.physics.leeds.ac.uk/~phy6pdo/teaching/landau.pdf
Entanglement
Two major types:

1. Short Range Entanglement

2. Long Range Entanglement
Entanglement
Two major types:

1. Short Range Entanglement

2. Long Range Entanglement

At a smaller scale, a single State can be composed of

many phases.
Entanglement
Two major types:

1. Short Range Entanglement

2. Long Range Entanglement

At a smaller scale, a single State can be composed of

many phases.

● SRE means Same Phase

● LRE can have Different Phase
But why?
Why are Phases/Transitions important to study?
• High Temperature Superconductors
• Quantum Computers
Quantum Computers
In classical computers, memory is stored in magnetic spin.
• Spin is sensitive to temperature. Why is it stable?
Quantum Computers
In classical computers, memory is stored in magnetic spin.
• Spin is sensitive to temperature. Why is it stable?
• Error correction by nearby particles

Why are Quantum Computers difficult?

Quantum Computers
In classical computers, memory is stored in magnetic spin.
• Spin is sensitive to temperature. Why is it stable?
• Error correction by nearby particles

Why are Quantum Computers difficult?

• Quantum bits are like a ball on top of a hill.
• Any interaction sends it tumbling down.
Quantum Computers
In classical computers, memory is stored in magnetic spin.
• Spin is sensitive to temperature. Why is it stable?
• Error correction by nearby particles

Why are Quantum Computers difficult?

• Quantum bits are like a ball on top of a hill.
• Any interaction sends it tumbling down.
Quantum Computers
• We aim to keep quantum bits isolated to prevent collapse.
Quantum Computers
• We aim to keep quantum bits isolated to prevent collapse.
• Qbits suffer from decoherence
• Wave function of Qbit extends through the whole universe
• Wave function of distinct bits interact and causes increasing errors
Quantum Computation
Braiding is one solution:
• Can construct topologically
ordered system where rotating
particle around another causes
measurable, determined change
to system.
Quantum Computation
Braiding is one solution:
• Can construct topologically
ordered system where rotating
particle around another causes
measurable, determined change
to system.
• Can count the number of turns
• Turns aren’t easily affected by
random interactions (decoherence).